SHEAR
By
AHMED FAROUK MOHAMED HASSAN DEIFALLA, M.Sc., B.Sc.
A Thesis
Submitted to the School o f Graduate Studies
in Partial Fulfilment o f the Requirements
for the Degree
Doctorate o f Philosophy
McMaster University
Copyright by Ahmed Deifalla, September 2007
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By
AHMED FAROUK MOHAMED HASSAN DEIFALLA
B. Sc., M. Sc. (Cairo University)
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McMaster University
(Civil Engineering)
Hamilton, Ontario
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ABSTRACT
Failure of a structural element under shear and torsion is brittle in nature and should be
avoided as it compromises the ductile behaviour o f the structure. Under various cases o f
loading and geometric configuration, concrete structural members are subjected to
significant torsion accompanied by either bending, or shear and bending. A limited
number of studies were conducted to study torsion and shear behaviour o f reinforced
concrete (RC) girders. Most o f these studies were focused on rectangular girders. None
were conducted to investigate the strengthening o f RC T-girders under combined torsion
and shear.
An experimental study was conducted to investigate the shear and torsion
behaviour of RC T-girders. Three T-girders were tested while subjected to three different
torque to shear ratios selected to cover a wide range o f the torsion and shear interactions.
In addition, the Shear and Torsion provisions o f the North American Design Codes were
assessed using the experimental data. It was found that code predictions are more
accurate at low torque to shear ratios.
In most damage problems, strengthening using fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) is
an effective and convenient solution. An experimental investigation to explore the
strengthening o f RC T-girders was conducted. Four strengthening schemes were
proposed and implemented. The effectiveness o f the proposed techniques was evaluated.
An analytical model capable o f predicting the full behaviour (i.e. up to failure) o f
torsionally strengthened rectangular RC girders was proposed and validated using
available experimentally observed behaviour and were found to be in good agreement
with the experimental results.
An analytical model capable o f predicting the behaviour up to ultimate strength
for strengthened and un-strengthened RC T-girders subjected to shear and torsion was
proposed and validated using the available experimental results.
A simplified strength model that can be used as basis for design code provisions
was proposed for both strengthened rectangular and T-girders under torsion and /or shear.
iii
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The model predicting the strength was verified using experimental results and was found
to be in good agreement.
iv
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to my supervisor Professor Ahmed Ghobarah
for his guidance and technical support. I would like to thank Professor K.S. (Siva)
Sivakumaran and Dr. Spencer Smith, members o f my supervisory committee, for their
contribution to my work. I wish to convey my gratitude to Mr. David Perrett for his
assistance during the experimental testing. I also would to thank Mr. Peter Koudys and
Mr. Maurice Forget.
My sincere appreciation and gratitude goes to my Mother for her endless devotion
and compassion over my entire life. My thanks go to my family for their moral support.
The author gratefully acknowledges the financial support received from the
Department o f Civil Engineering at McMaster University.
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Table of Contents
Item
Page
ABSTRACT
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xx
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
13
1.5 Motivation
17
1.6 Objectives
18
19
27
28
28
vi
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29
30
31
32
2.3.2 Supports
32
2.3.3 Instrumentation
33
33
33
34
34
34
35
35
37
39
2.6 Materials
40
2.6.1 Concrete
40
2.6.2 Steel
41
41
61
63
vii
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65
65
66
66
67
68
68
69
70
70
71
74
76
77
80
82
82
83
83
3.17 Conclusions
84
viii
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4.1 Introduction
100
100
101
102
102
103
104
105
105
4.11 Conclusions
106
117
118
119
119
120
122
125
127
128
128
ix
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129
130
131
131
132
132
5.8 Conclusions
133
146
147
147
151
151
152
152
153
153
153
154
154
6.5 Conclusions
155
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166
7.2 Torsion
167
167
168
173
173
7.4.1 Assumptions
174
175
176
177
7.6 Conclusions
177
184
8.2 Conclusions
185
189
BIBLIOGRAPHY
190
xi
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A .l Input
A -l
A -l
A-4
A-5
A.5 Algorithm
A -l
B-l
B-l
B-4
C-l
C-3
C-9
C -l7
C-23
C-26
C-29
xii
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LIST of TABLES
Table
Title
Page
2.1
43
2.2
43
2.3
44
2.4
o f two
44
tested coupons)
3.1
86
3.2
87
3.3
87
of
88
88
108
7.1
179
7.2
180
7.3
181
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LIST of FIGURES
Figure
1.1
Title
Page
21
21
1.3
22
1.4
22
23
23
24
1.8
24
1.9
25
1.10
25
Severe torsion cracking was observed in the beams and slabs (Hsu
1984)
xiv
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1.11
26
26
45
2.2
46
2.3
47
2.4
48
Loading arm
2.5
48
2.6
49
2.7
49
2.8
50
2.9
50
2.10
51
2.11
51
2.12
52
LVDTs
2.13
XV
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53
2.14
Cross sections showing the strain gauges used for the shear
53
reinforcement
2.15
54
2.16
55
56
2.18
57
2.19
57
2.20
58
2.21
58
2.22
59
2.23
The test setup used for the tensile testing o f the FRP coupons
59
2.24
60
3.1
89
3.2
89
3.3
Crack pattern for girder TB1 (T/V = 0.5 m) a) south side, b) North
90
Crack pattern for girder TB2 (T/V = 1.0 m) a) south side, b) North
side, c) bottom view, d) top view
xvi
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91
3.5
Crack pattern for girder TB3 (T/V = 0.1 m) a) south side, b) North
92
93
3.7
Load versus longitudinal steel strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
93
3.8
94
3.9
94
3.10
Moment behaviour at the east side for TB1, TB2, and TB3
95
3.11
Moment behaviour at the west side for TB1, TB2, and TB3
95
3.12
96
3.13
96
3.14
97
3.15
Strain in the web and flange stirrups for TB1, TB2, and TB3
97
3.16
Variation o f the strain in the web stirrup for TB1, TB2, and TB3
98
3.17
Variation of the strain in the flange stirrup for TB1, TB2, and TB3
98
3.18
99
4.1
109
4.2
110
4.3
110
xvii
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4.4
111
4.5
111
4.6
112
4.7
112
4.8
113
4.9
113
4.10
114
4.11
114
4.12
115
4.13
115
4.14
116
4.15
116
5.1
135
5.2
135
5.3
136
5.4
136
5.5
137
xviii
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5.6
138
5.7
138
5.8
139
5.9
139
5.10
140
5.11
140
5.12
141
5.13
141
5.14
142
5.15
142
5.16
143
5.17
143
5.18
144
5.19
144
5.20
145
6.1
156
6.2
156
xix
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6.3
157
6.4
157
6.5
158
6.6
158
6.7
159
6.8
159
6.9
160
6.10
160
6.11
161
6.12
161
6.13
162
6.14
Shear behaviour o f TB 1S 1
162
6.15
163
6.16
163
6.17
164
6.18
164
6.19
165
6.20
165
xx
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7.1
182
7.2
183
path (A0)
xxi
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
A0
A0h
At
Av
bw
Ec
Esec
f2
fc
fcr
ffmax
fy
Kc
Kf
= Length of segment
LI
L2
L3
L4
Ml
M2
X X ll
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Nvk
= The unbalanced axial force acting on segment (k) due to the shear stresses
Ph
Qi
Q2
Q3
R1
R2
R3
ti
Tr
= Torsion resistance
Vc
vn
Vr
= Shear resistance
V s
X1
X c,
X sk
= The distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete
mesh element
= The distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each segment
xxiii
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y,
y ci
_ Distance between the elastic centroid and the centre o f each concrete element
(i)
= Distance between the elastic centroid and the centre o f each bar (j)
y sk
= Distance between the elastic centroid and the centre o f each segment (k)
sx
s2
sx
s'
s 2s
sn
cr,
a2
o'ci
af
= FRP stress
a ft
crsl
o'x
oy
<P
cpd
= Diagonal curvature
cpt
= Longitudinal curvature
XXIV
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(p
= Transverse curvature
Shear stresses
= Softening coefficient
P2
applied torsion
Ps
= The angle o f inclination o f the fibre direction with respect to the beam
longitudinal axis
The angle o f inclination o f the stirrup with respect to the beam longitudinal
axis
Pf
ph
= Shear strain
= The angle of inclination o f the concrete principal stress or strain with respect
to the longitudinal axis o f the beam
xxv
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In the design o f many structures and under service conditions, torsion plays a significant
role. Examples o f structural elements subjected to significant torsion combined with
shear and bending moments are shown in Figures 1.1 to 1.8. Significant torsion occurs in
structural members o f buildings such as girders supporting eccentric columns or
asymmetric slabs, as well as spandrel beams, and edge beams supporting a cantilever
floor slab. In addition, beams supporting circular slabs, members in space frames, and
box girders in bridges are subjected to torsion. Moreover, cases where torsion may be
significant include structural elements which are twisted by transverse beams or slabs,
curved girders, spiral stairways, balcony girders, and whenever large off-center loads are
applied to a beam. In elevated expressways torsion results from eccentric lane loading.
Structures curved in plan and torsionally restrained supports are examples o f cases where
consideration o f torsion in design is important.
It is common that the demands on the structure would change during the
buildings service life. In such a case, strengthening would be necessary. Such cases may
result from increase in service loads, decrease in serviceability limits, change in usage o f
the structure, secondary deformations and degradation problems. In extreme cases, a
structure may need repair due to an accident, or due to errors made during the design or
construction phases. Moreover, in current design codes the overall safety factors are less
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than what they used to be; hence, torsion is becoming a common problem. Reinforced
concrete members subjected to increasing torsion may fail quite suddenly. Complete
replacement o f an existing structure may be a possible solution but most likely not the
most cost-effective one. In many cases strengthening and upgrading will be the cost
effective and most convenient solution.
During the last decade, the advantages o f strengthening concrete elements using
fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) has been demonstrated and are being accepted by many
designers due to its superior properties including high strength to weight ratio, being noncorrosive, and ease o f installation. FRP is applied to concrete surface using epoxy. Epoxy
has many advantages as it adheres well to the concrete surface and to the FRP material, it
has low shrinkage properties and it is easy to apply. Flowever, the epoxy is sensitive to
moisture and temperature.
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strengthening techniques that can be used for various practical applications are shown in
Figure 1.9. In cases o f inaccessible sides o f the cross section, anchors may be used to
provide the required torsion resisting mechanism needed to resist the torsion and delay
de-bonding. In addition, the vertical and longitudinal reinforcement (i.e., internal and
external) have to interact to provide adequate forces to resist the diagonal forces
developed due to torsion. The applicability o f these schemes for cross sections other than
rectangular beams including T-beam has not been investigated.
Although diagonal tension cracks occur in RC beams due to torsion or shear, the
beam behaves differently due to different load cases. In the case o f shear, the cracks
propagate in the same direction on both sides o f the beam parallel to the applied shear
plane. In case o f torsion, the cracks take a spiral pattern where they propagate in opposite
directions at the opposite sides o f the beam. In the case o f shear force, stresses are
developed only in the applied shear plane and are uniform across the plane perpendicular
to the shear. In the case o f torsion, the diagonal concrete compression strain varies
linearly across the effective thickness o f the walls o f the cross section due to lateral
curvature which eventually causes the variation o f the stress across the section both
vertically and horizontally (Collins and Mitchell 1997). In addition, according to the
theory of hollow tube space truss analogy, the effective thickness o f the tube varies based
on the applied torque similar to the effective depth o f the beam that varies according to
the bending moment (Collins and Mitchell 1997).
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Six plain concrete beams each subjected to different torsion to moment (T/M)
loading ratio.
All the test beams had the same nominal dimensions. The results o f the experimental
investigation showed that the ultimate strength o f the beams in torsion can be
approximated as the cracking strength which can be calculated from elastic theory. The
stress in the reinforcement is minimal and almost constant until the cracking torque was
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reached. When the concrete cracked there was a redistribution o f internal stresses which
results in a large increase in the steel stress.
The orthotropic behaviour o f concrete in the post cracking stage due to different
responses under tension and compression.
An 8-node brick element was used to model the concrete before cracking. Each node had
three degrees o f freedom. The behaviour before cracking was assumed linear elastic and
isotropic. The behaviour after cracking was nonlinear taking into consideration the
concrete softening. A Drucker-Prager failure criterion was used for concrete elements.
Axial deformation truss elements were used to represent both the longitudinal and
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transverse steel reinforcement. Each node has three translation degrees o f freedom. An
elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain relationship is assumed for steel. The finite element
model was verified using test results. The results o f the parametric investigation showed
that the cracking torque is not sensitive to the steel ratio; the aggregate interlock is an
important factor contributing to torsion carried by concrete, and that the concrete
contribution is not constant. It was proposed that some factors be added to the ACI
equation to account for the effect o f transverse shear reinforcement ratio on the concrete
contribution, stirrup contribution to the ultimate torsional strength and the effect o f aspect
ratio o f section on the concrete contribution to ultimate torsional strength.
Rahal (2000) proposed a simplified model for predicting the ultimate strength and mode
o f failure o f reinforced concrete beams subjected to pure torsion. To check the adequacy
o f the model, the calculated strength and mode o f failure were checked against the results
o f 66 beam tests available in the literature, and good agreement was found. The
simplified model was used to calculate the ultimate shear stress. The ultimate torsional
moment can be calculated if the shear stress is known. Four modes o f failure were
identified under reinforced, partially longitudinal over-reinforced, partially transversal
over-reinforced, and completely over-reinforced. Using the modified compression field
theory (MCFT) (Collins and Mitchell 1997), normalized shear strength curves for
reinforced concrete were developed. The curves give the ratio o f the shear stress to the
compression stress depending on the longitudinal and transversal steel to concrete ratio.
In addition, the mode o f failure can be predicted from the figure. The method is simple
and shows good agreement with the experimental results.
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The available methods for computing the ultimate torsional strength can be
categorized into two main categories. Methods in the first category use semi-empirical
equations selected to fit available experimental data. The main advantage o f these
methods is their simplicity. Methods in the second category use procedures based on
more rational models such as the space truss analogy. These models are generally more
time demanding, and suitable for microcomputers or programmable calculators. These
rational methods give the engineer a feel for the behaviour o f the structural member being
designed. The current ACI-318-05 (2005) code offered a simplified method based on the
traditional concrete contribution model and plane truss model for shear as well as the
hollow tube analogy space truss model for torsion. On the other hand, the recent revision
o f the AASHTO (2003), the current CSA-A23.3-04 (2004) offered two alternative design
methods for shear and torsion. The first approach, referred to as the simplified method,
is based on the traditional semi-empirical models which is similar to design provisions
provided by the ACI-318-05 (2005). The second approach, referred to as the General
Method, is a simplification o f a more rational model based on the MCFT. The
development o f the MCFT was a milestone in the history o f the design o f beams because
it evaluates the behaviour o f beams where subjected to shear, axial load, bending
moments and torque in a rational manner. The general method is not as popular as the
traditional methods because it could often be more time consuming. In effect, there is a
lack of a unified approach, which combines the simplicity o f the traditional semiempirical approach and the rationality o f the alternative approach.
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strips at different spacing, 45 spiral strips and continuous wrapping. The results showed
that:
Continuous wrapping gave 70% increase in the failure load, while the vertical
strips increased the failure load by 25%. The material used in the continuous
wrapping was 2 times the material used in the vertical strip wrapping but the
failure load increased three times. This lead to the conclusion that the continuous
wrapping was much more effective than using strips.
Spiral wrapping resulted in 54% increase in the failure load and the vertical
wrapping gave a maximum o f 25 % increase in failure load. The material used in
the spiral wrapping was less than that used in the vertical strips, and the load was
doubled, which lead to the conclusion that spiral wrapping was more effective
than vertical wrapping.
The measured strain in the FRP was small compared to the ultimate strain, which
indicates that the effect o f the type o f fibre used on the failure load was not
significant.
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concrete strength, and steel reinforcement. Different parameters such as the original
loading state before strengthening, the number o f plies and spacing o f CFRP strips were
studied. The ultimate strength o f the tested specimens was predicted using variable angle
truss model. The test beams were cast in a Z shape with right angles at both joints. The
middle part is the strengthened test section. The load was applied using three hydraulic
jacks, one was a control jack and the other two were set under the end o f the loading
lever. Observation from the tests indicated that there were three failure modes:
Fracture o f CFRP strips for specimens with only one ply o f transverse strips.
The ultimate torque increases with the increase in the number o f plies, not in a
linear form. It was observed that increasing the material thickness 3 times by
using 3 plies, the ultimate strength increases 1.8 times.
The ultimate torque decreases with the increase o f the strips spacing. It was
observed that decreasing the material by 80%, decreases the ultimate strength
by 80%.
10
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Using the longitudinal strips does not affect the ultimate torque o f the beam
(12%-16%), but using transverse strips causes considerable increase in the
ultimate torque (41%-80%).
The stiffness o f the beams with different strengthening patterns is not
significantly affected, but the ductility o f the beams is increased due to the
strengthening using FRP. The cracking pattern changes due to strengthening
o f the beams. The cracks o f the strengthened beams are uniformly distributed
having the same width, spacing and inclination angle.
11
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torsional moment at one end and torsionally restrained at the other. The two ends o f the
specimens were vertically restrained to ensure no shear and bending as there is no load
applied in the middle. The specimen was free to elongate in the longitudinal direction.
The results o f the experimental investigation were:
The 90-degree strip strengthening was found to increase the post-cracking twist
angle. Complete FRP wrap increased the ultimate strength by as much as 1.66
times the strength o f a beam rehabilitated using strips. However, complete wrap
doubles the material used as in the case o f strip strengthening.
The effect o f using longitudinal strips on four and three sides on the ultimate
capacity o f the beam was almost the same. However, the mode o f failure in the
case o f the 3 sides strengthening was governed by concrete crushing in the un
strengthened face and in the case o f four sides the failure was the tearing off along
the fibre direction due to the tensile stress created in the beam.
The ultimate strength o f the beam strengthened by complete wrap scheme was
about 5 times that o f the beam strengthened by U-wrap (anchored and
unanchored), while the material used in the continuous wrap is 1.33 that in the Uwrap. This was because the torsion rigidity o f the closed shapes was much higher
than the open shapes. The failure mode o f the U-wrap without anchorage was
12
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governed by the splitting o f the concrete cover at the comer o f the beam after the
GFRP peeled prematurely. On the other hand, the beam with anchored U-wrap
failed by crushing o f the concrete and lateral separation o f the anchors along the
FRP sheets.
The U-wrap scheme resulted in a very small increase in the ultimate strength than
the other schemes o f strengthening even after using the anchorage.
13
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showed an interaction between shear and torsion. A straight line interaction diagram
represents a good approximation o f these results.
14
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tests covered a complete range o f torsion/shear ratios. The results o f the tests showed that
a broken straight line would fit the interaction o f the shear and torsion.
Hsu (1968) presented the skew bending model for rectangular beams subjected to torsion
and shear. He simplified the equilibrium equations that he derived to obtain the wellknown ACI code equations. He assumed the interaction between shear and torsion carried
by concrete to be circular. Hsu assumed a linear interaction between shear and torsion
carried by steel. Pritchard (1970) tested ten reinforced concrete beams under different
ratios o f shear and torsion, five beams without web reinforcement and five with web
reinforcement. An interaction diagram, which agrees closely with the experimental
results, was suggested. Irrespective o f the ratio o f torsion to shear, beams with
longitudinal and transverse steel develop increased post-cracking torsional strength with
much reduced torsional stiffness.
Elfgren (1972) presented a rational simple model for the analysis o f torsion-shearbending interaction at failure for reinforced concrete beams. Equilibrium equations are
studied for observed failure mechanisms. Three mechanisms can occur depending on
where the concrete compression zone is formed; at the top (mode t), at the bottom (mode
b), or at one o f the vertical sides (mode s). In modes t and b the torsion, bending and the
shear -bending is governed by second degree parabolas, whereas the torsion-shear
interaction is governed by an ellipse. In mode s, the interaction surface is a cylinder with
an elliptical base in the torsion-shear plane. The interaction in this mode is not influenced
by the value o f the bending moment. Some test results were presented to demonstrate the
15
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accuracy o f the method. Badawy (1977) tested seven beams under different shear to
torsion ratios. All beams had a cross-sectional dimension o f 152x305 mm. The
applicability o f methods o f plastic analysis was investigated which leads to a semi
circular interaction curve. Comparison o f the test results with the results predicted by the
plastic analysis shows good agreement. He noted that a linear interaction is a
conservative assumption.
Ewida and McMullen (1981) tested twelve specimens. An interaction curve for under
reinforced beams, partially over-reinforced beams, and completely over-reinforced beams
were proposed. The proposed interaction curve shows good agreement with the
experimental results from the literature. Rahal and Collins (1995a) conducted an
experimental study to investigate the effect o f increasing the thickness o f the concrete
cover on the behaviour o f reinforced concrete section subjected to combined shear and
torsion. In this study seven beams were tested under combined shear and torsion with
selected ratios. The specimen was loaded in stages up to failure. The load control
procedure and influence o f dead load and friction, the torque and shear ratio changed
somewhat as the load was increased. Since the test took 2 to 3 days to complete, it was
necessary to unload specimens at the end o f each day, then reloading the next day
beginning from where loading had halted the night before.
16
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subjected to combined biaxial bending, biaxial shear, torsion and axial load.
Compatibility o f curvatures is introduced to enable the model to handle combined shear
and torsion and explain the non-linearity in the shear-torsion interaction curve. The
model provides a check on the spalling o f the concrete cover o f the sections subjected to
combined shear and torsion.
1.5 Motivation
I.
Torsion failure is brittle and should be avoided in order not to compromise the
ductile behaviour o f the structure. Cases o f failure are shown in Figures 1.10 to
1. 12 .
II. Strengthening may provide a viable option to reduce or eliminate failure potential
due to torsion in existing structures.
III. Recent design codes as the CSA-S806-02 (2002) and ACI-440-2R-02 (2002),
addressed the design and construction o f building components with FRP. The
code provisions covered most o f the cases o f strengthening structures subjected
to flexure and shear but did not address cases o f strengthening concrete beams
subjected to pure torsion or combined shear and torsion.
IV. Torsion rarely occurs without other actions. Usually flexure, shear and axial
forces are also present.
V. The unavailability o f experimental data is one o f the major reasons for the lack o f
adequate understanding o f the behaviour and the strengthening o f reinforced
concrete beams subjected to combined shear and torsion.
17
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VI. The reason behind this gap in the knowledge is the specialized nature o f the
problem and the complexity involved in conducting a test that is realistic and
capable o f simulating the interaction between torsion and shear.
VII. Structural members subjected to torsion may be o f different shapes such as Tshape, L-shape, or box girder. The torsional behaviour o f each o f these shapes
might be significantly different. However, there is an obvious lack o f adequate
analytical and experimental investigations to improve our understanding o f the
behaviour.
1.6 Objectives
The objective o f this research is to analytically and experimentally investigate the
combined torsion and shear behaviour and strengthening o f RC girders with rectangular
and T cross sections. Advanced composites are used for strengthening the beams. The
scope o f the research will include the following items:
I.
The behaviour and design o f RC T-beams under combined shear and torsion.
II. The behaviour and analysis o f strengthened RC T-girders under combined shear
and torsion.
III. The behaviour and analysis o f strengthened RC rectangular girders subjected to
pure torsion.
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CHAPTER 3 presents an experimental investigation for the effect o f the torque to shear
ratio on the behaviour o f the RC T-girders in terms o f the strength and deformation. The
discussion is based on three T-girders tested under different torque to shear ratios o f O.l,
0.5, and l.O m. In addition, it examines the design o f RC T-girders under combined
torsion and shear using the current North American design codes.
CHAPTER 5 presents a rational analytical model that can be used to predict the full
behaviour o f torsionally strengthened rectangular RC beams up to failure. The model will
be verified using experimental data by other researchers.
19
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CHAPTER 8 presents a summary o f the thesis and the main conclusions as well as
suggestions for future research.
Appendix B includes sample o f the input data for the computer program used in Chapter
6.
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i i i i i i i
Figure 1.1 - The American Flospital Association Buildings, Chicago. The continuous transfer
girder with 1.5 m by 2.7 m cross section was subjected to significant torsion (Hsu 1984).
21
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Figure 1.3 - Elevated Roadways under construction at Toronto (Collins and Mitchell 1997).
lieu's?2 Figure 1.4 - Prestressed concrete curved beam used for the aerial guideway at Disney world,
Orlando, Florida (Hsu 1984).
22
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Figure 1.5 - Prestressed concrete double-tee girders in the Dade county Mass Rapid transit
aerial guideway, Florida (FIsu 1984).
C.G.
Figure 1.6 - Beams under combined loading a) Rectangular beam with off-center load,
b) Balcony beams, c) Inverted T-beam supporting beam reactions, d) curved girder, and
e) Main beam supporting secondary cantilever beam.
23
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Girder subjected
to Torque to shear
ratio = 0.5 m
'1909 mm
700 mm
400
100 mm
Figure 1.8 The new observation pathw ay over the G rand C anyon (2007).
24
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V ertical Strips
Continuous sheets
one side
Spiral Strips
U-jacket
a) longitudinal section
b) cross section
Figure 1.9 - Different strengthening schemes that can be used for torsion
Figure 1.10 - Reinforced concrete wall beams supporting cantilever flower bins.
Severe torsion cracking was observed in the beams and slabs (Hsu 1984).
25
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Figure 1.11- Collapse of a six story RC building due to shear and torsion failure o f a RC
ribbed raft foundation (Hsu 1984).
llgBiMliMiMBiSli
Figure 1.12 - Torsional cracking near the support o f a spandrel beam in a reinforced
concrete parking garage in south Florida (Hsu 1984).
26
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2.1 introduction
In spite o f the fact that analytical modeling is less expensive and provides the capability
to effectively explore the influence o f more parameters than experimental programs,
experimental studies remain the most reliable and most efficient approach. Experiments
provide physical knowledge and information about the behaviour o f the system studied.
Moreover, test results are essential in calibrating and verifying analytical models. The
lack o f needed experimental data on the behaviour and strengthening o f reinforced
concrete (RC) T-beams subjected to combined shear and torsion is one o f the main
reasons for the delayed development o f robust analytical models. To develop the
knowledge and improve the understanding o f the behaviour o f strengthened RC beams
subjected to combined shear and torsion, an experimental program was conducted. Seven
beams were designed, constructed and tested while subjected to various torque to shear
ratios. The test setup allows the beams to fail in shear while subjected to shear, torsion,
and relatively low levels o f bending moments. It is also capable o f applying different
shear to torsion ratios by varying the ratio between the applied loads. The beams
represented a scaled RC T-beam model and were designed according to the current
Canadian concrete design code (CSA A22.3-94, 1994). The parameters investigated by
the test program were the effect o f the torque to shear ratio and the effect o f the
27
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28
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scale model should satisfy the similitude relationship. The Buckingham Tt-theorem is
used to develop the similitude relationship between the model and the prototype, which is
Sp = (So/Sg). Sp is the prototype to model density scaling factor, Sa is the prototype to
model stress scaling factor, and Sg is the prototype to model geometric scaling factor. SCT
may be taken equal to ratio between the modulus o f elasticity for the prototype and the
model, which was taken equal to unity. Sg can be chosen as the ratio between the area to
perimeter o f the prototype and the model. The beam cross-section dimensions were
selected to suit the equipment capacity limitations and represented a scaled model for a
concrete beam. Sg was taken equal to two to represent a prototype o f a concrete beam o f
approximately 700 mm depth and 300 mm width. To satisfy the similitude equation Sp
should be equal to half. Since the beams were tested under monotonic static loading, the
effect o f the material density can be neglected as adding more mass to the beam will not
affect the behaviour. Table 2.1 shows the scale factors for the different parameters that
affect the behaviour o f the prototype.
The test setup is most efficient. The ratio between the total applied load (L I, L2,
and L3) and the induced shear force within the test region was chosen as a
measure o f the test setup efficiency. This value being maximized was one o f
criteria used to select the dimensions o f the beam.
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The effect o f the bending moment is as small as possible. The ratio between the
shear force and the bending moment within the test region was maximized. This
parameter influenced the points o f load application and the points o f support.
Stress concentrations in the test region o f the beam were avoided by ensuring that
the loading points and supports are far from the test region.
The shear failure will occur within the test region. The ratio between the shear
induced inside and outside the test region is a maximum value using a range o f
practical values for the beam dimensions.
For effective section design, the longitudinal reinforcement was designed such
that the sections subjected to maximum moment will reach their maximum
capacity at the same loading stage.
The interaction between shear and torsion should govern the failure. For example,
the shear reinforcement in the form o f stirrups is expected to yield before the
longitudinal reinforcement.
All the beams are identical in detailing and dimensioning which is necessary for
the purpose o f consistency.
30
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beam within a) the roller arm; b) the test region; c) the loading arm. The cover was 25
mm for the web and 15 mm for the flange. Figure 2.5 shows a typical longitudinal section
o f the beams and the reinforcements. The longitudinal reinforcement is 4#20 at the
bottom o f the web and 2# 15+4# 10 in the flange. The transverse reinforcement was taken
to be 5# 10/m as the minimum specified by the current CSA A22.3-94 (1994). The clear
length o f the central region was 1400 mm to ensure that at least one complete spiral crack
will occur within the central region. At the two ends o f the test region, an end block was
created with rectangular section having total depth o f 350 mm, width o f 450 mm, and
length o f 250 mm. These two end blocks were used to apply torsion at one end (active
frame) and to restrain the torsion at the other end (reactive frame). In order to apply the
required load and the proper boundary condition far from the test region, the beam is
extended at both ends. The extensions are either for applying load (loading arm) or for
applying the end restraints (roller arm). The loading arm is 0.9 m long while the roller
arm is 0.75 m. To ensure that failure will occur within the test region both arms have
additional longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. The shear reinforcement was
14#10/m and the bottom reinforcement was 6#20, and the top longitudinal reinforcement
was 4#10+2#15. Figures 2.4.a and 2.4.c show the cross section for the loading arm and
the roller arm respectively. The longitudinal reinforcements were laid out in layers
spaced at 20 mm vertically. The effective depth was 310 mm for the loading arm and 264
mm for the roller arm and 284 mm for the typical cross section.
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2.3.2 Supports
Figure 2.10 shows the connection at the intermediate support, which prevents the beam
from moving upward or rotating around its longitudinal axis at point (B). Figure 2.11
shows the details o f the roller support that is used at the beam end (F).
2.3.3 Instrumentation
2.3.3.1 Load cells
Four load cells (L I, L2, L3 and L4) were used in the test setup. Three o f the load cells
(L I, L2 and L3) were used to measure the actual applied loads at Points A, D and E on
the beam. The fourth load cell (L4) was used at Point F to measure the reaction at the
supports o f the beam. The load cells were calibrated under the expected range o f loads
before and after the test.
33
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displacement. The section rotations calculated using the two vertical and two horizontal
potentiometers were averaged to reduce random errors. Three o f the vertical LVDTs
were also used to measure the displacements at the locations o f the vertical actuators.
34
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35
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more effective than vertical strips CFRP. Although the work done by Ghobarah et al.
(2002) has provided a better understanding for the behaviour o f wrapped concrete beams
subjected to pure torsion, the work did not address the practical application o f the CFRP.
The strengthening techniques used in this test program were chosen to suite various
practical limitations to the application o f the CFRP. Four different strengthening schemes
as shown in Figures 2.16 are proposed. The first scheme (Scheme#l) used is shown in
Figure 2.16a, for the case o f inaccessible flange. In the first technique, the U-shape FRP
jacket was attached to the web o f the beam and anchored near the intersection o f the web
and the flange. The second scheme (Scheme#2) shown in Figure 2.16b is for the case
where the top o f the flange is not accessible where the CFRP material was attached to the
web and anchored to the bottom side o f the flange. In addition, an angle is used to
prevent fibres from pulling out at the re-entrant comer of the web and the flange. The
third scheme (Scheme#3) technique assumes unrestricted access to the whole cross
section. In the third technique shown in Figure 2.16c, the fibres were wrapped around the
perimeter of the beam and anchored to the flange. The fourth scheme (Scheme #4),
shown in Figure 2.16d, is similar to Scheme #3 with an additional layer o f CFRP
wrapped around the web only and not the flange.
In the strengthening schemes, special attention was paid to the bond between the
reinforced concrete beam and CFRP. Preparation o f the concrete surface and the
application of the CFRP were conducted using the same standard procedure each time.
The concrete surface was levelled to serve as a bonding plain for the CFRP. In addition,
the surface is cleaned from all the loose particles such as dust or lubricants. Finally, the
36
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(2.1)
Equation 2.1 was derived using linear frame analysis. The schematic diagram of
the forces applied to the tested beams is shown in Figure 2.2. The Figure shows that the
beam behaves as a one end continuous beam with a roller at Point F preventing the
vertical movement o f the beam at this Point. At Points G, and H the beam is restrained
37
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such that no vertical movement or twist take place at Point B. In addition to the boundary
conditions at Points G, H, and F, there are three Point loads L I, L2, and L3 acting at
Points A, D, and E, respectively. L2 and L3 produce torsional moment (T) along with a
vertical load at Point C. LI counterbalances the moment at the centerline o f the test
region. The structural analysis for moment, shear, and torsion was conducted using linear
frame analysis. Assuming Point F is a perfect roller and Points G and F are hinges, the
following Equations were used to calculate the reactions R2 at Point H, and R3 at Point
G, respectively as shown in Figure 2.2:
R2 = - 0.354 L2 + 0.646 L3 + 0.6875 LI
(2.2)
(2.3)
The actual torque, shear force, and bending moments within the test region o f the beam
as shown in Figure 2.2 are calculated as follows:
Q 1= L 1
(2.4)
Q3 = L4
(2.5)
M l = 0 .9 LI
(2.6)
M2 = 0.7 L4
(2.7)
where Q1
Q3
Ml
38
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M2
(2.8)
T = 0.5L2 -0.5L3
(2.9)
where
Q2
Figure 2.17 shows the expected deformation o f the specimen. The elevation view shows
the vertical displacement and the curvature o f the specimen. Sections at different
locations o f the beam show the direction and relative magnitude o f the twisting angle.
Verification that the test setup was functioning accurately was performed by comparing
the measured reaction at the roller end F with the analysis as shown in Figure 2.18.
39
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flange and the web o f the beam were poured monolithically to ensure compatibility
between the web and the flange. The concrete was compacted using two electrical
internal poker type vibrators. The concrete was moist cured using wet burlap for 7 days
under controlled laboratory conditions. After that, the burlap and the wooden forms were
removed and the beams were stored inside the laboratory until tested. Three cylinders
were tested in compression after 7 days, three after 28 days and three on the day o f the
beam testing. Three split cylinder tests were done after 28 days.
2.6 Materials
In the experimental program, three materials were used. These are: concrete, reinforcing
steel, and carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP). Each material was tested separately
to determine its mechanical properties. These properties were used in the analytical
modeling o f the beam behaviour.
2.6.1 Concrete
Two batches o f concrete were used in constructing the beams. Both were purchased from
the same local plant with the same specification and they arrived in a concrete mix truck.
The concrete mix properties included Type 10 cement, sand, 10 mm aggregate, and
targeted concrete strength 25 MPa. Upon arrival o f the concrete truck a slump test
measured a 150 mm slump. Uniaxial compression tests were performed using a
compression test machine. During the testing, the maximum applied load was recorded
and the maximum concrete compressive strength was calculated. Three cylinders were
40
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tested each time with the average o f the three values taken to account for material
variation and random errors in the testing procedure. In order to determine the modulus
o f elasticity o f the concrete, after 28 days, the applied load and the strain were recorded
during the loading o f the cylinder. Figure 2.20 shows the stress-strain curve o f concrete
under compression for both the first and the second batches after 28 days. In addition,
tension-splitting test was also conducted to measure the tensile strength o f concrete for
the two batches. Table 2.3 summarizes the concrete properties at different times during
the experimental program.
2.6.2 Steel
The reinforcement steel used was Grade 400. Coupons were cut from the longitudinal and
shear reinforcements and were tested to determine the yield stress and modulus o f
elasticity o f the steel. Each coupon was ground using a grinder to remove the ribs and
create a smooth surface at mid-length. The coupons were tested in tension, and the strain
was recorded using strain gauges. The stress-strain curves for the four coupons from #10
bars are shown in Figure 2.21. The behaviour o f the four coupons was similar. The yield
occurred at strength o f 450 MPa with a corresponding strain value o f 2.09 mm/m. The
initial elastic modulus that was calculated from the gradient o f the linear part is
approximately 215,000 MPa. The nominal area o f the transverse reinforcement was taken
100 mm2.
41
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are glass, carbon, and aramid. Glass FRP is more economical to produce. However, in
this experimental program the beams were strengthened by carbon fibres. The carbon
FRP has higher strength and stiffness values, and lower density. The matrix supports and
protects the fibres and transfers the loads through shear stresses. It is common to use
resins between the fibres for this purpose. Matrix resins should be compatible with the
fibres and provide good resistance to the environment. However, resins may degrade
rapidly due to high temperatures and moisture. The carbon fibre material used in beam
strengthening was Tyfo BCC composite, which is compromised o f Tyfo S Epoxy and
Tyfo BCC reinforcing fabric. Tyfo BCC is a custom, bi-directional fabric used in the
Tyfo Fibrwrap System. The primary fibres are continuous in the 45 directions and the
composites provide ultimate strength in the direction o f fibres. This type was chosen
based on the nature o f the torsion cracks as being spiral and the crack inclination angles
to the longitudinal axis o f the beam are approximately 45 degrees. Uniaxial tensile
testing was performed on the coupons taken from the fibres and resin composite. The
testing followed the procedure outlined in CSA S806-02 (2002). Figure 2.22 shows the
FRP stress-strain relationship observed from the tensile testing. Figure 2.23 shows the
test setup used to test the FRP coupons. Figure 2.24 shows one o f the tested FRP coupons
before and after failure. Table 2.4 shows the properties o f the CFRP both provided by the
supplier and observed from the tensile testing o f two CFRP coupons (S3, and S4). The
results from the testing o f the FRP coupons (SI, S2) were excluded from the average
because they premature failure was influenced by the gripping o f the test machine.
42
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Parameter
Factor
Value
Concrete strength
So
S0
Sc
Sa
Steel strength
Sc
Sc
SgSg
Sg
Aggregate size
Sg
Concrete Cover
Sg
Sg
Specimen Dimensions
Sg
(T /T|t) / (V / VU|t)
( T / V)
0.1 m
0.5 m
10
1.0m
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feu
Date
(MPa)
(MPa)
31 August 2002 (7 days)
17.7
25.6
25.6
31.4
35.9
35.9
38.8
32.6
38.3
40.5
Table 2.4 - Properties o f CFRP provided by the supplier (average o f two tested coupons).
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Modulus of elasticity
(GPa)
717(449)
65(45)
1.1% (1.0%)
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Test
region
a) Zhang (2001)
Test
R1
region
b) G hobarah (2002)
L : A pplied Load
R : Reaction
45
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R1
R2
R3
Loading
arm
Test
region
Reactive
L2
Frame
900mm
Ac ave
R oller
arm
Fra me
1700mm
700mm
M2
Ml
B ending M om ent diagram
46
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Figure 2.3- South view of the test setup with a specimen in place
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-450 mm-
2#10
Lj
4 6#20
150 mm
in
^
a
T
to
25#10@200mm/
- 2#
2#15 450 m m - l
10
4
2#10
o
-25
^
-4 # 2 0
150 mm
#10@80min/
a) Roller arm
_25-2#10
-4#20
150 mm
zf
VI
tN
-4# 10
cn
b) Test region
c) Loading arm
Figure 2.4 - Typical cross sections at a) R oller arm, b) T est region, and c)Loading arm
2#10
.b.
oo
2#10
2#15
2#10
#10@ 200 mm2 # 1 0 + 2#15
4 # 1 0 + 2#15
\# 1 0 @ 8 0 m m
is m
otN
^r
-2064 mm-4080 mm-
-924 mm-
-1092 mm-
-1951 mm-
2#20
2#20
2#20
Fig 2.5 - Typical longitudinal section o f the specimen and reinforcement
#10@80mm' %
IT)
(N
2#10
2#15
950mm
1700mm
750mm
L2
Test region
Loading arm
L3
Roller
L4
J
Figure 2.6 - Plan view for the test rig
Test region
Loading arm
Roller ann
L4
Pin connectior
Load cell
Hydraulic iack:
L1,L2
Base
900mm
1700mm
3236mm
49
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500 m m
rha
1 4
r't
>J
Pin c o n n e c tio n ^
Load cell
1_I
Pin connection^
Pin connection
150 m m
Hydraulic jack
Load cell-
pnO
flOOOOdODflOflQ
oaoGQodooaocm
nooaaoaaooaaaa
}
dqcoooo
40 m m
L oad cell
oooodo
cn
o
H ydraulic jack
joo ao
jooaoaodpoaaaoc)
iSaaoooocjoooooa
c o a d o a a ____
sssssssgiiiiii
Base
b T
lOOODODaODDQO
.P q o o o c S O D O Q O a
l -l
S5SSS L I
3DD0d
iggsl
ODOOC QQ OO O Q
Pin conncetion
0n
OO
OQrCD
OOOO
n no
Pin conncetion
1000 m m
500 m m
o\
oo
(N
OO
u raio o Z
ZE ;
r="=F
in
u ir a o /,1 7
51
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3236 m m
Figure 2.12 - Longitudinal section for the specim en show ing the layout o f the LVDT's
1700 m m
950 m m
t3
T3
CM
CN
oo
o
o
o
11
12
' V ... N ..... \
T est region
Loading arm
,\
\ .
1590 m m
'. ^
\ ^
\
\
R o ller arm
J
5
1730 m m
1230 m m
1090 m m
O
l
CO
A
D
15
(
(X
13 n e
X
16
14
Section a-a
E3
EJ
10
8
17 U El
18
Section b-b
y/\
i t1 5
2 &
3
Section c-c
Figure 2 . 1 4 - Cross sections showing the strain gauges used for the shear reinforcement
F20
F22
F27
F28
F29
F30
F25
F12
F10
F7
F9
F8
FI 1
F4
F6
F2
F5
FI
F3
F21
F22
F26
BeamT B1S2
Beam T B 1S 1
O
i
fc.
F21
F22
F23
F7
F17
F24
F17
Beam TB1S3
FI 8
F18
F19
F20
F19
Beam TB3S4
Figure 2.15 - Location o f the strain gauges used to measure the FRP strain
F21
F24
FI 9
F23
A nchor rod
300 m m
L100
300 m m
FRP sheet
FRP sheet
b) Schem e #2
a) Scheme #1
Ui
tz l
~Z Z 7
LI 00
300 mm
A nchor rod
@ 300 m m
L100
300 m m
A nchor rod
(a), 300 m m
VZ///^////Z/7Z)
FRP sheet
b) Scheme #3
FRP sheet
d) Schem e #4
Figure 2.16 - Proposed strengthening Schem es a) Scheme # l,b ) Schem e #2, c) Scheme #3, and d) Scheme#4.
A nchor rod
@ 300 m m
PI 100X100X10
@ 300 nun
CJ
bO
<u
10*>4
Si
<u
> (L>
oc3 CS
<L> PSi
m
03
56
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300
Calculated reaction force (k N )
TB1
TB2
TB3
-TB1S1
250
TB1S3
-B T 3 S 4
200
150
100
50
100
150
200
250
57
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300
25 20
15
w 10
Batch I
Batch II
200
400
600
1000
800
1200
1400
1600
700
600 -
Stress (MPa)
#20/1
#20/2
#20/3
# 10/1
# 10/2
--#15/1
--# 1 5 /2
100
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
58
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20000
800
700 -
Stress (MPa)
600 500 -
Supplier
100
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
Figure 2.22 - The test setup used for the tensile testing o f the FRP coupons.
59
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14000
Figure 2.23 - One o f the tested FRP coupons before and after failure.
60
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3.1 Introduction
The most recent joint report issued by the ASCE-ACI committee 445 (1998) outlined
investigating the torsion design as the next challenge for researchers. In structural
systems torsion is normally combined with shear and bending moments. Moreover, it is
common that RC girders would have a cross section o f a T-shape. Rahal and Collins
(1995a) studied rectangular RC girders subjected to combined shear and torsion. Tgirders are different from rectangular girders due to the presence o f the flange, which
adds more complexity to the effect o f the shear-torsion interaction on the behaviour o f the
girder. Most o f the shear force is carried by the web. On the other hand, the twisting
moment has to be distributed between the web and the flange, which varies based on the
dimensions and reinforcements o f the cross section.
In 1911, Bach (mentioned in Hsu 1984) suggested an approximate solution for the
analysis o f steel flanged sections including T sections subjected to torsion as shown in
Figure 3.1. The solution calculates the torsional constant o f the cross section (defined as
the ratio between the torque and the corresponding shear stress) as the summation o f the
torsional constant o f its individual rectangular components. Although the solution was
61
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intended for steel sections, the results o f several experimental studies have shown that
this assumption could be applicable for flanged RC beams with bulky cross section (Hsu
1984). This simplification was implemented in the ACI-318-71 (1971) which was the
first ACI design code that explicitly includes the torsion provisions for RC elements. The
design provisions were based on the skew bending theory. In an attempt to extend these
design provisions to include prestressed concrete, Zia and McGee (1974) proposed
torsion design provisions similar to that o f the ACI-318-71 (1971) but include the torsion
design o f prestressed concrete members. They concluded that the torsion design
provisions for T-beams are reasonably safe. However, they indicated that the margin o f
safety decreases as the cross section becomes stockier.
Another solution is the hollow tube analogy (Collins and Mitchell 1997). The
hollow tube analogy assumes that only a uniform thickness o f a hollow tube with the
same outer dimensions and shape o f the investigated cross section is effective in resisting
the torsion as shown in Figure 3.2.
In the available published research, no study was conducted to examine the Shear
and Torsion provisions for the case o f RC T-beams with both flange and web closed
stirrups. Hence, the code provisions were verified and examined using experimental data
from testing rectangular RC beams rather than RC T-beams. Applying these code
provisions for the design o f RC T-beams requires evaluation. In this chapter, the
behaviour o f the three T-girders TB1, TB2, and TB3 tested under torque to shear ratios of
0.5 m, 1.0 m and 0.1m, respectively is discussed to explore the influence o f torsion-shear
62
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interaction on the behaviour o f the girders. In addition, the shear and torsion design
provisions o f the North American design codes o f RC T-beams are examined. The
behaviour o f the beams in terms o f the ultimate strength, the angle o f inclination o f the
cracks, and the failure mode was calculated according to the codes. The calculations and
the experimental results are compared in order to evaluate the current shear and torsion
design provisions. The ACI-318 (2005) will be referred to as ACI. The PCI (2005) will
be referred to as PCI. The CSA (2005) will be referred to as CSA. AASHTO (2003) will
be referred to as AASHTO. The CSA (2000) will be referred to as CSA bridges.
For Girder TB1, the first concrete crack was observed at the bottom o f the south
side o f the web as shown in Figure 3.3. The diagonal concrete cracks formed in the flange
63
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were significant. The direction o f the crack propagation was similar with insignificant
variation. Significant concrete cover spalling from middle o f the flange was observed.
Close to failure, longitudinal cracks were formed in the web north side close to Point B
which extended to the middle o f the test region. New cracks formed in the longitudinal
direction rather than diagonal direction is due to the compression from the bending
moment. However, the north side is not the critical side as the torsion and shear stresses
are in opposite directions. On average, the major cracks formed an angle o f inclination
51 with the longitudinal axis o f the girder.
For Girder TB2 (as shown in Figure 3.4), the cracks propagated in a helical form
around the girder. The cracks were similar to that o f Girder TB1. Concrete cover spalling
from both the flange and web was observed. In the south side where the torsion and shear
stresses are added together, the direction o f the cracks became steeper towards point B. In
the north side where the torsion and shear stresses are in opposite directions, the direction
o f the cracks close to failure was parallel to the longitudinal direction o f the girder.
Significant concrete cover spalling was observed from both the flange and the web. On
average, the major cracks formed at an angle o f inclination o f 55 with the longitudinal
axis of the girder.
For Girder TB3 (as shown in Figure 3.5), significant diagonal cracks were
observed in both the north and south sides o f the cross section. Cracks were more
significant in the web when compared with the cracks in the flanges. The spacing
between the cracks was relatively small when compared to Girders TB1 and TB2. The
64
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angle o f inclination o f the cracks varied along the test region. For the north side, the
cracks were flatter towards Point B and steeper towards Point C o f the test region. On
average, the major cracks formed angle o f inclination 30 with the longitudinal axis o f
the girder.
65
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reinforcement at the counter flexure section (i.e. cross section subjected to zero moment)
which is a result from the applied torsion. The measured strain values were insignificant
before concrete cracking. After concrete cracking, the strain in the longitudinal steel
reinforcement starts increasing which shows that the steel bars became effective after the
concrete cracks. The failure total loads decreased with the increase in the torque to shear
ratio. At the same applied total load, the strain developed in the longitudinal steel
reinforcement increased with the increase in the torque to shear ratio. This is consistent
with the understanding that the average strain in the longitudinal steel bars increases with
the increase in torsion. The slope o f the total load-longitudinal steel strain o f the girder
which represents the total load/strain stiffness, increased with the decrease in the torque
to shear ratio.
66
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
68
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ratio. The results confirm the assumption that pure torsion develops equal tension strain
at both the top and bottom bars.
Figure 3.16 shows the variation o f the strain in transverse steel at the middle o f the
web north and south sides o f the cross section with the total load for the tested girders.
The south side is the side where the torsion and shear are in the same direction and the
north side is the side where the torsion and shear are in opposite directions. The strain
was measured at the middle o f the section where the maximum stresses are expected. The
figure shows that the difference between the north and south sides increases with the
decrease in the torque to shear ratio.
Figure 3.17 shows the variation o f the strain in the top and bottom o f the flange
stirrups at the middle section with the total load. For Girders T B l, the bottom strain
gauge was installed at the middle o f the stirrup. On the other hand, the bottom strain
gauge was installed on the north side o f the overlapping zone o f the stirrups. Girder TBl
(under low torque to shear ratio) strain is significantly lower than that o f TB3 (under high
69
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torque to shear ratio) which agrees well with the assumption that the flange stirrup carries
mostly forces due to torsion.
The ACI provisions require that the shear and torsion are analyzed separately. The steel
reinforcement required to resist torsion is added to that required to resisting shear and
moment. For shear design, the shear resistance (Vr) is given by:
Vs
(3-D
where Vc and Vs are the concrete and the steel reinforcement contribution to the shear
capacity respectively, and Vr should not exceed
(3.2)
where bw is the width o f the web, d is the effective depth o f the cross section, and Vc is
the concrete contribution determined as:
(3.3)
70
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Vs = f d ^
s
(3-4)
where Av is the area o f stirrups resisting shear, s is the spacing between stirrups, and fy is
the yield stress o f the stirrups. The torsion equations are based on the variable angle truss,
where the angle 0 can be taken between 30 and 60 (recommended as 45 for reinforced
concrete members). The torsion resistance (Tr) is computed as the smallest of:
Tt = o2 Ay f -^-co t 0
or
Ti = 2 Ao fy^ pt a n t f
(3.5)
where A0 is the area enclosed by the torsion shear flow and may be taken as 0.85 A0h
where A0h is the area enclosed inside the hoops, At is area o f steel reinforcement resisting
torsion and A| is the longitudinal steel reinforcement resisting torsion, Ph is the perimeter
o f the hoops. The concrete crushing can be prevented by applying the shear and torsion
interaction condition
V.
vM .
/
+
TrPh
(3.6)
71
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use the same set o f design equations. The main difference is in the way p and 0 are being
calculated. The shear resistance (Vr) shall be determined as:
Vr = V , + V ,
(3.7)
where Vc and Vs are the concrete and the steel reinforcement contribution to the shear
capacity respectively, and Vr should not exceed
Vr = 0.25fcb wd v
(3-8)
dv is largest value o f (0.9 d) or (0.72 h). The concrete contribution (Vc) is given by the
formula:
Vc = / i / f > d ,
(3'9)
where p can be taken 0.18 according to the simplified model if the stirrups are provided.
In the case o f general method, p is calculated using the following expression:
0.40
1300
P = -----------------------------1 + 1500*, (1000 + S )
(3.10)
K
J
where gx is the longitudinal strain in the steel reinforcement and Sze is equivalent crack
spacing parameter given by:
35S
Sze = TZ ~ - 0-85Sz
15 + a
(3 .H )
72
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where the crack spacing Sz shall be taken as dv. The transverse steel reinforcement shall
be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis o f the beam and the value o f Vs shall be
computed by:
V =
A vf yd v cot(g)
(3.12)
where 0 is taken 35 according to the simplified method. In the case o f the general
method 0 is given by:
tf = 29 + 7000sx
(3.13)
T =
2A 0A ,fycot6>
(3.!4)
where A0 is the area enclosed by the torsion shear flow, which may be taken 0.85 A0i,.
The concrete crushing should be checked such that:
V.
vM y
I/ TT) \
TrPh
Ao
2h
VA
< 0.25f
(3-15)
73
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A f d cot#
V = 0 .46f b d + Y y V
n
cr v v
e
(3-16)
cr
= 0 .4 J f b d
Vc v v
(3.17)
for normal density concrete, dv is the distance measured perpendicular to the neutral axis
between the resultants o f the compressive and tensile forces due to flexure but not less
than (0.9 d) where d is the effective depth o f the cross section, 0 is the angle o f
inclination o f the concrete struts and can be taken 45, s is the spacing between the
transversal stirrups and bv is the effective web width within the depth dv. For the general
method (G), the nominal shear strength (V) is calculated by:
A f d cot#
V = 2.5y#b d f + V Y -V
n
' v v cr
s
(3 1 8 )
74
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where p and 0 are obtained from Table 8.9.3.4.1(a) in the CSA bridges. Using the table
requires that the value o f the ratio between the nominal shear stress (v) and fc' as well as
the longitudinal steel strain ex is known which can be calculated using the expression:
\2
n
b d
Tn*n
Pn
A
V v vy
(3.19)
oh
The longitudinal strain in the steel reinforcement ex can be written in the form:
0.5cot<9,
s
=-
M,
0.9T p,
n*n
V 2 +
A^
o
(3.20)
< 0.002
E A
s s
where Mf is bending moment corresponding to the shear. For both the simplified method
(S) and the general method (G), the torsion resistance (Tn) is computed by:
T =
n
where
2A A T co t9
o t y
A 0
(3.21)
is the area enclosed by the torsion shear flow, which may be taken 0.85
A 0 h-
F or both the general and sim plified m ethod, the diagonal concrete crushing is prevented
by limiting the ratio between the nominal shear stress (u) and the compressive strength
(fc') to a value o f 0.23.
75
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For the AASHTO, the shear and torsion provisions allow for the use o f two alternative
methods namely; simplified (S) and general method (G). Both methods use the same set
o f design equation with the only difference is in the way the (3 and 0 are calculated. The
shear resistance (Vn) shall be determined as:
A f d cot#
v y v
(3.22)
where fc' is the concrete compressive strength, dv is the distance measured perpendicular
to the neutral axis between the resultants o f the compressive and tensile forces due to
flexure but not less than (0.9 d) where d is the effective depth o f the cross section, s is the
spacing between the stirrups and bv is the effective web width within the depth dv. 0 is a
factor depends on the ability o f diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension forces
which can be taken 2.0 for the simplified method (S) or obtained from a table provided
by the AASHTO. The angle 0 can be taken 45 for the simplified method (S) or can be
obtained from the table provided by the specifications similar to J3 as explained before for
the general method (G). Using the table requires that the value o f the ratio between the
shear stress (v) and fc' as well as the longitudinal steel strain ex to be known. The shear
stress (v) can be calculated as:
76
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v=
n
b d
V v M)
Vh
( 3 .23 )
A 2,
oh
0.9T p
nh
2A
M
v
(2E A )
s s
(3.24)
< 0.001
where Mf is bending moment corresponding to the shear Vn, As is the longitudinal tension
steel, and Es is the steel youngs modulus. The torsion resistance (Tn) is given by:
T =
n
2A A f co t^
o t y
(3.25)
where A0 is the area enclosed by the torsion shear flow, which may be taken 0.85 A0h.
The concrete crushing is prevented by limiting the ratio between the nominal shear stress
(v) and the compressive strength (fc') to a value o f 0.23.
77
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V
A f d
"
-H
<V
V =max
n
( '
\
V T
c n
1+
TV
v c ny
(3 .2 6 )
where Av is the area o f stirrups resisting shear, s is the spacing between stirrups, and fy is
the yield stress o f the stirrups. T and Vn are the nominal torsional and shear resistance,
respectively, Vc is the concrete contribution to the shear resistance under pure shear
which can be written as:
vc =
b d
w
6
(3.27)
where bw is the width o f the web, d is the effective depth o f the cross section, and Tc' is
the torsional moment strength provided by the concrete under pure torsion given as:
Z x 2y
T =
c
(3.28)
15
where x and y are the dimensions o f the smallest and largest sides o f the rectangular
components o f the cross section, respectively. The torsion resistance (Tn) is given by:
78
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tx l y lA t fy
T =
n
'
\2
T V
:+ L_LJ_<T
max
(3.29)
c n
1+
T V'
V n
cy
where xi and yi are the small and large dimensions o f the rectangular stirrups,
respectively and a t is a factor based on the aspect ratio o f the rectangular components and
calculated as:
(3.30)
The concrete crushing can be prevented by limiting the torsion to a maximum value
(Tmax) calculated as follows:
Ktf c Zx2y
max
(3.31)
36, 1 +
30C T
t uy
2.54b, d
C =
* JV y
(3.32)
79
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V
max
2.5.Jfb d
y ew
f
rx ,
\2
(3 .3 3 )
80
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T-beams subjected to combined shear and torsion, both methods will be used to estimate
the strength. The load and deformation measurements for the tested T-girders are
summarized in Table 3.1. The ratios between the measured and calculated torsion and
shear capacities for the tested T-beams are summarized in Table 3.2. The strength was
calculated by taking the material and safety factors equal to unity. The PCI 2005 strength
predictions were more consistent with the experimental results when compared with the
other design provisions.
Using the provisions o f the ACI, the measured shear and torsion capacities with
respect to the calculated ones range between 0.81 and 1.43. Taking angle 0 = 45
provided a better estimate for the strength o f beam TB3 when compared to taking angle 0
= 30. For beams TB1 and TB2 the strength was limited by the maximum torsion limit.
Using the simplified and general methods o f CSA, the measured torsion and shear
capacities with respect to the calculated ones range between 0.73 and 0.89. The
simplified method provided a better estimate for the strength o f Beam TB3 when
compared to the general method estimates. The strength o f Beam TB2 was limited by the
maximum torsion limit. Using PCI method, the measured torsion and shear capacities
with respect to the calculated ones range between 0.96 and 1.18. For Beams TB1 and
TB2, strength was limited by the yielding o f the steel rather than the maximum torsion
limit. The CSA general method estimated the strength with an error up to 27% on the un
conservative side. The ACI estimated the strength with an error up to 43% on the
conservative side. The PCI method estimated the error up to 18%. The strength predicted
81
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using the PCI method was closer to the experimental results when compared to the ACI
and the CSA.
82
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failure mode. The PCI design proposal predicts the failure mode better than both the ACI
and CSA. The major difference between the different design codes is the upper limit set
for the torsion and shear to prevent premature concrete diagonal crushing failure. In the
ACI, the maximum torsion and shear formula is empirical and intended to limit the
cracks in the case o f beams subjected to shear and was implemented in the ACI-319-89
design code (MacGregor and Ghoniem 1995). In the CSA, the maximum limit was
derived to prevent premature concrete crushing.
83
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3.17 Conclusions
A series o f tests were conducted to investigate the behaviour o f reinforced concrete Tgirders subjected to different torsion to shear ratios with small unavoidable bending
moment. Based on the results o f the experimental investigation and the assessment o f the
code formulas, the following conclusions were reached:
1.
The behaviour o f the T-girders was affected by the values o f the torque to shear
ratio. The increase in the torque to shear ratio decreased the total load resistance with
respect to the vertical displacement, the total load resistance with respect to the strain in
the longitudinal steel reinforcement, and the torsional stiffness.
2.
decreased total load resistance and increased vertical displacements, the steel strain and
the angle o f twist.
3.
The decrease in the torque to shear ratio increased the cracking total load which
The strength predictions o f the T-beams using the provisions o f the current design codes
were compared to the experimental results. Based on the results o f the experimental
investigation and the assessment o f the code formulas, the following conclusions were
reached:
l . Using ACI and CSA design provisions as well as the PCI methodology was
accurate for the strength at low torque to shear ratios.
84
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2. Using the ACI provided conservative estimates for the strength, however failed to
accurately predict the failure mode, especially in cases where the maximum
torsion limit governed the design.
3. Using the ACI and CSA provided conservative design values for the cracking
torsion strength. However, they overestimated the shear contribution strength at
high torque to shear ratios.
4. Using the CSA accurately predicted the failure mode o f the tested beam.
However, it overestimated the strength by up to 26%.
5. It is recommended to use the PCI methodology for the design o f RC T-beams, as
it provided more accurate estimates for the strength and the failure mode for the
described three tests when compared with the ACI and CSA at high torque to
shear ratios.
6. Although the conclusions o f this research were arrived at on the basis o f a limited
number o f experiments on the same T-section using three different torque to shear
ratios, the information is valuable for the design o f T-beams subjected to
combined shear and torsion. The three-Point check o f the code provisions may be
expanded with the availability o f more experimental data.
7. Comparison between the measured strength and the strength calculated using the
different design codes have shown that for the case o f RC T-beams, the strength
and failure mode predictions using the PCI design shear and torsion provisions are
closer and more consistent with the experimental results when compared with
those calculated by using the AASHTO and the CSA bridges.
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T/V
Cracking
torque
Twist at
cracking
Cracking
Shear
Ultimate
torsion
Twist at
ultimate
Ultimate
Shear
kN.m
deg/m
kN
kN.m
deg/m
kN
Beam
TB1
0.5
8.5
0.25
17
23
2.82
46
TB2
1.07
11
0.33
11
22.7
3.16
21.4
TB3
0.1
0.13
42
10.8
0.5
105
86
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A<Cl
CSA bridges
CSA
PCI
AASHTO
TB1
0.50
1.43
1.43
0.86
0.89
1.18
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
TB2
1.07
1.41
1.41
0.80
0.80
1.17
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.42
TB3
0.10
0.81
0.97
0.84
0.73
0.96
1.01
0.84
1.15
0.81
Mean
1.22
1.27
0.83
0.81
1.10
1.23
1.17
1.27
1.16
Standard
deviation
0.35
0.26
0.03
0.080
0.11
0.17
0.26
0.11
0.27
Simplified
General
Simplified
General
Simplified
General
Table 3.3 - Comparison between the observed and predicted failure mode for the tested T-girders
Beam
Observed
TB1
Stirrup yield
before failure
TB2
Stirrup yield
before failure
TB3
Stirrup yield
before failure
ACI
Excessive
concrete
cracks
Excessive
concrete
cracks
Stirrup yield
before failure
CSA
PCI
Stirrup yield
before failure
Stirrup yield
before failure
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Stirrup yield
before failure
Stirrup yield
before failure
Stirrup yield
before failure
CSA bridges
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Stirrup yield
before failure
AASHTO
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Stirrup
yield before
failure
45
T/V
Beam
o
O
Beam
CSA
bridges
CSA
Experimental
AASHTO
PCI
45
30
TB1
51
45
30
35
42
45
45
38.5
45
34.3
TB2
55
45
30
35
42
45
45
38.5
45
34.3
TB3
30
45
30
35
42
45
45
33.5
45
32.8
Table 3.5 - Comparison between the observed and predicted cracking torque and cracking shear.
ACI
Beam
PCI
CSA
Cracking
Cracking
Cracking
Cracking
Cracking
Cracking
torque
shear
torque
shear
torque
shear
TB1
1.95
1.01
1.71
0.96
1.38
1.45
TB2
3.86
0.38
3.38
0.36
1.93
1.93
TB3
5.37
0.27
4.70
0.25
2.63
2.64
ACI
Table 3.4 - Comparison between the observed and predicted angle o f inclination of the diagonal cracks
for the tested T-girders.
effective
area
under
uniform
shear flow
89
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First crack
d)
Fig. 3.3 - Crack pattern for girder TB1 (T/V = 0.5 m) a) south side, b) north side,
c) bottom view and d) top view
90
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Figure 3.4 - Crack pattern for girder TB2 (T/V =1.0 m) a) south side, b) north side, c)
bottom view and d) top view
91
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*?R?w
d)
Figure 3.5 - Crack pattern for girder TB3 (T/V = 0.1 m) a) south side, b) north side, c)
bottom view and d) top view
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
400
350
TB1
300
TB2
250
- - TB3
S 200
150
100
50
0
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
Vertical displacement at point C (mm)
Figure 3.6 - Load versus vertical displacement for TB1, TB2, and TB3.
7.00
400
350
TB1
300
TB2
250
- - TB3
1 200
100
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
93
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1.80
25
Torque, T (kN. m)
20
TB1
15
TB2
10
- - TB3
0.00
0.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
100
Shear force, Q2 (kN)
TB2
- - TB3
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
94
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3.00
120
100
TB1
TB2
- TB3
0.00
0.40
0.20
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
Strain (mm/m)
Figure 3.10 - Moment behaviour at the east side for TB1, TB2, and TB3
120
100
Bending moment, M2 (kN. m)
TB1
TB2
TB3
0.00
0.20
0.60
0.40
0.80
1.00
Strain (mm/m)
Figure 3.11 - Moment behaviour at the west side for TB1, TB2, and TB3
95
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1.20
400
350
TB1
300
|
TB2
250
- - TB3
200
150
100
10
12
14
400
350
TB1
300
- TB2
^ 250
c3
- 200
o
H 150
- - TB3
100
-2.00
-1.80
-1.60
-1.40
-1.20
-1.00
-0.80
-0.60
-0.40
96
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-0.20
0.00
400
TBl-top
TB l-bot
300
TB2-top
TB2-bot
25
- TB3-top
TB3-bot
200
350
150
100
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.80
0.60
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
TBl-web
TB1-flange
300
- - TB2-web
TB2-flange
3 250
- TB3-web
TB3-flange
o 200
H 150
100
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
97
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2.50
400
TB1-south
TB1 -north
300
TB2-south
- - TB2-north
250
- TB3-south
TB3-north
350
200
150
100 - t
50
0
0.00
0.50
1.00
2.00
1.50
2.50
350
TBl-top
TB l-bot
TB2-top
TB2-bot
- TB3-top
TB3-bot
300
250
200 - r
o
H
1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
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3.00
<N
(N
00
~o
u
O
<N
-o
00
T5
250
Torque (kN.m)
O
<N
( m ) JBaqs
99
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T3
4.1 Introduction
Four T-girders; T B l, T B IS I, TB1S2, and TB1S3 were tested under torsion to shear ratio
of 0.5 m. Two T-girders; TB3 and TB3S4 were tested under torsion to shear ratio o f O.l
m. TBl and TB2 were un-strengthened control T-girders. TBl SI, TB1S2, TB l S3, and
TB3S4 were strengthened T-girders. In this chapter, the experimentally observed
behaviour of the T-girders will be compared to evaluate the effectiveness o f the proposed
rehabilitation techniques.
100
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flange. The second sheet was placed on the top o f the flange and was extended to the
bottom o f the flange where an overlap o f 100 mm was provided with the first sheet. To
provide adequate continuity between the two FRP sheets, a threaded rod was used to
anchor the sheets at the middle o f the 100 mm overlap. For T-girder TB3S4, two layers o f
the FRP sheets were applied to the web and one layer was applied to the flange. The
technique was implemented using three FRP sheets; a) a CFRP Extended U-jacket, was
bonded to the web and extended to the bottom o f the flange; b) a flange jacket, was
bonded to the top o f the flange and extended to the bottom o f the flange; and c) a CFRP
extended U-jacket, was bonded to the web and extended to the bottom o f the flange
similar to the first sheet. In order to achieve a continuous flow o f the forces between the
EB-FRP pieces, an overlap o f approximately 100 mm was provided at the bottom o f the
flange and a steel threaded rod was used as anchor. An additional steel angle was used to
prevent FRP local de-bonding at the re-entrant corner o f the flange and the web o f the
girder. In all the strengthened T-girders, the steel anchors were placed at an average
spacing o f 350 mm along the test zone.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ratio between the torque and shear. These two figures show that the test setup was
successful in applying and controlling the desired load.
102
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strengthening systems as was observed from the change in the slope o f the torque angle
o f twist plots. Using the FRP U-jacket (TB1S1), the ultimate torsion increased 48% more
than the control girder T B l. The ability to sustain inelastic deformations for girder
TB1S1 increased by approximately 11% more than the control girder T B l. Using the
FRP extended U-jacket (TB1S2), the ultimate torsion increased 65% more than the
control girder T B l. The ability to sustain inelastic deformations for girder TB1S2
increased by approximately 54% more than girder T B l. Using the FRP full wrapping
(T B lS3), the ultimate torsion increased 74% more than the control girder T B l. The
ability to sustain inelastic deformations for girder TB l S3 increased by approximately
120% more than girder T B l. Figure 4.7 shows the relationship between the torque and
the angle o f twist for the girders under T/V ratio o f 0.1 m. Using the FRP full wrapping
(TB3S4), the ultimate torsion increased 64% more than the control girder T B l. The
CFRP strengthening confined the concrete which improved the concrete strength,
prevented the shear cracks from widening, delayed the failure and finally resulted in a
significant increase in the ultimate deformation.
103
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jacket (TB1S2), the ultimate shear capacity increased 85% more than the control girder
TB l. Using the FRP full wrapping (T B lS3), the ultimate shear capacity increased 87%
more than the control girder T B l. For girders with T/V ratio o f 0.1 m, Figure 4.9 shows
the shear behaviour o f the girder before and after strengthening. Using the FRP full
wrapping (TB3S4), the ultimate shear capacity increased 63% more than the control
girder TB3. The ultimate shear capacity, stiffness, and ductility o f the strengthened
girders showed significant improvement as compared to the control girder.
4.7 FRPstrain
Figure 4.10 shows the FRP strain measured at different locations along the south side of
the test zone for girder TB1S2. Figure 4.11 shows the FRP strain measured at different
locations along the north side o f the test zone for girder TB1S2. The strain does not vary
along the longitudinal axis of the girder until cracking occurs. Both the FRP and the
transverse steel contributed to the increase in the deformation achieved due to the
strengthening. It was found that the FRP strain is significantly higher than the strain in
the transverse steel. This can be attributed to the fact that the FRP is applied to the outer
perimeter o f the cross section further away from the shear centre o f the section. Since
FRP is a linear material, the increase in the strain will increase the force resisted by the
FRP and therefore provides higher contribution to the torsion resistance.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
105
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
compared to that o f the U-jacket technique. The use o f the extended U-jacket where the
FRP sheets was extended to the flange help arrest the flange cracks resulting in enhancing
the post-ultimate behaviour and therefore, delaying the failure. In addition the extension
resulted in increasing the enclosed area inside the expected critical shear flow path which
resulted in enhancing the torsion capacity.
4.10 Conclusions
An experimental program was conducted to investigate the behaviour o f reinforced
concrete T-girders strengthened using externally bonded CFRP when subjected to
combined shear and torsion. Based on the presented experimental measurements, the
following conclusions were reached:
Various strengthening schemes using externally bonded carbon fibre composites were
found to enhance the behaviour o f reinforced concrete T-girders subjected to
combined shear and torsion. The shear and torsion carrying capacities were increased.
The stiffness o f the girders after cracking was increased as compared to that o f the
control girder.
Although the U-jacket is easy to apply and fits various applications, it was found to
be the least effective relative to the other two schemes. The full wrapping was found
to be the most effective procedure. However, it is not likely to be applied successfully
in all practical cases due to the lack o f access to all sides o f the girder for wrapping.
Although the extended U-jacket was less effective than the full wrapping, the
106
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enhancement o f the behaviour o f the girder was significant enough to warrant its
application in most practical situations.
107
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Beam
% increase
(kN)
TB1S1
92
54%
TB1S2
109
67%
TB l S3
137
84%
TB3S4
212
63%
108
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3 )
Angle 125x50x10
teel rods
0 15 mm
Steel rods
0 15 mm
CFRP U-jacket
A ngle 125x50x10
Steel rods
0 15 mm
Angle 125x50x10
Steel rods
0 15 mm
U-Jacket
Extended U-Jacket
Full Wrapping
CD
I
(s
i)
a a ]
L
TB1S1
TB1S2
TB l S3
TB3S4
45
40
Torque
(kN. m)
35
30
25
20
TBl
15
TB1S2
- T B lS I
- - TB1S3
10
5
0
0
50
100
Shear force ( k N )
200
150
Figure 4.2 - Applied torque versus shear for girders under T/V = 0.5 m
20
18
t
16
Torque
(kN. m)
14
j~
12
10
X
8
6
TB3S4
TB3
4
2
0
0
50
100
Shear force (kN )
150
Figure 4.3 - Applied torque versus shear for girders under T/V = 0.1 m
110
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
200
350
300
Load (kN)
250
200
150
- A , '- -
TBl
- - TB1S1
100
TB1S2
50
0.00
5.00
10.00
- - TBl S3
15.00
20.00
Load (kN)
400
200
- - TB3S4
TB3
100
0
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
111
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
18.00
45
40
Torque (kN. m)
35
30
25
20
TBl
15
10
TB1S1
TB1S2
T B 1S3
5
0
0.00
2.00
1.00
3.00
4.00
6.00
5.00
7.00
20
18
16
(kN. m)
12
Torque
14
10
TB3
- - TB3S4
4
2
0
0.00
2.00
6.00
4.00
8.00
112
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10.00
TBl
- - TB1S1
TB1S2
0.00
1.00
0.50
1.50
2.00
- TB1S3
2.50
3.00
3.50
200
180
160
140
A 120
100
TB3
- - TB3S4
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
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3.50
2.00
1.00
0.00
'a
1:
200
100
E -l.oo
300
250
F5
2.00
F 4
F2
F 6
F 5
F I
F 3
-3.00
-4.00
Total applied Load (kN)
Figure 4.10 - FRP strain for the south side o f girder TB1S2
3.00
!F10
2.00
1.00
F12
E o.oo
Ch
100
-
1.00
2.00
F I 2
F 10
F 7
150
F 9
F 8
300
F 11
-3.00
Total applied load (kN)
Figure 4.11 - FRP strain for the north side o f girder TB1S2
114
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First crack
Figure 4.12 - Failure mode for Girder TB l SI
115
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116
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
5,1 introduction
In most structural problems, strengthening using FRP could be the most effective
solution. FRP strengthening o f RC members subjected to torsion is a special, complex
and fairly recent area of research that involves the influence o f several parameters and
unique failure modes. Torsion strengthening can take several configurations as shown in
figure l .9. There are no analytical models for representing the full torsional behaviour o f
117
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118
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Traditionally, the analysis o f RC beams under torsion is based on the thin tube, space
truss analogy (Collins and Mitchell 1997). Moreover, only the concrete area enclosed by
the stirrups is considered in the strength calculations. The concrete cover is neglected as
it is assumed to be unconfined and spalls before ultimate limit state are reached which
was confirmed by experimental evidence in the early 70s by Arbesman (1975). An
analytical model is developed on the basis o f the properties o f an equivalent thin hollow
tube and is required to satisfy equilibrium between stresses, and compatibility between
strains. The beam cross section is divided into four segments as done by Rahal and
Collins (1995b); each segment represents one side o f the beam and is subjected to in
plane loading as shown in Figure 5.5. Each segment has the same shear flow but different
effective thickness. For each segment, Mohr circle for the strain or the stress is used to
evaluate the relations between the average strains or the average stresses and the
constitutive models for the concrete, steel and FRP are established. In addition, Mohr
circle for the curvatures and the rate o f the angle o f twist is applied at the connection
between the segments.
5.3.1
Model description
119
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3. The effective thickness o f each segment will be different based on the loading
conditions and the FRP bonded to the face.
The variation in the effective thickness o f the FRP bonded and un-bonded segments is a
result o f the following:
The FRP prevents the spalling o f the concrete cover. Hence, the concrete cover
can be considered effective in resisting torsion. On the other hand, the cross
section side without FRP will be subjected to concrete spalling.
The FRP bonded to the surface arrests the tension cracks which will decrease the
concrete softening and confine the concrete thus increasing the ultimate
compressive strain o f the concrete. Hence, increase the ability o f the beam to
undergo large deformation.
The FRP will provide additional tension reinforcement to the concrete increasing
its ability to resist diagonal tension resulting from the applied torsion.
By applying the hollow tube analogy (Collins and Mitchell 1997), the behaviour o f
the whole cross section is dominated by uniform shear stresses and the core o f the section
contribution to the torsion resistance is neglected. Each thin strip at the side (segment) o f
the cross section is subjected to uniform shear flow (q) acting in the plane o f the cross
section which can be calculated as follows:
120
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Where T is the torque resisted by the cross section and A0 is the area enclosed by the
perimeter o f the shear flow tube. Each segment will be subjected to uniform in-plane
shear flow. In the longitudinal direction o f the beam, the segments will resist the shear
flow by forming a truss mechanism consisting o f a concrete diagonal strut to resist the
diagonal compression. While the FRP and the transverse reinforcements resist the
diagonal tension. The longitudinal steel reinforcements act as top and bottom chords o f
the truss resisting the axial forces in the beam. The uniform in-plane shear stress
(x j)
r ,= A
t;
(5.2)
5.3.2
According to the MCFT, Mohr circle can be constructed for the average concrete strain
for each o f the segments as shown in Figure 5.6. Relationships between the average
strains can be established as follows:
2(s2 + e x)
(5.3)
tan(0)
where J is the shear strain, s2 is the average principal compression strain, ex is the
average longitudinal strain, and 0 is the inclination angle of the principal strains.
121
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(5 .4 )
Y
2 tan(0)
(5.5)
2tan(0 + pf - 9 0 )
where 8ft is the average FRP strain in the direction o f the fibres and Pf is angle o f
inclination o f the direction o f the fibres to the longitudinal axis o f the beam.
(5.6)
6, - S2 + x + y
5.3.3
According to the MCFT, M ohrs circle can be constructed for the average concrete stress
as shown in Figure 5.7. Relationships between the average stresses could be established
as follows.
(5.7)
= c j2 - a y - c r
02
stresses, a y is the average transverse stresses and Gi is the principal average tension
122
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stresses. The direction o f the principal stresses is defined by the angle 0, which can be
calculated such that:
(5.8)
tan2 (0) = ()
(5.9)
(5.10)
where Ph and Pf are the ratios o f the transverse steel and the FRP reinforcement per unit
length o f the span to the gross area o f the concrete cross section, respectively, pf is the
angle o f inclination o f the fibres to the longitudinal axis o f the segment, ost is the steel
reinforcement stress and oa is the tension stress in the direction o f the fibres.
The angle o f twist will cause each segment to warp and consequently the concrete
struts will be subjected to bending. This bending will cause curvature for each segment
(cp) which can be related to the twist rate (\p) in the form:
123
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(5.11)
(p = vj/sin20
After solving each segment independently, the model accounts for the compatibility at
the comers. By applying Mohr circle for the curvatures o f the elements, the following
equation was derived by Onsongo (1978):
(5.12)
where cpdis the curvature in the direction o f angle 0, (pLis the longitudinal curvature and
rp( is the transversal curvature.
(5.13)
where g2Sis the maximum compression principal strain at the surface o f the concrete.
124
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5.3.4
Assuming that the cross section will act as a thin tube with an effective thickness (t), the
principle o f virtual work can be applied such that the external work done by the applied
Torsion (T) is equal to the internal work done by the shear stress (x), the following
relation can be derived:
(5.14)
v
Where the shear stress is assumed uniform along the perimeter and the thickness t which
can be evaluated as follows:
t =
(5.15)
Substituting Equation 5.15 into Equation 5.14 and assuming unit length element, the
volume integration can be replaced by integration along the perimeter, then:
Simplifying the equation by dividing both sides by T and cancelling t from the
denominator and nominator o f the right side o f the equation, the angle o f twist per unit
length (\|/) can be written as:
125
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Jyds
(5.17)
vi/
----2A0
Assuming that the thickness o f each wall segment is constant along its length, hence the
twist per unit length (y) can be calculated such that:
(5.18)
=
----2A 0
where y, is the shear strain o f each segment and 1, is the in-plane depth o f each segment
and A0 is the area enclosed inside the centerline o f the hollow tube analogy, which can be
calculated from the geometry o f the cross section, A0 can be calculated in the form:
. - a . - S iA
<5-19)
i=]
where f is the thickness o f each segment and Ac is the area o f the gross concrete cross
section. The perimeter o f the centre line o f the equivalent thin tube (P0) can be calculated
using:
p O = r C - / ..
(5'20)
i-i
126
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The beam cross section is subdivided into small mesh elements as shown in Figure 5.9,
hence, the three equilibrium equations can be applied such that:
(5.21)
where Nvk is the shear contribution from each segment, o 'Ci is the concrete stress at the
centroid o f the mesh element (i), AACj is the area o f the mesh element (i), n is the number
o f concrete mesh elements, a 'Sj is the stress in the steel longitudinal reinforcement for
each bar (j), As is the area o f each bar (j), and m is the number o f steel bars.
Taking moments of the forces about x-axis through the elastic centroid o f the
cross section gives:
(5.22)
where yCj is distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete mesh
element (i), ySj is the distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each
longitudinal steel bar (j), n is the number o f concrete mesh elements, and ySk is the
distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each segment.
127
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Taking moments o f the forces about y-axis through the elastic centroid o f the
section gives:
(5.23)
i=l
j=l
k=l
where xci is distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete mesh
element (i), xsj is the distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each
longitudinal steel bar (j), and n is the number o f concrete mesh elements, and xSk is the
distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each segment.
5.5.1
Concrete models
The concrete model is simply the relationship between the stress and strain for the
concrete. The uni-axial compression stress-strain relationship for concrete can be
established by conducting a standard compression test for a concrete cylinder. However,
the standard compression test does not capture the effect of diagonal cracking (softening)
128
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
or confinement due to FRP jackets or steel ties. Thus, several concrete models were
proposed in the past to capture both softening and confinement.
i f ^ < l
P2c
if - ^ - > 1
Me
129
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(5.24)
(5.25)
(5 .2 6 )
(5.27)
where pi is the softening coefficient o f the concrete stress, P2 is the strain softening
coefficient, s 2 is the principal concrete strain, and e c .is the concrete strain at the peak
stress.
(5.28)
where ai is the tensile strength o f the concrete,
81
and Ec is the Youngs modulus o f the concrete. After concrete cracking, experimental
investigations have shown that even after extensive cracking concrete can sustain tensile
stresses which provide concrete shear strength. A model suggested by Collins and
Mitchell (1997) will be adopted:
(5.29)
130
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As shown in figure 5.12, this model gives higher values for the tension strength after
cracking which goes with merit o f the FRP bonded concrete where the FRP arrests the
cracks and increases the tension stiffening.
5.5.2
Steel reinforcement
The steel is assumed to be elastic up to yield and perfectly plastic after yield such that:
(5.30)
5.5.3
Experimental results o f FRP coupons have shown that FRP stress-strain relationship is
elastic up to failure such that:
(5.31)
Where or is the stress in the direction o f the FRP fibres, Ef is youngs modulus o f the FRP
sheets provided by the supplier, f is the strain in the FRP fibres, and fmax is the maximum
tensile strength o f the FRP provided by the supplier. Limiting the FRP strength to 50% of
the maximum stress provided by the supplier is an assumption based on the results o f the
FRP coupons testing.
Assuming that the behaviour FRP is elastic up to failure, the constitutive model
would be a straight line bounded by the effective FRP strain level. The effective strain
131
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level o f the FRP depends on several parameters such as the dominating failure mode o f
the beam, FRP properties, beam dimensions, concrete properties, and strengthening
scheme configuration. The following relationship was used to limit the FRP strain:
Efl< Ef
(532)
The set o f equations (Equations 5.1 to 5.10, Equations 5.12 to 5.13 and Equations 5.18 to
5.32) was solved together using a coded program written in the Visual Basic
programming language. A description o f the input, algorithm and a flow chart are
provided in Appendix A.
The torque-twist relationship for Beams C l, C2, C3, C4, C5, G l, and G2 were
calculated from the model and compared to experimentally observed ones. For
beams C l and G l with continuous FRP wrapping, the model predictions for the
torsional behaviour o f the strengthened beams are in very good agreement with
the experimental results (Figures 5.13 and 5.14). The error at the ultimate load
level is within 5%. For beams C4 with wide strips CFRP wrapping, the model
132
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133
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5.8 Conclusions
134
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P /2
0.25
n
P L /2
P L /2 ,
0.5P
Shear
F o rce
0.5P
B e n d in g
M onent
T o rs io n
M onent
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-2440-
-6.32 mm wire
i
35
Top reinforcement 2# 10
-150
350
25
-25
H 100 h 200
1000 -
1000 -
C l and G l
-1 5 0
100
-5 0
100
C4
100
1000
1000--------
C2and G2
C5
100
100
1000
1000
70
^ 150
C3
C6
Figure 5.4 - Strengthening schemes for the beams.
136
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c)
Figure 5.5 - Model idealization a) Solid rectangular cross section, b) Equivalent
hollow tube, and c) Four segments.
137
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Shear Stress(x)
Norm^lStress (cr)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
\cr. 4 ,
St
\<y
A..,
4,
'centroid
^centroid
Figure 5.9
139
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Uncracked Concrete
Vecchio and collins (1982)
0.002
0.001
0.003
0.004
0.005
Compressive strain (2 )
Figure 5.10 - Concrete compressive models
40
35
Uncracked Concrete
30
Belarbi and Hsu 1995
25
20
Proposed Model
15
10
5
0
0.001
0.002
0.004
0.003
0.005
0.006
Strain (mm/mm)
Figure 5.11 - Concrete compressive model
140
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0.007
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.002
0.001
0.004
0.003
0.005
0.007
0.006
20
18
16
14
12
10
Experimental
6
Analytical
4
2
0
0
10
12
14
141
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
18
20
<L>
ao
<a
d
o
Experimental
Analytical
10
14
12
16
18
12
10
CD
8
CS
d
o
Experimental
o
H
Analytical
2
0
0
10
12
142
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
14
12
Experimental
Analytical
12
14
12
14
10
16
14
12
10
8
6
Experimental
Analytical
2
0
0
10
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20
18
16
14
12
G
a>
10
d
g
_o
Si
O
Experimental
Analytical
E1
4
2
0
0
10
14
12
16
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6.1 Introduction
There are no analytical models available for representing the behaviour o f strengthened
RC girders subjected to combined shear and torsion. However, several models were
developed for predicting the behaviour o f un-strengthened concrete girders subjected to
combined straining actions. These models were either empirical models, or theoretical
ones. Empirical models were developed by fitting experimental data such as Klus (l 968)
or the skew bending theory which was developed and applied by several researchers
(lessig 1958, Hsu 1968, Elfgem 1972, Badawy 1977 and Ewida 1981). Or theoretical
models such as the model developed by Rahal and Collins (l 995b). In this model the
existing space truss model was updated to include concrete softening and tension
stiffening. The model also accounted for the spalling o f the concrete cover and the linear
distribution o f concrete surface strain due to torsion as well as combining the torsion and
shear stress. However, the model was applied only to rectangular girders under combined
shear and torsion. Structural members subjected to torsion may be o f different
configurations including rectangular, T-shape, L-shape and box girder. The model is
force control where the applied force is assumed and the deformations are predicted.
Hence, the model is capable o f predicting the behaviour up to the ultimate strength only
and not up to failure. In this chapter, the model developed by Rahal and Collins (l 995b)
was adopted and further extended to include the ability to predict the behaviour o f cross
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sections with different shapes including flanged girders while being subjected to torsion,
shear and bending moments. In addition, the model will be modified to include predicting
the behaviour o f girders strengthened with FRP. Discussions in this chapter will be
limited to the change and modifications made to Rahal and Collins (1995b) model.
2. The model predicts the behaviour up to ultimate strength rather than the full
behaviour (i.e. up to failure).
3. The model uses force control rather than displacement control to solve the model
equations.
Mohr circle can be used to evaluate the strain, curvature, and stress status at any
point in the plane.
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The direction o f the principal stresses at any point in the plane is coincident with
the direction o f the principal strain evaluated at the same point in the plane
(Vecchio and Collins 1982).
The cross section torsional behaviour is dominated by Saint-Venants torsion
which indicates that the torsional moments will induce uniform shear flow which
is being resisted by the equivalent hollow tube cross section.
Similar to the girders subjected to bending where the effective depth o f the
longitudinal concrete strut is a function of the applied bending moment, the
effective thickness o f the diagonal concrete struts is a function o f the applied
torsion and shear (Collins and Mitchell 1997).
The model consisted o f two systems; one dimensional stress 1-D system, and two
dimensional stress 2-D systems. The 1-D system is subjected to external biaxial
moment, external axial force, and internal axial force due to the effect o f the 2-D
system. The 2-D system is subjected to torsion, biaxial shear, and longitudinal
strain from the 1-D system. However, the 2-D system did not consider the nonuniform distribution o f longitudinal reinforcement, which is significant in the
torsion analysis (Rahal and Collins 1995b).
The capability o f predicting the behaviour o f the flanged girders is added to the model
where the flanged cross section is being sub-divided into several rectangular cross
sections. Each rectangular part is being solved independently while subjected to the
applied combined shear and torsion. For example, the T-girders can be subdivided into
rectangular sections as shown in Figure 6.1. After modeling each rectangular section, the
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principle o f superposition is applied to obtain the strength and the deformations o f the
whole T-girder, while assuming that the angle o f twist for the T-girder and the sub
divisions (i.e. rectangular parts) are the same. Although this assumption is not necessarily
true for all cases, it will provide a good simplification for the problem. The torsion (T)
applied on the flanged cross section is calculated such that:
(6.1)
T = IT ,
1=1
where Tj is the torsion carried by each rectangular part and n is the number o f rectangular
subdivisions. While the shear strength is calculated as follows:
(6.2)
v =l v ,
where V) is the shear carried by each rectangular part and n is the number o f rectangular
subdivisions. While the stirrup strain s is calculated such that:
(6.3)
= 2 >
i =l
where s t is the stirrup strain for each rectangular sub-division and n is the number of
rectangular subdivisions.
For solving each rectangular part, the model proposed by Rahal and Collins
(1995b) was adopted where the diagonal compressive strain distribution within the
concrete diagonal struts is assumed to be linear and consequently the diagonal
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where T is the torque resisted by the cross section, A0 is the area enclosed inside the
center o f the shear flow. The shear flow due to the shear (qs) is:
150
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V
< is= -r
(6 .5 )
V is the shear force, and 1 is the length o f the segment parallel to the shear plane. Hence,
the average shear flow (q) can be calculated:
(6.6)
where tt is the thickness o f the segment resisting the torsion, ts is the thickness o f the
segment resisting shear. The shear stress (u) acting on each segment can be calculated as
follows:
(6.7)
t
where t is the effective thickness o f each segment resisting both shear and torsion.
6.3.1
Mohr circle can be constructed for the average concrete strains for each segment as
shown in figure 5.6. Relationships between the average strains were similar to equations
5.3 to 5.6.
Mohr circle can be constructed for the average concrete stress as shown in figure 5.7.
Relationships between the average concrete stresses were similar to equations 5.7 to 5.10.
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For calculating the effective thickness o f each segment, equations 5.12 and 5.13 were
applied.
The model deals with beams subjected to torsion, shear, biaxial bending and axial force.
By subdividing the beam cross section into a mesh o f small element and applying
equilibrium in the longitudinal direction gives:
^
i=1
j=1
k=l
(6.8)
where N is the axial force applied on the cross section, Nvk is the shear contribution from
each segment, a 'Ci is the concrete stress at the centroid o f the strip (i), AACi is the area of
the mesh element (i), n is the number o f concrete mesh elements, a 'sj is the stress in the
steel longitudinal reinforcement for each bar (j), As is the area o f each bar (j), and m is
the number o f steel bars. By taking moment for all the forces about the x-axis through the
elastic centroid o f the cross section gives:
(6.9)
E f c ^ A c i V c i + E ( a sjASJ)ysJ = M x + 2 X y s k
i=l
j= l
k=l
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where yci is distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete mesh
element (i), ysj is the distance between the elastic centroid and the centre o f each bar (j),
ySk is the distance between the elastic centroid and the segment centroid, and Mx is the
moment around the x-axis. By taking moments about the y-axis through the elastic
centroid o f the cross section gives:
i=l
j=l
k-1
where xci is distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete mesh
element (i), xSj is the distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each bar, xSk
is the distance between the elastic centroid and the segment centroid, and My is the
moment around the y-axis.
The model was used to predict the torsional behaviour of three rectangular RC girders
N l, N2, and N3 that were tested while subjected to combined torsion and bending
(Ghobarah et al. 2002). The three girders had the same cross section dimensions.
However, the stirrup spacing was different as shown in Figure 6.3. The developed model
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was applied to predict the behaviour up to ultimate torsion. The comparison between the
model predictions and the experimental results for the tested RC girders are shown in
Figures 6.4 to 6.6. The predicted behaviour was found to be in close agreement with the
experimental results.
The three T-girders TB1, TB2, and TB3 were tested under torque to shear ratio value of
0.5, 1.0, and 0.1 m. The T-girders were subdivided into two rectangular girders using the
three proposed solutions as shown in Figure 6.1. The comparison between the behaviour
in the form o f torque versus twist and shear force versus stirrup strain predicted by the
model and the experimentally observed behaviour is shown in Figures 6.7 to 6.12. The
figures show that the three solutions yield a similar behaviour. Although solution II has
the disadvantage o f including the common part o f the flange and web twice, it appears to
predict the behaviour slightly better than the solution I and solution III for the case o f
TB2. However, for cases o f TB1 and TB3 solution II overestimates the torque and shear
force.
Four T-girders TB1S1, TB1S2, TB1S3 and TB3S4 were strengthened using FRP and
tested up to failure. The experimental program was described in chapter 3. The developed
model was used to predict the shear and torsion behaviour o f the four T-girders. Figures
6.13 to 6.20 show the comparison between the predicted and the observed behaviour.
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With the exception of TB1S1, the model predictions agree well with the experimentally
observed behaviour. This is might be because for girder TB1S1, the FRP was only
wrapped around the web.
6.5 Conclusions
An analytical model was developed that is capable o f predicting the behaviour o f un
strengthened and strengthened rectangular and T-girders subjected to combined shear and
torsion. The experimental and analytical results were compared in order to verify the
model. The model was found to provide reasonable predictions.
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c)
Figure 6.1 - Rectangular Divisions a) Solution I, b) Solution II and c) Solution III.
a)
c)
b)
Figure 6.2 - Compression Stress distribution within the concrete strut a) actual stress
distribution, b) equivalent stress distribution, and c) uniform stress distribution.
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---------------- 2440-
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Top reinforcement 2# 10
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Figure 6.5 - Torsional behaviour for beam N2
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Figure 6.6 - Torsional behaviour for beam N3
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Torque, T (kN. m)
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Experimental
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Solution I
Solution II
Solution III
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- -Solution III
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- - Solution I
Solution II
Solution III
0
0.00
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Figure 6.9 - Torsional behaviour of TB2 using solution I, II, and III
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- Solution I
Solution II
Solution III
0
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Strain in transverse steel at the middle of the test region (mm/m)
Figure 6.10 - Shear behaviour of TB2 using solution I, II, and III
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- - Solution II
Solution III
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Figure 6.14 - Shear behaviour of TB1S1
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Strain in transverse steel at the middle of the test region (mm/m)
Figure 6.16 - Shear behaviour of TB1S2
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Strain in transverse steel at the middle of the test region (mm/m)
Figure 6.18 - Shear behaviour of TB1 S3
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3.50
CHAPTER 7
7 .f
Introduction
During the past decade, rehabilitation and strengthening o f structures has been an
important research topic worldwide (FIB 2001, CSA-S806-02 2002 and ACI 440.2R-02
2002). Due to the lack o f adequate research on the analysis o f torsion strengthening,
design o f RC members strengthened in torsion is not well developed yet. Design codes
such as the CSA-S806-02 (2002) and the ACI 440.2R-02 (2002) covered most cases o f
strengthening structures subjected to flexure and shear but did not include provisions for
the design o f RC members strengthened in torsion using externally bonded FRP. On the
other hand, The FIB (2001) proposed design equations for the case o f RC beams
strengthened in torsion.
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et al 1997), fracture mechanics based models (Yuan and Wu 1999), and semi-empirical
models (Teng et al. 2002). All these models accounted for the fact that the FRP ultimate
strength might not be reached, regardless o f how large the value o f the interface length
between the FRP and the concrete is. Therefore, most o f these studies proposed a formula
for the calculation o f a theoretical length (i.e., effective bond length) which is being used
to calculate the maximum FRP shear stress. In this chapter, a simplified model is
introduced that can be used to design RC girders strengthened for torsion and /or shear.
The model is validated using the available experimental data. The presented formulas can
also be presented as basis for code provisions.
7.2 Torsion
7.2.1 FIB (2001) model (FIB-Model)
The model assumed that there is no interaction between the steel and FRP contribution to
the torsional resistance of the section. The contribution o f the FRP to the torsion capacity
o f the beam (Tf) for the case o f full wrapping and U-Jacket wrapping, respectively, were
computed as:
2Ef s f t f w f bh cot(O)
s.
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(7.1)
(7.2)
where
E f
is Youngs modulus o f the FRP, tf is the thickness o f the FRP, b and h are the
width and depth o f the concrete section, respectively, Wf is the width o f the FRP strip, Sf
is the spacing between strips, 0 is the angle o f inclination o f the diagonal cracks to the
longitudinal axis o f the beam. The effective FRP strain Sf is calculated using the
formulas:
2/ 3
-f = 0.17( )V fu
E faPf
p
forCFRP
(7-3)
for GFRP
(7-4)
2/ 3
0.048(^2 f A1s fa
E fu P i
where SfUis the ultimate strain in the FRP and pf is FRP reinforcement ratio with respect
to concrete calculated as:
_ 2 t fw f
(7.5)
Pi ~ ubsf
Assuming no interaction between the internal steel reinforcement and the external FRP
reinforcement, the total torsion capacity o f the RC beam (Tr) can be computed by:
Tr = T c +T s +Tf
(7.6)
where Tc is the concrete torsion contribution which was neglected, Ts is the steel torsion
contribution, and
T f
7.6 that there is no interaction between the steel and the FRP is not entirely accurate.
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However, in most o f the cases that require strengthening internal steel reinforcement are
yielding or deteriorated. Therefore, this assumption may be used for the purpose o f
simplifying the analysis. Using the Mohr circle equilibrium space truss along with the
hollow tube analogy, the torsion contribution o f inclined steel reinforcements (Ts) to the
total torsion capacity o f RC beam may be computed as:
2A0fyA ,(cosps + s in p s)
(7.7)
where A0 is area enclosed inside the centreline o f the shear flow path, fy is the yield stress
o f the reinforcement, At is area o f the reinforcement resisting torsion, 0 is the angle o f
inclination o f the principal cracks, ss is the spacing between the centerline o f the
transverse steel reinforcements and |3S is the angle o f inclination o f the steel
reinforcement. Similarly, the FRP contribution (Tf) to the torsion capacity can be
calculated by:
(7.8)
f=
where Aof is area enclosed inside the critical shear flow path due to the strengthening, ff is
the stress in the FRP sheets at failure as specified by the supplier, Pf is angle o f
orientation o f the fibre direction to the longitudinal axis o f the beam and Sf is the spacing
between the centreline of the FRP strips, and Af is the effective area o f the FRP resisting
torsion calculated using:
A f=nftfW f
(7.9)
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where nf is the number o f FRP layers and Wf is the width o f the FRP strips. Equation 7.9
implies that using a number o f FRP layers is equivalent to using one FRP layer with the
same total area. Experimental observations have shown that this is not necessarily the
case (Zhang et. al. 2001, Panchacharam and Belarbi 2002). For the purpose o f
simplifying the design, this assumption will be used in this study. Using Equations 7.6,
7.7, 7.8, and 7.9 will account for the effect various parameters such as strengthening
techniques, number o f FRP layers, thickness o f each layer, spacing between FRP strips,
fibre orientation o f FRP sheets, average stress level o f the FRP sheets, and angle o f
principal crack. In order to use the above-mentioned equations, the FRP effective stress
has to be computed.
The FIB (2001) task force report indicated that if developing a rigorous analytical
model to calculate the effective FRP strain level is a possibility, it is extremely difficult.
Assuming the stress-strain relationship o f the FRP sheets to be elastic up to failure where
failure occurs when the FRP strain reaches the maximum effective FRP strain level. The
maximum effective strain level o f the FRP depends on several parameters such as the
dominating failure mode o f the beam, FRP properties, beam dimensions, concrete
properties, and strengthening scheme configuration. The FRP constitutive model is
assumed to be elastic up to failure which is determined by limiting the effective FRP
strain to the maximum specified by the supplier.
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bonding failure, the effective strain is lower than the ultimate strain due to the existence
o f an effective bond length which governs the maximum interfacial force between the
FRP and the concrete. Teng et al. (2002) proposed a formula for determining the effective
bond length (Le) for FRP strengthened RC beams in the form:
(7-10)
This formula will be used in this study to calculate the development length. De-bonding
failure could occur due to excessive concrete cracking or bond slip. The effective FRP
strain is limited in order to account for the FRP peeling off failure which occurs as a
result o f concrete cracking. The failure strain is written as:
(7.1D
f
s
e f
This limit was derived based on the maximum shear stress that the RC beam can sustain
under torsion loading. Another limit for the effective FRP strain was introduced to
account for bond-slip failure. The effective bond slip failure strain is written as:
(7.12)
where otf is a constant that takes into account the difference in the stress distribution
between the continuous FRP sheets and the strips and can be calculated as:
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af=
( 2 ------^ )
sf sinp,
(1+
(7.13)
Wf -)
sf sinpf
This limit was developed based on the non-linear fracture mechanics bond model
introduced by Teng et al. (2002). The original model was developed to predict the
strength o f RC beams strengthened in shear. It was modified and calibrated to fit the
proposed model for the case o f torsion strengthening o f RC beams. For the case o f
rupture failure, strengthened beam fails at an effective strain level lower than the ultimate
strain level which is due to the non-uniform distribution o f the strain across the concrete
cracks. Another limit was derived by taking into account the axial rigidity o f the FRP
with respect to the concrete section. The model is being used to predict the strain limit for
beams failing in rupture where the effective FRP tensile strain can be computed by:
0.1s,,
f ~ /E D ,0.86
f ft
(7-14)
where Sfu is the ultimate FRP tensile strain and pft is the FRP reinforcement ratio and
given by the formula:
Pft =
Af
(7.15)
Mf
where tc is the thickness o f the equivalent hollow tube section taken as A0f / pf. Equations
(7.11), (7.12), and (7.14) represent the three proposed limits for the effective FRP strain.
172
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7.4.1 Assumptions
Several assumptions were made to simplify the development o f the model. The total
resistance of the cross section can be calculated by assuming that the principle o f
superposition applies. The beams total shear resistance (Vt) and total torsional resistance
(Tt) can be calculated as:
V T = V C + V s + V f
(7.16)
T . = T C + T s + T f
(7.17)
where Vc and Tc are the concrete contribution to the total shear and torsion resistance,
respectively, Tc is taken equal to zero, and Vs and Ts are the steel contribution to the total
shear and torsion strength, respectively. The FRP contribution to the total shear and
torsion resistance are denoted
V f
and
T f,
interaction between the CFRP, steel and concrete is insignificant which is plausible for
the following reasons:
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be calculated based on the CFRP strain level and to satisfy equilibrium and
compatibility conditions.
1. Conservative estimates for the strength which is suitable for design purposes.
2. The evaluation o f the CFRP contribution to the strength o f the beams is estimated
separately which is the main emphasis o f the simplified approach.
tr t, +1,
(7.i8)
where t is the FRP area per unit length (i.e. thickness in case o f continuous wrapping)
V
resisting shear and t^ is the FRP area per unit length (i.e. thickness in case o f continuous
wrapping) resisting torsion. Using the assumptions o f the 45 angle truss analogy model,
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commonly used for the shear analysis o f RC beams, contribution o f the CFRP to the
shear resistance o f the beam V may be written as:
Vf = 2 E fsfdtv(cosP + sinP)
(7.19)
where t is the FRP area per unit length (i.e. thickness in case o f continuous wrapping)
V
resisting shear, E is Youngs modulus o f the CFRP composite sheets, Ef is the effective
FRP strain, (] is the fibre orientation with the longitudinal axis and d is the depth o f the
sheet resisting shear. The hollow tube analogy and the 45 angle space truss model,
commonly used for the torsion analysis o f steel RC beams, was extended to account for
the 45 fibre oriented CFRP used as external reinforcement and the effect o f the
anchors. Therefore the contribution o f CFRP in torsion is written as:
(7.20)
where t is the FRP area per unit length (i.e. thickness in case o f continuous wrapping)
resisting torsion, A is calculated as 0.75 A0 with A0 is being calculated based on critical
of
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with the average CFRP strain measured for the three tested T-beams. In order to
investigate the effect o f anchors, the calculations were performed twice. In the first
analysis, the anchors were assumed to carry axial force as a part o f the CFRP shear and
torsion resisting mechanism. The area A0 is shaded as shown in Figure 7.2.
7 .5
Model verification
The results o f these calculations are summarized in Table 7.3. The comparison
between the calculated strength and the measured strength o f the CFRP
contribution showed that the difference in the predicted and measured CFRP
contributions to the beam strength is small. The calculation error has a mean o f
7.36% and coefficient o f variation C.O.V. o f 5.88% which implies that the
anchors have to be considered in the calculation to determine the shear and
torsion resistance.
7 .5
Conclusions
A simplified strength model for the analysis o f RC beams strengthened for torsion and
shear was presented. The model included the effect o f different parameters such as
strengthening technique, number and thickness o f layers, spacing between FRP strips,
FRP orientation, FRP effective strain, angle o f diagonal crack, and FRP type. The model
was verified using an extensive experimental database from various sources. A linear
shear-torsion interaction superposition is proposed for the FRP resisting torsion and that
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resisting shear. The design methodology is being verified against the results o f the
experimental program. The proposed procedure provides conservative estimates for the
FRP thickness required to resist the applied torsion and shear. Further experimental
testing is required to generalize the procedure and expand its applicability, in particular,
the prediction o f the effective FRP strain needs to be further investigated.
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FRP
Concrete
Beam
H
(mm)
B
(mm)
f*C'
(MPa)
wf
(mm)
(mm)
L2
250
150
17.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
120
L3
250
150
17.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
120
L4
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
120
"3
&
L5
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
120
s
C3
-C
si
L6
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
150
L7
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
150
L10
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl and hz strips
60
120
Cl
350
150
37
CFRP
VI
C
O4
C2
350
150
37
CFRP
vl strips
100
200
C4
350
150
37
CFRP
vl strips
200
300
-**
C5
350
150
37
CFRP
vl strips
100
250
u
-G
pfi
a
C6
350
150
37
CFRP
-/+45 strips
100
230
G1
350
150
37
GFRP
VI
G2
350
150
37
GFRP
vl strips
A90W4
279
279
34
GFRP
VI
A90S4
279
279
34
GFRP
vl strips
114.3
o
o
Type
Configuration
sf
Continuous
ft
O
O
w
Continuous
100
200
Continuous
228.6
a
11
aa
a
a
C90U3
279
279
31
GFRP
U-jacket
Continuous
>
B90U2-anchor
279
279
26
GFRP
Anchored U-jacket
Continuous
B0L4 / 90S4
279
279
26
GFRP
vl and hz strips
<Z)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
114.3
228.6
Table 7.2 - Comparison between the model and the experimental data base
Measured
Torsion
Tf
Beam
Proposed model
Failure mode
Ratio between
Calculated and
Measured torsion
Ratio between
Calculated and
Measured torsion
(kN. m)
L2
2.37
FRP Rupture
0.34
1.454
w*.
L3
4.39
Concrete fracture
0.40
0.890
L4
5.13
FRP Rupture
0.16
0.672
C3
L5
4.69
Concrete fracture
0.38
0.857
Ml
L6
3.25
FRP Rupture
0.22
1.027
L7
3.71
Concrete fracture
0.41
0.928
L10
3.71
FRP Rupture
0.36
1.023
Cl
7.15
N.A.
0.46
1.108
C2
3.02
De-bonding
0.67
1.405
C4
4.95
De-bonding
0.50
1.031
C5
2.47
De-bonding
0.70
1.477
C6
7.10
FRP Rupture
0.30
1.154
G1
8.13
N.A.
0.063
1.222
G2
2.19
De-bonding
0.16
1.560
A90W4
27.00
FRP Rupture
0.039
0.740
A90S4
17.00
FRP Rupture
0.045
1.133
C90U3
7.00
De-bonding
0.17
1.384
B90U2-anchor
7.00
De-bonding
0.14
1.135
B0L4/90S4
17.00
FRP Rupture
0.039
1.067
.d
r*
L.
JS
O
A
N
OS
s
cs
a
>
C3
u
d
Mean
Standard deviation
=
=
0.293
0.203
1.119
0.250
Maximum
Minimum
=
=
0.700
0.0390
1.560
0.672
180
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Shear(kN)
Torsion (kN.m)
Difference %
Beam
Measured Calculated Measured Calculated
TB1S1
10.46
10.09
20.14
17.44
3.63%
TB1S2
14.70
15.38
32.19
33.69
4.42%
TB1S3
17.62
17.55
37.43
38.46
5.28%
TB3S4
7.84
7.34
69
82.31
17.12%
Average
7.36%
C.O.V.
5.88%
181
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Calculate T f/ Vf
(Tfnew / Vfoew) Tf / Vf
Yes
End Iteration and output data
Figure 7.1 - Flow chart for the procedure used in the analysis.
182
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2,5
TB1S1
50
TB1S2
1 -7 5 J
1 -7 5 J
TB1S3
TB3S4
Figure 7.2 - Hatched area is enclosed inside the expected shear flow path (Ao).
183
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8m1 Summaty
An experimental study was conducted to investigate the shear and torsion
behaviour o f RC T-beams. A test setup capable o f simulating the behaviour o f
RC T-girders subjected to torsion, shear and very little moments was designed
and constructed. Three T-girders were tested while subjected to three different
torque to shear ratios. The ratios were selected in order to cover a wide range o f
the torsion-shear interaction curve. In addition, the shear and torsion provisions
o f the North American design codes were assessed.
An experimental study was conducted to explore the strengthening o f RC Tbeams using FRP. Four strengthening schemes were proposed and implemented.
The behaviour o f the strengthened T-beams was discussed. The effectiveness of
the proposed techniques was evaluated.
An analytical model capable o f predicting the full behaviour o f torsionally
strengthened rectangular RC beams was presented. The model accounts for
various
strengthening
techniques
including
continuous
wrapping,
spiral
wrapping, one sided wrapping and strips wrapping. The model was validated
using available experimental results and was found to correlate reasonably well.
184
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8.2 Conclusions
In chapter 3, the effect o f the torsion-shear interaction on the behaviour o f RC Tgirders was explored and the following conclusions were reached:
The behaviour o f the T-girders is affected by the values o f the torque to shear
ratio. The increase in the torque to shear ratio decreases the load resistance with
185
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respect to the vertical displacement, the load resistance with respect to the strain
in the longitudinal steel reinforcement, the torsional stiffness.
At ultimate strength, the increase in the torque to shear ratio corresponds to
decreased load resistance and increased vertical displacements, the steel strain,
and the angle o f twist. The decrease in the torque to shear ratio increased the
cracking load which delayed concrete cracking.
In addition, the North American codes were used to design the RC T-girders
and the results were compared to the observed behaviour and the following was
concluded:
Using ACI, CSA and PCI design provisions provide accurate predictions of
the strength at low torque to shear ratios.
Using the ACI code provisions provides conservative estimates for the
strength but fails to accurately predict the failure mode especially in cases where
the maximum torsion limit governs the design.
Using the ACI and CSA provisions provide conservative design values for
the cracking torsion strength. However, overestimate the shear contribution to
strength at high torque to shear ratios.
Using the CSA provisions accurately predicts the failure mode o f the tested
beam. However, they overestimate the strength by up to 26%.
The strength and failure mode predictions using the PCI shear and torsion
design provisions are closer and more consistent with the experimental results
when compared with those calculated by using the AASHTO and the CSA.
186
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187
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188
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
o f diagonal crack, and FRP type. The model strength predictions were compared
with the available experimental results. The model provides conservative
estimates.
189
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACI-440.2R-02. Guide for the Design and Construction o f Externally Bonded FRP
Systems for strengthening Concrete Structures. Committee 440, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2002.
ASCE-ACI Committee 445 on shear and torsion. Recent Approaches to Shear Design
190
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
o f Structural Concrete. Journal o f Structural Engineering, ASCE, 124 (12), pp. 13751417,1998.
Belarbi, A., and Hsu, T.T.C. Constitutive laws o f softened concrete in biaxial tensioncompression. ACI Structural Journal, 92 (5), pp. 562-573, 1995.
191
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CSA-S806-02. Design and Construction o f Building Components with FiberReinforced Polymers. Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Canada, 206 pages,
2002.
Erosy, U., and Ferguson, P.M. Behaviour and Strength o f Concrete L-Beams Under
Combined Torsion and shear. ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 64, No. 12, December, pp.
767-776, 1967.
Farmer, L.E., and Ferguson, P.M. T-Beams Under Combined Bending, Shear and
Torsion. ACI Structural Journal, 64 (11), November, pp. 757-766, 1967.
192
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2002 .
Holman, J. W. and cook J. P. Steel Plates for Torsion Repair o f Concrete Beams.
Journal o f Structural Engineering, ASCE, 110(1), pp. 226-247, 1984.
Hsu, T.C. Torsion o f Reinforced Concrete. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New
York, 516 pages, 1984.
Ilki, A.K.N., Koc, V. Low Strength Concrete Members Externally Confined with FRP
Sheets. Structural Engineering and Mechanics, 18(2), pp. 167-194, 2004
Klus, J.P. Ultimate Strength o f Reinforced Concrete Beams in Combined Torsion and
Shear. ACI structural Journal, 65 (3), pp. 210-216, 1968.
Lash, S.D., and Kirk, D.W. Concrete Tee-Beams Subjected to Torsion and Combined
Bending and Torsion, Report RR160, Department o f Highways Ontario Canada, 19
pages, 1970.
193
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Macgregor, J.G., Ghoneim, M.G. Code Background Paper:* Design for Torsion. ACI
Structural Journal, pp. 211-218, 1995.
Maeda, T., Asano, Y., Sato,Y., Ueda, T. and Kakuta, Y. A Study on Bond
Mechanism o f Carbon Fibre Sheet. Non-Metallic (FRP) reinforcement for Concrete
structures, Proceedings o f the third International Symposium, Sapporo, Japan, pp. 287294, 1997.
Mitchell, D., and Collins, M.P. Diagonal Compression Field Theory - A Rational
Model for Structural Concrete in Pure Torsion. ACI Structural Journal, 71, pp. 396-408,
August, 1974
Onsongo, W.M. Diagonal Compression Field Theory for Reinforced Concrete Beams
subjected to combined Torsion, Flexure, and Axial Load. PhD thesis, University o f
Toronto, 1978.
194
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Rahal, K. N., and Collins, M. P. Effect o f the Thickness o f Concrete Cover on the
Shear-Torsion Interaction-An Experimental Investigation. ACI Structural Journal, 92 (3),
May-June, pp. 334-342, 1995a.
Sause, r. Harries, K.A., Walkup, S.L., Pessiki, S.and Ricles, J.M. Flexural Behaviour
of Concrete Columns Retrofitted with Carbon Fibre Reinforced Ploymer Jackets, ACI
Structural Journal, 101 (5), pp. 708-716, 2004.
Proceedings o f the ASCE Structures Congress 1989. Design, analysis and testing, ASCE,
New York, pp. 1-10,1989
Swamy, R.N.; Jones, R.; and Charif, A. Shear Adhesion Properties o f Epoxy Resin
195
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Adhesive. Proceeding o f the international Symposium Aix-en-Provence, France, pp. 741755, 1986.
Teng, J.G., Chen, J.F., Smith, S.T. and Lam, L.FRP strengthened RC Structures.
Wiley, Chichester, U.K, 2002.
Vecchio, F.J., and Collins, M.P. The Response o f Reinforced Concrete to in-plane
Shear and Normal Stresses. Publication N. 82-03, department o f Civil Engineering,
University o f Toronto, March, 332 pages, 1982.
Vecchio, F.J., and Collins, M.P. The Modified Compression Field Theory for
Concrete Elements Subjected to Shear. ACI Structural Journal, 83(2), pp. 219-223, 1986.
Vecchio, F.J., and Collins, M.P. Aspiotis, J. High Strength Concrete Elements
Subjected to Shear. ACI Structural Journal, 91(4), pp. 423-433, 1994.
Zhang, J.W, Lu, T.Z., Zhu, H. Experimental Study on the Behaviour o f RC Torsional
Members Externally Bonded with CFRP. FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, I,
Elsevier Science Ltd, pp. 216-240, 2001.
Zia, P. and McGee, W.D. Torsion Design o f Prestressed Concrete. PCI Journal,
March-April, pp. 46-65, 1974.
196
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A. 11nput
b, d, b v l, d v l, bv 2 , dv 2 , bvoid, dvoid
ntr, barnumb
For 4 times
spall
for 4 times
kl
FRP
nfm
nffaces
confinedfactor
limittw(i)
covw(i)
fmw(i), fmclinationw(i)
A-1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
(eps) strain at which the strain hardening starts o f the longitudinal steel
reinforcement
(ahbys) the cross section area of one leg o f the stirrup divided by the spacing
between the stirrups
A-2
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
(smx) the average spacing between the cracks in the longitudinal direction
(smy) the average spacing between the cracks in the vertical direction
(smz) the average spacing between the cracks in the horizontal direction
(limittw) limit on the thickness o f each wall ( half the parallel dimension for the
solid sections)
(spall)
(K l) spalling indicator
(confined_factor)
if spalling is considered,
if spalling is ignored
A-3
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
sa(i)
y(i)
z(i)
dep(i)
200
-45
-1 2 0
200
-45
120
100
45
120
100
45
-1 2 0
limittw(i)= 75
75
75
Spall= 0
FRP = 1
Nfm = 1
Betafw = 0, Efw =235000, efuw=.015, rofw = 0.167
Nffaces=4
finclinationw(i)
fmw(i)
1
90
90
90
90
confined factor =
A-4
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
and
FRP
C heckequilibrium
24a
Yes
No
Check thickness
Yes
Print output
Figure A .l - Flow chart for the Main Program.
A-5
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CONTRIBUTION
NO
Yes
Check the diagonal
NO
stress
Yes
Return to main program
A-6
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A.5Algorithm
Using the beam C l whose input is presented in section A.3, a detailed algorithm will be
disscused in this section. The program outcome is a behaviour curve that starts at initial
value o f zero stress and zero strain. Hence, the correct values for all the parameters can
be easily predicted at this point. For the calculation o f the next point, the solution o f
previous point is being used as the initial assumption for the next step and so on. Using
small steps along with the trial and error method make it easy to converge and obtain a
unique solution.
1. Assign initial value to diagonal concrete strain o f the left segment. This value
increase in small steps in order to obtain the full behaviour. A middle step is being
chosen to further clarify the solution.
6*
0.0012
A ]
2. To solve the equations presented in chapter 5, the trial and error method will be
used to solve the equations together. I have chosen to assume the effective
thickness o f the four segments.
t, = t 2 = t 3 = t 4 = 30.685mm
A 2
3. Using the known effective thicknesses for the segments, calculate the area
enclosed inside the centerline o f the shear flow using Equation 5.19.
A 0 = 38078.602mm2
4. Assume the average longitudinal strain at the centroid and the curvature around
the x and y axis.
^centroid = 5.8E - 5
A.4
o
II
X
9-
A.5
o
II
9-
A .6
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5. Solve the left segment using the known diagonal strain, average longitudinal
strain to obtain the shear flow and the longitudinal forces in the left segment, (by
using Equations 5.2 to 5.10 and Equations 5.24 to 5.32)
6.
step 6 is done using trial and error by assuming the shear flow (qi) = 106.3 N/m
and the angle o f inclination (0j) = 0.627 and then substituting in equations as
follows:
Using equation 5.2 calculate the shear stress (ii) = 3.459 MPa
Using equation 5.3 calculate shear strain y =3.467E-3
Using equation 5.4 calculate the transverse strain sy = 1.189E-3
Using equation 5.5 calculate the FRP strain Sft = 1.189E-3
Using equation 5.6 calculate the diagonal tensile strain si =2.447E-3
Using equation 5.30 calculate the steel stress os = 237 MPa
Using equation 5.31 calculate the FRP stress Of = 279.48 MPa
Using equation 5.10 calculate the transverse stress a y= 1.89 MPa
Using equation 5.24 calculate the concrete diagonal stress c2=6.47 MPa
Using equation 5.7 calculate the longitudinal stress ox = 3.794 MPa
Using equation 5.8 calculate the angle o f inclination 0new = 0.5845 radian
Using the fixed point iteration, calculate the difference between 0 and 0new- If the
difference larger than 0 .0 1 rad, the take 0 = 0 new and repeat step 6 again until you
get the right value where 0 = 0.6408 radian
Using equation 5.9 calculate the shear flow q = 106.83 N/mm
By taking equilibrium at the any section o f the segment we can calculate the resulting
Nvl
N vl =33640
7. Use the shear flow calculated from the left segment as initial value for the other
three segments. Calculate the torsional moment using Equation 5.1
q 2 = q 3 = q 4 = q, = 106.826
T = 8135609.837
Ag
N /m m
N.mm
A-8
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10
8.
For the three remaining segments, using the known shear flow and the effective
thickness obtain the longitudinal forces in each segment.
9. To solve the three remaining segments, I have assumed the diagonal strain (2 ) as
well as the the angle (0 ) and will verify at the end o f the loop.
Using equation 5.2 calculate the shear stress (ti) = 3.476 MPa
Using equation 5.3 calculate shear strain y -0.00346
Using equation 5.4 calculate the transverse strain sy = 1.18E-3
Using equation 5.5 calculate the FRP strain Cft = 1.18E-3
Using equation 5.6 calculate the diagonal tensile strain si =2.44E-3
Using equation 5.30 calculate the steel stress os = 236 MPa
Using equation 5.31 calculate the FRP stress c?f = 277 MPa
Using equation 5.10 calculate the transverse stress oy = 1.845 MPa
Using equation 5.24 calculate the concrete diagonal stress 02=6.5009 MPa
Using equation 5.7 calculate the longitudinal stress ox = 3.871 MPa
Using equation 5.8 calculate the angle o f inclination Onew = 0.6444 radian
Check the assumption o f 0 in the same way as step
value where 0 = 0.642 radian
0 2 new
= 6.465
Calculate the ratio between difference 0 2 and o2new. If the ratio is not 1 then take S2ew
= 2 multiply the ratio. And repeat step 9 again and again until .2 converge to
0.001967
By taking equilibrium at the any section o f the segment we can calculate the resulting
Nvl
N v2 =33277.067N
a h
N v3 =11884.6667N
N v4 =11884.667N
A.13
10.
12
calculate the forces on the whole cross section due to the segment longitudinal
forces
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
N = -91782N
A.14
M x =3210N.mm
^25
M y = ON.mm
16
11. Using the fixed point iteration, check the equilibrium using the three equilibrium
equations for the whole cross section (using Equations 5.21 to 5.23). If
equilibrium is not satisfied then reassume the concrete longitudinal strain at the
centroid and the curvatures. For these values, equilibrium is satisfied, no need for
iteration.
12. Calculate the angle o f twist using Equation 5.18
\|/ = 4 E - 5
A.17
13. Using equations 5.12 and 5.13 calculate the effective thickness o f each segment.
After a few iterations, the following values were obtained
t, = t 2 = t 3 = t 4 = 30.75mm
A .18
Symbols are as shown in Figure A.3. These equations were derived to insure that the
actual and the uniform stress distribution will produce the same normal force and bending
moment (i.e. equivalent).
A-10
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Actual strain
Actual stress
av
Average stress
Figure A.3
A-11
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
B.1 Input
b, d, b v l, d v l, bv 2 , dv 2 , bvoid, dvoid
xnx, vy, vz, tm, my, mz
fpc, epc, fcr
ntr, barnumb
- For ntr times
For 4 times
limittw(i)
spall
- for 4 times
covw(i)
kl
FRP
nfm
- For nfm times
fmw(i), finclinationw(i)
confined factor
B-1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1,6
418.0.200000.1000.4743.0.02
418.0.200000.1000.4743.0.02
1.300,-50,-150,0
1.300.50,-150,0
1.300.50,-125,0
1.300,-50,-125,0
1,200,50,150,0
1,200,-50,150,0
0.5,250,250,250
20
75,75,75,75
0
0
1.25.25.25.25.0.4
0
B-4
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
o
C
O
o
d
1
| -0.060 1
I -0.420 1
| -0.420 1
o
C
O
o
d
1
-0,020 |
-0.060 I
o o
C
O
p o
d d
1 1
o o
o
C
O
X
C
M
r*
O
X
o o
M
C
OC
O
C
MC
d o*
0.050
o o
o
C
O
d d
0.290
o
M
co
d
0.390
o o
C
MC
O
O
o C
o o
0.350
o o o o
O o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
M
C
Oo C
DC
b- o C
O0
OC
O
C
OC
C
M
Mto M- C
O
Mo C
OC
C
OC
M
E O p C
hC
O
C
M
C
M
o
C
O
T
j
r
rp
o
hC
M
C
M
C
M
C
OC
OC
M
O
MC
M
E
M
Tf
MC
uj C
D 00 ai C
o d1 d o d d d dI dt dt ot d1 1 C
1 1T 1T 1
1 1 1 1
1
1
0.000
Hor 6
o o
C
M
o o
d d
1 1
U>
h.
0
X
d d
I
C
OC
O
OC
OC
O
C
OC
OC
OC
O00 o o N*
C
O
O
C
OC
m uo K
T C
T~ C
OO) o C
O
OC
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OC
OC
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1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
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OC
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uo C
MC
C
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to
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C
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h o o
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C
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o o o o o o o o o o o o CJ o
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
S2
m m /m m
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0 .0 0 2
-0.001
-0 .001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
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0
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0.001
0
0.001
0
0.001
0
0 .0 0 2
0 .0 0 2
0.004
0.009
0.013
0.026
0.025
0.031
0.05
0.051
0.053
0.123
0.134
0.149
0.151
0.152
0.195
0.189
0.199
0.191
0.191
0.35
0.392
0.551
0.58
0.59
0.667
S3
m m /m m
-0.001
-0.001
0
0
0.001
0
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0 .0 0 1
0.001
0.001
0.001
0 .001
0 .0 0 2
0.013
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0 .0 2
0 .021
0.027
0.052
0.072
0.116
0.116
0.133
0.169
0.168
0.174
0.299
0.309
0.334
0.338
0.337
0.415
0.403
0.427
0.412
0.416
0.679
0.748
1.11
1.148
1.162
1.258
S4
m m /m m
S5
m m /m m
S6
m m /m m
S8
m m /m m
S9
m m /m m
S10
m m /m m
0
0 .0 1 2
0.025
0.024
0.026
0.029
0.029
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.031
0.034
0.033
0.039
0.039
0.037
0.039
0.039
0.039
0
0 .0 0 2
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.01
0 .0 1 1
0 .0 1 1
0 .011
0 .0 1 1
0 .0 1 1
0 .0 1 1
0.013
0.013
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.025
0.025
0.029
0.036
0.036
0.037
0.061
0.067
0.069
0.07
0.07
0.074
0.073
0.074
0.073
0.073
0.087
0.096
0 .1 0 1
0 .1 0 2
0 .1 0 2
0.104
0
-0.035
-0.036
-0.037
-0.039
-0.038
-0.038
-0.038
-0.037
-0.037
-0.037
-0.036
-0.039
-0.039
-0.037
-0.036
-0.034
-0.039
-0.039
-0.039
-0.039
-0.039
-0.038
-0.032
-0.028
-0.024
-0.018
-0 .0 2 2
0.009
0.009
0.015
0.034
0.024
0.024
0 .1 0 2
0.127
0.158
0.174
0.189
0.238
0.215
0.239
0.239
0.257
0.327
0.354
0.455
0.485
0.498
0.604
0
0 .0 2 2
0
-0.004
0.023
0.023
0.024
0.024
0.024
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
0
0 .0 1 1
0.014
0.015
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.025
0.025
0.026
0.027
0.031
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.033
0.033
0.035
0.04
0.053
0.132
0.133
0.167
0.188
0.211
0.231
0.424
0.517
0.577
0.592
0.61
0.663
0.707
0.819
0.839
0.889
1.183
1.26
1.513
1.56
1.605
1.752
-0.007
-0.007
-0.006
-0.006
-0.007
-0.007
-0.007
-0.007
-0.008
-0.008
-0.004
-0.004
-0.004
-0.004
0.016
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.018
0.018
0.019
0 .0 2
0 .0 2 2
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
-0.004
-0.004
-0.004
-0.005
-0.005
-0.007
0 .01
0.032
0.033
0.044
0.044
0.055
0.063
0.104
0.136
0.145
0.148
0.148
0.149
0.138
0.082
0.067
0.042
-0.068
-0.089
-0.174
-0.193
-0.213
-0.251
0.024
0.023
0.024
0.025
0.026
0.029
0.039
0.054
0.054
0.039
0.039
0.039
0.044
0.047
0.051
0.051
0.052
0.049
0.049
0.055
0.059
0.057
0.063
0.071
0.065
0.072
0.075
0.073
0.08
0.077
0.078
0.071
0.067
0.08
0.098
0.371
0.378
0.382
0.402
C-17
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
0.058
0.06
0.063
0.064
0.081
0.1
0.115
0.117
0.117
0 .121
0.115
0.095
0.089
0.076
0.066
0.064
0.031
0.03
0.028
0 .0 2 2
S12
m m /m m
0
0.029
0.031
0.031
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0
0 .0 2 2
0.038
0.038
0.045
0.052
0.051
0.052
0.052
0.032
0.032
0.031
0.033
0.032
0.052
0.052
0.052
0.067
0.067
0.033
0.032
0.033
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.034
0.089
0.089
0.108
0.13
0.131
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.032
0.031
0.029
0.028
0.041
0.061
0.062
0.081
0.081
0.113
0.135
0.297
0.425
0.49
0.507
0.523
0.557
0.616
0 .6 8 8
0.7
0.713
0 .8 8 8
0.938
1.103
1.135
1.181
1.29
0.13
0.131
0.131
0.131
0.183
0.279
0.28
0.319
0.317
0.362
0.394
0.468
0.526
0.597
0.598
0.602
0.612
0.685
0.746
0.744
0.744
0.879
0.939
1.059
1.066
1.095
1.133
S13
m m /m m
0.009
0.117
0.136
0.137
0.149
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.116
0.118
0.125
0.117
0.116
0.141
0.142
0.142
0.142
0.142
0.143
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.094
0.232
0.233
0.225
0.245
0.178
0.241
0.312
0.517
0.681
0.683
0 .6 8 6
0.705
0.788
0.244
0.252
0.252
0.457
0.529
0.765
0.792
0.844
0.874
S14
m m /m m
0
0.025
0.052
0.051
0.061
0.068
0.068
0.068
0.068
0.069
0.069
0.069
0.087
0.087
0.096
0.096
0.106
0.118
0.118
0.118
0.118
0.118
0.118
0.119
0 .1 2
0.123
0.126
0.177
0.267
0.267
0.311
0.315
0.376
0.416
0.515
0.557
0.616
0.618
0.611
0.633
0.677
0.716
0.707
0.694
0.738
0.773
0.797
0.801
0.819
0.818
S15
m m /m m
-0 .001
-0.007
-0.004
-0.004
0
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0 .0 2 2
0 .021
0.034
0.034
0.043
0.056
S16
m m /m m
S7
m m /m m
S17
m m /m m
0
-0.006
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
0.004
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.029
0.029
0.035
0.035
0.04
0.047
0
0.078
0.097
0.098
0.104
0.11
0.11
0 .1 1 2
0.113
0.113
0.113
0.115
0 .1 2
0 .1 2 2
0.13
0.135
0.151
0.153
-0 .0 0 1
-0.097
-0.118
-0.119
-0.126
-0.132
-0.132
-0.134
-0.134
-0.134
-0.135
-0.136
-0.143
-0.147
-0.153
-0.157
-0.174
-0.18
0.056
0.056
0.056
0.057
0.057
0.056
0.056
0.055
0.055
0.084
0.107
0.107
0 .121
0.121
0.145
0.161
0.199
0.219
0.237
0.237
0.237
0.241
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.048
0.058
0.068
0.069
0.075
0.074
0.086
0.095
0.113
0 .1 2 1
0.127
0.266
0.291
0.289
0.288
0.325
0.33
0.325
0.324
0.324
0.317
0.13
0.137
0.137
0.136
0.144
0.147
0.148
0.148
0.148
0.144
0.153
0.153
0.153
0.154
0.154
0.155
0.161
0.167
0.183
0.199
0.235
0.24
0.327
0.476
0.626
0.726
1.522
1.779
1.993
2.041
2.071
2.257
2.321
2.519
2.556
2.662
3.381
3.661
4.662
4.803
4.94
5.379
-0.18
-0.18
-0.18
-0.18
-0.18
-0.179
-0.184
-0.189
-0.204
-0.237
-0.266
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-0.296
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-0.583
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-0.749
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- 1.121
-1.515
-1.588
-1.661
-1.834
0.126
0.126
0.127
C-18
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
S18
m m /m m
0
0.125
0.158
0.159
0.169
0.178
0.179
0.18
0.182
0.182
0.182
0.185
0.194
0 .2 0 1
0.21
0.216
0.252
0.256
0.256
0.256
0.256
0.257
0.257
0.26
0.269
0.281
0.3
0.303
0.317
0.317
0.339
0.359
0.379
0.4
0.706
0.856
0.982
1.001
1.037
1.174
1.264
1.556
1.581
1.725
2.662
2.902
6.175
6.507
6.829
7.699
S19
mm/mm
S20
mm/mm
S21
mm/mm
S22
mm/mm
S23
mm/mm
S 24
mm/mm
S25
mm/mm
Hor 1
mm
Hor 2
mm
0
-0.135
-0.16
-0.162
-0.172
-0.179
-0.179
-0.181
-0.182
-0.182
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-0.191
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-0.205
-0.21
-0.234
-0.239
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-0.239
-0.239
-0.239
-0.236
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-0.27
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-0.42
-0.448
-0.589
-0.706
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-0.79
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-0.865
-0.933
-0.949
-0.974
-1.157
-1.197
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0
0
0.001
0
0.001
0.001
0
0.001
0.001
0
0.001
0 .001
0
0 .001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0
0.038
0.044
0.044
0.047
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.051
0.051
0.051
0.052
0.054
0.057
0.059
0.062
0.074
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.076
0.076
0.076
0.076
0.08
0.084
0.096
0.119
0.149
0.149
0.161
0.164
0.178
0.184
0.191
0.194
0.192
0.194
0.19
0.195
0.199
0.213
0.214
0.227
0.425
0.494
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1.22
1.921
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0.157
0.158
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0.164
0.17
0.185
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0.216
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0.279
0.345
0.419
0.452
0.471
0.495
0.554
0.613
0.788
0.832
0.913
1.503
1.639
2.557
2.739
2.94
3.585
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0.57921
1.041828
1.179761
1.958481
2.050673
2.099974
2.400374
C-19
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Hor 3
mm
Hor 4
mm
Hor 5
mm
Hor 6
mm
Hor 7
mm
Hor 8
mm
Hor 9
mm
Hor 10
mm
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C-20
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Ver 1
mm
Ver 2
mm
Ver 3
mm
Ver 4
mm
Ver 5
mm
Ver 6
mm
Ver 7
mm
Ver 8
mm
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C-21
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Ver 9
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C-22
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
L1
L2
L3
L4
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
kN
kN
kN
kN
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8.59
8.63
8.78
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9.05
9.13
9.27
9.31
9.50
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9.85
9.89
9.94
10.08
10.17
10.35
10.35
10.35
10.35
10,43
10.68
10.58
9.16
8.80
8.76
8.33
6.41
6.15
6.15
2.24
13.24
13,63
13.68
14.04
14.20
15.03
15.13
15.54
15.59
16.12
16.14
16,22
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16.33
16.33
16.33
16.33
16.38
16.38
16.37
16.37
16.37
16.37
16.37
16.37
16.36
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12.19
12.25
12.32
12.62
14.01
14.90
17.32
17.93
17.93
18.84
22.16
22.47
22.77
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0.41
0.41
0.44
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0.49
0.49
0.49
0.50
0.52
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0.71
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148.38
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160.06
165.48
166.30
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214.41
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123.52
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155.50
156.07
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219.05
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181.67
181.99
182.22
184.88
184.64
189.40
191.18
98.49
101.53
101.70
105.37
105.59
113.08
113.46
117.85
117.90
120.39
125.25
128.78
129.43
132.09
132.14
136.65
137.06
144.91
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144.11
143.25
143.20
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147.55
146.22
146.01
148.01
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145.74
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135.03
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16.96
17.16
17.54
17.65
18.10
18.26
19.30
19.32
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21.25
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26.01
29.15
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0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
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0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
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231.12
245.31
246.42
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248.90
249.57
249.37
250.03
250.04
250.05
250.07
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Ver 6 Ver 7
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Ver 9 V er10 SH 1 SH 2 SH 3 SH 4
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
-22.04
-23.88
-23.88
-23.88
-23.88
-23.88
-0.60
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
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3.31
3.32
4.41
7.41
8.06
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-24.19
-24.19
-24.19
-24.19
1.26
-1.75
-1,73
-2.35
-4.32
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37.89
43.30
43.36
45.16
49.42
50.20
-17.23
-24.93
-24.93
-26.61
-31.09
-32.06
32.35
39.11
39.12
41.54
46.99
47.89
mm
mm
0.17 -0.01
0.19 -0.03
0.19 -0.03
0.19 -0.03
0.20 -0.04
0.21 -0.04
L1
L2
L3
L4
mm
mm
kN
kN
kN
kN
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-0.46
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0.92
0.94
0.94
0.94
0,96
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219.94
215.89
210.82
194.41
201.06
200.79
203.15
204.50
200.05
133.24
127.56
127.15
125.74
120.79
119.08
250.03
250.03
250.01
250.01
-0.48
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250.02
250.02