14.1
Chapter 14
Precast and prestressed concrete structures have provided decades of satisfactory performance. This performance is the
result of the practices reported herein, conformance with ACI 318-05, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete,1
incorporation of industry-specific research programs, and a plant certification program that provides an industry-wide quality
control system beyond those found in onsite construction.
Precast and prestressed concrete design is based on the provisions of ACI 318-05. In most cases, these provisions are followed explicitly. Occasionally, the interpretation of some sections of ACI 318-05 are required to ensure maintenance of quality
in conjunction with the unique characteristics of precast and prestressed concrete fabrication, shipping, and erection. Members
of the PCI Building Code Committee, along with other experienced precast concrete design engineers, have identified code
provisions that are detailed in this chapter, which require clarification or interpretation. These design practices are followed by
a majority of precast concrete design engineers and have produced safe, economical precast/prestressed concrete structures and
provided a consistent approach for the members of the design and construction team.
Occasionally, strict compliance with the ACI provisions as applied to precast concrete products can cause design, performance, and production problems that may unnecessarily increase the cost of a structure and/or may actually result in an inferior
product. In such cases, PCI-sponsored and nationally sponsored research projects have been used to support alternative design
and construction practices. Section 1.4 of ACI 318-05 specifically allows variances when analysis, research, or testing demonstrates adequate structural performance. Suggested changes to code provisions resulting from experience, analysis, or testing
can provide a point for discussion with building officials for acceptance of revised provisions within the guidance and scope
of Section 1.4 of ACI 318-05.
This list of provisions is based on ACI 318-05, and the numbers refer to sections in that document and are presented in
numerical order. For notation used within this document, refer to the notation in Chapter 2 of ACI 318-05. References to the
PCI Design Handbook: Precast and Prestressed Concrete are to the seventh edition, unless otherwise noted. Excerpts from
ACI 318-05 are reprinted here with permission of the American Concrete Institute.
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1.2.1(e) Size and location of all structural elements, reinforcement, and anchors.
1.2.1(e) Reinforcement in this case does not refer to prestressing steel. In precast concrete members, reinforcement
may be shown only on the piece drawings. (Reference PCI
Design Handbook, Section 14.4.4.1)
1.2.1(g) For pretensioned concrete products, the prestressing design and detailing may be left to an engineer employed or retained by the manufacturer and
may be shown only on the piece drawings and design
calculations. (Reference PCI Design Handbook,
Sections 14.4 and 14.5)
CHAPTER 2 - DEFINITIONS
2.1 Code Notation
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, in., Chapters
1012, 21, 22, Appendix B
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2.2 Definitions
Intermediate precast structural wall. A wall complying with all applicable requirements of Chapters 1
through 18 in addition to 21.13.
Tendon. In pretensioned applications, the tendon is the prestressing steel. In post-tensioned applications, the tendon is
a complete assembly consisting of anchorages, prestressing
steel, and sheathing with coating for unbonded applications
or ducts with grout for bonded applications.
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CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS
3.5.2 Welding of reinforcing bars shall conform to Structural
Welding Code Reinforcing Steel (ANSI/AWS D1.4)8 from
the American Welding Society (AWS). Type and location
of welded splices and other required welding of reinforcing bars shall be indicated on the design drawings or in the
project specifications. ASTM reinforcing bar specifications,
except for ASTM A 706,9 shall be supplemented to require
a report of material properties necessary to conform to the
requirements in ANSI/AWS D1.4.
14
4.2.1 Some studies have shown that the very low water
cementitious materials ratios used in most precast concrete
products require less air entrainment than cast-in-place
concrete. (Reference Some Physical Properties of High
Strength Concrete14 and Frost and Scaling Resistance of
High Strength Concrete.15)
Chapter 14
ACI 318-05
PCI PRACTICE
4.2.2 (Note: See ACI 318-05 for the table referenced in this
section.) The exposures discussed in this section affect the
cover requirements given in Chapter 7 of ACI 318-05. While
the high-quality concrete produced in precasting plants is
generally resistant to severe exposure, the use of deicing
chemicals directly on all concrete surfaces is strongly discouraged.
CHAPTER 5 C
ONCRETE QUALITY,
MIXING, AND PLACING
5.2.3 Concrete proportions shall be established in accordance with 5.3 or, alternatively, 5.4, and shall meet applicable requirements of Chapter 4.
5.11.3.2 The Commentary states ...the modulus of elasticity Ec of steam-cured specimens may vary from that of specimens moist-cured at normal temperatures. It is, however,
most common for the ACI equation to be used to calculate
Ec even when accelerated curing is used. Some producers
may recommend other values based on testing. (Reference
PCI Design Handbook, Section 9.2.2.4.) Also note that curing by direct exposure to steam is seldom used in precasting
plants.
CHAPTER 7 D
ETAILS OF
REINFORCEMENT
7.5.2 Unless otherwise specified by the registered design
professional, reinforcement, including tendons, and posttensioning ducts shall be placed within the tolerances in
7.5.2.1 and 7.5.2.2.
In corrosive environments or other severe exposure conditions, amount of concrete protection shall be suitably
increased, and denseness and nonporosity of protecting
concrete shall be considered, or other protection shall be
provided.
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7.7.5.1 For prestressed concrete members exposed to corrosive environments or other severe exposure conditions,
and which are classified as Class T or C in 18.3.3, minimum
cover to the prestressed reinforcement shall be increased
50%. This requirement shall be permitted to be waived if the
pre-compressed tensile zone is not in tension under sustained
loads.
7.10.3 It shall be permitted to waive the lateral reinforcement requirements of 7.10, 10.16, and 18.11 where tests and
structural analysis show adequate strength and feasibility of
construction.
7.10.4 Spirals
Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall conform to 10.9.3 and to the following:
7.10.4.1 Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous
bar or wire of such size and so assembled to permit handling
and placing without distortion from designed dimensions.
7.10.4.2 For cast-in-place construction, size of spirals shall
not be less than 3/8 in. diameter.
7.10.5 Ties
Tie reinforcement for compression members shall conform
to the following:
7.10.5.1 All non-prestressed bars shall be enclosed by
lateral ties, at least #3 in size for longitudinal bars #10 or
smaller, and at least #4 in size for #11, #14, #18, and bundled
longitudinal bars. Deformed wire or welded-wire reinforcement of equivalent area shall be permitted.
7.12 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement
7.12.3.3 When spacing of tendons exceeds 54 in., additional bonded shrinkage and temperature reinforcement conforming to 7.12.2 shall be provided between the tendons at
slab edges extending from the slab edge for a distance equal
to the tendon spacing.
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CHAPTER 8 A
NALYSIS AND DESIGN
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
8.1.3 Anchors within the scope of Appendix D, Anchoring
to Concrete, installed in concrete to transfer loads between
connected elements shall be designed using Appendix D.
8.1.3 Appendix D has specific provisions allowing modifications based on research. PCI has sponsored research
on connections using welded headed studs that are in full
compliance with the requirements of Appendix D. The design
methods provided in Chapter 6 of the PCI Design Handbook
reflect the results of this testing.
8.10.2 Section 18.1.3 states that this section does not apply
to prestressed concrete. Commentary R18.1.3 states that the
effective flange width is left to the experience and judgment
of the engineer. Eight times the slab thickness is often used
as a guide for determining the topping width to be used in
designing composite beams. Thin flange members are commonly designed including the entire flange width in the compression block. (Reference PCI Design Handbook, Examples
5.2.1.5 and 5.3.5.1)
CHAPTER 9 S
TRENGTH AND
SERVICEABILITY
REQUIREMENTS
9.2 Required Strength
9.2.1 Required strength U shall be at least equal to the
effects of factored loads in Eq. (9-1) through (9-7). The
effect of one or more loads not acting simultaneously shall
be investigated.
U = 1.4(D + F)
(9-1)
(9-3)
(9-4)
(9-5)
(9-6)
(9-7)
except as follows:
( a) The load factor on L in Eq. (9-3) to (9-5) shall be
permitted to be reduced to 0.5 except for garages, areas
occupied as places of public assembly, and all areas
where the live load L is greater than 100 lb/ft2.
9.2.3 Estimations of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, expansion of shrinkage-compensating concrete, or temperature change shall be based on a realistic assessment of
such effects occurring in service.
9.2.1 It should be emphasized that volume changes, settlement, and other movements T are not to be considered simultaneously with wind or earthquake forces. Structural effects
of T need only be considered when the structural element is
restrained and can produce internal forces as a result of T.
See PCI Design Handbook Examples 5.8.5.2 and 5.9.2.1 for
computation of restraint forces.
The load factor modification of 9.2.1(a) must be distinguished from live-load reductions allowed in the applicable
building code. Where allowed, the reduced live loads establish a value for L to be used in the load combinations of 9.2.1
and 9.2.1(a).
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R9.2.3 The designer should consider the effects of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, temperature, and shrinkagecompensating concrete. The term realistic assessment is
used to indicate that the most probable values rather than the
upper bound values of the variables should be used.
(a) From the end of the member to the end of the transfer
length = 0.75
(b) From the end of the transfer length to the end of the
development length, shall be permitted to be linearly
increased from 0.75 to 0.9.
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CHAPTER 10 F
LEXURE AND AXIAL
LOADS
10.4.1 Spacings of lateral supports for a beam shall not
exceed 50 times b, the least width of compression flange or
face.
10.4.1 The spans of non-load-bearing and loadbearing spandrels on parking structures have frequently
exceeded 50 times the width of the top of the member and
no problems have been observed. Lateral supports are provided to these spandrel beams by connection to the floor diaphragm near mid-depth of the section to address the effects
of lateral stability, lateral impact loads, and the orientation
of the spandrel beam principal axis for non-rectangular sections. The practical spacing of these connections is usually
much less than the limit imposed by this section.
40,000
s = 15
2.5cc
fs
(10-5)
14
but not greater than 12(40,000/fs), where cc is the least distance from surface of reinforcement of prestressing steel to
the tension face. If there is only one bar or wire nearest the
extreme tension face, s used in Eq. (10-4) is the width of the
extreme tension face.
Calculated stress fs in reinforcement closest to the tension
face at service load shall be computed based on the unfactored moment. It shall be permitted to take fs as 2/3 fy.
10.9.3 Volumetric spiral reinforcement ratio s shall be not
less than the value given by
A
f'
s = 0.45 g 1 c
Ach f yt
(10-5)
where the value of fyt used in Eq. (10-5) shall not exceed
100,000 psi. For fyt greater than 60,000 psi, lap splices
according to 7.10.4.5(a) shall not be used.
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10.10 S
lenderness Effects in Compression
Members
10.10.1 Except as allowed in 10.10.2, the design of compression members, restraining beams, and other supporting
members shall be based on the factored forces and moments
from a second-order analysis considering material nonlinearity and cracking, as well as the effects of member curvature
and lateral drift, duration of the loads, shrinkage and creep,
and interaction with the supporting foundation. The dimensions of each member cross section used in the analysis shall
be within 10% of the dimensions of the members shown on
the design drawings or the analysis shall be repeated. The
analysis procedure shall have been shown to result in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of
comprehensive tests of columns in statically indeterminate
reinforced concrete structures.
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10.10.2 As an alternate to
10.10.1, it shall be permitted
pression members, restraining
members on axial forces and
described in 10.11.
PCI PRACTICE
10.10 The PCI Design Handbook, Chapter 5, addresses the
application of this section to precast and prestressed concrete columns. (Reference PCI Design Handbook, Section
5.9)
10.10.2 The moment magnifier method is not recommended for prestressed concrete compression
members.
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11.5.6 If Vu is less than Vc at the end region of prestressed
double-tees not subjected to point loads, shear reinforcement
may be omitted with a nominal minimum provided for 5 ft to
10 ft from the ends. This is based on research by Alex Aswad
and George Burnley, Omission of Web Reinforcement in
Prestressed Double Tees.20 The approach is permitted
by Section 11.5.6.2. A reduction in the -factor in flexure
may be warranted when Po /A levels are low. See recommendations by Aswad, et al, Load Testing of Prestressed
Concrete Double Tees without Web Reinforcement.21 Since
the effective shear performance of the tee stems at the ends
is dependent on the prestressing, this exception should only
be used when the strand bond has been qualified as meeting
ACI transfer and development-length provisions. (Reference
PCI Design Handbook, Sections 5.3 and 5.3.4)
Prestressed hollow-core and flat slab units fall under (a)
slabs and footings, and require no shear reinforcement, provided Vu Vc. R11.5.6.1 indicates that deeper hollow-core
sections may have reduced web shear strength. ACI 318-05
does not require minimum area of shear reinforcement Av,min
in hollow-core units where the untopped depth is not greater
than 12.5 in. or where Vu is not greater than 0.5Vcw.
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11.7 Shear-friction
14
11.9.3.2.2 For all-lightweight or sand-lightweight concrete, Vn shall not be taken greater than the smaller of (0.2
0.07av/d) fc' bwd and (800 280av/d) bwd.
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11.10.9.1 Where Vu exceeds Vc, horizontal shear reinforcement shall be provided to satisfy Eq. (11-1) and (11-2),
where Vs shall be computed by
Vs =
Av f y d
s
(11-31)
CHAPTER 12 D
EVELOPMENT
AND SPLICES OF
REINFORCEMENT
12.5 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension
12.5.1 Development length for deformed bars in tension
terminating in a standard hook (see 7.1) ldh shall be determined from 12.5.2 and the applicable modification factors
of 12.5.3, but ldh shall not be less than the larger of 8db, nor
less than 6 in.
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12.11.1 At least one-third the positive moment reinforcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive moment
reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along the
same face of member into the support. In beams, such reinforcement shall extend into the support at least 6 in.
12.13.2.4 For each end of a single leg stirrup of weldedwire reinforcement, two longitudinal wires at a minimum
spacing of 2 in. and with the inner wire at least the greater of
d/4 or 2 in. from d/2. Outer longitudinal wire at tension face
shall not be farther from the face than the portion of primary
flexural reinforcement closest to the face.
12.13.2.4 Figure R12.13.2.4 shows how welded-wire reinforcement is used as shear reinforcement in double-tee stems.
For further information, see the Joint PCI/WRI Ad Hoc
Committee on Welded Wire Fabric for Shear Reinforcement
report, Welded Wire Fabric for Shear Reinforcement.27
14
CHAPTER 14 WALLS
14.3 Minimum Reinforcement
CHAPTER 15 FOOTINGS
15.8.3.1 Connection between precast concrete columns or
pedestals and supporting members shall meet the requirements of 16.5.1.3(a).
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16.5.1.3(b) Some panels may be too narrow to accommodate two connections. The engineer may determine that the
behavior of such members justifies classifying the panel as
cladding (cladding is exempt from the requirements of this
section).
This section applies to structures composed of many elements that must be tied together. Structures that use modules, or boxes, will require different details to ensure integrity. (Reference PCI Design Handbook, Section 4.3.2, note 5).
14
16.5.1.4 Connection details that rely solely on friction
caused by gravity loads shall not be used.
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CHAPTER 17 C
OMPOSITE CONCRETE
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
14
17.6.3 Ties for horizontal shear in precast concrete members are typically U-shaped reinforcing bars that are embedded after the member has been cast and the top surface has
been intentionally roughened and finished. The anchorage of
the tie in the precast concrete member is achieved by embedding the bar for the required development length without
hooks. See also R16.7.1.
Anchorage of hooked or bent ties in cast-in-place topping is
considered adequate if a minimum distance of 21/4, 23/4, and
31/4 in. is provided between the shear transfer interface and
the outside ends of standard hooks or U-bends of #3, #4, and
#5 ties, respectively, based on research cited in PCI Design
Handbook, Section 5.3.5.
ft 7.5 fc' ;
ft > 12 fc'
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R18.4.1(b) and (c) Where tensile stresses exceed the permissible values, the total force in the tensile stress zone may
be calculated, and reinforcement proportioned on the basis of
this force at a stress of 0.6fy but not more than 30,000 psi.
Where computed tensile stresses ft exceed the limits in (b) or (c), additional bonded reinforcement (nonprestressed or prestressed) shall be provided in the tensile zone
to resist the total tensile force in concrete computed with the
assumption of an uncracked section.
18.4.4 For Class C prestressed flexural members not
subject to fatigue or to aggressive exposure, the spacing of
bonded reinforcement nearest the extreme tension face shall
not exceed that given by 10.6.4.
For structures subject to fatigue or exposed to corrosive
environments, special investigations and precautions are
required.
18.4.4.1 The spacing requirements shall be met by nonprestressed reinforcement and bonded tendons. The spacing of
bonded tendons shall not exceed 2/3 of the maximum spacing
permitted for nonprestressed reinforcement.
Where both reinforcement and bonded tendons are used to
meet the spacing requirement, the spacing between a bar and
a tendon shall not exceed 5/6 of that permitted by 10.6.4. See
also Section 18.4.4.3.
18.4.4 This section refers to maximum spacing requirements by applying Eq. (10-4) to prestressed concrete:
40,000
s = 15
2.5c c
fs
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14
18.7.2 Many engineers and most computer programs use strain compatibility analysis for determining fps, which is a more accurate determination as
indicated in R18.7.2. Others use Eq. (18-3). With lowrelaxation strand, the results are not substantially different.
(Reference PCI Design Handbook, Section 5.2.1)
(18-3)
p ' + ( ' )
fc d p
shall be taken not less than 0.17 and d' shall be no greater
than 0.15dp.
18.8.2 Total amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement shall be adequate to develop a
factored load at least 1.2 times the cracking load computed
on the basis of the modulus of rupture fr, specified in 9.5.2.3.
This provision shall be permitted to be waived for:
(a) Two-way, unbonded post-tensioned slabs; and
18.8.2 This provision only applies at critical flexural sections where cracking will first occur. (Reference PCI Design
Handbook, Section 5.2.1.) This provision is intended as a
precaution against abrupt flexural failure immediately after
cracking. Cracking and the subsequent considerable deflection prior to the fracture of the prestressed reinforcement are
the desired distress indicators that will be apparent.
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18.11.2.1 Columns which, for architectural or other reasons, are larger than necessary to carry the applied loads
will use the level of prestress for the size of column needed.
For example, if a 16 in. 16 in. column will carry the load,
but a 24 in. 24 in. column is used, the total prestress force
necessary is 225(16 16) = 57,600 lb. This practice is supported by Sections 10.8.4 and 16.5.1.3(a).
18.11.2.2 Except for walls, members with average compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force
only equal to or greater than 225 psi shall have all tendons
enclosed by spirals or lateral ties in accordance with (a)
through (d):
CHAPTER 21 S
PECIAL PROVISIONS FOR
SEISMIC DESIGN
Strut-and-tie modeling may have many applications in precast concrete construction, including corbels and dapped
ends of beams. The design procedures for these elements
given in the PCI Design Handbook have certain limits of
applicability, and strut-and-tie methods may be used for
cases that fall outside these limits.
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2 APPENDIX D A
NCHORING TO
CONCRETE
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