OHMS LAW: Electric current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely

proportional to resistance; I = E/R.A voltage source, V, drives an electric current, I ,

through resistor, R, the three quantities obeying Ohm's law: V = IR. Ohm's law, named
after its discoverer Georg Ohm [1], states that the potential difference between two points
along a connected path and the current flowing through it are proportional at a given (i.e.,
fixed) temperature.
The POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE is the voltage drop from one point to a second point
within the connected path of a conductor, and is sometimes designated by E or U instead
of V. The unit of resistance is the ohm, which is equal to one volt per ampere, or one voltsecond per coulomb.
ELECTRIC CURRENT: A flow of electricity through a conductor; "the current was
measured in amperes".
VOLT:A unit of potential equal to the potential difference between two points on a
conductor carrying a current of 1 ampere when the power dissipated between the two
points is 1 watt; equivalent to the potential difference across a resistance of 1 ohm when 1
ampere of current flows through it.
VOLTAGE: Voltage is a difference in electrical potential. Although voltage is sometimes
referred to as the electromotive force, voltage is actually a potential difference. Usually
voltage is expressed in volts (V), a unit of electrical measurement named after Italian
physicist Alessandro Volta.
Voltage refers to the difference in electrical potential between two points, not the
electrical potential itself. The difference in electrical potential between two points A and
B is defined as the change in potential energy divided by the charge moved. The change
in potential energy can be thought of as the negative of the work done to move a charge
in an electric field. When a charge q moves in an electric field E from point A to point B,
the work done on the charge by the electric field is qEd, where d is the distance between
points A and B. In this case, the change in potential energy is equal to -qEd. When
thinking about voltage it is useful to use this concept. For instance, if a 12V battery is
connected to two parallel plates, the electric field E between the plates has a magnitude
equal to the difference in potential of the two terminals divided by the plate separation.
The voltage of a system is often measured by a voltmeter. The voltmeter measures the
difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit. Two main types of
voltmeters are the digital and the analog voltmeter. Analog voltmeters are usually based
on the d'Arsonval galvanometer and give voltage readings that can vary over a
continuous range. Analog voltmeters usually have a continuous scale and a pointer that
indicates the voltage. A digital voltmeter yields voltage readings in groups of digits and
has no continuous scale. Digital voltmeters are becoming increasingly popular because of
ease of use and reduced costs in production.
A potentiometer is another useful device that is used to continuously vary the voltage of a
device. It acts as a variable resistor in a circuit. Potentiometers are usually some form of
conductive metal tube or wire that has three terminals. The two resistance terminals are

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attached to the two input voltage conductors of the battery and the other terminal of the
potentiometer, movable with respect to the resistance terminals, is attached to the output
voltage conductor. The distance between the two resistance terminals and the third
terminal can be varied, hence the percentage of the input voltage applied to the circuit. As
well as continuously varying the voltage of a device, the potentiometer can be used to
measure the electrical potential difference of a device. It is sometimes more useful to use
a potentiometer than a voltmeter because the voltmeter itself often draws significant
current.
FREQUENCY:(1)the number of occurrences within a given time period (usually 1
second); "the frequency of modulation was 40 cycles per second".(2) the ratio of the
number of observations in a statistical category to the total number of observations.(3)the
number of observations in a given statistical category.Frequency=Any process that is
repetitive or periodic has an associated frequency. The frequency is the number of
repetitions, or cycles, during a given time interval. The inverse of the frequency is called
the period of the process.
Example=Pendulums, as in a grandfather clock, also have a frequency of a certain
number of swings per minute. A complete oscillation for a pendulum requires the
pendulum bob to start and finish at the same location. Counting the number of these
oscillations during one minute will determine the frequency of the pendulum (in units of
oscillations/minute). This frequency is proportional to the square root of the acceleration
due to gravity divided by the pendulum's length. If either of these are changed, the
frequency of the pendulum will change accordingly. This is why you adjust the length of
the pendulum on your grandfather clock to change the frequency, which changes the
period, which allows the clock to run faster or slower.
Vibrating strings also have an associated frequency. Pianos, guitars, violins, harps, and
any other stringed instrument requires a particular range of vibrational frequencies to
generate musical notes. By changing the frequency, generally by changing the length of
the string, you change the pitch of the note you hear.Light also exhibits the characteristics
of waves; so, it too has a frequency. By changing this frequency, you also change the
associated color of the light wave.
Faraday's law of induction (more generally, the law of electromagnetic induction) states
that a magnetic field changing in time creates a proportional electromotive force.The
relation between the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the surface S enclosed
by a contour C and the electric field along the contour.

where E is the electric field, dl is an infinitesimal element of the contour C and B is the
magnetic flux density. The directions of the contour C and of
are assumed to be
related by the right-hand rule.
Equivalently, the differential form of Faraday's law is
which is one of the Maxwell equations.

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In the case of an inductor coil where the electric wire makes N turns, the formula
becomes:
.where V is the induced electromotive force and d/dt is the
time-rate of change of magnetic flux . The direction of the electromotive force (the
negative sign in the above formula) was first given by Lenz's law.
FARADAYS LAW: along with the other laws of electromagnetism, was later
incorporated into Maxwell's equations, unifying all of electromagnetism.Faraday's law of
induction is based on Michael Faraday's experiments in 1831.
In physics AMPERES LAW discovered by Andr-Marie Ampre, relates the circulating
magnetic field in a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop. It is the
magnetic equivalent of Faraday's law of induction,

ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE:(sometimes Electric impedance) or simply impedance, is

a measure of opposition to a sinusoidal electric current. The concept of electrical
impedance generalizes Ohm's law to AC circuit analysis. Unlike electrical resistance, the
impedance of an electric circuit can be a complex number. Oliver Heaviside coined the
term impedance in July of 1886.

Impedances in a circuit can be

drawn either like boxes or like a jagged wire (like resistors in America and Japan).
INDUCTANCE: Inductance (or electric inductance) is a measure of the amount of
magnetic flux produced for a given electric current. The term was coined by Oliver
Heaviside in February 1886. The SI unit of inductance is the henry (symbol: H). The
symbol L is used for inductance, in honour of the physicist Heinrich Lenz.The inductance
has the following relationship:
where L is the inductance in henries, I is the current in amperes, is the magnetic flux in
webers
Strictly speaking, the quantity just defined is called self-inductance, because the magnetic
field is created solely by the conductor that carries the current.When a conductor is coiled
upon itself N number of times around the same axis (forming a solenoid), the current
required to produce a given amount of flux is reduced by a factor of N compared to a

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single turn of wire. Thus, the inductance of a coil of wire of N turns is given by:
where is the total 'flux linkage'.
CAPACITANCE: An electrical phenomenon whereby an electric charge is stored [syn:
electrical capacity, capacity].Capacitance is an electrical effect that opposes change in
voltage between conducting surfaces separated by an insulator. Capacitance stores
electrical energy when electrons are attracted to nearby but separate surfaces. The voltage
across an unchanging capacitance value will stay constant unless the quantity of charge
stored is changed.
1: an electrical device characterized by its capacity to store an electric charge [syn:
capacitance, condenser, electrical condenser]
A CAPACITOR is an electrical device that can store electrical energy. In this way it is
like a battery; however, unlike a battery, a capacitor has the property of capacitance,
which is the ability to store electric charge and let it out all at once, and it can resist
changes of voltage across its terminals. Capicatance is measures in units of farads, though
typical capacitors have values of picofarads, one trillionth of a farad.
A capacitor consists of two conductors that are separated by a dielectric (insulator). The
larger the surface area of the conductors and the smaller the separation between them, the
larger the capacitance will be. There are two main types of capacitors--variable (which
are tunable) and fixed (which have a single, fixed capacitance). Fixed capacitors, which
comprise the lion's share of the market, come in two types: electrolytic and nonelectrolytic.
The ability to store and control electric charges and currents is essential to modern
electronics. The dielectric inhibits the flow of direct current (DC), but the constant
charging and discharging allows alternating current (AC) to pass. This type of capacitor is
used to couple amplifiers and is known as a blocking, or coupling, capacitor. Electrolytic
capacitors have a very thin dielectric and a high capacitance. Because of their small size
they are very well-suited for modern electronics, but they do have a disadvantage in that
they have a high leakage of current. They are used as electronic filters to rectify AC
(convert AC to DC). Electrolytic capacitors are also used in electronic photographic
strobe units. There is a great variety of uses for capacitors. They are used in ignition
systems to reduce arcing.
Kirchhoff's circuit laws are a pair of laws that deal with the conservation of charge and
energy in electrical circuits, and were first described in 1845 by Gustav Kirchhoff.
Widely used in electrical engineering, they are also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply
Kirchhoff's laws (see also Kirchhoff's laws for other meanings of that term).

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Kirchhoff's current law

i1 + i4 = i2 + i3
This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's junction
rule, and Kirchhoff's first rule.The principle of conservation of electric charge implies
that.at any point in an electrical circuit where charge density is not changing in time, the
(sum of currents flowing towards that point is equal to the sum of currents flowing
away from that point)
A charge density changing in time would mean the accumulation of a net positive or
negative charge, which typically cannot happen to any significant degree because of the
strength of electrostatic forces: the charge buildup would cause repulsive forces to
disperse the charges.However, a charge build up can occur in a capacitor, where the
charge is typically spread over wide parallel plates, with a physical break in the circuit
that prevents the positive and negative charge accumulations over the two plates from
coming together and cancelling. In this case, the sum of the currents flowing into one
plate of the capacitor is not zero, but rather is equal to the rate of charge accumulation.
However, if the displacement current dD/dt is included, Kirchhoff's current law once
again holds. (This is only required if one wants to apply the current law within the
capacitor. In circuit analyses, however, the capacitor as a whole is typically treated as a
unit, in which case the ordinary current law holds since the net charge is always zero.)
Kirchhoff's voltage law

v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0
This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop rule, and Kirchhoff's
second rule. It is a consequence of the principle of conservation of energy.
The principle of conservation of energy implies that:
The directed sum of the electrical potential differences around a circuit must be zero.
(Otherwise, it would be possible to build a perpetual motion machine that passed a
current in a circle around the circuit.)

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This law has a subtlety in its interpretation, because in the presence of a changing
magnetic field the electric field is not conservative and it cannot therefore define a pure
scalar potentialthe line integral of the electric field around the circuit is not zero.
Equivalently, energy is being transferred from the magnetic field to the current (or vice
versa). In order to "fix" Kirchhoff's voltage law for this case, an effective potential drop,
or electromotive force (emf), is associated with the inductance of the circuit, exactly
equal to the amount by which the line integral of the electric field is not zero by faradays
law of induction.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:The production of an electromotive force either
by motion of a conductor through a magnetic field in such a manner as to cut across the
magnetic flux or by a change in the magnetic flux that threads a conductor. If the flux
threading a coil is produced by a current in the coil, any change in that current will cause
a change in flux, and thus there will be an induced emf while the current is changing.
This process is called self-induction. The emf of self-induction is proportional to the rate
of change of current.
The process by which an emf is induced in one circuit by a change of current in a
neighboring circuit is called mutual induction. Flux produced by a current in a circuit A
threads or links circuit B. When there is a change of current in circuit A, there is a change
in the flux linking coil B, and an emf is induced in circuit B while the change is taking
place. Transformers operate on the principle of mutual induction.example:Coupled
circuits; Generator; Induction heating; Microphone; Motor; Servomechanism.
COULOMBS LAW: In the special case of a spherical surface with a central charge, the
electric field is perpendicular to the surface, with the same magnitude at all points of it,
giving the simpler expression.

where E is the electric field strength at radius r, Q is the enclosed charge, and 0 is the
permitivity of free space. Thus the familiar inverse-square law dependence of the electric
field in Coulomb's law follows from Gauss's law
PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT: The production of a voltage between opposite sides of a
piezoelectric crystal as a result of pressure or twisting. Also the reverse effect which the
application of a voltage to opposite sides causes a deformation to occur at the frequency
of the applied voltage. (Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and electrical
energy into mechanical energy.)
SENSOR: is a type of transducer. Direct-indicating sensors, for example, a mercury
thermometer, are human-readable. Other sensors, such as a thermocouple, only produce
an output voltage or other electrical output which must be interpreted by another device
(such as a computer). Most sensors are electrical or electronic.
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