Geological Society of America Bulletin

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Geological Society of America Bulletin

Clastic deposition, provenance, and sequence of Andean thrusting in the
frontal Eastern Cordillera and Llanos foreland basin of Colombia
Alejandro Bande, Brian K. Horton, Juan C. Ramrez, Andrs Mora, Mauricio Parra and Daniel F.
Stockli
Geological Society of America Bulletin 2012;124, no. 1-2;59-76
doi: 10.1130/B30412.1
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2012 Geological Society of America
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Clastic deposition, provenance, and sequence of Andean thrusting in

the frontal Eastern Cordillera and Llanos foreland basin of Colombia
Alejandro Bande1,, Brian K. Horton1,2,, Juan C. Ramrez3,4, Andrs Mora4, Mauricio Parra1,4, and
Daniel F. Stockli1,5
1
Department of Geological Sciences, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
3
Escuela de Geologa, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia
4
Instituto Colombiano del Petrleo, Ecopetrol, Bucaramanga, Colombia
5
Department of Geology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA
2
ABSTRACT
Sedimentological, provenance, and detrital
thermochronological results for basin fill at
the modern deformation front of the northern Andes (6N latitude) provide a long-term,
Eocene to Pliocene record of foreland-basin
sedimentation along the Eastern Cordillera
Llanos basin boundary in Colombia. Lithofacies assemblages and paleocurrent orientations in the upward-coarsening, ~5-km-thick
succession of the Nuncha syncline reveal
a systematic shift from craton-derived,
shallow-marine distal foreland (back-bulge)
accumulation in the Mirador Formation,
to orogen-sourced, deltaic, and coastalinfluenced sedimentation of the distal to
medial foreland (foredeep) in the Carbonera
and Len Formations, to anastomosing fluvial and distributive braided fluvial megafan
systems of the proximal foreland (foredeep
to wedge-top) basin in the lower and upper
Guayabo Formation. These changes in depositional processes and sediment dispersal are
supported by up-section variations in detrital
zircon U-Pb and (U-Th)/He ages that record
exhumation of evolving, compartmentalized
sediment source areas in the Eastern Cordillera. The data are interpreted in terms
of a progressive eastward advance in foldand-thrust deformation, with late Eocene
Oligocene deformation in the axial zone of the
Eastern Cordillera along the western edge of
Floresta basin (Soapaga thrust), early Miocene reactivation (inversion) of the eastern
margin of the Mesozoic rift system (Pajarito
and Guaicaramo thrusts), and middlelate
Miocene propagation of a footwall shortcut

fault (Yopal thrust) that created the Nuncha
syncline in a wedge-top (piggyback) setting
of the eastern foothills along the transition
from the Eastern Cordillera to Llanos foreland basin. Collectively, the data presented
here for the frontal Eastern Cordillera define
a general in-sequence pattern of eastwardadvancing fold-and-thrust deformation
during Cenozoic east-west shortening in the
Colombian Andes.
INTRODUCTION
Identifying the sequence of deformation in
fold-and-thrust belts is essential to monitoring
net shortening, crustal thickening, and attendant
surface uplift (Schelling and Arita, 1991; Barke
and Lamb, 2006; McQuarrie et al., 2008), gauging the influence of fault reactivation (inversion) on the time-space evolution of orogenesis (Hayward and Graham, 1989; Flttmann
and James, 1997), assessing the applicability
of critical-taper models (DeCelles and Mitra,
1995; Horton, 1999; Nieuwland et al., 2000),
and predicting petroleum maturation and migration histories (Cazier et al., 1995; Echavarria et
al., 2003). In addition to fault cutoff relationships within the fold-and-thrust belt (Diegel,
1986; Morley, 1988; Schirmer, 1988), the depositional and provenance record of the adjacent
foreland basin has been long recognized as an
important factor in extracting timing information on evolving structures (e.g., Wiltschko and
Dorr, 1983; Lawton, 1985; Jordan et al., 1993;
Sinclair, 1997; DeCelles et al., 1998). Although
sediment recycling, diagenetic alteration, com-
plex dispersal pathways, and multiple or nonunique sediment sources complicate interpretations (Steidtmann and Schmitt, 1988; Schmitt
and Steidtmann, 1990), careful consideration
of multiple hypotheses commonly leads to
well-constrained histories of thrust deformation
(e.g., DeCelles, 1988, 1994, 2004; Lageson and
Schmitt, 1994; Meigs et al., 1995; Horton, 1998;
Reynolds et al., 2000; Echavarria et al., 2003).
In the northern Andes of Colombia, the
~200-km-wide Eastern Cordillera marks the
foreland zone of regional retroarc fold-andthrust deformation. Several distinguishing factors make the Eastern Cordillera a key region:
a combination of thin- and thick-skinned deformation (Dengo and Covey, 1993; Cooper et al.,
1995); a series of both first-generation and reactivated faults (Colletta et al., 1990; Mora et al.,
2006); proposed out-of-sequence thrusts (Martinez, 2006; Bayona et al., 2008); a climatic/
erosional influence on thrust kinematics (Mora
et al., 2008); and a petroliferous foothills belt
and adjacent foreland basin (Cazier et al., 1995).
Numerous previous studies of synorogenic sedimentation and basin evolution have considered
the frontal (easternmost) zone of shortening in
the Eastern Cordillera. These studies have generated new insights into regional basin evolution
from flexural modeling, stratigraphic geometries
and onlap relationships, one-dimensional (1-D)
subsidence histories, three-dimensional (3-D)
sediment budgets, conglomerate clast compositions, and bedrock low-temperature thermochronology (e.g., Gmez et al., 2005a; Bayona et al.,
2008; Parra et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2010).
Despite significant effort, tracing the timing
of deformation has proven to be difficult and
Present address: Institut fr Erd- und Umweltwissenschaften, Universitt Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany.
E-mail: horton@mail.utexas.edu
GSA Bulletin; January/February 2012; v. 124; no. 1/2; p. 5976; doi: 10.1130/B30412.1; 12 figures; 1 table; Data Repository item 2011300.
For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org

2012 Geological Society of America
59

Bande et al.
complex in the Eastern Cordillera. To date, no
consensus exists on the onset of deformation,
with timing estimates ranging from the midCretaceous to late Miocene (Cooper et al., 1995;
Jaimes and de Freitas, 2006; Bayona et al.,
2008; Parra et al., 2009b; Horton et al., 2010a).
This disagreement relates in part to the difficulty
of distinguishing among diverse source areas in
western (orogenic) regions. Specifically, in the
thickest, best-exposed Cenozoic succession,
located along the transition between the Eastern
Cordillera and Llanos basin, a western provenance could either be derived directly from the
Central Cordillera or from recycled sediments of
the Eastern Cordillera. Thus, our understanding
of the history of shortening deformation along
the eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera would
benefit from integrated assessments of depositional environments and provenance using sedimentological, mineralogical, and low- and hightemperature geochronological approaches.
This paper seeks to evaluate the history of
thrust deformation in the frontal region of the
78W
Eastern Cordillera through diverse provenance

techniques coupled with field-based depositional
systems analysis. These methods include detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology and (U-Th)/He
thermochronology integrated with physical sedimentology, paleocurrent analyses, sandstone
petrography, and conglomerate clast compositions. Despite their widespread usage, many of
these methods have been applied to a limited
degree in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia.
GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND
In northwestern South America, the Amazon and Orinoco lowland drainages in the east
and the Andean highlands in the west dominate the physiography of Colombia (Fig. 1). At
2N8N, the major ranges forming the Andes
(the Western, Central, and Eastern Cordilleras)
are the result of complex interactions among the
Nazca, Caribbean, and South America plates. In
the east, Precambrian basement of the Guyana
Shield has defined a stable region throughout
70W
74W
CARIBBEAN
PLATE
SMB
10N
NAZCA
PLATE
WC
CC
MV
EC
6N
Fig.3
Fig.2
Guyana
Shield
Llanos
Basin
2N
200 km
Figure 1. Map of northwestern South America illustrating the major tectonomorphic

provinces (WCWestern Cordillera; CCCentral Cordillera; ECEastern Cordillera; SMBSanta Marta block; MAMerida Andes; MVMagdalena Valley),
after Mora et al. (2006). Dashed boxes denote map locations of Figures 2 and 3.
60
Phanerozoic time (Cordani et al., 2000). The

Western Cordillera is composed of oceanic and
arc terranes accreted to the stable continent
since Late Cretaceous time (e.g., McCourt et
al., 1984). In contrast, the Central Cordillera
consists of Paleozoic metamorphic rocks overprinted by intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks
of a JurassicCretaceous magmatic arc (Aspden
et al., 1987). The Eastern Cordillera represents
a Cretaceous extensional basin system that was
tectonically inverted during Cenozoic shortening
(Colletta et al., 1990; Cooper et al., 1995; Mora
et al., 2006; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). This
inversion process partitioned a previously contiguous foreland basin east of the Central Cordillera (Cooper et al., 1995; Horton et al., 2010b).
Rifting took place in the pre-Andean backarc area during Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous time (Roure et al., 2003; Sarmiento Rojas
et al., 2006). Up to 3 km of synrift deposits
(Jurassic Girn Formation) were deposited in
fault-bounded, approximately N-trending grabens (Kammer and Snchez, 2006; Mora et
al., 2009). Late-stage extension promoted further accumulation in the area now occupied by
the Eastern Cordillera (Sarmiento-Rojas et al.,
2006), leading to the deposition of up to ~5 km
of Lower Cretaceous shallow-marine units.
These units are covered by 1.52 km of Upper
Cretaceous, quartz-rich marine strata, deposited
during postrift thermal subsidence (SarmientoRojas et al., 2006). The Upper Cretaceous
section has two glauconite-rich units useful
for tracking provenance and unroofing of the
Eastern Cordillera: the Albian Une Formation
and Campanian Guadalupe Group. In the Paleogene, a foreland basin system evolved to the east
of the uplifted Central Cordillera (Cooper et al.,
1995; Gmez et al., 2005b). More than 5 km of
Cenozoic sediments were deposited in this flexural depocenter, recording the transition from
marginal marine to nonmarine conditions (Parra
et al., 2010). Subsequent shortening and uplift
of the Eastern Cordillera divided this contiguous
foreland basin into a western hinterland (Middle
Magdalena Valley) basin and eastern foreland
(Llanos) basin, with both basins accommodating 35 km of Neogene clastic sediments (Horton, 2011; Saylor et al., 2011).
In the Eastern Cordillera, reactivation of
Mesozoic basement-involved normal faults and
growth of first-generation shortening structures
produced a doubly vergent, ~200-km-wide foldand-thrust belt (Colletta et al., 1990; Dengo and
Covey, 1993; Cooper et al., 1995; Toro et al.,
2004; Mora et al., 2006, 2010). Between the
high topography of the axial Eastern Cordillera
(including Soapaga fault and Floresta basin)
and flat lowlands of the Llanos basin, there lies
the frontal fold-and-thrust region informally
Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2012

Clastic deposition, provenance, and sequence of Andean thrusting in the frontal Eastern Cordillera and Llanos foreland basin of Colombia
flank of the SW-plunging Nuncha syncline.
The corresponding eastern flank is formed by
the Yopal thrust, the modern topographic front
of the fold-and-thrust belt (Bayona et al., 2008).
East of this structure, an ~6-km-thick Cenozoic
sedimentary succession underlies the relatively
undeformed Llanos foreland basin.
referred to as the eastern foothills (Fig. 2). This

zone constitutes the surficial expression of thinskinned thrusts that commonly correspond to
footwall shortcuts of reverse faults that originally formed the master normal faults bounding Mesozoic extensional basins (Mora and
Parra, 2008). A key structure within the eastern
foothills is the NE-trending Nuncha syncline,
bounded by the Guaicaramo fault to the west
and Yopal thrust to the east (Figs. 2 and 3). The
Guaicaramo fault was activated during Cenozoic shortening to produce a complex faultbend fold to duplex system along the western
STRATIGRAPHY AND
SEDIMENT SOURCES
Cenozoic strata of the Eastern Cordillera
onlap eastward onto the Mesozoic substratum
73W
7230W
72W
6N
us
t
hr
Yo
pa
h
c
un
N
sy
in
cl
lt
Gu
t
Pa
ja
rit
o
Tunja
fa
ul
So
ap
ag
af
FL
au
lt
OR
BA E
SI STA
N
aic
ara
m
of
au
lt
Bo
ya
c
au
lt
of the Llanos basin. A basal Paleocene succession consists of up to ~700 m of estuarine

and coastal-plain deposits of the Barco and Los
Cuervos Formations (Cooper et al., 1995). The
overlying EocenePliocene succession along
the Eastern CordilleraLlanos basin boundary
involved deposition of an upward-coarsening,
~5-km-thick succession (Fig. 4). At the base,
the Eocene Mirador Formation (Jaramillo et
al., 2009) consists of an ~200-m-thick interval
of sandstone and subordinate mudstone concordantly overlying Paleocene strata in sharp contact. The Mirador was described in the Virgen
530N
Yopal
Fig.3
Chmeza
it
v
r
Se
fault
t
ul
a
f
LLANOS
BASIN
0
20
40
km
5N
Quaternary alluvium
Neogene
Upper Cretaceous
Jurassic
Devonian-Carbonif.
Quaternary terraces
Paleogene
Lower Cretaceous
Triassic intrusive
Pre-Devonian
Figure 2. Geologic map of the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes at ~5N6.5N latitude, modified from Mora et al.
(2010), showing regional structures and locations of U-Pb samples (green rings), (U-Th)/He samples (blue rings), and both
U-Pb and (U-Th)/He samples (red rings). Dashed box denotes map location of Figure 3.
61

Bande et al.
lower Guayabo Formation were measured and
correlated near the axis of the Nuncha syncline,
using the Len-Guayabo contact as a correlation horizon (Fig. 3). The maximum thickness
of the exposed sections is 900 m. For the conglomeratic upper Guayabo Formation, only one
section (Rincn del Soldado) could be measured
because of the nearly horizontal bedding and
limited areal extent (Fig. 3). According to Parra
et al. (2009a), the unit has an exposed minimum thickness of ~700 m in the Medina basin
~100 km along strike to the southwest.
Numerous palynological assemblages provide Cenozoic age constraints for Eastern
Cordillera deposits. The base of the Mirador
Formation corresponds to pollen zone T05,
yielding an age of ca. 55 Ma (Jaramillo et al.,
2009). Parra et al. (2009a) assigned ages of
ca. 36 and ca. 23 Ma to the C8 and C6 members,
respectively, of the Carbonera Formation. Similarly, Parra et al. (2010) assigned ages of ca. 19,
correlated using the Huesser fossiliferous horizon described in the Medina basin (Gmez et
al., 2009) and its northern age-equivalent horizon in the C2 member of the Tocara section.
A continuously exposed, 650-m-thick section of the Len Formation was measured along
the Tocara River (Fig. 3). This middle Miocene
section consists of dark laminated mudstone and
shale that recorded tidally influenced lacustrine
deposition with short-lived marine incursions
(Bayona et al., 2008; Parra et al., 2010). The top
of the Len Formation reflects the final marine
influence in the system.
Approximately 30003500 m of clastic sediments were deposited from late Miocene to
Pliocene time in the Llanos basin (Cooper et al.,
1995). The Guayabo Formation (Hubach, 1957)
includes varicolored mudstone, lithic sandstone,
and conglomerate, with coarser lithologies
dominant toward the top (Bayona et al., 2008).
Four stratigraphic sections of the finer-grained
measured section along the eastern limb of the

Monterralo anticline (Fig. 3).
The overlying uppermost Eocenelower
Miocene Carbonera Formation is subdivided
into eight informal units in the Llanos basin:
members C1 to C8, with odd numbers assigned
to sandstones and even numbers to mudstones
(e.g., Parra et al., 2009b). The base of the
15002500-m-thick formation contains a basal
member (C8) assigned to the late Eocene (Jaramillo et al., 2009). Lower mudstone members
form a regional seal present in numerous oil
and gas fields in the Llanos basin (Cazier et al.,
1995). A localized unconformity at the base of
the C5 member has been proposed on the basis
of palynological data and subsurface structural
relationships (Martinez, 2006). Two main stratigraphic sections (Tocara and Buenavista) were
measured in the upper Carbonera Formation,
including the C1 to C4 members, with a total
thickness of ~900 m (Fig. 3). The sections were
545 N
Pau
Oc
Em
Mg
to r
iver
Qal
Ml
Tocara
Qal
Nuncha
Morcote
Ml
fa
ul
Qal
Mg
Mg
Qal
t
ul
Pbc
ua
ic
lin ica
ra
e
m
Qal
ur
os
av er
Cr riv
ch
n
sy
Yo
p
PLIOCENEQUATERNARY
Qal
Ml
OLIGOCENE
EOCENE
PALEOCENE
Buenavista
Yopal
M
on
te
Mg
0
Quaternary deposits (Qal)

Guayabo Formation (Mg)
Oc
Rincn del
soldado
an
t
530 N
MIOCENE
n
Nu
7230 W
Qal
Ml
Vrgen
fa
lin
Em
al
t
Pa
Hurn
Oc
rra
lo
hr
ja
us
rit
Ml
Len Formation (Ml)

Carbonera Formation (Oc)
Mirador Formation (Em)
Barco and Cuervos (Pbc)
Formations
UPPER
CRETACEOUS
Guadalupe, Chipaque
and Une Formations
LOWER
CRETACEOUS
Fmeque, Las Juntas

and Macanal Formations
10
km
7215 W
Measured stratigraphic section
Figure 3. Geologic map of the eastern foothills region of the Eastern Cordillera showing the main structures, regional stratigraphy, and
location of six measured stratigraphic sections.
62

ca. 16, ca. 10, and ca. 5 Ma to the C2 member
of the Carbonera, base of the Len Formation,
base of the lower Guayabo Formation, and base
of the upper Guayabo Formation, respectively.
Sediment source areas in the northern Andes
include rocks ranging from Proterozoic to
Cenozoic age. Intrusive and metamorphic ages
for granitic and gneissic basement rocks of
the Guyana Shield are reported as 16001450,
13501250, and 1100900 Ma (Teixeira et al.,
1989; Goldstein et al., 1997), with the Grenvil-
Upper
Lower
lian ages (1100900 Ma) related to assembly of

Rodinia (Dalziel, 1991; Ramos, 2010). In the
Eastern Cordillera, basement outcrops toward
the eastern margin (Santander and Floresta
massifs) and along the southern Llanos foothills segment (Quetame and Garzn massifs)
exhibit Mesoproterozoic, Grenville-age signatures (Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997; Cordani et
al., 2005; Cardona et al., 2010). However, field
relationships between intrusive and Paleozoic
rocks (Irving, 1975; Suarez, 1990) and recent
geochronological data (Horton et al., 2010b)
from the Quetame massif at ~4N support early
Paleozoic (520420 Ma) magmatism potentially
linked to subduction. The Central Cordillera
is formed by subduction-related, calc-alkaline
igneous arc rocks of Jurassic (170150 Ma),
mid- to Late Cretaceous (12070 Ma), and
Paleogene (6040 Ma) age overprinting Paleozoic metamorphic rocks (Aspden et al., 1987;
Restrepo-Pace, 1992). Sediment recycling
potentially complicates interpretation of detrital age signatures and compositional trends. In
Colombia, many Phanerozoic sedimentary units
have experienced some degree of reworking
during the tectonic episodes that affected the
northern Andes. Although the present study is
focused on the sedimentary history of Cenozoic
shortening and exhumation in the Eastern Cordillera, it is critical to recognize that an earlier
cycle of sedimentation affected the region during Mesozoic extension and basin evolution.
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
The EocenePliocene succession of the eastern foothills is exposed in synclines adjacent
to the main thrust faults. At ~6N, the Nuncha
syncline contains key exposures in the footwall
of the Guaicaramo fault (Figs. 2 and 3). We
documented sedimentological characteristics
from six measured stratigraphic sections totaling 4.8 km in thickness (Fig. 3). These sections
provide the foundation for descriptions of sedimentary lithofacies and interpretations of depositional processes. In total, 20 lithofacies modified from Miall (1996) and seven lithofacies
associations (this study; Table 1), detailed in the
GSA Data Repository item (Figs. DR1DR3),1
are defined on the basis of lithology, texture,
grain size, bedding geometry and thickness,
stacking patterns, and sedimentary structures.
Lithofacies were identified as follows. For
fine-grained deposits, three mudstone lithofa-
Figure 4. Generalized middle Eocene

Pliocene stratigraphic section of the eastern
foothills of the Eastern Cordillera and Llanos basin (modified from Parra et al., 2009a).
1
GSA Data Repository item 2011300, Supplemental data for lithofacies, point-count, U-Pb, and
(U-Th)/He analyses, is available at http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2011.htm or by request to editing@geosociety.org.
cies were defined: massive claystone (Fm),

laminated siltstone (Fl), and siltstone with
paleosols (Fps). In total, 12 sandstone lithofacies were distinguished. Lenticular bedded
sandstone (Sle), wavy bedded sandstone (Sw),
and flaser bedded sandstone (Sf) can be grouped
into a heterolithic suite. Two types of massive
sandstone were determined based on their bed
geometry: massive lenticular sandstone (Sml)
and massive tabular sandstone (Smt). Crossstratification patterns helped distinguish five
additional lithofacies: horizontally stratified
sandstone (Sh), ripple cross-stratified sandstone (Sr), planar cross-stratified sandstone
(Sp), trough cross-stratified sandstone (St), and
swaley cross-stratified sandstone (Ssw). Scour
surface (Ss) and bioturbated sandstone (Sb)
lithofacies were also defined. Four conglomeratic lithofacies were identified: clast-supported
massive conglomerate (Gcm), clast-supported
imbricated conglomerate (Gci), planar crossstratified conglomerate (Gp), and trough crossstratified conglomerate (Gt). Finally, we also
identified a coal-bearing lithofacies (C).
Lithofacies are grouped into seven lithofacies
associations (Table 1; Table DR1 [see footnote
1]) attributed to different depositional environments. Lithofacies association 1, 2, and 7 are
interpreted as components of fluvial systems.
Association 1 is composed of mudstones with
interbedded sandstones representing overbank
deposits. Amalgamated channelized sandstones
of association 2 are interpreted as channel
deposits of medium-energy streams. Association 7 consists of conglomerates and interbedded cross-stratified sandstones interpreted as
bed-load dominated, poor- to well-confined
channels. Lithofacies associations 36 are interpreted as part of a coastal environment. Lithofacies 3 is composed of upward-coarsening
cross-stratified quartzose sandstones interpreted
as wave-dominated coastal deposits. Upwardfining bioturbated sandstones of association 4
represent estuarine distributary channels. Mudstones of association 5 are interpreted as prodelta deposits. Finally, association 6 contains
upward-coarsening sandstones representing distal to medial sand bar/ridge systems.
Depositional Synthesis
On the basis of observed lithofacies, the
Mirador Formation is considered to represent
deposition in a distal fluvial to marginal marine
environment. In the lower Mirador Formation,
the organization of lithofacies associations 1
and 2 shows a high degree of amalgamation and
near absence of overbank deposits, suggesting
relatively high channel migration and deposition in a low-accommodation basin. Warren and
63

Bande et al.
Facies association
FA 1. Mudstones
with interbedded
sandstones
FA 2. Channelized
amalgamated
sandstones
FA 3. Upwardcoarsening crossstratified quartzose
sandstones
FA 4. Upwardfining bioturbated
sandstones
FA 5. Mudstones
FA 6. Upwardcoarsening
sandstones
FA 7. Conglomerate
and interbedded
cross-stratified
sandstone
TABLE 1. LITHOFACIES ASSOCIATIONS AND RELATED LITHOFACIES

Description
Thickness
Interpretation
(m)
Fm, Fl, Fps,
Laterally extensive, tabular, laminated or massive
5 to 20
Floodplain deposits produced
Smt, Sml, Sr
mudstones interbedded with sandstone beds. If present,
by avulsion of the main stream.
nodular blocky horizons to the top of the association.
Sandstone beds represent
Upward-fining lenticular and sheet-like, sharp-based fine
crevasse splay and levee
sandstones intercalated.
deposits.
Ss, St, So, Sh, Fining-upward stacked sandstone successions. The beds
5 to 20
Main channel deposits of a
Sml, Sl
show lenticular erosive surfaces, and unit grades upward
medium-energy stream.
into FA 6. Sedimentary structures: small- to mediumscale trough and planar cross-stratification, massive and
horizontal cross-lamination.
Smt, Sw,
Upward-coarsening siltstone to sandstone sequences.
15 to 20 Wave-dominated coastal deposits.
Sh, Fl
Sedimentary structures: horizontal lamination and swaley
cross-stratification. Cruziana and Skolithos ichnofacies
burrows.
Sml, Sb, St,
Upward-fining sandstone deposits intercalated with
<20
Distributary channels and
Fl, Fm, C
laminated siltstones. Most of the beds have lenticular
interdistributary areas on a deltaic
shapes and erosive bases. Bioturbation degree is higher
plain subenvironment.
to the top of the beds. Organic matter and coal fragment
layering in the fines.
Fm, Fl, Sb, Sf, Dark-gray mudstones with no visible structures.
>100
Prodelta deposits.
Smt, Sml
Intercalations of flaser laminated sandy units in lenticular
to tabular-shaped beds. Rare Thalassionoides burrows.
Molluscan-bearing marine horizon.
Sh, Sle, Sf,
Upward-coarsening and thickening, fine to medium
20 to 80 Prograding sand bar/ridge
Sw, Sr, Sp,
sandstones. Lower units can have current ripple, horizontal,
systems in a delta front, tidally
Fm, Smt, C
flaser, wavy or lenticular lamination. Planar crossinfluenced.
stratification is abundant up-section in the sequence Mud
drapes and plant fragments are common. Bioturbation is
rare.
<20
Shallow, gravelly, poor- to
Gci, Gcm, Gt, Erosive-based, imbricated, normally graded, clastwell-confined channels of fluvial
Gp, Sh, St, Sp supported and cross-stratified conglomerates. Intercalated
cross-stratified coarse sandstones.
megafan system.
Lithofacies
Pulham (2002) described nonmarine palynomorphs consistent with a fluvial setting for the
lower Mirador Formation. In the upper Mirador
Formation, above a proposed intraformational
unconformity (Villamil, 1999; Warren and Pulham, 2002), association 3 is consistent with
coastal wave-dominated deposition. The vertical facies organization of upward-coarsening,
progradational sandstone intervals tens of
meters thick represents episodes of shoreline
regression capped by thin transgressive intervals (Van Wagoner et al., 1990; Hampson and
Storms, 2003).
The upper Carbonera and Len Formations
are interpreted as deltaic facies and wavedominated shorelines superseded by backstepping tidally influenced estuaries. According to Willis (2005), tide-dominated deltas are
a consequence of bayhead delta progradation
over estuarine systems, but that transition may
be quite gradual. The lithofacies and vertical
arrangement of facies associations 4, 5, and 6
characterize a clastic tongue that gradually built
outward in a series of regressive-transgressive
cycles. Progradation of active distributaries
generates a gradational, upward-coarsening,
and shallowing succession that passes from
prodelta mudstone into delta-front sandstone
and subordinate mudstone (Dalrymple, 1992).
This context is appropriate for the numerous
upward-coarsening sequences observed in mea-
64
sured sections. Finally, in a coastal setting, these

deposits are erosionally overlain by distributary
channels and fine-grained deposits of a tidally
influenced estuary (Dalrymple, 1992), consistent with association 4. Back-stepping estuarine
facies favor the introduction of marine/brackish
traces into the estuary mouth more easily than in
a deltaic setting, because of the common strong
flood tidal currents.
The coastal environment switches to a nonmarine setting with the accumulation of fluvial
sediments of the Guayabo Formation. This
unit represents the Miocene onset of nonmarine deposition in the Llanos basin, a trend that
has continued to present. Lenticular amalgamated sandstones tens of meters thick overlain
by finer-grained overbank and sandy crevasse
splay deposits indicate an overall anastomosing river system (Miall, 1996) for the lower
Guayabo Formation. The lack of lateral channel
migration suggests significant channel stability, vertical aggradation, and relatively straight
channel planform geometries (Uba et al., 2005).
The vertical stacking of sand bodies could be
due to aggradation with minor shifting of channel bars associated with channel switching
(Bridge, 1993). The presence of paleosols suggests that channels were relatively stable prior
to avulsion and migration. Facies of the upper
Guayabo Formation suggest deposition in highenergy bed loaddominated fluvial channels
Occurrence
Lower Mirador
and lower and
upper Guayabo
Lower Mirador
and lower and
upper Guayabo
Upper Mirador
Len Carbonera
Len Carbonera
Len Carbonera
Upper Guayabo
and corresponding overbank areas. The upwardcoarsening progradational character, avulsive

channel behavior, lack of matrix-supported conglomerate, and coupled channel and overbank
facies suggest deposition in a fluvial megafan or distributive fluvial system (Horton and
DeCelles, 2001; Hartley et al., 2010).
SEDIMENT DISPERSAL
Methods
Paleocurrent indicators were measured wherever possible in the stratigraphic sections spanning a 20 40 km distance in the Nuncha syncline (Fig. 3). Sedimentary structures suitable
for these measurements are rare in the Carbonera and Len Formations because of the fine
grain size, high bioturbation, and poor exposure
of these units in the eastern foothills. The paleocurrent database consists of 669 trough-cross
limb measurements (method I of DeCelles et al.,
1983) at 38 locations and 50 conglomerate clast
imbrications at three sites.
Results and Interpretation
Paleocurrent indicators for the Eocene Mirador Formation show a clear NW-directed transport direction (Fig. 5A), implying a sediment
source in the Amazonian craton. Up-section,

thin sections of samples obtained from measured sections across the Nuncha syncline
(Fig. 3). Thin sections were stained for potassium and calcium feldspar, and 450 grains
per thin section were counted according to
the Gazzi-Dickinson method (Ingersoll et al.,
1984). Framework grains (>0.0625 mm) were
classified using the petrographic parameters
listed in Table DR2 (see footnote 1). Recalculated compositional modal data are shown in
Table DR3 (see footnote 1).
an important change occurs in paleocurrent

patterns: the Carbonera and Len Formations
present more variable directions but display a
general eastward trend (Fig. 5B), implying an
Andean source area to the west. We note that the
limited density of measurements in these units
and coastal depositional environment generally
promote greater paleocurrent variability. Nevertheless, a broad eastward flow is suggested.
Correlation of four measured sections
(Fig. 6), with thicknesses between 500 and
900 m, shows eastward paleoflow for the
lower ~150 m of the lower Guayabo Formation
(Fig. 5C). This trend diverges in younger beds,
with an average flow toward the south for the
rest of the lower Guayabo section (Fig. 5D).
This change from eastward to southward flow
is attributed to the growth of a fluvial drainage
divide, probably controlled by surface uplift
along the eastern flank of the Nuncha syncline.
Finally, in the upper Guayabo Formation, there
is a return to generally eastward paleoflow
(Fig. 5E), interpreted as fluvial transport transverse to the evolving deformation front with
sufficient stream power to erode through topography generated by the frontal thrust.
Results
Results of petrographic modal analyses are
presented in ternary diagrams depicting total
quartzfeldsparlithic fragment (Qt-F-L) and
quartzfeldsparlithic fragment (Q-F-L) proportions (Fig. 7) with single-sample point
counts arranged in stratigraphic order (Fig. 8).
Mean sandstone compositions and 1 error
polygons are depicted for each unit. The entire
sample set contains >60% quartz, possibly due
to the extremely high weathering conditions
associated with the tropical climate of Colombia
(Johnsson et al., 1991).
Quartz is classified as monocrystalline (Qm),
polycrystalline (Qp), and foliated polycrystalline (Qpf) grains. Lithic fragments (Ls) are
primarily siltstone (Lsi) and chert, with minor
amounts of claystone (Lc) and metamorphic
fragments (Lm). Volcanic grains are very rare.
Feldspar is rare, and it is extremely weathered
where present, precluding consistent accurate
distinction between potassium feldspar and pla-
PROVENANCE
Sandstone Modal Compositions
Methods
Sandstone modal framework compositions
were collected from 49 standard petrographic
A. Mirador
B. Carbonera-Len
C. Lower Guayabo I
n=70
4 stations
vector mean: 314
n=129
7 stations
vector mean: 92
D. Lower Guayabo II
E. Upper Guayabo
n=329
21 stations
vector mean: 174
n=110
6 stations
vector mean: 107
n=118
5 stations
vector mean: 148
Figure 5. Paleocurrent data for the (A) Mirador, (B) upper Carbonera and Len, (C, D)
lower Guayabo, and (E) upper Guayabo Formations. Mean paleocurrent vector, number of
measurements, and stations are listed for each rose diagram.
gioclase. Notable accessory minerals include

micas, amphibole, pyroxene, and detrital (nonauthigenic) glauconite.
Sandstones from the Eocene Mirador Formation consist of moderately sorted, wellcemented quartzarenites (Fig. 7A). Monocrystalline quartz (Qm) is the dominant constituent,
with subordinate polycrystalline quartz (Qp).
Lithic grains are dominated by chert fragments
with feldspars composing less than 2% of the
modal composition.
The overlying Carbonera sandstones consist of both quartzarenites and sublitharenites
(Fig. 7A). Sorting is more variable, and samples
are less well cemented. The lower Carbonera
(C8C5 members) samples are quartzarenites
with Qm as the main component and secondary
amounts of Qp. In contrast, the upper Carbonera
(C4C1 members) is composed of sublitharenites, also with Qm as the main constituent,
but with minor Qp and sedimentary lithic (Ls)
fragments (up to 8% of the modal composition). Feldspar grains represent less than 3% of
counted grains. Importantly, these upper Carbonera samples record the first appearance of glauconitic sandstone grains (Fig. 8).
Middle Miocene Len sandstones are classified as sublitharenites and help define an
up-section trend toward more lithic-rich compositions (Fig. 7A). Here, Qm is the major
component, representing >76%, whereas Ls
constitutes up to 10% in some samples and Qp
up to 15% of the total modal composition. Glauconitic grains are still present (Fig. 8).
Guayabo sandstones are composed of moderately sorted, subrounded sublitharenites
and litharenites that continue the overall trend
toward increased lithic content (Fig. 7A). Qm is
the main component of lower Guayabo samples,
always exceeding 66%. Ls represents as much
as 14% and feldspar up to 5% in some samples.
An abrupt decrease in the quantity of glauconitic
grains is observed within the lower Guayabo
Formation (Fig. 8). For the middle Guayabo
Formation, Qm remains the main component,
constituting ~75% of the total composition.
Upper Guayabo samples range from sublitharenites to litharenites (Fig. 7A). Upper Guayabo
sandstones are intercalated with conglomeratic
beds and are moderately sorted and cemented.
Ls constitutes up to 29% in some samples, but
Qm remains the major component.
Interpretation
Extremely Qm-rich sandstones of the Mirador and lowermost Carbonera Formations
are consistent with derivation from a cratonic
source (Fig. 7). These units have relatively low
amounts of sedimentary lithic fragments (Ls), in
contrast to typical recycled orogen provenance
65

Bande et al.TOCARIA
n=20
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
GRAIN SIZE
Scour and fill structures

Roots - paleosols
Burrows - bioturbation
900 m
cs fmc gpcb
c - clay
s - silt
f - fine sand
m - medium sand
PALEOCURRENT DATA
c - coarse sand
n = number of measurements
n
g - granule
p - pebble
c - cobble
b - boulder
MORCOTE
900 m
n=18
800 m
800 m
RINCN DEL
SOLDADO
n=24
n=9
700 m
700 m
700 m
n=15
600 m
600 m
600 m
n=13
500 m
500 m
Figure 6. Measured stratigraphic sections

of the middle Miocene Len and lower
Guayabo Formations in the Nuncha syncline. Stratigraphic correlations are based
on the top of the Len Formation. Horizontal gray band represents the stratigraphic
position of major paleocurrent shift.
500 m
n=17 500 m HURON
n=18
n=10
n=18
400 m
n=20
n=15 400 m
400 m
400 m
n=17
300 m
300 m
n=17
n=17
n=12
n=19
300 m
300 m
n=19
200 m
n=15
n=18
200 m
200 m
South-directed
paleoflow
n=13
200 m
PALEOCURRENT SHIFT
n=14
n=22
n=14
East-directed
paleoflow
100 m
n=20
n=19
100 m
100 m
100 m
n=21
Base of Guayabo Fm.

cs fmc gpcb
Top of Len Fm.
cs fmc gpcb
cs fmc gpcb
cs fmc gpcb
66

Qt
Q
Quartzarenite
ns
itio
na
l co
nti
ne
nta
l
Tra
arkos
e
Lithic
lds
are
Fe
Recycled orogen
ite
arenite
ren
ha
Lit
thic lith
nit
e
a
Feldsp
50% Q
C
int raton
eri
or
sa
re
Su
b
e
nit
fel
d
re
ha
50% F
Upper Guayabo
(n=3)
Middle Guayabo
(n=4)
Lower Guayabo
(n=13)
Upper Carbonera
- Len (n=17)
Mirador - lower
Carbonera (n=12)
blit
Su
nit
e
50% L
50% Q
50% F
50% L
Figure 7. (A) Q-F-L and (B) Qt-F-L ternary diagrams with a 50% quartz baseline for 49 sandstone samples from the EocenePliocene
section. Geometric symbols show mean values for different stratigraphic units, and polygons represent unit 1 standard deviation errors.
Sandstone nomenclature fields (Folk, 1980) and tectonic provenance fields (Dickinson, 1985) are included for classification purposes.
(Fig. 7B) (e.g., Dickinson, 1985). Upper Carbonera sandstones represent the lowest unit
containing compositional evidence for erosion and recycling of the axial Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 7B). This is supported by an abrupt
increase in Ls and appearance of detrital glauconitic grains (Fig. 8). The lowest stratigraphic
occurrence of glauconitic grains in Carbonera
sandstones likely marks initial erosion of the
glauconite-bearing, Upper Cretaceous section
in the axial Eastern Cordillera.
Modal compositions for Len sandstones
are further consistent with derivation from a
fold-and-thrust belt source (e.g., Dickinson,
1985). However, the sedimentary lithic content is less than in underlying strata (Fig. 8).
This trend may reflect unroofing of the Lower
Cretaceous section (BerriasianAptian) composed of mudstone-dominated units (Macanal
and Fmeque Formations). In addition, severe
tropical weathering (e.g., Johnsson et al., 1991)
likely prevented unstable grains from reaching
the distal Llanos basin to the east.
Guayabo sandstones continue the trend
toward less mature composition with an overall increase in lithic content (Fig. 7B), consistent with continued erosion and exhumation of
the Eastern Cordillera sedimentary succession.
The abrupt Ls increase (Fig. 8) together with
the up-section decrease of glauconitic grains
in the middle and upper Guayabo Formation
may suggest recycled sedimentary material in
a new sediment source closer to the study area,

thus reducing transport distances and weathering effects. In this context, uplifted basin fill in
intermontane regions of the Eastern Cordillera
(e.g., Floresta basin; Fig. 2) may have provided
recycled sediment to the Llanos basin. The new
source could be explained by exposure and recycling of the OligoceneLower Miocene Carbonera Formation. In this case, the up-section
decrease in glauconitic content for the lower
Guayabo Formation could be related to erosional removal of the glauconite-bearing lower
Carbonera Formation and tapping into deeper,
PaleoceneEocene levels of the Cenozoic succession. Finally, for the upper Guayabo Formation, sandstone compositions show a relative
increase in sedimentary lithic fragments and an
absence of glauconitic grains (Fig. 8). This pattern is consistent with nearly complete erosion
of the Cenozoic section west of the Nuncha
syncline and exposure of the Upper Cretaceous
Guadalupe Group.
Conglomerate Clast Compositions
Methods
Collection of conglomerate compositional
data was conducted at eight outcrop localities.
Square grids of at least 30 cm length were
drafted on the outcrop, and 100 clasts were
counted per location. Compositional clast
count data are available from the middle and
upper Guayabo Formation. Although many

clasts cannot be identified with confidence
at the formation level, some are indicative
of specific intervals. The lower part of the
Cretaceous (BerriasianAptian) section in
the Eastern Cordillera is mostly fine grained
with thick black mudstone in the Macanal and
Fmeque Formations. Paleogene fine-grained
lithologies from the muddy Los Cuervos and
Carbonera Formations are possible sources
for the siltstone fragments observed in clast
counts. On the other hand, quartzarenites
in the eastern foothills are typically derived
from the Albian to Campanian section (Guadalupe Group), which is mostly composed of
shallow-marine sandstones originating from
the Guyana Shield.
Results
The principal conglomerate clasts in the
middle Guayabo Formation (Fig. 9) are quartzarenite (48%), with minor chert (19%), siltstone
(13%), and litharenite (13%). Glauconitic arenite is rather limited (6%), and micaceous quartzarenite occurs in trace amounts (1%).
In the upper Guayabo Formation (Fig. 9),
the majority (71%) of the conglomerate clasts
are quartzarenite, with litharenite constituting
~10% of the composition. The percentages of
chert and siltstone are substantially diminished,
at 8% and 3%, respectively. Glauconitic clasts
continue to occur in limited quantities (<1%).
67

Bande et al.
Upper
Interpretation
According to the different sources proposed
for the conglomerate clasts, we interpret a
principally Cenozoic source for the middle
Guayabo Formation. The relatively high proportions of fine-grained clast lithologies could
be explained by unroofing of the Paleogene
section (Los Cuervos Formation) west of the
Nuncha syncline, in agreement with the sandstone modal compositions. In contrast, conglomerate clast compositions for the upper
Guayabo Formation suggest a provenance
from the quartzarenite-dominated Upper Cretaceous section (Guadalupe Group), which is
most pronounced in the hanging wall of the
Guaicaramo fault. This up-section shift in clast
compositions is consistent with continuous
late MiocenePliocene erosional exhumation
of the Paleogene and then underlying Upper
Cretaceous succession, potentially in a single
thrust sheet in the fold-and-thrust belt west of
the Nuncha syncline.
ANT0614091
VCB0114094
CHI0119092
CHI0119091
Lower
RSO0112097
RSO0112095
RSO0112094
RSO0112093
RSO0112091
RSO01110911
RSO01110910
RSO0111098
RSO0111096
TOC0108094
TOC0610099
TOC0610098
TOC0610096
TOC0610095
TOC0610093
TOC0610091
MOR0613091
Glauconitic grains
Sedimentary lithics
MOR0612095
MOR0612093
Methods
MOR0612091
MON0617096
MON0617094-5
MON0617091-3
20
40
60
80
100
Number of grains
Figure 8. EocenePliocene section of the eastern foothills showing 30 sandstone samples
arranged stratigraphically, including glauconitic and sedimentary lithic compositional
trends. Horizontal axis represents total number of grains based on 450 points counted
per sample.
Middle Guayabo
n=400
Upper Guayabo
n=400
Figure 9. Conglomerate clast compositional data for the (A) Middle Guayabo
and (B) Upper Guayabo Formation.
68
DETRITAL ZIRCON U-Pb

GEOCHRONOLOGY
U-Pb geochronological analyses were

conducted on detrital zircons separated from
four new samples collected from Cenozoic
sandstones of the Nuncha syncline and
unconsolidated sand from modern rivers in
the area. Samples were processed using standard procedures described by Gehrels (2000),
Gehrels et al. (2008), and Dickinson and Gehrels (2008). Analyses were conducted using
the multicollectorlaser ablationinductively
coupled plasmamass spectrometer (LA-ICPMS) at the University of Arizona LaserChron
Center. Approximately 100 individual zircon
grains were analyzed from each sample. Zircons were selected randomly from all sizes
and shapes, although grains with significant
cracks or inclusions were avoided. In-run
analyses of fragments of a large zircon crystal
with known age of 564 4 Ma (2 error) were
conducted every ~5 measurements in order to
correct for inter- and intra-element fractionation. The uncertainty resulting from the calibration correction is generally 1%2% (2
error) for both 206Pb/207Pb and 206Pb/238U ages.
The analytical data are reported in Table DR4
(see footnote 1). Details of the operating conditions and analytical procedures are provided
by Gehrels et al. (2008). Analyses exhibiting
>20% uncertainty, >30% discordance (by
comparison of 206Pb/238U and 206Pb/207Pb ages),
or >5% reverse discordance are omitted from
further consideration.
Relative
probability
Relative
probability
Number
(H) Holocene Cravo Sur River, n=71

8
(G) Pliocene upper Guayabo, n=104

Relative
probability
Number
12
8
4
(F) Middle Miocene lower Guayabo, n=109

8
4
Relative
probability
Number
Relative
probability
Number
(E) Lower Miocene Carbonera C1, n=1

n=114
8
4
0
Relative
probability
(D) Lower Miocene Carbonera C2, n=78
Number
8
4
(C) Lower Miocene Carbonera C5, n=91
Relative
probability
(B) Oligocene Carbonera C7, n=82
Relative
probability
Nine samples ranging from middle Eocene

basin fill to modern river sands show variations in age spectra reflective of progressive
Andean deformation in the Eastern Cordillera.
The Eocene Mirador Formation has prominent
age peaks at 1450, 1550, and 1750 Ma, with an
absence of statistically significant ages younger
than ca. 1200 Ma (Fig. 10A). The Mirador age
distribution is assigned to a dominant eastern
source of Neoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic
rocks in the Guyana Shield, consistent with previous studies (e.g., Cooper et al., 1995; Roure et
al., 2003; Horton et al., 2010b).
A major shift in provenance is recorded during Oligocene sedimentation. In the lower Carbonera Formation (C7 member), a significant
U-Pb age peak at 200 Ma (Fig. 10B) represents
the introduction of west-derived (Andean)
grains in the eastern foothills. Magmatic rocks
in the Central Cordillera would seem the most
logical source for Jurassic to Paleogene ages
(Nie et al., 2010). However, the presence of
Paleoproterozoic ages (peaks at 1650 and
1800 Ma) in the analyzed C7 sample requires
an additional source. The composite signal
could reflect mixing of two direct sources: the
Central Cordillera in the west and the craton
in the east. Alternatively, the shift could reflect
recycling of craton- and arc-derived zircons
from PaleoceneEocene basin fill in the axial
Eastern Cordillera (e.g., Floresta basin; Fig. 2).
We favor the second option, which is consistent
with eastward paleoflow (Bayona et al., 2008;
Number
(I) Holocene Cusiana River, n=86

8
4
0
Number
In total, 330 new zircon ages from four samples

are reported here. Also included in this discussion
are 498 zircon ages from five additional samples
previously reported by Horton et al. (2010b). The
preferred ages are shown on normalized relative
age-probability diagrams (Fig. 10); these diagrams show each age and its uncertainty as a normal distribution, summing all ages and uncertainties from a sample into a single age-distribution
curve. Because inclusion of slightly discordant
analyses will add some degree of scatter to the
age spectra, individual age peaks are considered
robust only if defined by three or more analyses
(see Dickinson and Gehrels, 2008).
Number

8
4
Relative
probability
Figure 10. Detrital zircon U-Pb ages for nine

samples of EocenePliocene strata in the
Nuncha syncline. Normalized age probability plots (black lines) and age histograms
(gray bars) are arranged in stratigraphic
order. Data in A, D, E, F, and G are from
Horton et al. (2010a).
Number
(A) Eocene Mirador, n=93
4
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Age (Ma)
69

Bande et al.
70
Dominance of 9001100 Ma peaks lends further support to continued exhumation of Grenvillian grains derived from Cretaceous and older
strata in the Eastern Cordillera. Moreover, the
increased proportion of two Mesoproterozoic
peaks at 15001600 and 11501250 Ma represents a good match to age spectra reported from
Lower Cretaceous, Upper Jurassic, and DevonianCarboniferous sandstones of the Eastern
Cordillera (Horton et al., 2010b).
DETRITAL ZIRCON (U-Th)/He
THERMOCHRONOLOGY
Methods
Detrital zircon (U-Th)/He ages are presented
for composite samples from six representative horizons within the EocenePliocene succession of the Nuncha syncline. The data set
(Table DR5 [see footnote 1]) incorporates 14
new with 55 individual zircon (U-Th)/He ages
previously reported by Horton et al. (2010a).
Zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronology is an
established technique involving a closure temperature of ~180200 C (e.g., Reiners, 2005).
Because the sampled EocenePliocene succession has experienced limited Cenozoic heating
during 05 km of burial, we regard the measured

(U-Th)/He ages of most samples as records of
principally exhumational cooling associated
with detrital zircon grains originally deposited in the Eastern Cordillera region. Detrital
(U-Th)/He age determinations were carried out
in the (U-Th)/He laboratory at the University
of Kansas, following procedures described in
Biswas et al. (2007). All ages were calculated
using Fish Canyon and Durango zircon age
standards, and alpha-ejection corrections based
on morphometric analyses (Farley et al., 1996).
Reported age uncertainties reflect the reproducibility of replicate analyses of the two standards,
with estimated analytical uncertainties of ~8%
(2) for zircon (U-Th)/He ages (Reiners, 2005).
Results are grouped into stratigraphic units and
plotted against stratigraphic age (Fig. 11) in
order to visualize up-section changes in dominant populations.
Detrital zircon (U-Th)/He results show a drastic up-section shift in cooling ages. Whereas
the EoceneOligocene Mirador and lower
Carbonera Formations show principally PrecambrianPaleozoic (850300 Ma) ages, the
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
L
10
Oligocene
Stratigraphic Age (Ma)
20
upper Guayabo
(N=8)
lower Guayabo
(N=23)
Len (N=9)
Carbonera C2
(N=10)
Carbonera C7
(N=9)
Mirador (N=9)
30
Eocene
Parra et al., 2010) and independent evidence of

initial uplift along the western and axial zones
of the Eastern Cordillera (Gmez et al., 2003;
Parra et al., 2009b; Nie et al., 2010; Saylor et al.,
2011). Thus, we suggest that the earliest detrital
evidence of shortening-induced denudation in
the Eastern Cordillera is recorded by the midOligocene C7 member.
Lower Miocene strata of the upper Carbonera Formation (members C5 and C2) show age
spectra similar to the lower Carbonera (C7), with
significant peaks at 50150, 1500, and 1800 Ma,
and a minor peak at 9001100 Ma (Figs. 10C
and 10D). These samples reflect continued erosion and recycling of the Paleogene section in
the axial Eastern Cordillera. In the uppermost
Carbonera member (C1), MesozoicCenozoic
peaks are statistically absent, and a major peak
at 9001100 Ma is observed with subordinate
peaks at 1350 and 1500 Ma (Fig. 10E). This
pattern suggests further exhumation in the axial
Eastern Cordillera, with exposure of a Cretaceous succession rich in Grenvillian zircons
(9001100 Ma; Horton et al., 2010b) by the latest early Miocene.
Age spectra for the middle Miocene lower
Guayabo Formation are governed by significant peaks at 50, 901100, 12501350, and
1550 Ma (Fig. 10F). The reappearance of a
MesozoicCenozoic peak suggests erosion of
a new Andean source. We attribute this trend
to eastward advance of the deformation front,
activating a new frontal fault (Guaicaramo
fault) between the axial Eastern Cordillera and
the eastern foothills, prompting erosion of the
Oligocenelower Miocene (Carbonera) section
and/or PaleoceneEocene (Barco, Los Cuervos,
Socha, Picacho, and Concentracin Formations)
section west of the Nuncha syncline. This
interpretation is supported by sandstone petrographic data, which reveal an abrupt increase
in sedimentary lithic fragments and decrease in
glauconitic grains.
The Pliocene upper Guayabo Formation has
major age peaks at 9001100, 1200, 15001600,
and 17501850 Ma (Fig. 10G). The age spectra
show no Phanerozoic ages. Here, we suggest
that the Cenozoic sedimentary cover had been
largely stripped off the main sediment source
west of the Nuncha syncline, leaving Cretaceous and older units as the principal source for
the distal Llanos basin. The importance of the
Grenvillian-age peak (9001100 Ma) is consistent with substantial contribution from the
Lower Cretaceous section with possible contributions from the lowest exposed levels (Jurassic
and Paleozoic) of the Phanerozoic succession.
U-Pb results from modern river sand samples show limited departures from the upper
Guayabo age spectra (Figs. 10H and 10I).
40
50
100
400
800
1200
1600
Zircon (U-Th)/He Age (Ma)
Figure 11. Detrital zircon (U-Th)/He data from the eastern foothills. The vertical axis represents the stratigraphic age of the host formation, and the horizontal axis represents the
(U-Th)/He age, with error bars, of each detrital grain. Arrows denote three anomalously
young ages (see text for further details).

MiocenePliocene levels of the upper Carbonera, Leon, and Guayabo Formations are dominated by CretaceousCenozoic (<150 Ma) ages
(Fig. 11). The pre-Cretaceous age signatures are
attributed to long residence time at upper-crustal
levels in the stable Guyana Shield or recycled zircons from the Eastern Cordillera that never were
buried to depths below the ~180 C isotherm. In
contrast, the CretaceousCenozoic age signatures are interpreted as the product of recycling in
the Eastern Cordillera of shallowly buried sediments (<5 km) that originated from Andean arc
and thrust-belt sources to the west. We link the
stratigraphic shift in detrital zircon (U-Th)/He
ages near the OligoceneMiocene boundary to a
major provenance change from eastern (cratonic)
to western (orogenic) sources (e.g., Horton et al.,
2010a), consistent with initial uplift of the eastern
flank of the Eastern Cordillera.
Although the detrital zircon (U-Th)/He ages
provide important provenance constraints, they
also have the potential to identify key phases of
Andean exhumation or magmatism. We consider three notable age populations (Fig. 11;
Table DR5 [see footnote 1]). First, a 130
120 Ma population defined by five (U-Th)/He
analyses could be a product of unroofing during
Early Cretaceous extension across the Eastern
Cordillera (e.g., Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006;
Horton et al., 2010b). Second, a 5545 Ma
population defined by 11 (U-Th)/He analyses
potentially represents nonreset volcanogenic
zircons from Paleocene strata of the Eastern
Cordillera (e.g., Bayona et al., 2008; Horton et
al., 2010a), even though limited detrital volcanic lithic grains are represented in the sandstone
modal compositions. Third, three (U-Th)/He
analyses yield anomalously young ages of
ca. 2015 Ma, which are younger than or indistinguishable from the depositional ages of the
Mirador and upper Carbonera Formations.
These analyses could represent reset ages, consistent with apatite fission-track evidence (Mora
et al., 2010) for rapid early Miocene exhumation in the footwall of the Soapaga thrust and
hanging wall of the Pajarito fault (Fig. 2). Further possibilities include a volcanogenic origin
(which would be at odds with the petrographic
point counts), sample contamination, or anomalously nonretentive zircon grains potentially
related to the degree of radiation damage (e.g.,
Flowers et al., 2009).
DISCUSSION
Sedimentological and provenance results outline a Cenozoic history of varied sediment accumulation in the advancing foreland basin system
of the Colombian Andes. Initial craton-derived
depositional systems in the distal foreland were
replaced by the earliest signatures of Andean

orogenic detritus. Thereafter, a series of new
Andean sediment sources was introduced within
the Eastern Cordillera, inducing progressively
more proximal sedimentation with different
compositional and geochronological signatures
of sediment provenance. Next, we integrate
new and existing data into a reconstruction of
Cenozoic thrusting and basin evolution. Key
upper-crustal structures and Cenozoic deposits (observable in Fig. 2) provide the regional
context for an interpreted six-step evolution of
depositional systems in relationship to fold-andthrust deformation in the frontal Eastern Cordillera and Llanos basin (Figs. 12A12F).
(1) Results for the EocenePliocene sedimentary record in the frontal Eastern Cordillera confirm that the region was occupied by
a foreland basin, in agreement with previous
studies (e.g., Cooper et al., 1995; Bayona et
al., 2008; Parra et al., 2009a). Craton-derived
sandstones of the Eocene Mirador Formation
record fluvial to marginal marine deposition in
a distal foreland basin, potentially in a backbulge zone (DeCelles and Giles, 1996), similar
to modern fluvial drainages in the most-distal
central Andean foreland basin (Horton and
DeCelles, 1997). Sandstone modal compositions and paleocurrent indicators document
a highly mature, quartz-rich source (Fig. 7)
located to the southeast (Fig. 5A). In addition, detrital zircon U-Pb and (U-Th)/He ages
(Figs. 10A and 11) show erosion of Precambrian sources that reached upper-crustal levels
in NeoproterozoicPaleozoic time and were
not subsequently buried below the zircon
helium partial retention zone (PRZ) of ~120
180 C (Stockli, 2005). These results clearly
implicate the Guyana Shield (northwestern
Amazonian craton) as the principal source for
Eocene strata along the Eastern Cordillera
Llanos basin transition (Fig. 12A). Although
incipient Paleogene fold-and-thrust deformation likely affected the Central Cordillera to
westernmost Eastern Cordillera, the lack of
western, orogenic sediment sources suggests
that west-derived depositional systems did not
reach the Llanos basin during Eocene time,
potentially due to a low-amplitude forebulge
in the eastern part of the Eastern Cordillera
(Fig. 12A) (Saylor et al., 2011).
(2) The detrital record suggests that upliftinduced exhumation in the Eastern Cordillera
had commenced by Oligocene time. Detrital
zircon U-Pb ages for the lower Carbonera Formation record a significant decrease of cratonic
input and initial recycling of Eastern Cordillera
cover strata. Age spectra of the C7 member
(Fig. 10B) show a mid-Oligocene introduction
of west-derived Phanerozoic grains to the basin.
Although this age is unlikely to reflect the precise onset of Andean shortening in the Eastern
Cordillera, it is consistent with an eastward
advance of deformation involving middle-late
Eocene exhumation along the westernmost
Eastern Cordillera (eastern Magdalena Valley basin; Nie et al., 2010) and late Eocene
Oligocene deformation in the axial zone of the
Eastern Cordillera (Floresta basin; Saylor et al.,
2011). Modeled apatite fission-track (AFT) data
in the axial Eastern Cordillera constrain initial
cooling in the hanging wall of the Soapaga fault
(west margin of Floresta basin; Fig. 2) between
50 and 30 Ma (Parra et al., 2009b). However,
detrital zircon (U-Th)/He ages for the lower Carbonera Formation (Fig. 11) show no evidence
of rapid Cenozoic exhumation of deeply buried
rocks (below the PRZ). Therefore, we suggest
that by Oligocene time, only the shallowly buried strata in the hanging wall of the Soapaga
thrustnamely, PaleoceneEocene deposits of
the Floresta basin (Fig. 2)were undergoing
uplift and erosion in the axial Eastern Cordillera, shedding sediments eastward into the study
area (Fig. 12B).
(3) For the early Miocene, compositional
and geochronological data from the upper
Carbonera Formation indicate further exhumation in the axial Eastern Cordillera driven
by continued motion along the Soapaga fault
and activation of the Pajarito thrust to the east
(Fig. 12C). Erosional breaching of the Upper
Cretaceous (Guadalupe Group) succession in
the Soapaga thrust sheet is evidenced by the
first appearance of glauconitic detrital grains
(Fig. 8) accompanied by Grenville and other
Proterozoic U-Pb ages (Figs. 10C and 10D)
indicative of derivation from the Cretaceous
section (Horton et al., 2010b). Initial exposure
of Paleogene strata in the Pajarito thrust sheet
is suggested by a drastic increase in sedimentary lithic fragments (Ls) (Fig. 8) together with
a new MesozoicCenozoic U-Pb age signal
(C2 member; Fig. 10D), emblematic of contributions from Paleogene strata (Horton et al.,
2010a). Detrital zircon (U-Th)/He analyses for
the upper Carbonera Formation also show a
drastic decrease in cooling ages by the time of
C2 deposition, consistent with sediment source
areas undergoing rapid, deep exhumation in the
growing orogen (Fig. 11). Paleocurrents are further consistent with an uplifted Andean source
to the west (Fig. 5B).
(4) Exhumation of the Pajarito thrust sheet
in the latest early Miocene to middle Miocene represents an eastward advance of shortening, following preexisting structures. We
suggest that the Paleogene section exposed
by displacement along the Pajarito fault was
largely eroded away by middle Miocene time
71

Bande et al.
72

(Fig. 12D). This interpretation is supported
by evidence for a dominant contribution from
the Cretaceous section, including the lack of
Phanerozoic U-Pb ages in the uppermost (C1)
member of the Carbonera Formation (Fig. 10E),
the relative abundance of glauconitic grains in
C1 sandstone modal compositions (Fig. 8), and
the presence of early Miocene detrital (U-Th)/
He ages. Topographic growth in the hanging
wall of the Pajarito thrust likely transformed
the formerly extensive Floresta basin from an
actively accumulating proximal foreland basin
(foredeep) to an uplifted piggyback (wedgetop) basin (Fig. 12D). Nevertheless, an eastflowing transverse river (Fig. 5B) apparently
maintained an antecedent course across the
growing deformation front, bypassing largely
fine-grained sediments to the Len Formation
in the foreland basin depocenter. This fluvial
system eroded large parts of the Cretaceous section in the Soapaga thrust sheet and most of the
Paleogene section uplifted by the Pajarito fault
(Figs. 12C and 12D). A few young (U-Th)/He
ages of ca. 16 Ma show a continued pattern of
principally Cenozoic cooling (Fig. 11), consistent with exhumation along the Pajarito hanging
wall. Following models for advancing foreland
basins systems (Horton and DeCelles, 1997;
DeCelles and Horton, 2003; Horton, 2011),
we propose that a newly developed foredeep
depozone (recorded by the upper Carbonera and
Len Formations) was situated directly east of
Figure 12. Schematic block diagram showing the Cenozoic evolution of depositional
systems in relationship to fold-thrust deformation in the frontal zone of the Eastern
Cordillera, Colombia. Gray dashed line
identifies the Nuncha (Nu) syncline study
region. (A) Back-bulge deposition of principally fluvial deposits (middle Eocene:
Mirador Formation); (B) axial Eastern
Cordillera uplift and onset of marine deltaic deposition (Oligocene: lower Carbonera Formation); (C) eastward advance
of the deformation front and continued
deltaic deposition (early Miocene: upper
Carbonera Formation); (D) stalled thrust
front with lacustrine-lagoonal deposition
(early-middle Miocene: Len Formation);
(E) thrust-front advance and piggyback
deposition with axial fluvial transport parallel to the growing frontal structure (middle Miocene: lower Guayabo Formation);
and (F) fluvial megafan system with transport perpendicular to frontal structures of
the fold-thrust belt (late MiocenePliocene:
upper Guayabo Formation).
the Pajarito fault, in agreement with increased

sediment accumulation rates (Parra et al., 2010).
(5) The eastward advance of deformation in
the eastern foothills continued during middle
upper Miocene deposition of the lower Guayabo
Formation. By this time, a more-proximal sediment source is suggested by the eastward progradational shift from fine-grained coastal facies
to coarse-grained fluvial deposits (Fig. DR1 [see
footnote 1]) and enhanced proportion of sedimentary lithic fragments (Fig. 7). Zircon U-Pb
age spectra for the lower Guayabo Formation
show an introduction of new Cenozoic ages
(Fig. 10F). We attribute these patterns, along
with the continued trend of youthful (U-Th)/He
ages (Fig. 11), to activation of the Guaicaramo
fault (Fig. 12E), which resulted in exposure
of Upper OligoceneLower Miocene strata in
the elevated highlands of the eastern foothills
(Fig. 12E). This episode of fault propagation
introduced a younger, more-proximal source
of sediment (principally recycled Cenozoic
deposits) and triggered eastward progradation
of deposystems.
(6) Sedimentological and provenance shifts
in middlelate Miocene time are linked to thrust
imbrication in the footwall of the Guaicaramo
fault. The disappearance of MesozoicCenozoic
U-Pb ages in the upper Guayabo Formation
(Fig. 10G) and in modern river sand (Figs. 10H
and 10I) suggests that Paleogene strata have not
been major contributors over the past ~10 m.y.
In the absence of major along-strike variations,
we consider this to be the combined product of
erosional unroofing of most Paleogene rocks
within the Guaicaramo thrust sheet and erosional
recycling of the uppermost basin fill (upper Carbonera and Len Formations) due to activation
of the Yopal imbricate thrust (shortcut fault)
east of the Nuncha syncline (Fig. 12F). Sediment dispersal data (Fig. 6) show that the earlier
east-flowing transverse river system diverted its
course southward, parallel to the main structural
trend. This drainage reorganization and change
in basin configuration denote the formation of
an axial dispersal system within a structurally
controlled wedge-top depozone bounded by the
Yopal thrust (Fig. 12E). The upper Guayabo
Formation exhibits the youngest (U-Th)/He ages
in the Cenozoic succession, consistent with
continued to accelerated rates of exhumation.
Upper Guayabo conglomerates show a dominantly quartzarenitic composition (Fig. 9) and
zircon U-Pb spectra lacking Phanerozoic ages
(Fig. 10G). These observations are consistent
with continued exhumation along the Guaicaramo fault, implying nearly complete removal of
the Cenozoic section and widespread exposure
of the Cretaceous succession in the elevated
interior of the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 12F).
CONCLUSIONS
(1) Sedimentary lithofacies and facies associations identified in the middle Eocene to Pliocene succession of the eastern foothills along
the Eastern CordilleraLlanos basin boundary
in Colombia indicate a transition from marginal
marine to nonmarine clastic deposition within
the northern Andean foreland basin system.
Accumulation took place in tide-dominated deltaic and coastal environments, then relatively
low-energy fluvial systems, with final deposition in a relatively high-energy fluvial system,
possibly a fluvial megafan. Up-section shifts
to more-proximal facies are consistent with
increased proximity to the sediment source area
in the growing Eastern Cordillera fold-andthrust belt.
(2) Compositional provenance information
from sandstone petrographic data and conglomerate clast lithologies show that Cretaceous
and Paleogene strata of the Eastern Cordillera
were the principal sediment sources for the
OligocenePliocene formations of the eastern
foothills. The same data set indicates a cratonic
provenance for the Eocene Mirador Formation,
as supported by paleocurrent orientations. The
compositional provenance data reveal a complex unroofing pattern in which the up-section
proximity of the sediment source is expressed
by an increase in sedimentary lithic fragments
and an increase and then decrease in glauconite
fragments. This provenance trend is inconsistent with simple unroofing of a single thrust
sheet but is compatible with the introduction
of several thrust sheets containing Cretaceous
Cenozoic strata.
(3) Detrital zircon U-Pb ages from the eastern foothills reveal an important age population
shift during the Oligocene. The Eocene age
spectrum is governed by Paleoproterozoic and
Mesoproterozoic ages. In contrast, the Oligocene age distribution shows the first introduction of west-derived clasts in the eastern foothills, implying uplift of the Eastern Cordillera
by at least Oligocene time. Additionally, upsection trends in OligocenePliocene samples
show the appearance and then disappearance
of a MesozoicCenozoic age population. This
provenance trend requires the introduction
of younger rocks in the source area, probably
related to eastward advance of the deformation
front. Detrital zircon (U-Th)/He ages indicate a
substantial change at the OligoceneMiocene
boundary from principally Precambrian
Paleozoic to CretaceousCenozoic ages. The
younger cooling ages identified in Miocene
Pliocene strata are considered to be the product
of rapid exhumation in more-hinterland sectors
of the Eastern Cordillera.
73

Bande et al.
(4) Sediment dispersal patterns in the lower
Guayabo Formation show intriguing variations
that can be related to structural evolution of the
deformation front. The lowermost Guayabo
Formation was deposited by a transverse river
system flowing to the east, as expected for sediment derived from the uplifted Eastern Cordillera. In the upper part of the lower Guayabo
Formation, however, the river system drained
largely southward, parallel to the structure.
This suggests that diversion by a topographic
barrier had developed east of the Nuncha syncline by middlelate Miocene time, probably
related to activation of the easternmost structure (Yopal thrust).
(5) The complex up-section shifts in composition, detrital geochronology, detrital thermochronology, sediment dispersal, and eastward progradation of depositional systems
can be attributed to sequential activation of
thrust-belt structures within the Eastern Cordillera. Oligocene activation of the Soapaga
fault in the axial Eastern Cordillera followed
a period of cratonic provenance in the eastern
foothills. An eastward advance in deformation is recorded in the Lower Miocene section,
implying reactivation of the Pajarito fault. The
eastward younging of exhumation is further
recorded by a later, middlelate Miocene episode involving activation of the Guaicaramo
fault and Yopal thrust (footwall shortcuts),
ultimately forming a wedge-top (piggyback)
basin in the Nuncha syncline along the eastern foothills of the Eastern CordilleraLlanos
basin transition in Colombia.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding was provided by the Instituto Colombiano

del Petrleo (ICP), a division of Ecopetrol, and the
Jackson School of Geosciences as part of a collaborative research agreement between ICP and the University of Texas at Austin. The ICP project Cronologa
de la deformacin en las Cuencas Subandinas provided valuable information and logistical support
during the research. Additional funding was provided
by the Jackson School of Geosciences through fellowship support from ConocoPhillips and the Ronald K.
DeFord Field Scholarship Fund. We thank Jaime Toro,
Andrew Meigs, and David Schofield for constructive
reviews and Joel Saylor, Junsheng Nie, Christopher
Moreno, Javier Snchez, Jorge Rubiano, Germn
Bayona, Ronald Steel, and Richard Ketcham for useful discussions. Isaid Quintero and Jaime Corredor
provided assistance in the field.
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SCIENCE EDITOR: NANCY RIGGS

ASSOCIATE EDITOR: DAVID SCHOFIELD
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REVISED MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED 17 MARCH 2011
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED 10 APRIL 2011
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Clastic deposition, provenance, and sequence of Andean thrusting in

Miocene propagation of a footwall shortcut

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Eastern Cordillera through diverse provenance

Figure 1. Map of northwestern South America illustrating the major tectonomorphic

Phanerozoic time (Cordani et al., 2000). The

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referred to as the eastern foothills (Fig. 2). This

of the Llanos basin. A basal Paleocene succession consists of up to ~700 m of estuarine

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measured section along the eastern limb of the

Quaternary deposits (Qal)

Len Formation (Ml)

Fmeque, Las Juntas

Measured stratigraphic section

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lian ages (1100900 Ma) related to assembly of

Figure 4. Generalized middle Eocene

cies were defined: massive claystone (Fm),

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TABLE 1. LITHOFACIES ASSOCIATIONS AND RELATED LITHOFACIES

sured sections. Finally, in a coastal setting, these

and corresponding overbank areas. The upwardcoarsening progradational character, avulsive

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an important change occurs in paleocurrent

gioclase. Notable accessory minerals include

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Scour and fill structures

Figure 6. Measured stratigraphic sections

Base of Guayabo Fm.

Top of Len Fm.

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a new sediment source closer to the study area,

upper Guayabo Formation. Although many

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DETRITAL ZIRCON U-Pb

U-Pb geochronological analyses were

Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2012

(H) Holocene Cravo Sur River, n=71

(G) Pliocene upper Guayabo, n=104

(F) Middle Miocene lower Guayabo, n=109

(E) Lower Miocene Carbonera C1, n=1

(D) Lower Miocene Carbonera C2, n=78

(C) Lower Miocene Carbonera C5, n=91

(B) Oligocene Carbonera C7, n=82