Running Head: INCREASING EFFECTIVENESS IN SECOND LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION FOR MISSIONARIES

Increasing Effectiveness in Second Language Acquisition for Missionaries

A Preliminary Investigation

By Tony Abiera
INTR 573
11/21/16

Abstract
Upon arrival to the field, one of the primary tasks of the cross-cultural missionary, if not
the most important task, is to learn the local language. In fact, the effectiveness and lasting
impact of ones ministry in an overseas context heavily depends on the progress made in the
language, especially in the crucial first years of service on the field. However, the pre-field
training and literature on this important subject for missionaries is surprisingly lacking. This
qualitative research paper seeks to answer this fundamental question: what factors lead to more
successful second language learning? Through the collection of data from missionaries and
linguists, significant features will be presented to offer a better and more effective way forward
in this important process of learning a second language for missionary work.

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Introduction
To be called as a missionary to the nations is a very high calling. When I say a high
calling, I dont mean a better callingfor whatever God calls you to is the best calling for your
life. The missionary calling is a high calling because a missionary is the primary, if not the first,
point of contact for many peoples of the world with an ambassador of Christ. Missionaries play
an important role in the spread of the Gospel and it is a great privilege to be a frontline
ambassadors of Christ. Although there are many niches in missionary work today, generally
speaking, missionaries are tasked with building relationships with local peoples, sharing the
Gospel, and developing disciples of Christ through the establishment a local church.
When you really stop and think about the task of traditional missionary work laid out
above, there are numerous challenges and difficulties that confront a missionary and are a normal
part of living cross-culturally and in a religiously pluralistic society. Because of this, there is
great wisdom in preparing for the mission field. Often preparation for the mission field focuses
on the aspects of growing in knowledge of the Word of God, cross-cultural competency, and
practical skills of evangelization and ministry. Although these aspects are important (I even
believe they should be prioritized in missionary preparation), often the aspect of language
learning is often overlooked. In one of the most comprehensive and hands-on pre-field
missionary preparation books Ive come across, the Global Missions Handbook: A Guide for
Crosscultural service, veteran missionaries Steve Hoke and Bill Taylor (2009) discuss in-depth
important topics in missions like prioritizing personal spiritual formation, staying connected with
a sending church and engaging with other cultures. However, not a single chapter (or even page)
deals with the topic of language learning on the field. Although this topic might not have been

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included in the scope of this book, this example reveals an obvious void in the literature of
missionary preparation books: language learning on the field.
Not only is this void found in the literature, I would argue this piece of the puzzle gets
lost in formal missionary preparation programs at churches and/or pre-field trainings for
missions agencies. It is assumed that youll learn the language when you get there. Its assumed
that one will pick up the language on the way. Its assumed that fluency is just a quick one or
two years away. Although this might be true for some people when they reach the field, there are
many people that struggle greatly with the task of language learning and sometimes have to
come off the field after the first term. So we must ask, are there things that can be done
beforehand to better prepare pre-field missionaries for the important task of language learning,
especially in the first few crucial years of intense change and challenge on the field?
Being a pre-field missionary myself, this topic has personal significance to me. As one
who wants to grow in all areas for future effectiveness as a missionary, the purpose of this paper
is to assess the complexities of language learning as it relates to the missionarys life and offer a
better way forward for success in language learning. In this paper I will present my preliminary
findings on the topic of second language acquisition (referred to as SLA from this point
forward). I hope to start filling the void that is currently present in this area of language learning
research especially for missionaries.
Methodology
This qualitative research paper seeks to answer this fundamental question: what factors
lead to more successful second language learning? To answer this complex question, data was
gathered in the form of three interviews with two missionaries and an applied linguist, a
participant observation of an online second language acquisition course, an online survey to a

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group of missionaries, and a review of key literature regarding the topic of second language
acquisition generally and also specifically for missionaries.
I began this qualitative study by conducting interviews with current missionaries. For
these interviews, I prepared a question sheet (Appendix C), which I sent to the missionaries
before our interview. In these interviews, I was interested in gathering data in two main areas:
their comparison to past SLA experiences (usually in high school or college and in the context of
the American educational system) and their reflection on their most recent SLA experience on
the field. In this first area, I hoped to understand expectations of language learning for
missionaries based on what they experienced in the past. Missionaries often bring various
expectations into the SLA process without even knowing it and usually their past language
learning experiences are a big influence of those expectations. In the second area, I asked these
two missionaries to reflect especially on pitfalls and keys in their most recent language
learning experience. By asking both a negative and positive question based on their personal
experience, I hoped to pinpoint what factors could actually lead to more successful SLA.
The first interview that I conducted was with a current missionary, Cathy Gallagher.
Cathy currently lives in Thailand and has been on the field for over ten years (the majority of
those years spent in North West China). Cathys insights were not only valuable because of her
veteran experience as a missionary, but they were especially valuable because she is currently
involved in SLA training for other missionaries. As part of her ministry, she works as a phonetics
coach with the Institute of Cross-Cultural Training (ICCT). The second missionary I interview
was Tyler Harrison, who is on home assignment after his first term on the field in Northwest
China. In contrast to Cathy Gallagher, in this second interview I was interested in a fresher
perspective of someone who was currently in the important first years of language learning.

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Although Tyler had only been on the field for two years and didnt consider himself fluent in
Mandarin Chinese (his target language), he still provided valuable data on the SLA process.
The next interview I conducted was with Dr. Lonna Dickerson, the director of the ICCT.
Again, I prepared a questions sheet, which I sent to Dr. Dickerson before our interview
(Appendix C). The goal of this interview was to learn specifically about the ICCT SLA course
and its effects on missionaries. The questions in this interview shed light on the felt-needs of
missionaries (and how the SLA course seeks to address those needs), the main pitfalls
missionaries face (which in turn necessitate this SLA course), and the positive results shes
observed after missionaries take this course. Dr. Dickerson has spent a good portion of her
academic career in the area of SLA. She has applied her research to the specific demographic of
missionaries, which makes her the perfect expert to speak into the issues presented in this paper.
After conducting these interviews, I conducted a participant observation of the ICCTs
SLA Course for Beginning Learners. After being given access to the course by Dr. Dickerson, I
began to observe all the dimensions of the course over the course of an hour (Additional
Materials Section). Because this course is administered online, this participant observation could
not take into account real-time missionary learning like in a normal classroom. Instead, through
the mediation of technology, I was able to observe the static elements of the course like the
structure, emphases, and assignments.
Next, I conducted an online survey through the platform of google forms. This online
survey was sent to missionaries from a variety of backgrounds. On one end of the spectrum, I
received data from a couple who just started learning Portuguese nine months ago; on the other
of the spectrum, I received data from a couple who served in the Philippines and Papua New
Guinea for over 25 years! I received 14 responses in total, which were all confidential and not

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connect to a specific name (Additional Materials Section). The format of this survey mirrored the
missionary interview question format. Although the information from the interviews was much
more in-depth, the brief responses from the survey helped to bring out and confirm trends and
commonalities over a variety of missionary experiences.
Literature Review
The interviews, participant observation, and online survey helped influence what articles
would be included in my literature review. I was able to focus my attention on SLA research that
dealt with the major trends and commonalities revealed through these various data sources. In
my literature review, the foundational article that greatly increased my understanding of the
complexities of second language learning was Individual Differences in Second Language
Acquisition by Zoltn Drnyei (2006). In this article, Drnyei provides an overview of the five
most important ID [individual difference] variables (personality, aptitude, motivation, learning
styles, and learning strategies) (p. 42).
Drnyeis overview of the five most important ID variables caught my attention because
I knew learning preferences, styles, strategies, etc., varied greatly from one missionary to
another. Although there are general principles that can be applied to SLA, there is not a magic
bullet or magic profile to learning a language. Individuality in language learning is a
necessity. Drnyei believes that these variables can be helpful predictors of success in SLA, so it
is immensely important that missionaries become self-aware and leverage their specific learning
profile for more effective language learning. Drnyei concludes with two main findings that
bring further enlightenment to the complex issue of SLA for missionaries. First, these individual
differences are not found in isolation, but are intricately tied to context. For example, Drnyei
discusses the ID variable of motivation in language learning and how a situated approach is

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needed (p. 51). In the seminal research done by Robert Gardner (1985), he put forward a theory
regarding integrative motives in language learning. Essentially, he argued that a major
motivation for learning a language was to successfully integrate into a group and become a
valued member of that community. Outside of motivation, all these major variables need to be
situated within the language learners context. Second, Drnyeis research concluded that these
variables work in concert with one another, rather than in isolation (p. 62). A misguided
paradigm is that certain IDs should lead to certain outcomes. Instead, Drnyei advocates for
approaching the topic of ID of a learner in more of a comprehensive way.
Out of the five ID variables, I chose to further research the topic of motivation. In H.
Douglas Browns (1990) article M&Ms for Language Classroom? Another look at motivation, I
wanted to learn more about intrinsic motivation in SLA. In this article Brown argued in the
greater effectiveness of intrinsic motivation in comparison to extrinsic motivation (ex. giving
M&Ms as a reward to students). By intrinsically motivating students in the classroom, students
become empowered, self-determined, and autonomous to ultimately achieve self-actualization
(Maslow 1970). Through content-centered language learning, students become intrinsically
motived by learning content that is of interest and relevant for instrumental purposes. As a result,
Brown says that Language becomes incidental to and a vehicle for accomplishing a set of
content goals (p. 390). In the next section (significant features), we will see how this type of
intrinsic motivation is highly applicable to missionaries in learning a language.
Lastly, I looked at two SLA articles that were more specific to a missionary audience:
Basic Assumptions for Language and Culture Learners (Dickerson, 2011) and Successful
Language Learning in Midlife (Hale, 2005). Both of these articles were found in the ICCTs
SLA Handbook. As mentioned in the introduction, there is a significant gap in the literature

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regarding SLA for missionaries. However, these two short but straightforward articles provided
helpful guidelines for approaching SLA as a missionaryeven approaching this task midlife,
which presents its own difficulties and challenges.
Although the bulk of these articles were not necessarily from a Christian or missionary
perspective, they did shed light on the process of SLA in general. Thinking of SLA from a
Christian/missionary perspective adds another dimension to SLA (which will be discussed in the
significant features section), but research done in the professional realm can still be meaningfully
applied.
Significant Features
1. Dealing with the tension between language learning and ministry
To start the discussion of significant features, Ive chosen a dimension that is specific to
missionaries. When a missionary reaches the field, the language learning process begins
immediately. However, at the same time, the opportunities for ministry start to abound. After
going through the rigorous process of support raising and moving ones life to the other side of
the world, the natural tendency is to jump right into ministry. Although this is a good desire, the
missionary must deal effectively with the tension between language learning and ministry from
day one.
By asking missionaries about pitfalls in SLA, this tension was immediately apparent.
Cathy Gallagher noted that her agency prioritized ministry over language learning, which lead to
difficulties. I think my team, the time with Crusade [Cru], the focus was more on the ministry
we were doing, rather than how well we were doing at the language. In addition, the missionary
survey contained comments like didnt prioritize or too distracted when it came to learning

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the second language. Similarly, one missionary mentioned entering ministry too early which
crowded out the chance to stay focused on language learning.
Tyler Harrison provided a helpful personal account regarding how ministry and language
learning positively interacted with each other. I found out for me personally, the more time I
spent in the classroomthe more I felt pushed to go out and start sharing with the people in the
community. And the more I was out there and seeing that I don't have the language ability to do
that, the more it pushed me back into the classroom to really study hard and really keep pressing
into language. For Tyler, ministry and language learning worked in tandem. To do ministry, he
knew he needed learn the language. To learn the language, he knew the best place to practice his
language was in the communitywhere he could also do ministry. Ministry and language
learning were not pitted against each other; instead synergy was created. From a more
threatening point of view, two missionaries noted how their director told them that either they
would learn Romanian or they would be sent home! Although this statement might be too bold
for some, the director actually understood how language learning was integral for ministry in
Romania; you couldnt do one without the other. Surprisingly, the missionary noted that the high
standard increased his/her motivation to learn Romanian!
2. Learning inside and outside the classroom (and other external factors)
This significant finding can be explained by a quote from Dr. Dickerson. When asked to
describe felt-needs of missionary language learners, she responded, I would say for people
going out, for the first time, if they don't have language learning experience outside the
classroom in North Americathey tend to think language learning on the field is going to be like
taking a French class or a German class in high school or college. This quote brings up two very
important points to consider. First, what expectations do missionary language learners bring with

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them to the field? Do they expect their language learning to be like past language learning
experiences (like a French or German class three days a week for an hour)? On the survey, one
missionary said, I discovered too late that the classroom setting was not the place for me.
Second, based on the data collected from fourteen missionaries and two interviewees, all but two
would say they did not successfully learn their foreign language or even remember it today. We
must then ask, what unhelpful techniques and beliefs do missionaries bring to the field with them
in regards to learning a second language? Perhaps, a whole new system and paradigm of learning
a second language is needed for some missionaries. Basing expectations on past experiences of
learning a foreign language can be extremely problematic and lead to major problems in reaching
the target goal of fluency and communicative competency in the local language.
This significant finding even goes beyond the scope of the classroom. The data shows
that the main issue is learning how to learn (interview with Tyler). This is confirmed through
the approach of the ICCT SLA course. In the introduction to the course, learners are reminded
that the responsibility for learning rest with you. Dr. Dickerson also hits on this point when she
notes that the first biggest pitfall is that learners dont understand that self-directed learning is
necessary. [Learners] just don't realize the whole learner responsibility [aspect], which is sort of
my first pointthe different things learners do to carry out that responsibility is not on the
institution or agency, but rather on the learner. The educational system overseas can be
drastically different than ones educational upbringing. Because of this likely reality, a learner
needs to be self-directed and take steps to customize/individualize ones learning on the field.
For Cathy, the structure provided in a classroom was necessary for her. For Tyler, the instruction
in the classroom was of low-quality and in opposition with his learning styles.

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As Drnyei argued above, these important external and contextual factors intersect with
individual differences in a learner. Thus, learners need to be aware of what works best for them
and then find an effective approach to learning the language. This will take some trial and error,
but this mindset prevents learners from being stuck in an unhelpful approach for a prolonged
period of time. Lastly, according to Brown (1990), learning how to learn helps to intrinsically
motivate a learner. We can teach learners how to learn. We can help them to be empowered
learners, to take some responsibility for their own success by actually providing them with a
sense of what a strategy is and how they can develop some of their own strategies (p. 389).
3. Sustaining motivation in language learning (and other internal factors)
Missionaries go through a variety of stages in the language learning process. In my
interview with Dr. Dickerson, she noticed a common trend with missionaries who had been on
the field for a while, but were having trouble learning the language. If they have been on the
fielda month or two or threemotivation can be very, very high but then they are essentially
yelling, Help! Help! I don't know what to do. As a result, these learners who had fallen into a
rut were directed to take the ICCTs SLA course. What we know is that the language learning
process has many ups and downs and twists and turns. To summarize her journey in learning
Uyghur over the course of ten years, Cathy told me this: I kind of feel like the shortest distance
between two dots is a straight line, but no ones language study is a straight line. Mine was kind
of like a, you know, back and forth, here and there and making circles. Because language
learning is so complex and different for everyone, missionaries need to persevere in the process
even when things get difficult. Motivation provides that sustaining power.
Based on the data collected, especially from the interviews I conducted, the issue of
motivation in the SLA process seemed to come up consistently. Cathy mentioned this as the first

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key to her learning Uyghur. I really wanted to learn Uyghur and I also, I love[d] being with
Uyghur people and spending time with them and I really knew that when I started Uyghur, I
knew that I already liked language learning. I think motivation counts for a lot... Cathys insight
here relates to integrative and instrumental motivation in language learning as theorized by
Gardner (1985). Cathy wanted to be able to learn the language so she could 1) integrate into the
Uyghur community and 2) use it as an instrument to build relationships for the Gospel to enter.
In my interview with Tyler, as one last piece of advice for pre-field missionaries he also
mentioned motivation. In regards to language learning I would say, learn what motivates you or
what gets you excited and continue to set that before you. The more you can keep your
motivation in front of you, the more you have to dig into the language and to keep on going.
In Drnyeis article, the L2 motivational self system (Drnyei, 2005) was presented as
a main conceptualization for motivation in SLA. Although none of the missionaries mentioned
this specific idea, their data points to this specific motivation conceptualization. In learning a
second language, the ideal L2 selfrepresents all the attributes that a person would like to
possess (e.g. hopes, aspirations, desires) (p.53). At the same time, the ought-to L2 self is also
present and refers to the attributes that one believes one ought to possess (p.53). In this system,
the language learner then works to reduce the perceived discrepancies between the learners
actual self and his/her ideal or ought-to L2 selves (p. 54). Missionaries can use this
conceptualization to understand how to better leverage intrinsic motivation (viewing ones self)
for more effective language learning.

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Conclusion
In the years to come, I hope more research is conducted in the area of Second language
acquisition for missionaries. Although this is an extremely complex subject without a magic
methodology or a one-size-fits-all approach, we can learn greatly from the general field of
SLA and apply those principles to the specific demographic of missionaries in a variety of
contexts. For this to happen, missions agencies, churches, and missionaries themselves need to
take the language learning process more seriously and view it more as an integral piece of the
puzzle in accomplishing the Great Commissionthe ultimate goal of every missionary and
Christian.
In this preliminary study, I have presented three main features. First, the unique tension
between ministry and language learning that missionaries experience from day one on the
field. As a recommendation, I believe this tension must be talked about before reaching the field
as well as on the field. How a missionary navigates this tension can ultimately lead to success or
failure in the long run. Second, missionaries need to know how they learn best. Individuality and
self-direction in learning are required for successful SLA. These factors can include whether to
learn inside or outside a classroom, different styles and strategies for learning, or just the
expectations ones brings from past foreign language experiences. Lastly, motivation plays a
major part in sustaining the missionary through the twists and turns in the language learning
process.
As a better and more effective way forward in SLA for missionaries, we must tap into the
wealth of resources from SLA experts (Christian and non-Christian) and the wealth of
experience of those who have gone before us and successfully learned a language and made a
Gospel impact as a result. After acquiring all this data, the hope is that a better and more

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effective way forward will materialize for those who aspire to learn a second language for the
sake of missions.
Limitations of the Study
Although this is just a preliminary study on the topic of SLA for missionaries, there were
certain limitations with this study. First, to encourage more thick description, I would have
conducted more interviews with missionaries. Additional in-depth interviews could have shed
more light on this complex topic as well as confirm or refine the significant features presented in
this preliminary study. Furthermore, gathering data from a broader and more diverse range of
sources would have increased the validity of this study. The data collected for this preliminary
study centered around data from the Institute of Cross-Cultural Learning (interviews with Dr.
Dickerson, Cathy Gallagher and the participant observation). Although this data was most
accessible for me at the time, an expansion of this study would require gathering data from other
institutes (ex. the Center of Intercultural Training, North Carolina), other experts in the field, and
even missionaries from a non-western background (or even English-speaking background).
There were limitations in the use of terminology for this preliminary study. Important
terminology like keys, pitfalls, and even the idea of success in language learning would
need to be clearly defined and developed more systematically. Although many people know what
these terms mean in a general sense, a more precise definition could result in more accurate data
analysis. Lastly, time was a limitation. A more prolonged engagement with the content could
produce a more robust research paper.

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Appendix A: Coding System Explained

The structure of the interviews influenced the coding system used for analyzing the data
for this study. The two major categories were pitfalls and keys. After reading the transcripts
and survey results, I began to come up with codes to describe the main features in the data. These
codes included: agency support, classroom, expectations, motivation (sub-codes: intrinsic,
extrinsic, instrumental, integrative), family, immersion, individuality, ministry, pacing, past
experiences, self-awareness/self-directed, strategies, styles, tutor. After coding the data, I looked
for frequency of each occurrence as well as the quality or substance of each occurrence. A
sample screenshot from the interview with Tyler Harrison is below for reference.

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Appendix B: Observation & Interview Record

Time

Date

Description

7:00 8:00 pm

9/21/2016

Interview with Cathy Gallagher over Vsee. Cathy was 13

hours ahead in Chiang Mail, Thailand. This interview was
recorded, transcribed and coded.

7:00 8:00 pm

10/6/2016

Interview with Dr. Lonna Dickerson over Skype. This

interview was recorded, transcribed and coded.

7:30 8:00 pm

11/5/2016

Interview with Tyler Harrison in person at my personal

residence. Tyler was on a home assignment. This
interview was recorded, transcribed and coded.

N/A

11/2/2016 11/11/2016

Online google survey sent to missionary contacts. These

contacts were friends, family, or acquaintances through
my work at College Church.

Appendix C: Questionnaires and Surveys

Interview Questions - Missionary
Basic Information
1. Where do you currently live? How long have you lived there? (If on home assignment or
back in the States, please share where you have been serving and for how long.)
2. What language do you consider your second language? How long have you studied this
language? How long did it take you to feel fluent in the language (if applicable)?
Comparison to Past SLA Experiences
3. Have you studied any other languages in the past? In grade school, high school, or any
other time? What language(s) did you learn (if applicable)?
4. Did you successfully learn this language or still remember it today?

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Reflective SLA Questions

5. In your opinion, what were some of the keys to you successfully learning your L2?
6. In your opinion, what were some pitfalls that hindered you from successfully learning
your L2?
-Tonys foundational qualitative research question:
What factors lead to more successful language learning?

Interview Questions Dr. Dickerson

Goal: To Learn about the ICCT SLA Course and its effects on SLA for missionaries
Research Question: What factors lead to more successful language learning?
1. What courses does the ICCT offer?
2. What types of participants have gone through the ICCT SLA course? (Age, location,
agency, professions, etc.)
3. From your perspective, what felt-needs does the SLA course seek to fill?
4. In your experience in this field, what are the biggest/most common pitfalls youve seen
trip up missionaries?

Online Survey for Missionaries

Dear missionary friends,
Thank you for taking a few minutes to fill out this quick survey regarding second language
acquisition (SLA) for missionaries. I am doing this research project for a course in the
TESOL/Intercultural Studies Program in the Wheaton College Graduate School. This research
project also has personal significant to me as I hope to implement these findings in my future
language studies.
Please answer as fully and honestly as possible. This information will be kept confidential and no
names will be used.
Thank you again. If you have any questions, please contact me at tabiera@college-church.org or
tony.abiera@my.wheaton.edu
**Questions and result from the survey are found in additional materials section**

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Appendix D: Documents Relevant to Study

Brown, H. Douglas. (1990). M&Ms for Language classrooms? Another Look at Motivation.
Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics, pp. 383-393.
Dickerson, Lonna. (2011). Basic Assumptions for Language and Culture Learners. Institute of
Cross-Cultural Training Second Language Acquisition Handbook.
Drnyei, Zoltn. (2006). Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition. Association
Internationale de Linguistique (AILA) Review, pp. 42-68.
Hale, Colleen. (2005). Successful Language Learning in Midlife. Institute of Cross-Cultural
Training Second Language Acquisition Handbook.
Hoke, Steve & Taylor, Bill. (2009). Global Mission Handbook: A Guide for Crosscultural
Service. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

Appendix E: Lay Summary

Tony Abiera is a graduate student in the TESOL & Intercultural Studies program at the
Wheaton College Graduate School. Before coming to Wheaton, he completed his bachelors
degree at the University of Illinois: Champaign-Urbana as a Global Studies Major with a focus
on China and Mandarin Chinese. Tony also has experience work in the local church (Christ
Community in Champaign, IL and College Church in Wheaton, IL). With his unique background
in church ministry and teaching, Tony seeks to integrate faith in teaching to further the Kingdom
of Christ. In the near future, him and his wife hope to serve overseas to do missionary work
amongst unreached peoples.

Additional Materials