Micromorphology

of Mineral Alteration

and Weathering

Also in this series

EDCJclopedia if Mineral Names

VI/. H. Blackburn & VI/. H. Dennen
Special Publication 1
Glossary if Mineral Synonyms
J. de Fourestier
Special Publication 2

icromorphology
of Mineral Alteration
and Weathering
Jean E. Delvigne

- 9 NOV. 1998

The Canadian Mineralogist

-~"",r-i

MIneralogical
ABsod.iltlon of canada

Associallon
du

mln~ralogique

C~nada

CR51l~
editions

Caption (!.j' the phntnmi roHraph

on thcfronl or r

J 11

1'11'"11 1 1'I11l 1'1" ,I; 1'1

illustrates some of the

most common patterns of weathering observed

within partly weathered primary minerals. A subheclral crystal of ol1:hopyroxene is partly weathered to
greenish yellow sme,tite arrangcc..l in a subparallcl
banded texture" The rtrst rormed smectite is devel-

EDITOJ\

Rub(;!"t F. Martin

aped from transverse fractures; numerollS denticulate

COVER M~D TEXT DESIGl'ER

remnants of orthopFoxenc are still preserved writh.in

the alteromorph. Further weathering induces the
developmeJlt of iron oxyhydroxides, either by de.gra-

Pouliot GlIay I:,'raphistes

DE,KTOP PUBLISHER

Inl"o 1000

Mot.~ ine.

PHOTOCNGJ\AVER AND

dation of the prev;ously Formed smectite or by ciirect

weathering of' the orthopyroxene residues. Further
explanations are given in the caption to photomicrographs 141

anu

142.

PRINTER

Litho Acml~ Prescom

PUBLISHER

jVlint~r'llogical Association of Canada

P.O. Box 78087

Mcriline Postal Outlet
1460 Merivale Road
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K2E 1B1
e-mail: c-anmin.mac.ottawa@ympatico.ca
11'

C()LL'\BOR.~nON

WITH

ORSTOM
lnsLitut fran~-ais de recherche scientiJlgllc
pOW" le Je\'doppemenL en Cooperation
213. rue La Faycttc
75480 Pa.ris, France
e-mail: diJfusion@.boncly.orsLOm.fr

All rights n>sen'ed. No part of this book may be reproduced

or traosmjtted in an)' form and means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording. or any informaLion ~torage and retrieval system, without permission in
wriLing from U)c publisher.
Printed in Canada
Copyright 1998 Mi.neralogical Association of Canada
ISBN 0-921294-43-3
(Mineralogical Association of Canada, Canada)
ISBN 2-7099-1420-4 (ORSTOM, FranCt')

Preamble

I' \ 1/<' . \\1 I Ius emerged as a major

locus of research in the natural sciences. In
many universities, for example the one in
which I teach, multidisciplina.ry teams arc
busy developing new curricula in the emiron.mental
sciences to meet the challenges of modem society.
Mineralogy is at the fordi-ont in these programs,
because of the focus on near-surface interactions
involving rocks, soil, water, air and living organisms.

blages. A non-genetic terminology is developed to

facilitate textural classifications and communication of
findings. To a student of mineralogy and petrology,
the book i1lustntes the passage from familiar territory
to uncharted "vaters, the field of activity of soil scientists and agronomists. Of course, to the second group,
it is the beginning of the book that is less familiar territory. But to both audiences, trUlleralogy evidently
play.s a key role and is a common language.

Mineralogists and petrologists in general have an

excellent understanding of the way igneous and metamorphic rocks form, at temperatures as high as
12000 C and at pressures representative of the middle
or lower crust. On the contrary, by and large, mineralogists and petrologists have a poor grasp of the way
rocks and mjnerals respond to their near-sUI-face environment. Once these rocks begin a trajectory toward
the surface as a result of tectonic forces, the rockforming minerals generally leave their field of stability,
and important adjustments set in. Secondary minerals
appear, but Inineralogical research is fraught with diJficuJty. The newly fOI-mea assemblages commonly are
very ADe grained, and thus diHlcult to investigate
guantjtatively except by high-resolution microbl~aru
technigues. The rocks are flsslIred, and the geochcmi.
cal systems involve circulating water; the stage is set
for open-system behavior, with all the complexities
that an open system entails. The tl"mpn'ature of reaction is so low that non-eguilibrium assemblages of
minerals are H~ry mucb the norm.

The Mineralogical Association of Canada, in collaboration \Vitll ORSTOM, is proud to bring you tll.is
Alias if ,l-JicromorpholoBY c:F Mineral I1heraUon and Weatherins. It represents the distilled pearls of wisdom of a
master in the fIeld. I have learoed a great deal in working with Jean Delvigne to make this book a reality. I
now look at igneous and met.lf11orphic rocks in thin
section from a new perspective, and with new insight.
I acknowledge the in.flueoce of Fran~ois Soubies, environmental mi.neralogist and mineral collector extraordinaire, an employee of ORSTOM formerly at the
Laboratojre de Mineralogk, Universitc Paul-Sabatier,
in Toulouse. Thanks to him, and to his enthusiasm, I
fIrst met the author, and learned about tlle wealtll of
information in the completed manuscript that became
tllis book. Vicki Loschiavo helped me to cope with
chapters and figure captions, and to deal with competing commitments. I was ver)' fortunate to count on tlle
same creati.ve team that produced our SpeCial Publica(;on Number I: PielTette Tremblay, Publicity Coordinator of the Mineralogical Association of Canada, Michel
Guay, and Jean-Claude Cote. I hope that whoevel- is in
tllC audjencc, soil scientist, clay mineralogist, economic geologist, agronomist, or petrologist, wi1l find
here new insight into the multifarious paths that rocks
take to adjust to tllcir new surroundjngs near the
Eal1:h's sUI-face.

I rl

Each rock-fol-ming mineral has a story to tell. Furthermore, much information about the starting point
in these transformations emerges from a study of the
rock's textural attl-ibutes. One must simply be shown
what to look for in Ol-del" to l"Ccognize the clues. In this
book, Jean Delvigne patiently t;]kes the reader along
unfamiliar paths. At tllt' beginning of this atlas, the
rocks all look veil' familiar, as the adjustments are
incipient. Then, as one progresses through tllC book,
the roch look less and less familiar, until virtually
nothing is left of the original high-temperaturl' a~sem-

Robert F. Martin
Professor, Department of Earth
and Planetary Sciences, McGi11 University
Editor, The Canadian .Mineralogis(

Preface

1'1' :It/m of Micromorpho/"8J' ~r k/ineral it/tcrarion

and Jf'emherina, Jean Delvignc pw\,jdes a compre-

hensh'e statement of problems and a swmnary of

present understanding of weathering, applied to
some remarkable West Amcan and Brazilian examples, His complete coverage is representative of the
petrographic- approach in the study of lateritic
alterites, The book ditfers from others in the study of
the petrography of weathering by presenting first the
rocks, with their inheritance of hydrothermal alteration, Then he describes in great detail the relationship
between parent minerals and the products of their
weathering, He makes use of abW1dant and exceptional
illustrations of thin sections, Thi~ documentation is of
paramow1t importance for students and non-specialists; it allows them (0 wlderstand the complexity of
such near-surface phenomena, The terminology used
in this book is simplified for microscopic descriptions,
At first glance, it may appear esoteric, but it seIV'es to
characterize structures, textures and interrelations
among minerals in altelites and soils,
Every method starb with a few simpJe concepts,
proceeds through a period of growth with increasing
sophistication, and finally reaches a stage of synthesis,
at which point case histories can be discllssed and compared, So it is ,..-ith the geochemistry of weathering,
Several important developments in our W1derstilnding

of this field have occurred in tJle last few years, But in

most instances, geochemists operate "bUndJy" in that
they typically do not take petrographic descriptions
into consideration, an approach that can lead to inconsistent inferences, TIle inconsistencies arise because of
the failure to properly observe and W1derstand textural
and mineralOgical modifications in the microenvironments of weathering profiles, This book thus also
shou.ld enlighten geochemists working on weathering
processes,
A single voltU11e cannot possibly cover all the
facets of the complex problems involved, However,
with the help of the excellent examples chosen by the
autJlOr, the book gives a good overview of the main
problems of weathering, and speciJ:ically provides
insight into the way parent minerals weather, the
nature of weathering products, and their variability in
a venica.l profile and in a lateral sequence, In my opinion, this book will serve as a guide to students, geochenlists, geologists, soil scientists, geomorphologists,
and environmental scientists concerned with the basic
concepts and recent trends in research on the processes
of weatJ1ering, especially in humid tropical areas,

Daniel Nahon
Professor, University of Aix-Marseille III

C' est parce CJu'iJs ne resistent pa~ au temps 9u' it fait

CJue les miocraux ne resistent pa~ au temps 9ui passe

TIUV'TU pEL
(Hcraclitus, 500 BC)
Felix CJuj potuit rerum cognosce re causas
(Virgil, Georgics 11, \'erse 489)

Foreword

\1 H 1III 1 "~I 111 rll' " \I<~, many soil scienbsts and others working in Geology,
Geochemistl") and other Earth Sciences
seem to ha\ c neglected fundamental
deso'iptive work in the field (cartography, detailed
descliptions of weathering profiles and of the landscape, accurate location and distribution
their samples), and most of the primary pctrographic methods
usually employed in the laboratory (e.g., bulk dlemical
analyses, grain-size analyses and mineral separations),
The observation of' their samples, at the scale olTered
by the optical microscope, is often reStlicted to the
study of a few thin sections prepared from selected
samples, whose exact and relative position in a pronk
and landscape has been recorded in a cursory manner
only. In fact, yOlmg scientists have a strong inclination
to proceed djrectly to the ultramicroscopic scales.
Such observations often yield up-to-date results publishable as short papers in the best international journals or presented in international congresses. Few
optical photomicrographs are usually presented.

or

This approach certainly produces many valuable

data concerning the details or the processes studied,
especially where crystallography, mineralogy, petrol0gy or geochemistry are concerned. However, often,
these results cannot be easily integrated in the context
of field obscf\'ation.s because thc number of sanlplcs
studied is not suffiCient, and because the distTibution,
in the landscape, of the observed variations cannot be
easily deduced. The results of the stuely can be only
applied locally or only \\ith \-cry large and hazardous
extrapolations.

For this reason, the audlor has always considered

that these "modern" or recently applied methods of
observation, at these scales, ca.nnot be performed
accurately \vidlC)ut the hendlt of complete Field studies of the selected natural landscape, and witllOut preliminary observations of the samples at a more
"human" scale, SUdl as the scale of the trun section
observed witll the optical mjcroscope, This approadl,
in which olle goes from the larger to the smaller scales,
allows the problems raised in the Held to be accurately
detected, and appropriate samples to be selected for
further and more detailed observations and analyses
using the most sophisticated techni9ues.
The preparation of this ;1[105 of :l1h7omorpholoElY '?f
Mine,,)1 .'Iherouon and Weo(herina has been undertaken
in the hope- that it wiU encourage and facilitate observations at the optical scale, Many examples of varied
textural and mineralogical patterns are prOVided and
illustrated profusely. This book is 'NTitten in such a
way that it can be understood by and be useful to geographers or agronomists, whose background in and
lmderstanding of pen-ography and mineralogy are usually rather limited. The beauty of the colors an<i of the
natlll'al textures and mineral associations, as observed
with the optical lnicroscope, can also encourage tllese
scientist1; to use this temnj9ue. The book illustrates
how one can tackle genetic or duonological problems
raised by alteration or weathering processes before an
attempt is made to resolve all these problems with the
help of ultramiCToscopic temniCJues only.
The scope of this book is restri<.:ted to the part of
micromorphQlo~,'yrelated to alteration and weatheri.ng

processes. Many books hav'e been IJublished concerning the micromorphology of soils. These books cootain
sufficient descriptions and illustrations of general
micromorphological r~~atunos, which are not cov'ered
here. -nle scope of this hook also is restricted to the
illustration of alteration and weathering IJroce,ses and
features. Vcr)' few details on the geochemical
processes inwlved are presented. Other books (e,g.,
Nahon 1991, White &. Brantlcy 1995) give detailed
explanations about the geuchemiL'al process.:s and
reactions involved in rock weathering and soil genL'sis.
All the photomicrograph.s ha"e IJcen made by the
author with the help uf a LEITZ polarizing microsL'ope
eCjui[lped with a \VILD Photoautomat camera. Except
for very old photomicrographs, all the more recent
I)hotos have been recurded on KODAK Ektachrnme
64T color-reversal film. This uniformity allows a bcrter homogeneity of colors and of cn]arg.:ments of dll
the pictures shown throughout the book.
Most samples were collectecl by the authur during
his numerous years of research in Zaire (1956-1961;
now Democratic Republic uf Congo), in Cote d'h'oire
(1962-1976) and in BrJ.zil (1980-1987). Most of the
thin sections of these- samples were made in the Laboratoire de Petrographje, OHice de la Recherche ScientifiCjue et Tedllliquc Outre-lVlcr (ORSTOM), Abidjan,
Cote d'Jvoire, either by the author lumselC (w1til
\ 974) or by Claude Hanri')n, who has directed the
technical part of this Laboratory since 1973.
Some samlJles and thin sectjons have been giv-en or
cordiall) lent by other scientists ot'the ORSTOM group
or affiliated with thi? universities in whjch the author
worked. Where this is the case, the name oC the donor
is given in the caption of the phot.omicrograph_ Otherwise, samples and thin sections come from the author's
collection. Wherl' pO' 'ble, the short bibliograph)'
includes the works in which these samples or thin sections are described more fully. The gencrallist uf references, given at the end 01' the book, is reduced to a
minjmum, and conce-rns only those books, thesl's and
papers in which the micromorphology or products of'
vV'eathcring processes is specially studied J.nd illustrated.
Only six magnifkations were used (x] .6, x2,S, x4,
x6.3, xlO and x16) f()r all the photographs in this atlas.
Each photograph is printed with the magnification

clearly indicated, and with tick marks labelc.d from A

to E and !i'om 1 to 5, so that is is straightformard to
refer to a specific ared in the I)hotugraph. A 1 and C 3,
for example, correspond, reslJectively, to the UppeT
left corner and to the central area of the photomicrograph. h1 most cases, the position of the ubject described
in the caption is ohvious, and its exact location can be
found without reJ("rence to a grid intersection. Coordinates tbus are nut recorded in the caption in most
C;Lses. A slJecial color plate is printed in the imide li'ont
and back cover, to allow the reader to r("call and easily
visualize the main types of alteromorphs, whose names
are, fur the must part, newly coined terms.
The captions also give inFormation about the state
of insertion uf the polarizing prisms. PPL (= 1)lanepularized light) is used if only the lower polarizing
prism is inscTted in the pathway uf the light; XPL is
Llsed wbere both lower and upper polarizers are
inserted and crossed.
The nomenclature of' minerals used in this book
follows dIe rules of the Intemational Mineralogical
Association ([MA), with onc l~xception. Although lhe
term "hypersthene" has been formally discredited by
the [MA (Morimoto 1989), it is retained here strictly
for convenience to rder to an ortholJyroxene of a
composition intermediate benvecn the magnesian and
t'crrous iron cud-members (instead of enstatitc or fcrrosilite, as the C;Lse may he). Names of phases that are
not sufficiently well characteriz("d to be considered
accepted minerals in the eyes of the LMA arc used here
in quotation marks (c./}_. "iddingsite", "bow]ingitC".
"chlorophaeite-") .
The author asks dw readers fur indulgence regarding dIe poorer guaUtv of some photomicrographs.
These CO!Tesl)ond to old pictures taken from either
borrowed or, more recently, broken or lost thin sections. In spite of their lower quality, some of them
were Tdained tu demonstrate or spectacularly ilJustrate a particular ll'xtural or mineralogical feature not
observed in more recent or in other available thin sections. The more than six hundred photographs reproduceJ in this volume were carefully selecteel from
more than ten thousand photornicrugraphs in the
authur's collectiun_

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAnON AND WEATHERING

Acknow ledgements

1111
'I,' I '
I
and studying the thousands of thin sections tllat form the
bas):> of hi:; information, ami while
viewing the thousands of slides from
which illustrations were selected for this book, the
author has often recalled all the individuals who have,
either by their work, or through their help or their
advice, participated in the preparation of his hook and
contributed to its production,

His gratitude goes l'irst to the African people, all

those well-sinkers, workmen, guides and porters, to
all those Kouakou, N'Gul'"ssan, Koulibali am] other
Koffl, and to all those anonymous men who, JuriJlg
years and years, in the rain forest or in the clry savanna
ofVv'cst Africa, have excavated hundreds and hundreds
of 1l1eters of wells, guided day after dol)', or carried
heavy samples of rock and soil along Illany kilometers.
The author remembers them \vith much gratitude.
Special mention must be made of two African
well-sinktrs, Bonto BolaJ1e SaLJ aJld Dicke Mo'ise Pare,
who have sunk more than 250 wells between 1965 anJ
1976 in central Cote J'h'oire, The author remembers
seeing them emerge out their wells, all covered,
depending on the season, with dust or mud. The
fl-ienJship in their eyes and the glow ofuleir smile only
were apparent.
The author thanks aLso A, Pecror, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, B. Boulangc, G. Grandin, F,
Lenoir, M, Rieu, in Cote d'Ivoire, A, Cham'el, J,c.
Parisot and F. Soubies, in Brazil, ann all his colleagues
who have participated in field trips, Jleld work ,md disC1lssions of the morphological and genetic problems
raised by the ubsenations of landscape, soil descriptions and analyses,
MaJ1} thanks also to Ule Societe d' Etat pour le
Developpement Minicr de la C('ltc n'lvoire
(SODEMI). to J. Brodw, Direct'or ofthe Llboratories,
for his valuable help in resohing material, tecllJucal or
analytical problems raised hy the samp!l':s of soil anJ
weathered rock of the author, and B. Tagini, Dil-ector
of the ScientifIC Research, who.se prOdigious knowledge of the geology of Ci)te d 'jyoire has, in numerous

meetings and Jiscussions, greatly improved the geological knowledge of the auUlOr and has helped him in
selecting suitable areas of the countTy,
The author thanks also all technical people of nis
Laboratoire de PetrographiC et Mincralogk des Alterations oC ORSTOM, in Adiopodoumc, Cote d'Jvoirc:
MM. Lagou Kouadio Marcel (X-I-ay diffraction), Deme
Hamadc and Wayou Norbert (preparati.:lIl of samples),
Coulibaly Sissouro and Koffl DakO<l (preparation of
thin sections), who h,lve, during fllaJ1Y years, helped
the author to acquire acrurate aJlJlyses;md IJerfect thin
sections.
Particular gratitude is expressed to my rriend
(laude Hanrion, Tecluucal Director of the Laboratoire
de Pen'ograpbie or ORSTOM in Cote d' /voire, who
prepared and finished most or the two thousand thin
sections of the author's collection. His care, constant
anention to all the technical problems, supervision of
the men and material of the Laboratory, control of a] I
the steps ill Ule preparation or the thin sections, and
painst,1king work in the impregnation of the soft samples, along with Ule daily long periods of sawing of tbe
rocks and indurated materials, of gluing and thinning
of the slides, and finalJ.~ of controlling of the correct
thickness of tht final thin sections, all ha\'e allowed the
author to have at his disposal wonderful tbi.n sections
of fresh or weathered rocks, of soft soils and of
indurated materials. Without the careful work of C.
Hanri 011 , the complete illustration or this Atlas would
hav~~ not been possible,
The author thanks also all h.is colleagues who nave
given or lent samples or thin sections from their collections and whose conn'ibution has greatly enhanced
the slide collection or the author. Among thelll arc::
Ikuno Boulange and Franyois Soubies, ORSTOM,
formerly of the Instituto de Geociellcias of the L1niversidade do E"tado de Sao Paolo (LISP), in Br'azil, and U1C
Universite Paul-Sabatier in Toulouse, France, respecliv'ely,
Sonia Maria l3arros de Oliveira, Magda l3ergmaJl,
Luciana Maria Lopez, Silvia Regin>1 Soares SiJva Vieira

and Malia Cristina Toledo Groke of the DepartJlDento

de Geologia Geral do fnstit1Jtn de Geociencias of the
University of Sao Paulo (USP), Brazil,
Maria Teresa de Nobrega, lnstituto de Geociencias, Universidade do Estado de Sao Pallln, Brazil, \"ho
spent much time G.1refully n'aflSlating into Portuguese
the French text of tbL' author, invited to lcchlrc on
"Micromorfologia clas altera<.;oes minerais" in courses
mer tJle intervaJ J 981-1987 at LISP, Brazil. Thl"
author hOI)es trot- she finds here all his gratitude for heT
work and help. That text is tJ1e Foundation f'or the conception and the illustratlon of this AtJas.
Neide Maria Malusa Gon<;aIH~s of the Unl\'ersidade
de Rlbeirao Preto, Sf', Braz.il, Celso Augu.sto Clenwnte,
Escola Superior de AgriculhlIa, Piracicaba, SP, Bl<Jljl,
and AdoJfcl MelJi, Director of the [nstihlto Astrollsico e
GeoJtsico of the University of Sao Paulo, I3razil,
Christlan Coulon, Director or the Departemcnt
de Petrographie of the Uni\-ersite d'Aix-Marseille Ill,
who lent him many thin sections from the petrogr.1phic
collections of his Department,
Rent: FlicoteaLD<, Christine Laverne, Yves Noack,
professors or scientists at the Universitc d' Aix-MarseiJle Ill, France, Emmanuelle Bernabe (FLtnCe),
Abdelilha Dekayir (r..10IToco), F. Luis pJZ Moreno
(Mexico), Albcrt Ongendangenda (DemoCTatlc Republic of Congo), Anne Veroniclue WaIter (France), who
nov.- \"ork or were studying at the Uni\'ersite d' AixMarseille Ill, and who ha\'.:' graciously allowed tl1C'
author to take interesting photographs of their best
thin sections,
Dr. Georges Stoops, Pr-ofessor at the Algemene
Geolog1e, GeoIogisch Imtiruut of the Univen,ity or
Gent, Belgium, an old friend for many years, \vho contributed thin sections on the weatheling of' garnet. and
who commented on the conception and the production of tJlis book.
The gratitude 01' the author goes ,1lso to all the
members of the International Society of Soil Science,
Advisory Pand on Weatheling Phenomena and Neoformations, Drs. H.J. Altemi.iller (D), E.B.A. I3isdom
(NL), P. Curmi (F) and A. Jongerius (NL), Victor TarguUan, Professor at the State Uni\'ersity of Moscow.
Russia, who, when \'isiting the Universite de Marseille, showed man)' interesting thin sections on
weathering of basaltic rocks on Samoa and Mau.ritius,

XII

and who allowed the author to photograph excellent

examplc-s of mineral weathering.
The author is also grateful to Raymond Da."sule,
engraver and draughtsman, and to Jean-Jacques Motte,
computer programmer. both of the Dcparte.ment des
Gcosciences de l'Environnement, Marseille, France.
The first creatcd all the black-and-whitc drawings to
illustrate this book. The second produced all tJle 1"0101'
1)lates in tile working copy with thc help of electronic
techniques. Both arc also responsible for COlTcctions
and pagination of the draft. Without their valuable
help, their professionalism and their artistic ability, the
general aspect of the book would have been very different.
The autllor ls indebted to Dr. Daniel Nilion,
Director of the Dcpartemcnt des Gcosciences de I' Environne01ent, Univer$ite d'Aix-Marseille lfI; he is
deeply gratcJlll to
for having accepkd him, for
many ye"ln;, in his labor.1tory a.nd for having gi\-cn to
him all the faci lities for wTitirrg and achie\i.ng this
book. \"rithout his help and hospitality, the production
of this hook wOllld have been much less agreeable,
much more difficult and much more time-consuming.

wm

-n1t'

author expl'Csses all his gratitude to Dr.

Nlichae! Vclbel, of Michigan State Uni\'ersity, who
reviewed the entire contents of the book (tJle main
texts and thf.' captions of all the figmcs aurl photomicrographs), and carcfully corrected the defective a.nd
very imperfect English translation of the author. His
pertinent remarks, suggestions and comments have
been very Illuch appreciated. His careful and clitical
reading of tJlt' manuscript has led to a great improH>
me-nt of the contents. The author is indcbted to Dr.
M. Velbcl fm ha\-ing acccl)tcd to review this work.
Last but not least, the author owes a special debt
of gratitude to Fr-an<;:ois Soubies, Directellr de
Recherchcs at ORSTOM, and a valued fi'iend for over
twenty-fivf' years. Fran<;:ois brought the existence of
thf' unpublished manusLTipt for this book to the attentlon of Robert F. Martin. editor of The COllodion .lfineralogia, and facilitated a fateful meeting in early May,
1997, in Toulouse. Robert then further honed the
tex t, both from scientific and linguistic points oh'iew.
His cxchangf.' of views, made on a regular basis thanks
to the etTiciency of e-mail communications, demonsn'ated both a keen sense of observation and thoroughness. He brought tJlis project to fruition as Special
Publ ication 3 of The Canadian Mineral0il-i.H.

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATlON AND WEATHERING

Table of Contents

PREAMBLE
PREFACE

VlI

FOREWORD

IX

Xl

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

SYSTEMS OF FISSLlRF.S .

The network (1' deep-serJleJ[issures ..

Tile" superB,me networks o/JLrlUres and pores

43
43
44

THE EFFECTS OF POROSITY

ON \VEATHERED MATERIAL

48

DISCUSSION

50

PART 2.
PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

53

CHAPTER 4.
MICROMORPHOLOGICAL
DESCRJPTIONS ..

55

THE DEGltEE Of VVEATHERING

55

INTRODUCTION

PART 1.
GENERAL CONCEPTS

CHAPTER 1.
WEATHERING AND ALTERITES ....

7
8

DEHNmONS

IVw/ hcrahi li/)'

DIFFERENTlATIUN or THE ALTEI{IHS . . . . . . . .

il!trroplusma/ion unci pedoplastnu/lon

The concept cif isahencr
The concept 0Iallo/.criff
The cuncept tf isuvulume
... .... .. ..
Rela/ i,c and ah.mlute accumulations. .

26
26
27

28
30
3I

35
35

IN THE T(WOSEQUENCE

36

37

IN THE LANDSCAPE

CHAPTER 3.
THE SYSTEMS OF PORE-SPACE
DEFINITION, CLASSlIll:\ TION

39
.

39

CONTACT MICROSYSHMS .

40

PLASMA MICROSYSTEMS

41
41

Prima~v

plaSffias ..
Secondary plasmas

SECOND..\RY POROSITY

57

....

57

Pore-space alonH transmincralIrucrures .

Pore-space alons intermineralJracrurcs
Incraminffal pore-space.
.

.
.

58
59

PAlTERN.' Ur: ALTEi,ATION AND WEATHT:RING . . .

80
80

Comen'ar ion ?f Folumes

Pene/ruLion in a mineral:

80

rhe pOlhll'ap or weaLherin8

CHAPTER 2.
SAMPLING
iN THE PROrlLE

42

82

DrSCRwnONS I\ND CUSSIFIC\TION

82

T'ellirulur pauern 0IorBanizulion

linear and hunded porums
Irregular paftern.,
.
Comple.\ par1'crm
.

85

87
91

CHAPTER 5.
PARTLY WEATHERED MINERALS

123

MORl'HOl.OGY or TIIL PIUMi\,RY CORES

.IIND RF.SIf1UES . . . . . . .

125

MORPllOlOGr OF nLE SECONf):\RY PRODUCrS

PATITRNS OF SECONDARY POROSrrr . ,

,l1'icroporosilX
.lIesoporosicy

.
.

123

126
126
126

PART 3.
ALTEROMORPHS

149

CHAPTER 6.
DEFINITIONS

151

CHAPTER 7.
PRESERVATION OF SHAPES
AND VOLUMES

[so-Cllreromolphs
,.1[c50-altcroworphs .... '
Kala-oh cromorphs

P,eudomorphs
,.. ..
Echino-ClltcromnrpIL\ .
Phant o-alteromorphs
C')'[-'lo-alreroulOrphs ..

171
171
172

173
174

CHAPTER 8.
THE CONTENT
OF ALTEROMORPHS

205

THE PkOPORTION OF SOLID AND PORE VOl UMES

Holo-alreromorph:; . . . . . .
KOilo.aircromorph., ' . . . . . . . ..
.1 Poro ~alleromorph.\
.
PO[(E VOllJM

.
.

.. .
CClllroporo-a!wromorphs
PhylJoporo-olterorJJorphs
Rcr i poro-a Ireromorphs . . .

,
,

, ..

221
221
223
224

225
237
238

238

COMPLEX "PORO" .'\L.TEkOMOfU'HS

242

CHAPTER 9.
CRITERIA FOR A GENETIC
CLASSIFICATION

XIV

206
. 206
. 206

BotT/o-a}tcrornorphs .
G/omcro-altcromorphs ...
Sepf o-altcromorphs

PolyBenclic a}lcro/IJurph,
Polyphasc alteromorphs

307

CHAPTER 11.
"PORO"-ALTEROMORPHS
AND FURTHER EVOLUTION

315

CHAPTER 12.
DISCUSS rON

239

345

CHAPTER 13.
DEFINITIONS

347

LlTI'lOREUCS ' ,

347
347

Al TERORr:L.ICS . '

PmORFUCS

'

348

CONeRE'nONS , . '

148

PISOLlTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

348

CHAPTER 14.
COMPOSITION, ORIGIN
AND MORPHOLOGY

349

'

LITIIOREl.ICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

AlTEROREL.lCS

AlIochrhonous aherorelics
Ilurochrhonolls ahcrorelic.I'

349
349

Composition
Point or oriHin
iHorpholoBY ,.

PmOREUCS

343

PART 4.
LITHORELICS,
ALTERORELICS, NODULES,
PISOLITHS ...

221

SOLID VOLU_ME A~:\ DISTINCUISHiNG CRITERION

COMPOSITE ALTERO,\-10RPI'h

CUMUIO-;\LTEROMORI'I-IS ,

.\S A DISTINGUISHING CRITEI,IOt\

..-I !I'eoporo-a!reronlOrl'hs

154
154

154

GEO,'v\[TkICM CI\lTmIA: P,'IRTICULA.R CASES

307

153
154

Gr:OMF'TIUC-\L CRJTER1A: GENtn..'\L CASES

CHAPTER 10.
ALTEROMORPHS AND PROCESSES
OF ACCUMULATION
.

349
350
.

361
361

, ..

361

362

259
259
259
277

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAl ALTERATION AND WEATHEJ\ING

363

CHAPTER 17.
PISOLITHS IN BAll XITE _

425

PHYSIC\l. DIS}\(';GR~C:\T1Ui'

363

INTR()[)Ul'TIU~'

425

Proce.ss of JisoggreBafion
Ireatherahi/irJ ....

363

CHAPTER IS.
EVOLUTION

363

CHEMIC:\L WEATHErU1\'G

364

CENTRIPET.-\L CORTIFICATIOJ'o,;

378
378
378
379

Process o.{indurarion ond texlllral e!'olulion

Persislcn! minerals IriLhl/l areas ~r corcijlcalion
Pe.foplasmolion Df rhe residual Lexrures
Process ~( derclopmenr ~f che peripheral
sues... cutan" . . . . .

Development '!f an accrflion cortc.X

.+fineral comen! o.{ rhe aeaelion conex
FURTHER EVOLUTION

Testural mod!/!corion In rral15ported nodules

fnterconnecud and briJaed nodule.i
Coni/icolion and lhe j'ormauon af concretions ..

CHAPTER 16.
BRIDGED NODULES
AND DEVElOPMENT
OF IRON CRUST . .
EXTENSION

or

HIE BRIDGED TEXTURES

MICROMORPHOLOGY

.... _ .

:\Nf) UNINDUR.U[I) Pll\SMA."

nuclei
concentric and incl!fconneninf/ corrice, ..
larBe ,'o/llmes oj'plasma ..
small "olumes ,!{plasma .... ,.

DISCUSSION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

425

DISTRIBUTIO~' IN THE L\NDSCt\PE .

426
426

Erosion c:f lhe buu.,iric pro/Hes

DepOSition ?f clayey material Oil the slopes.
[I'oll/rian '!f the clayey 11lQlerial
Fwce.,s o.I indurOlion and den:lopmem
or pisolilic hall.me
Pro.fllc oI rhe pisolili, blluxite . MICKOMORPI-!OLOGY

389
389
390

The nucleus . _ . _ .....

The corr.cx
The imemodular macrix ..

403

EVULUTION ..\ND DEGRADAnON

403

Fir.IT swgc: iron JepletitJn in the bauxile

Second ,1'Ogc: alFco/izalion
':I the imernoJuJar matrh
Third sLa,qe: Jc.l1ruceion ~f lhe pisolilhs
Fourth ,c<1ge: in/illinB oj'che pore v(llumes

403
4-03

415
415
415

DISTRIIJUTIO,\J OF THE INDURATW

The
The
The
The

PHOCESSES OF FORMATION

389

CENTRlfUG ..\L CORTIFIC"Tlr1N

...

416
416
416
416

417

427
428

428
428

429
429
429
429
443
443

443
443
44-3

CHAPTER 18.
SECONDARY OXIDES
AND HYDROXIDES

459

REFERENCES
AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

469

lbm

469

REFEI\EN ES

IN THE

Trxf .

AU[)ITION,\L BII:\L!o(;rC-\PIIY CONCERNING

THe

S..\MPLES

DESCRIBED

470

GLOSSARY

473

INDEX

479

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

495

417

xv

Introduction

Il I" .\\ 11\1 11' 'I I H. \ is not a science in and

of itself, but rather a research tool, a
method for studying undisturbed samples
of soils and of weathered rocks "vit.h the
help of microscopic or, eventuaUy, submicroscopic
techniques. The micromorphological approach allows
one to compare the textures and the stnlCtures that
successively modify each other along a profile and in a
landscape, to characterize textural ~sociations. to
identify the mineralogical constituents (skeleton,
plasma. nodules, ere.) and the associated pore
volwnes, and to specif)' their mutual relationships, in
space and, where possible, in time. With this tech
nique, it is possible to identify processes responsible
for the weathering of rocks and for the genesis of soil,
and to characterize or explain some of their peculiarities.

In contrast to the other technical methods for ana-

analogy with perrogwphy, the term used when studying

the unweathered rocks of magmatic, metamorphic or
sedimentary origin that form the geolOgical bedrock.
Micromorphology, which is J laboratory tech
l1igue, cannot be isolated from field studies of the IJlldscapes, of the profiles and oftheir horizons. It is an odd
technique in that it allows one, under certain condi
tions and with certain restrictions, to resolve, at least
parth, problems raised bv pedological or oeoloaical
studi~s of superflcial mantles. It is thus a ke;, butnot
a latch-key, and definitely a complementary technique.
It is llsed after field studies and after the bulk analvses
(b\' X-ray diffraction, for example), but necess~ily
precedes elenTon-microprobe analyses, becaus~
micromorphological ,malysi.s allows onc to determine
the kind of detailed analyses required, and to select the
points or areas that exhibit an interesting feature WOI"
thy of further study.

Iyzing soiJ and weathered rocks (chemical, physical and

mineralogical analyses), which are p('rformed on bulk,
crushed and homogenized sampl('s, a micromorpho
logical analysis must be made on undisturbed (and
even, in some cas('s. on oliented) samples of soil or
weathered rock. Most of these samples are composed
of loose, /liable ancl brittle materials; it is then necessary to harden t.he samples by impregnation with a syn
thetic product before prepal-ing the thin sections.
Coloration techniques, based on the impregnation of a
colorcd product, are in some cases used for guick identiJlcation of Il1Jcroporosity and for quantification of
porI" space.

!HiCTomorphoI08/ is concerned where the purpose

of a study is to identi~ mineral constituents, to
describe qualitatively their shapes, or to study their
distribution a.nd their mutual and spatial relationships,
or to deduce the genetic aOmities existing among
them. DetaiJed quantitative study, typically involving
point-cow1ting of mineral grains, Jl1d meaSLU'ements of
sizes, volumes, d.ist.ances and orientations of the miscellaneous constituents or units, is c.lUcd micromorphomelry. Tbe sum of these microscope-based
techniques is sometimes called ped08raphy where soils
and samples of weathered rocks art' concerned. by

The Jppe<lrance and development, in alterites*

and soils, of pore space and of new textures formed
under the influence of supergene Pl'occsscs, pedoplasmation and pedoturbation (modifications that are independent of features inherited from the fresh rocks).
result in the need for a new, specillc complemental'v
and indispensable terminology. This t~rminology oriiinates from the work of scientists snldying the micro
morphology of soils. For more details on utis
terminology, the reader should refer to the classic
work Fabric anJ Mineral Analpis oJ Soil, (Brewer 1976),
to the Glossary oJ Soil :Hicroroorpholo8Y Uongerius &
Rutherfurd 1979), and to the Haodbook Jar Soil Thin
Section Description (Bullock et al. 1985). The terminology to be used in this study of the patterns of weathering in rocks ancJ alterites will be derived partly from
this specific pedologic<ll terminology, and partly from
the tenninoJogy commonly used by geologists and petrographers to descl'ibc rock structures and textures
and to identify their minel'aJogical constituents.

* ,'11
end

terms nagged by an astcri,k are defined in a Glossary at the

the hook.
.

or

Keeping in ITLind the general aim of objectivity,

the description and c1assillcation systems must be, a~
far as possible, independent of an)' in terpretation,
which b necessarily subjccti'e. IF such independent
systems can be readily applied in descriptive sciences,
such as classical petrography and minel'alogy, this
necessity is much more difficult to maintain here. In
micromorphological studies of mineral and rock
weathering, one must keep in mind that the original
primary mineral and all the dCl-ived secondary products arc genetically linked to each other. Inheritances
are present every\\'here, and they are always subjected
to further changes: under these conditions, it seelllS
djfficu It, even irrational, to (]jsregard tlle genetic
aspect of the spatio-temporal relationships that prevail
among the observed features, whatever the scale (crystal, thin section, profIle, landscape) at which these features are observed and whatever may be their mutual
relationships.
Conseguently, where well supported by detailed
obsen'ations on a sufficient number of good thin sections, prepared from carefully sampled ;md regularly
distributed materials, according to the profiles and to
tile landscapes, micromol-phology and micromorphometry very often allow the researcher:
to identify and to specif" the processes of weathering involved and to a.~cenain the succes~ion of secondary minerals that developed at thi" expense of the
primary miner:Ii;
to identify tile pedogenetic processes anJ to
visualize all the transfers of elements and all the concentrations (eluviiltion, illuviiltion, nodulation or conCTetion), and to follow the development of certain
peculiar features (porosity, pedoturbation, etc.);
to provide concise data, 01' minerillogical or
microtextural natw-e, about the paren t ruck from
which the weatheretl horizons ;lJ1d soils formed, and
from which a good UI1weatllered sample is not always
obtainable;
to explain the history of a prallle, a toposequence* and a landse-ape by adducing some data about
relative chronologies, obtained by compar,ltive study
of chemical, phy~it.-al, mineralogical anti textural analyses performed on a series of profiles regularly distributed along tht' sJope of a watershed;
to specify the degree to wh.ich the superllcial
covers anti soils are autochthonous or aIlochthonous,
and to shed light upon tht' importilnce or their internal
mocliAcations;

to est.imate the extent of weathering and evolution or soils and their nuh-ient contC'nt as unwc:athered
prima.ry minerals (weatherahle mi.nerals, lithorelics);
to eventually \'isuaIL-:e tlw supergene enrichment:; or concentrations of residual or neofonlled
minerals conrailYing economically important elements
(AI, Ni, Cu, Cr, Ti, Au, etc.), tn specify the mineralogical structures or morphological textures in which
these elements are incorporated or concentrated, md
to give iml)ortant Jata about tile genesis and the history
of these mineral deposits, a.nd
to identil'y the processes of evolution and degradation of" building materials subjected to physical
stresses (road pavement a.nd building stones), or to
aggressive climatic C'nvirOlunents, ;lJ1c\ to pollution
phenomena (building materials ilncl historical monumenls), and to hring, in somt' cases, some solutiom to
the problems raised by their preservatiun and repilir.

ltimately, micromorphological observations

allow the researcher:

I) to compare, in the rocks. in the alterites

derived from them and in the soils superposed
upon them,
the general macrostruClUres and mesostruccures,
the microstructures that are specific to each
level,
the content and the evolution of the mineral
paragenesis.
the grain size and its evolution through the
profile,
the particular and characteristic associations of
minerals.
the pattern of organization of the porosity and
of the pore system,
the concentration or the migration of material
and
its eventual deposition in receptive pore-space.
and 2) to classify the observed features according
their origin:
petrological origin: inherited characters from
the parent rock,
secondary origin: inherited features from the
weathered rock,
pedological origin: microtextures developed by
pedogenesis.

to

ATlAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAnoN AND WEATHERING

This partial list of the possible applications or

micromorphology of soils and weathered rocks shows
that numerous sciences and practical domains can be
ad\-anced by the use 01- optical microscopy: agronomy
and agricultural methods, geological, geochemical and
pedological cartography, exploration for mineral
resources, geography and geomorpbolog y , paleohistory and paleoclimatology, ecology and environmental
study ,investigations of the resistance and durability of
materials, and the preservation of building and monu
ment stones.
Although the main aim of this book concerns the
micromorphology of 'v eathe red minerals, it is necessary to describe a.lso minerals that have been altered by

INTRODUCTION

hypogcnc processes. lvlany primary minerals, as Uleyoccw' at the base 01" the weathering prof11e, are not
lTuly primary minerals. Independently of the later
pedogenetic [)rocesses, they have commonly first been
subjected to hypogene processes that have partly or
completely replaced them by secondary minerals, of
hydrothcnna.l or metamorphic origin, for example.
Th",se seconda')' minerals are considered, by pedologists and geologi.sts ,"vho study surficial weathered coy
ers and soils, to bt' the primary minerals of their
weathering profiles_ This coml)!ex concept \-\-,11 be
taken into account in the development of the following
chapters and .in their illustrations_ See, for example,
the chaptt'r concerning polygenetic alteromorr)hs.

ill 1'1 ''1 ,,'.11"

~.f!

'I" I giws

tration 01' many features

to

a nearly complete illus-

be de~o'ibed and anaJv-zed

throughout the book: the main feature consists of an intermineral network of open pores (Part I) that surrounds
partly developed alteromorphs in which denticulate rrmnants of clinopyroxene and a sec-onoar)' smectite-group minera I are dearly recogni.zahk (Part 2), The easy circulation of
percolating waters through the intermineral network is
responsible for erosion and deposition of materials and. consequently, for the irregularities of its walls; it is al~o responsible for the incipient degraclation of the smectite-group
mineral and for the occurrence of an external rim of coloreo
material by absolute and relathe cnrichments 01' iron ox)'hydroxides (Part 3), For a more detailed explanation, see
photomicrograph 056,

CHAPTER

Weathering and Alterites

11 "" 11
weathering has t\\'Cl cUflercnt but
complementary meJllings. On the one hand,
it designates all processes involved in rhe transfonnarion, the appearance, the appearance or the persistence of rnineral ~pecics, including all
chemical reactions and all movements of elements or
of materials involved in these reactions. On thp other
band, where used as a modifier, it represents also thl:
wear.herins profile and the weac hcreJ marcrial itse Jf,
formed under the influence of a wcathering process,
and occurring be.t\veen the unweatherec! rock that
makes up t!1P basement and the soil horizons.

T
T

he word weathering will be used solely to

designate those supergene processes responsible

for mineralogical transformations, whereas the
word a/tente will be used to designate the weath-

ered mantle that is the result of these processes.

The \vorc! altcm!ion, in its broader meaning,
includes not onl y tJIC supergene processes of weathering, but also the hypogcnc processes which, wlder
late-magmatic, I)ostmagmatic, hydrothermal or metamOl-phic conditions, are respons.ible for the pOSSible
early transformation of rocb ane! mint'raJs before the
proce~~ uf weathering begin.
The International Society of Soil Science (Deh'igne 1975, Stoops et al. 1979), gives the following definition:
Wearheril18 refers to the partial or complete transfomlation, iso\'olumctric 01- othcrwi~c, of rocks, soils
or louse seclinlcnts, accompanjed by changes in their
coklr, texture, ha.rdne~s or shape. These dlauges occur
by partial or complete disappearance of part or all uf
the original minerals, and thcir possible replacement
by a secondary crystalline or amorphous, authigenic or
partly allogenic material. The physicochemical reactions responsible for weathering im-olve. on the one

hand. perculating or underground waters, carbon

dioxide, organic matter and various ions or colJojd~
dissolved or transported by those waters and, on the
other hand, the u}Stal structure of the transfonning
primary minerals and the ions released from them.
These processes generally tcnd to an in siw accumulation of soft, porous and easily erodable material, which
is the [J)ain source of tTansported sediments. Althougb
weatl1l'ring may occur at greater depth owing to
imponant fracturing or high porosity of the rock, most
commonly it occurs near the surface or at shallow
depth, illlcJer conditions of temperature and pressure
pre\'ailing at the Earth's surfacc. There are thus important variatiuns in the inrcnsit;' of processes related to
the type of climate or paleuclimate. The main factors
controlling the intensity or rate of reactions are: temperature, amount of rainfall, efficiency of drainage,
topographic location, and also tlle texture and mineralogical composition of the parent material.
According to this definition, the term Il'eachering
has a meaning that covers all the processes involved in
the fonnation of weatbered mantles, but it does not
appl~' to the mantles that resuJt From these processes.

Summary
Weathering is a supergene process by which primary minerals, of magmatic, metamorphic or sedimentary origin, rendered unstable in the upper
part of the Earth's crust, are destroyed and
replaced by more stable secondary minerals. generally associated with a newly developed porosity. The minerals formed under the supergene
conditions prevailing in tropical regions are generally hydrated or hydroxylated silicates and
oxides or hydroxides of the least mobile tri- or
tetravalent elements: AI, Fe, Ti. Mn, ere. Hydrated
or hydroxylated silicates and carbonates of divalent elements (Mg. Ca) also are formed under
temperate or dry climates.

Silicates and ox)'hydroxicle~ are not the only minerals to be formed in alterites and related superficial
horizons. Indeed, under particular geoc..:hf'micaJ environments, specific mineralogical composition of the
parental material, ,U1d under 10o,1 c1ima6c or topographic conditions, various anions also may be
il1\"olwd in the reactions and fonn carbonates, sulfate.s,
nitrates, phosphates and haLdes, which will crystallize
either in the residual rocks or in the lower part.~ of the
topography.
Under more arid conditions and over metallic..:
vei.ns and orebodies, the abo\e non-silicate secondary
minerals .:Ire very commonly formed; in fact, they can
be vcry useFul i.n prospecting and mineral exploration.
They Illay fonn insoluble and characteristic mineral
pJ.rageneses, which are maintaine.d in the weathered
mantles: mctalliferousdeposits (ofCu, Cr, Pb, ll, elc.)
commonly arc capped by such a residual mantle, rich in
carbonates, sulfates and other non-silicate minerals.

I'Jlcvlh

rol7ility

The rate of tile Jk'mical weathering of minerals is

related to the mean annual temperature and rainfall in
the region considered. The importance of rainfall is
related mainly to the quantities 01" water iliat comc into
contact \\"ith these minerals, to the rapidity of water
renewal, and to the ionic contcnt of these waters. It is
also related to the kind of reactions occurring at dl(,
surface of the minerals. 'vVeatherillg is more rapid at
sites of excess free energy. such as crystal defects, twin
planes. open cleavages and microfracrures. The rate of
weathering of a mineral under the mean conditions of
the Ea.rth' s surface determines its weatherability.
Among the many factors that innuence the
weatherability of the pIimar} minl'rals and that, in
many cases, control the nature J.nd the micromorpholOgical textures of the residue and of the neofomleci
products of \-veathering, tile most important are:
(I) The chemical composition and the nature of
Ule network of crystals: the nature of the chemical elements that compose these minerals. the crystallochemical properties of the structures that host these
elements before the weaUlcl-ing processes begin, their
solubility in water, and the ahility of structural modules to be integrated within tile neofomled minerals;
the aluminum- and iron-dch silicates (e.g., staurolite,
garnet, epidote. kyanite, and many other minerals of
metamorphic origin) are generally much less weatherable tha.n are the magnesium- and calcium-rich minerals thJ.t make up thl:~ common rock-forming silicates of
magmatic origin;

(2) The presence of crystalline and chemical discontinuities: the occurrence, number and di..stribution
01' defects or discontinuities, such as fissures, cracb,
and cleavages, which cut the minerals and divide Ulem;
the occw-rence of stTucnu-al, chemical or mineralogical
discontinuit.ies such as rn,-in planes, chemical zonations
and inclusions.
ORDER OF WEATHERABILlTY

Crystalline and chemical discontinuities are

determining factors and are specific to each mineral group. The least stable minerals are invariably the minerals of magmatic origin. which
formed under the more extreme conditions of
temperature and pressure. Forsterite-dominant
olivine. which is among the first-formed minerals
during the crystallization of the magmas, is among
the most weatherable silicate minerals. whereas
the minerals of the amphibole group. generally
formed under conditions of lower temperature
and pressure, are much more resistant to weath.
ering processes. That decreasing order of
weatherability, first established by Goldich
(1938), corresponds to the succession of minerals in the magmatic reaction series of Bowen
(1928). Bowen documented the importance of a
discontinuous series during crystallization, on the
one hand, involVing the ferromagnesian silicate
minerals olivine. orthopyroxene. c1inopyroxene,
amphibole and biotite. and, on the other hand.
the continuous crystallization of a plagioclase
feldspar, from anorthite (caJcic) to albite (sodic),
and finally the appearance of minerals formed last
during magmatic crystallization. such as potassium-rich feldspar. muscovite and quaru. These
lastformed mlneJ-als are also the minerals that.
under near-surface conditions. are the last ones
to be weathered.
The decreasing order of wcathcrability also
important differences in the structural lj-amework of these minerals. A ferromagnesia.n orthosilicate
like olivine, which is built of isolated tetrahedra, is the
first mineral to be weathered, whereas Ule Single-chain
silicates (pyroxcnes) and double-chain silicates (amphiboles) arc weathered later. A framework silicate like
plagioclase will be more or less quickly weathered
according to the proportion of AI-O and Si-O bonds in
the frame,,'-ork. The compensation of charges resulting
from these substitutions involves the introduction, in
the available spaces, of the mono- and divalent cations
Na + anJ Ca2+. Crystals of the more a.luminum-rich
calcic plagioclase are more easily weathered than a.re
crystals of the less a.lum.inwn-lich sod.ic plagioclase.
The sheet silicates (e.s., biotite and phlogopite) exhibit
a wider range of weatherability; Ulese minerals may be
renect~

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEAAl ALTERATION AND WEATHElIJNG

weathered at the same time as c1inop)Toxene. This

anomaly seems to be due to the more important physical vulnerability of these extensively cleaved minerals
and to the mechanical brittleness of most of their secondary products. Quartz, which is a fraIne\\!ork sibcate exdusively built of silicate tetrahedra, is among
the most resistant minerals aI1d, consequently, it has
tendency to be concentrated, in a relative way, in most
alterites and soils.

the central part of the alteromorph. is surrounded by irregular margins of an aluminumbearing smectite-group mineral (nontronite).
whose aluminum content cannot be explained
except by a simultaneous initiation of weathering
of the adjacent aluminum-bearing minerals. such
as plagioclase and the pyroxenes.

During the first stage of weathering, most primary

minerals begin to weather simultaneously, but at very
different rates, in such a way that, over the cow'se of
time and at a certain distance from the front of weath
ering, one or more mineral groups appear completely
weathered, whereas other groups appear unweath
ered, at least at the scale of the optical microcopc. Thb
concept could account for chemical zonations in the
composition of the secondary products.

Within the weathering product5 after

olivine, for example. the essentially magnesian
secondary phase saponite. which is observed in

PART I: GENERAl CONCEPTS

he rate of chemical weathering of minerals

depends on their chemical composition. on the

chemistry of the weathering solutions. and on
the kinds of reactions taking place at mineral
surfaces.
Weathering occurs more rapidly at sites of
excess free energy. such as crystal defect5. dislocations. twin boundaries. open cleavages and
microfractures.

MINERAL PATTERNS

00 I, 002
OUVINE-BEARING
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at outcrop
Intramineral features:
intrarnineral cracks
in olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

Single cryst.al of
olivine, colorless in PPL and
second-orocr bright green in X PL,
exhibits an irrcgubr and sinuous
outline. The grain is i11 contact with
smaller grains of c1inopyroxene,
and shows an incomplete rim of
pinkish orthopyroxenc. In XPL, the
rim 01' orthopyroxene, at the right
edge of the photomicrograph, is
pUl-plish blue, whereas another part
of it, at the bottom and left edges, is
uniformly colored in shades of
brown. The point of interest here is
the presence in the olivine crystal of
an extensive network of intramin-

10

era1 protocla.stic fractures, which

are decorated by magnetite d,'ndrill'S. Most of these Fractures arc
absent in the orthopyroxenc rim,
although this mineral may weIl have
formed at the expense of t.he olivine
by reaction with a basic magma.
The fractures do not continue
through the adjace.nt minerals; they
art' tTUC inrramineral Assures 01"
cracks. These fractures are genel"ally the pathways along which
processes of hypogcne or supergene
alteration begin in the mineral.
'Tnere' results an inegular linear or
banded patterns of alteration. The

intramineral prot.oclastic fractures

commonly are very useful in recognizing the parent mineral of the
alteromorphs as forsterite (olivine),
thanks to their curved habit, their
distribution and their coating of
ma 6'l1ctite, all features that are generally maintaiued, even within
poly-genetic alteromorphs. Here,
the sunounding mineraJs are hornblende, clinopy-roxene, and opague
oxide minerals. i\U are anhcdral and
finer grained tball the olivine and
orthopyroxene.

ATlAS OF MICRO~10RPHOl.OGY OF MINERAL Al TElIATION AND WEATHERING

MINERAL PATTERNS

003,004
BASALTIC ROCK

Morocco
Sampled by A. Dekayir
at rock outcrop
Intramineral features:
twinning and zonation
in augite
Objenive: x 10

PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

ill' \1,<,1'1 \ , of three eubedraJ crystals of augite exhibits

nearly all the internal features tllat
can promote the preferential inception of the alteration processes that
may later aJIect the minerals. Under
PPL, the pyroxene crystals seem
fractured and crossed by many
intramineral cracks. The orientation of some cracks is strongly
related to the nearly orthogonal
cleavages of the mineral. This first
system will give rise, once the crystal is partly weatllered, to sec-

PART

I:

GENERAL CONCEPTI

ondary minerals arranged according

to a regular pattern of crossing
bands. Under XPL, the clinopyroxene is seen to be simply twumed
according to a plane parallel to the
long a..-xis of the crystal. Secondary
products will possibly be concentrated along this plane, wbose orientation bisects the OlieJltations of
the mam mtnmineral cracks. The
large crystal exhibits a cleaJ' concentric zonation, which corresponds to
rhythmic vaJ'iations in d1C chemical
composition of tlle crystal. The

chemical zonation of the mineral is

expressed by an optical zonation,
whose characteristic pattern is
clearly observed in the part of the
crystal that is nearly at extinction.
Not all compositions of clinopyrox.
ene are equally resistant to weather
ing. The most weatherable zones of
each cl'vstal will be the sites of
inception of the weathering I'eac
tions.
J

11

MINERAL PATTERNS

005,006
BASALTIC ROCK

Kivu. Democratic
Republic of the Congo
Sampled at outcrop
Incramineral features:
inclusions and zoning
In phenocrysts
of augite
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

- 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

J
phenocryst of
augite shows, in its core, inclusions or LTyptocrystalline magmatic
material, probably trapped as melt
(later, glass that devitritkd) during
ral)id growth. Tbe marginal part of
the crystal is sCl.1:or-zoned, and each
sector displap osdUatory zoning.
Large inclusions obsuved in the
marginal part uf the phenoclyst arc

12

anh"dral
microphcnocr)'sts of
p)Toxene and olivine. Note the regthe crystal,
ular six-sided shape
small embayments 01' basaltic
groundmass along some of its
edges, and a few irregular intramineral cracks. The basaltic groundmass contains small, colorlcss,
lath-shaped crystals of plagiodase,
in'eglllar grains of pyroxene and

or

olivine, and minute grains of an

opaque oxide phase, presumably
magnetite. All these minerals arc
embedded in a cryptocrystaJJine
basaltic groundmass, which appears
dark bro\vll in plane-polarized light
and hlack under crossed polan.

ATLAS Of M,CROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

MINERAL PATIERNS

007,008
METAMORPHIC
PYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire
Sampled at outcrop
Intramineral features:
inclusions and twinning
in hornblende
Objective: x 4

PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I
area with the surrounding YOW1ger granites, this
p),roxene-rich rock has partly
recrystallized and, W1der tllC new
geochemical conditions, new minerals ha ve formed. Most of tlle original volume of the orthopjTOXenC
and clinopyroxene c:rY.5tals has been
replaced by newly formed hornblende, in which residues of tlle
partial.ly resorbed minerals are still
distinguishable. All these minerals
are embedded in a large, lateformed poikiloblast, which l'Wl be
either quartz or a feldspar. The pho-

PART

I-.

GEN8\Al. CONCEPTS

tographs show the imbricated texture of the rock, in which a crystal

of green hornblende exhibits tlle
typical multiple twinning, and
residual incl usions of pinkish
orthopyroxene (C 3); the resid ua1
grains of diopside also contain many
inclusions of hornblende or actinolite (E4), whereas the material
enclOSing all of these minerals is a
large pOiki loblast of microcline.
Small irregular inclusions of microdine also are visible within the main
crystal of hornblende. It is evident
that all these imbricated contacts

between minerals, each of eWferent

weatherability, \\ill give rise to
complicated patterns of weathering. The readily weatherablc remnants of orthopyroxene,
for
example, \\,ill be quickly weathered
where crossed by a transmineral 605sure. If completely enclosed within
the much less we.ltllerable hornblende, the same remnants may Sl1rvi\'e for a long time before being
weathered in the upper part of the
alterite.

13

MINERAL PATTERNS

009
GABBRO

Sonora, Mexico
Sampled by F. paz
Moreno
Intramineral feawres:
parallel twins in
plagioclase
Objective: x 4

XPL
0.6

0.4

0.0 mm

010
ANORTHOSITE

Rio Grande do Sui. Brazil

Intramineral features:
complex grid twinning
in plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3

XPL

~o;

F
0.0 mm

illustrate the
multipk
twins
observed in feldspar-group minerals. The first one illustrates the
simple polysynthetic t~\;nn.ing corn
monJ)' observed in plagioclase, here
of labradorite composition, in
whidl regular straight bands, in
shades of white, grey and black in
XPL, regularly alternate ulrough
the whole grain. [n the case here
illustrated, the twin plane.' arc not
exact!)' perpenJicu lar to the plane
of the thin section. For this reason,

14

the boundaries of the alternating

t\\;n lamellae are not very sharp or
clear. The stage of the microscope
is in such a position that there is
maximum contrast of extinction
between the two distinct sets of
polys)11thetic rwin lamellae.
The second photOmicrograph
illustrates the more com[J]ex grid
twinning less commonly found in
plagioclase. Groups of pol)'s)'nthetic t\vins are reciprocally
arranged in sum a way as to appear
nearly perpendicular to each other.

[n E2 and 04, both groups are intimately combined. Such small areas
with characteristic grids may "veil
extend throughout the entire
grains. Small inclusions of quartz
an' in-egularl y scattered in the
feldspar grain_

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

MINERAL PATIERNS

011,012
LEUCITE-RICH
PHONOLlTE

Mt. Cimini, Viterbo, Italy

From the Krantz collection
IncramineraJ features:
concentric distribution
of inclusions and
complex twinning
in leucite
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

euhedI'al (T1'5tal of
" '.
leudte set in a rn.ierocrystalllne
silica-umlersatul'ated
0011'
of
phonolitic lava. In PPL, thc colorless crystal shows three concentric:
lines of very small inclusions of
glass, which was entrapped in the
crystal during the la,t phases of its
growth. Note that these linear
anays of inclusions are rigorously
parallel to the external faces of the
polygonal (trapezohedraJ) crystal.

PART I: GENERAL CONCEl'TS

In XPL. the isotropic character of

this supposedly isometric crystal is
disturbed by the occurrence of
many po/ysynthetic twins. d.iversely
but regularly oriented through most
of the crystal. This pattern of twinning, related to a phase transition
during cooling. may be considered a
charaetnistic feature of leucite
crystals, although it is observed <lJso
in some crystals of garnet. Irregular
in b'am incra I f'J-actu res, ill some

rJlaces radially distributed, divide

the crystal into many small fragments; these become, in this way,
morc easily and more rapidly
weathered.

15

MINERAL PATIERNS

013,014
GARNET-BEARING
SCHIST

Southern France
Petrographic collection
of the Universite
d'Aix-Marseille III
Intramineral features:
helicitic distribution of
inclusions in a euhedral
crystal of garnet
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL
1.0

0.0 mm

I"
crystal of garnet
(likely almandine) i.ntergrown
with quartz and muscovite (curved
crystals with blue interferencc-colaI's in XPL), fl-om which it stands
out quite dearly by its high relief.
The crystal shows a distincti\'C pattern of internal inclusions of quartz,
clistributed along cuned lines that
form well-developed spirals. This
so-called "helicitic" pattern is characteristic of syntectonic porphyroblasts of garnet, and is due to
rotation of the crystal during its
-...---. I

16

growth, under the influence of tectonjc stresses, with progressive

incorporation of minerals of the
surrounding groundmass. Garnetgroup minerals are isometric; the
crystal.s nonnally are isotropic and
extinct in XPL, altllOugh in some
instances they arc birefringent, and
may show zoning and twinning in a
manner similar to that shtw,rn in the
previous iUustration of leucite.
Many intramineral fractures and
cracks are randomly distributed and
Wlevenly oriented through the por-

phyroblast. Where these internal

defects (inclusions and cracks) are
numerous, vveatberable crystals of
garnet are )'educcd to small fragments whose outlines are enhanced
by iron-ricl1 (in the case of almandi.ne) or manganese-rich (in the case
of spessartinc) linear and banded
deposits, wh.ich give lise to irregular septo-alteromorphs (see later,
310 and 31 I).

ATlAS OF MICROMOII.PHOLOGY OF MINEAAL AlTEAATION AND WEATHERING

MINERAL PATTERNS

015,016
BASALTIC ROCK

Ocean floor
Costa Rica Rift
Drill hole S04b. Leg 70
Sample: C. Laverne

Intramineral features:
inclusions and zoning
in plagiodase
Objective: x 4

PPL and XPL

-

0.6

0.4

0.2

O.Omm

T"

Ill"
of plagioclase
exhibits a discontinuous pattern
of compositional zoning, characterized by tlle development of a homogeneous core surrL1unded hy a lim
that exhibits rhythmic (oscillatory)
zoning. The concentric distribution
of the zones is clear!y visible in tlle
lower photomjcrograph, in XPL.
Tne variability in chemical composition of these concentric zones is
responsible for this variation of

PART

I: GENERAL CONCEPTS

extinction angle and interFerence

colors upon rotation of the microscope stage. The homogeneoLLs core
of the pJagioclase phenocr)'st, in
contra.st to its marginal parts, contains many minute iJlclusiolls of
melt (no\v glass), clearly seen only
in the upper photomicrograph.
taken in PPL. The presence of these
defects "viii promote the weatht~r
ing of the core, especially ()nce the
glass devitriJles, whereas the ascilla-

tory variations in chemical composition will promote a concennic

distribution of the secondary products, at least at the beginning of the
weathering process.

17

MINERAL PAHERNS

017,018
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

T oumodi. Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Intramineral features:
inclusions of epldote
in plagioclase
Objective: X 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

-. 02

I I
I
I
ohsened witJlin
a mineral grain arc not in all
cases ,1150 part or the SUJTowlding
matrix, as in the former examples;
inclt15inns may also develop from
the host mineral itself wldcr the
geochemical influence of a hydro.
thermal prol'l's" for example. The
central part of this plagioclasc crystal (andesine) has been partly con"erled to a random assemblage of
epidote grains (reddish in XPL),
locally associated with irrcgubr
patches of micrucrvstalline sericite

18

(greyish in PPL) by a posllllagmatic

I)rocess. This p.lrtial transformation
is due to the preferential replacement of the central part of the plagioclase cTystal, which is slightly
more calcic relative to it, more
sowe margin, according to the general reaction: .i\.nclesinC' + H 20 =
Albitc + Zoisite, Where intluenceJ
by later processes of weatbering,
the epidote inclusions, whieh generally are less weatherablc: than
their host mlneral, may resist for a
long time before being weathered,

0.0 mm

especially if the conditions of

weathering arc not too drastic. Such
inclusions of cpidote may clearly be
distinguished as unweatJlerecl grains
withjn a kaolinite-rich alteronl0T[)h
formed at the expense 01' Feldspar.
Under conditions of ferrallitic
weathering, in contrast, both
feldspar and zoisite are weathered
together to gibbsik.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINER.AL ALTtRATION AND WEATHERING

MINERAL PATIERNS

019
MACROCRYSTALLlNE
ROCK

imerlayered in a basaltic
lava now
Ribeiron Preto, MG. Brazil
Sampled at outcrop
Intramineral features:
zoning in a crystal
of plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3
XPL
0.3

0.2

=--

0.1

=- 0.0

mm

020
AMPHIBOLE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire
Sampled at outcrop
Zoning in crystals
of hornblende
Objective: x 4
XPL
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I
photomicrograph
shows concentric zoning de\-eloped in a phenocryst of plagiocJa~e
(Iahradorite) whose margin is much
more sodic than its central I)al"t.
Tbis concentric distribution is
dearly expressed by the different
interference-colors exhihited by the
hvo distincti vc parts of the mineral.
The centTal part is white, whereas
the outer part is nearly at extinction. The difTerence in chemical
composition is also e.xpressed by the

PART I: GENEI\Al CONCEPTS

presence, in the central part, of

isotropic material in w h.ich cr:vtocrystalline kaolinite developeu. In
contrast, the outer part seems
unweathered. The distribution of
the products of weathering is influenced firstly by the presence of
twins (several distinct lamellae run
across the long axis of the grain)
and, s('condly, by the poorly uc\"eJoped cleavage of the mineral. which
determines the incipient fonnation
of an acantho-septo-alteromorph.

The lower photomicrograph

shows the presence of irregular
zoning in two well-developed crystals of hornblende. The presence of
zoning rt'lleas firstly the resorption
of clinopyroxene (small rellli1ants
are still observable in the centnl
part of" the grains) and secondly,
reaction with, and adaptation to,
the surrounding material, innuenced by silica-rich solutions during
growth of tl1e hornblende crystals.

19

MINERAL PATIERNS

021
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire
Depth: 2.6 m
Intramineral features:
regular intersecting
cleavages in a crystal
of diopside
Objective: x 6.3

PPL

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

022
AMPHIBOLlTE

Southwestern Cote
d'lvoire
Depth: 2.8 m
Intramineral features:
,-egularly intersecting
cleavages in a crystal
of actinolite
Objective: >< 10

PPL
0.2

0.1

::..... 0.0 mm

ill
1I
photomicrograph
shows a suhhedral crystal of
cli.nopyroxene surrounded by )'el10"'1' vc:rmiculite and green hornhlenrk. Incipient weathering results
in the opening of the two c1ea\'agcs
in several places in the crystal.
Large open cracb run parallel to
the main faces of the crystal, and
two thin, nearly perpeJldicuJar sets
of intersecting clea\'ages, characteristic of all members of the pvroxene
group, are clearly distinguished
o\'er the entire crystal. The devel-

20

opment of incipient weathering

cn~lJres the visualjzation of a third
thin c1e;l\'age, wl1ich 1'01'1115 grey
bands of various thickness OD both
sides of the large open cracks.
The lower photomicrograph
show.s a six-sided basal section of an
actinolite prism with regula.r cleavages, which intersect at 56 and
12+ 0 to each other, as is characteristic of all the minerals of the
amprubok group. When subjected
to incipient altcnltion under conditions of ferrallitic weathering, the

network of cleavages wiU provide

the preferential pathway for the
replacement of the amprubole crystal by secondary iron oxides and
hydroxides. At the end of the
weathering process, such a ba~al
~ect\on of a cuhedral crystal will
appear. in thin section, as a typic<ll
septo-pseudol1lOrph whose ferruginous septa arc distributed in a regular obliquely crossing pattern that
delimits regularly shaped cmpt)
I)ores.

ATLAS Of M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTffiATION AND WEATH,RING

MINERAL PATIERNS

023, 024
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: I 1.6 m
Intramineral features:
orthogonal cleavages
in c1inopyroxene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I,
of a euhedral
crystal of c1inopyroxcnc clearly
shows the pattern or orthogonal
cleavages that is typically developed. The cleavages are not ver)'
regular nor continuous throughout
the section. The number of breaks
and the internl between them
depend on many external factors,
such as tectoflic forces, and possiblY
also stresses induced during the fab-

1.

PART

I:

GENEf\AL CONCEPTS

,-ic<ltioo of the thin section. The

crystal contains a large inclusion of
phlogopite, which is probably
responsible for the irregular fracrures that ilre superimposed on U1e
well-oriented cleavages of the host
mineral, The high interferencecolors normally obsen'ecl in a seccUflopyroxene
not appear
tion
in a basal section, which is cut
nearl y pelvendicu]ar to an optic

or

axis of the mineral. The grain thus

remains optically qua;;i-extinct at all
positions upon rotation 01' the
microscope stage, and the interference colors are very low (Firstorder grey).

on

21

MINERAL PATIERNS

015,016
BASALTIC ROCK

Kivu. eastern Democratic

Republic of Congo
Sampled at outcrop
Intramineral features:
cleavages parallel to the
plane of the thin section
in a phenocryst
of augite
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL
- 0.6

0.4

0.2

- 0.0 mm

i'
another cuhedra.l
crystal
of
clinopyroxene
(augite), this one cut along a plane
parallel to onc of the two cleavages.
Such sections of cuheural pyroxene
do not exhibit the eight-sided shape
of the basal ~ections (as in the prel'i
ous photographs), but they usually
are diamond-shaped, or they
exhibit a roughly rectangular shape.
DUling the early ~tage of its growth,
rhe crystal engulfed many indusiol1s

22

of matrix, originalJ y as domains or

basaltic liquid, which crystallized
norma.lly once trapped. The beginning or ferruginous wC'athering
allows the cleavage in the plane of
the ~ecti(m to be rendered visible. lw/
staining wit.!, J reddi,h brown matcrial. Without this stain, the cleavage
would not have bee.n visible, being
entirely \....ithin the thickness of the
thin section. 1'h(" I'erruginous compound, which normally appears as

thin lincar deposits of deep-colored

material in a basal section, appear
here as relati\'eJy large, pa.le-col
ored areas, whose size and sbape
closely c01Tespond to the opening
of the rclev:mt deavage.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERAnoN AND WEAT1-IERING

MINERAL PATIERNS

027, 028
ACTINOLITE-RICH
AMPHIBOLlTE

Southwestern Cote
d'lvoire
Depth: 1.5 m

Intramineral features:
intersecting and parallel
sets of cleavages and
transverse fractures
in actinolite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL
0.3

02
0.1
0.0 mm

T'" "

'.1 of the thin section, cut

in an actinolite'rich ~mphiho
lite, shows that randomly oriented
elongate prisms of actinolite have
been cut along dil1'erent Cl)'stallographic axes, which allows observation of their d.i.fferent pattems of
cleavage, and also the d~velopm~nt
of transverse n-actures, These features are emphasized by an incipient
weathering to iron oxyhydl'Oxides,
which (i) coat the peripheral outlines of the crystal by a cenb'ipetal

PART I: GENEI\A1. CONCEPTS

process originating from the interconnected jnterrnineraJ fissures

(Cl), (ii) penetrates the crystal
along tnnsverse fractures, with formation of residual empty pores on
both sides of a central deposit of
oxides and hydroxides (DE4), and
(iii) enhances the characteristic
cleavages of the amplubolc mine]'als: a set of parallel clea\'agcs (C3)
when> the crystal is cut parallel to
its Z axis, and ob1icluC intersectiJlg
cleavages (02) where cut perpen-

welL]ar to that ;uUs. Note that wher~

a rock is microdivided to such an
extent, it becomes friahle, and cas,
ily crumbles into loose sand grains
just like a granitic gJit, well before
the weathering of the rock has proceeded to completion.

23

MINERAL PATTERNS

/>.

019
HORNBLENDE-RICH
ClINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire
Depth: 2 m
Intramineral features:
intersecting cleavages
in hornblende
Objective: x 6.3
PPL

:.
f

0.3

:::- 0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I ,
,
\ I
'of hombJencJe
,
illllstTates the nct\vork of two
intersecting cleavages. The angles at
the intersections, 124 0 and 56, are
typical of all members of the arnph.ibole- group. The regularity of that
network only appears if, as in this
case, the plane of the cut is a basal
,~ect.ion. 111 many places, the two
cleavages bave been opened by
internal movemenls, possihly as a
consequence of weathering or the
SUIToul1Jil1g rock, These newly
fonned intramineral choJlndwavs
will be preferentially followed during the weathering process, once
this resistant mineral hegins to

24

cJestabiLize owing to geochemicaJ

diseguilibriwn in the upper' port of
the profile. Such an opening of tbe
cleavages, related to a physical
process of weathering, is commonly
observed only within the less
weatherable minerals, which can
reach the near-surface horizons
without having been chemically
weathered. These open cleavages, if
COIU1ccted with the generaJ pon>
.'pace of U1e weathered rock, can be
also the sites of easy accumulation
of materials of allochthonous origin.
Where a mineral is fractured to
such an extent, either along its 0\"'11
cleavages or along transmineral

fractures, its weatherability is much

enhanced, because each fragment
acts as a small grajn, arouncJ which
weathel"ing can proceecJ peripbera.lIy and centripetlJ1y. Nt'vertheless,
in Jescribing sudl an aJteromorph,
it will be neccessary to consider the
whole crystal, not each of its fragments separately.

ATLAS OF MIC~OMO~PHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION ANO WEArnERJNG

MINERAL PATIERNS

030, 03.
HORNBLENDE-RICH
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire
Depth: 2 m
Intramineral features:
intersecting cleavages
in hornblende
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

O.3

0.2

0.1

:.. O.Omm

T t'

11
show
the fragmentation of a large
unwcathered crystal of hornblende
accorcling to the internal netwQI-k
of its obliquely intel'Secting cleavages. The open cleavages are the
pathways for elficient translocation
of illU\'iated material, which promotes the formation of coatings
along the interconnected intramineral pores. Once dislocated and
subjected to internal movements,

PART

I:

GENERAL CONCEPTS

such cleavage fragments are displaced relative to their ncighbors,

and the fragments lose their simultaneous extinction w1der crossed
polars, as is dearly seen in the
lower photograph. Note that the
hornblende is not chemically
weathered, but physical factors
ha\'c promoted ib fragmeotatinn.
The illuviation of material is of
allochthonous origin. The strongly
weathered grains (A I, D5) consist

of c1inop)Toxene which, in the

lower horizons, has weathered to a
saponitic secondary product. Most
of the round black dots that are
unevenly distributed are small
quantities of grinding material
trapped under the cover glass.

25

D
Most soil pr()filc~ that are studied by peclologists
generally do not exceed a fel\l meters in depth and
consist of only the visible upper part of deep and thick
weathering profile~. Where developed uncler humid
tropical cond.itions, the lower portion 01" such a deep
profile is usually c1esClibed in a cursory manner onl),.
More detailcu observations perfonned on deep proHIes, in the field and in the laboratory, sbow that the
deeper level is generally not homogeneous. In fact, it
can be divided into several distinct horizon,;, which are
distinguished 1T0m eadl other by important dilTerences
in thei!' fabriCS, their textures and their mineralogical
composition.

Altcl'Op]a..,mation and pede p]asmation

A first distinction can be established according to
the proportions and distribution of the volumes of parent rock that have been subjected to altcroplasmatioD,
that is to say, replacement by secondary product.s.
At the base of the proRle. or near the weathering
front, alteroplasmatioJl genera.1Jy follows a planar pattern (lincar pattern if observed in the two dimensions
of the thin section or of the cut of a profile). This pattern is related to the pathways of the "lveathct-ing agent
as it progresses aJong the fractures, joints, CTacb, and
all planes of weakness that di vide the homogeneous
parent rock into hard volumes 01" various sizes and
shapes. The phase COITesponding to the parent rock is
disconLinuou", and eacJl unweathered volume is separated and isolated from its neigh bar by a continuous
volume of weathered material.

sivdy develops in which pedoplasmation is the predominant factor. Just as in the 11rst-described level of
alteroplasm<ltion, thc level of pedoplasmation develops at tile expense of tile subjacent level, successively
follo'A'ing comparable patterns (speckJcd, linear, pl;nar and continuous pattems). Alveolizcd or degraded
isolated alteromorphs, large elongate patches, and vertical or obliguc roof-pendants penetrate the lower
level. Ultimately) the continuous upper !e1-eI that
results from the complete disl~uption of the rock. fabric..-; as ,) result of homogeni7.ation of the pedoplasma
contains isolated skeleton grains. These are the only
evidence of the original parent material.
As far .'IS completely weathered rocks arc coneerned, another distinction was proposed by Chatelin
(1974), main I)' on the basis of macroscopic field observations. The distinction is based on the persistence or
tile disappearance 01" the lithological textures and or the
original petrographic fabrics of the parent material.
This fundanlental concept results in tile distinction
between isalcerilcs and aJlOlcriw.\ tFig. I).

soil

alloterite

alterite

In somc circumst.ances, but less commonly, the

planar pattern can be preceded by a linear pattern
(speckled pattern in two dimensions) that corresponds
to the digitate penetTation of weathering into the parent rock. The parent rock may remain continuous even
where Ule shape of the fragments has become very
irregular and cavernous.
In contrast to this first level, in which many boulders and blocks of UIlweatbered rock. can be preserved,
another level develops higher in the profile, above the
v\;e<lulcring front, in which the volume of alteroplasma
is continuous, <lnd cllt: p,-imary remnants are restricted
to small lithorclics and to isolated grains of slightly
weatherable or unweatherable mineraJ grains.
Above this lower level, mainly developed by
alteroplasmation (saprolite), another level progres-

26

A horizon
B horizon
C horizon

isalterite

bedrock

- front of weathering
parent rock

Vertical distrihution of"lhe ,'Mious "'vel. and horizons

in , typical lat,'ribc prolll,..

FIGURE J_

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEAT11ERING

The concepc oj isaherite

The term isaherice (from Greek tao~ = cgual or
similar) is only used to designate the weathered levels
in which original fabrics and !ipatial relationships
among minerals are \Vdl preserved. The concept of the
presen'ation of the original volwnes is only partlY
involved in this ddinition.
During the initial \veathcring of rocks, C\'en
where all original minerals arc weathered, primary
fabrics are generally preserved. In some cases, tbe
original volwnes also arc maintained. Each primary
mineral simply is transformed into or replaced by a
new secondary mineral, or replaced by pore space,
which has m;intained the. external shape (iso-a heromorphs, see later) of the original minerals and Ule spatial relationships pre-existing in the parent rock.
In spite of the persistence of the residual petrographic frameworks, the preservation of Ule original
volumes of the minerals is not always exactly adlie\'ed,
even though the original fabrics seem to be perfectly
maintained.
Some weathering processes result in the formation of secondary sheet silicates, such as the minerals of
the beidellite, ,~()ntmol-illon.itc, nono'otute and vernUculitc groups, whose mechanical behavior is different
j1'om that of the neighboring primary minera.ls anJ of
the other secondar')' plasmas. These secondary nUncrals may be subjected to successive swelling and shrinkage OWing to the variation~ in the ~tate of hvdration of
tJ~e 'profile during alternating pCliods of hu'midity and
dryness. Their occurrence c.an result in the swelling of
th~ weatJlercd rock. TIlis is expressed by an actual
increase (but commonly imperceptible at the scale of
the microscope) of the volwnes initially occupied by
Ule primary minerals (m<!.so- and kaw-aheromorphs. see
later). If, in Ule rock, such minerals are not yery abun
dant, and consegucntly, il' they are isolated From the
others, the swelling forms and opens a radial network
of transmineral or intermineral Fractures Ulat penetrate into or benveen the adjacent minerals. These
radially distributed fissures and Fractures may remain
open ~nd empty, or they may be filled up by yolumes
of the swelling days, which extend out beyond the
original limits of the parent-mineral grain (echinoaheromorphs, see later).
In general, the increases in \'olwne are not pCTceptible in thin section, especially if they are jsoO'opic
(equal in ule tlu'ee dimensions). Conseguenuy, the
original shape of the primary m.ineral seems to be well
preserved.. Only "'-ith a comparison of numerous, concise and comparative measurements of grain sizes, in
the parent rock and in the weathered rock, could onc

PART

I:

GlNlRAL CONCEPTS

confirm and guantif)' Ulese modiflcatioDS in volwne.

Such accurate measurements and comparisons are performed only with diflkulty.
MODIFICATIONS OF APPARENT VOLUMES

The necessary morphometric measurements are made. for each mineral grain. according to its largest apparent diameter and according
to only one of the three orthogonaJ directions. A
comparison of the lengths between the corners
of two cubes, where the volume of the second
one is double of that of the first one. shows an
increase equal to the cube roOt of 2 (= 1.26),
which corresponds to an increase of 25%. That
increase in length could be imperceptible in thin
section. Moreover. this example pertains to a
mineral that has doubled its volume during
weathering, which corresponds to a volume
increase of 100%. a value far in excess of the
increases normally associated with such transformations. This argument shows that an increase of
volume of 20%, which is undoubtedly more common in weathered minerals, will not be identified,
or even suspected. in thin section. Moreover, the
observer cannot be sure that the grain size of the
minerals, prior to weathering, is always identica.1
throughout the whole rock, and over the whole
thickness of the alterites derived from it. It must
be remembered that in a thin section, few minerals are cut through their equatorial section, and
that few grains can, thus, give exact grain-size
measurements.
If the volume increase results From an expansion
in only onc direction (weathering of micas to "ernuculite or to kaolinite, for example, \\ith an expansion
perpendicular to the plane of cleavage of the mica),
that incrf'ase will be easily seen under the microscope
because the mineral has acguired an unusual aspect
oVl-ing to the important modification of its shape. The
unegual modification of Ule size of mineral grajns is
responsible not on.ly for imlJortant modifications of
their shapes (a square may become a rectangle, and a
circle, an ellipse), but also for the partial dislocation or
fracturing of adjacent or included minerals, with
development of nctwolb of intram.ineral and intermjnera] fissures.
Many minerals are particularly senSltlve to
such constraints. Hard but breakable minerals,
such as quartz or magnetite, may be fractured or
disjointed. Cleaved minerals, such as pyroxenes
and amphiboles, can crumble into small polyhedral fragments. Minerals that are fragile owing to
the habit of the crystals, such as long prisms of
apatite or needles of actinolite, are cut up in
numerous slices and separated from their matrix.

27

On the other hand, the vcry porous secondary

microstructures, wllich arc suppurted by a minimum
of residual material (koiio-alrcromorphs and some sepio
alteroUlorphs), are suscTptiblc LT) .settling and c-rushing
owing to the weight of the upper part of the profile.
This is expressed by a perceptible clecrease iD the original volumes, although a qUJ.I]titativc assessmc:nt of
such a decTcasc is made onJ)' with difficulty.
This is particularly true during the weathering of rocks that contain an important percentage
of completely soluble minerals (e.g.. calcite. gypsum. apatite). i.e.. those that do not leave any
residual resistant framework after their weathering (koilo-a/leromorphs). The cohesion of the
alterite is maintained for a short time by the
resistant framework of the other surrounding
lInweathered components of the rock. Step by
step. these last minerals also are weathered. the
alterites settle and. finally. the residual cover only
contains a disordered arrangement of the
unweatherable minerals and the deformed secondary products. in which all traces of original
shapes and volumes have disappeared.
Some vcry porow; and alveolar allerites are
forrned by septa of gibbsite and iron oxyhydroxides
(sepw-aheromorphs, sec later). Tbese alterites are mudl
more resistant, and they are maintained uncrushed to
important thicknesses. These well -cI'ystalLized residual
frameworks (crysta/lip!asmas) arc geochemicall)' "ery
stahle, and they tend to be hardened, over time, by
allogenic accumulations of materials and by further
recrystallizJLion. Tht: rerrallitic weathering of P}TOXene- and feldspar-rich rocks IJroduces alterites (in
some caM~S called "gingerhread") in which the original
mic.Tostruetures and volumes are perfectly maintained
for a long period of time through great th.ickne_~ses of
the weathering prollle.
Isalterites can be maintained, in this way, to thicknesses of several meters. They. arc almost alwavs
.
located, in a weathered profile, in the contact an:a
with the parent rock. Neve'-theless, this 10gicaJ superposition is not always observed. In adcLtion to the
processes that have led to the formation of old weathered horizons, now Gipping the profiles, further
weathering processes may folloll". and give:: rise to different mineral paragencses, less resistant or susceptjble to further degradation with disappearance of the
original textures. These more recent weathering horizons arc now intercalated bet\veen the unweathercd
rock, at the base of the proflle, and the early-formed
isalterite at Ule top of the profile. For example, resid
ual isalteritic bauxjtic layers can he observed above
anoUler more or less thick and more recent layer,
mainly composed of kaolinite, in which the oliginal

28

textures are complctd)' destroyed. Isaltcritic weathered ultramafic rocks arc commonJy observed above
more recently formed alloteritic levels because
drainage conditions have been modified dlLring the
deeperting of the profile. Smectite-rich argilliplasmas
of tbe holo-alteromorllhs after pyroxenes or olivine,
dCl'eloped un<1er the conditions of restricted drainage
prevailing in the recently fomlecl 10ll'er part of the
profile, are much more easil) deformed than the crysta!liplasmas of the first-formed septo-altcromorphs.

he secondary minerals. mainly clays formed

in the deep horizons of the alterite. are not necessarily stable in the upper part of the profile.
They may be transformed

to

or replaced by more

stable clays. oxides and hydroxides. These last

transformations and replacements are generally
accompanied by the disappearance of the textural
and micromorphological features inherited from
the primary minerals and rocks. The isalterite is
progressively replaced by an alloterite.

The con ept of alloterite

The use of the tenIl a!!occrice (From grc:ck QAAO~
different) is resnicted to tJle I'v'eathered horizons in
which the original microstructures, inherited from the
parent material, arc no longer perceptible to the
unaided eye. The distinction betvveen isalterites and
alloterites is oflen vcry subtle because disappearance of
tJl(' petrograph.ic textures is often more apparent than
actuaJ. A typical a!loterite, as described i.n the fidd,
c,ln be identified, witb the help of the microscope, as a
true isalterite; the dlanges of COJOI'S connected WitJl
red..istrjhution or partial dissolution of some constituents (especiaJly the iron oxyhydrox.ides), with the
aCCWllUlatiOll of allochthonous material (silica or calcite, for example), or with the infllling of the residual
pore-space by allogeniC mateIial (manganese oxides,
for exampk), may conceal the isaltelilic character of
the material and lead to erroneous interpretations.

This may be the case for alterites derived

from basic and ultramafic I'Ocks that are weathered under conditions of restricted drainage. At
the macroscopic scale. when such a profile is
described in the field. all the secondary products
after the ferromagnesian minerals are sheet silicates (argi/liplasmas*) that are not easily distingUished from each other. The original boundaries
between the minerals are obscu,-ed (crypto-altero-

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATI-fERING

morphs. see later) or very disturbed by the differential behavior of these argllliplasmas under alternating conditions of humidity and dryness
(kata-alteromorplls, see later). Moreover, this
katamorphic proce.ss may be responsible for the
fonnation of an irregular network of fissures,
which can be emphasized by allochthonous
deposits of iron or manganese hydroxides. These
colored deposits may appear more clearly than
the primary textures that they cut. At the scale of
the profile, such a level can be interpreted as an
alloterite. Later detailed study, at the scale of the
thin section, will confirm the isalteritic character
of such alterites: a new secondary structure is
simply superposed on the original, but still identifiable, microstructure.
True alloterites are in many cases clearly separated from the parental material by an isalteritic bori)'un. Thc~ cOITespond to fades in which a new
structure is superposed upon or has destroyed tJle original petrograph.ic structures. There is always a process
of evolution of the isalterites by plasma degradation,
internal recasting, preferential leaching, successive
concentration, late recrystallization, miscellaneous
neofonnations, ;ll1d development of new maeroporosit)' due to biological processes, To sum up, they are the
result of cxtt'mal processe.' that progressively modify
and destroy the previously inherited textures presen'ed within the isalterites.

a general rule, the originaJ petrographic

textures are relatively well preserved during the

replacement of the primary minerals by sec-

step by step, the evolution of these successivE' textural

transfomlations, (b) to identify, in the last steps of
ulcir evolution, t.he neal-Iy vanished traces of the original textures, and (c) to recogni/.e some specilk and
characteristic features, kinds of sit,'llatw-cs, I)re-existing ill U1C parent rock or having appeared during the
early ."tages
its alterabon.

or

The tTansfonnation from isalterite to alloterite is

generally \'ery gradual, and it occurs 1-'/(/ transibonal
horizons, \'ariably thick and irregular, Islands of
isalteritc can he maintained isolated within well-differentiated alloterite, and allotcritic areas can de\'elop at
a lower level, wiUlin an apparentl~' homogeneolls
isalteritic horizon. The juxtaposition, at a large scale,
of isalteritic and alloteritic texture's may, in some
ca.ses, Je\'elop over J. thickness or se\'cralmeters, and
thick transitional horizons mav occur_
Around each textural unit enclosed within
other textural units are developed, at a smaller
scale, intennediate textures whose detailed study
often leads to very interesting observations.
These intermediate textures surround each welldifferentiated unit over an interval of variable
thickness, depending upon the extent of the natural processes and also upon the orientation of
the plane of the profile front in relation to the
orientation of the transformation concerned.
These remarks also apply to another transitional
horizon, situated lower in the profile, which corresponds to the weathering front of the rock.
Weathering can develop through a certain thickness before all weatherable minerals have completely disappeared.

ondary products (primary plasma or alteroplasma),

but they show a tendency to be obscured and
finally destroyed during further transformations
of these secondary products into a subsequent
generation of minerals (secondary plasma or pedo-

plasma). Consequently, once an isalterite is

replaced by an alloterite, the primary textures
are lost, and the identification of the parent material becomes more and more difficult as the alloteritic character of the horizon becomes better
developed.

Old f..:rrallitic cO\-ers, whicb commonly hav(' outlived several climatic or gcomorphological nuetuations, \'cry often comprise a thick layer of old
allotcrites that caps a more recent layer uf isalterites.
A systematic and detailed micromorphological snldy,
made on a serit's of closely spaced samples taken from
the whole prank, generally allo"vs one (a) to ohserve,

PAJlT I: GENERAl. CONCEPTS

An uplK'r Ic\'CI of alterite that lies upon anot.her

weathered material of dirferent petrographic origin
cannot be considered as an alloterite relative to the
lower level. In this else, the parent rocks arc different,
il.llll the abrupt changes or miCTostTUc.tures observed in
the pro!ile arc the result or changes in the natw-e of the
parent rock. In the same way, hybrid profiles are
de\'eloped along a geological or petrographic contact
imoh.ing, for example, \'olcanic ash accumulated on a
basa Itic la\'a flow, gneiss or micaceous schist in contact
with granites, subhorizontal diabasic or gabbroic sheets
within an ultramaflc intrusion, textural alternatiOlls in
a sedimentary series, or mineralogical alternations in a
metamorphic seguence.

he distinction between isalterites and aJlo-

terites, at the macroscopic scale of the profile, is

subtle, and can give rise

to

erroneous interpreta-

29

tions. Nevertheless, it can be useful in summary

descriptions of the weathering profiles and in

A: parental rock P.R.

(d ~ 3)

subdividing into a few coherent entities a complex or heterogeneous profile. Whatever the

complexity of the profile, a clear distinction is

analysis on
1 9 ~ '13 cm 3
~

possible only after detailed micromorphological

VI

study of the whole profile. The rate of the transformations is slow, and the primary and secondary textures are obscured or expressed only

B: weathered rock W,R. (d ~ 1)

very gradually. It will be difficult, under these conanalysis on

1 9 ~ 1 cm'

ditions, to establish with accuracy the boundaries

between the two different types of alterite.

V2

1 cm 3 ~ 1 9

Th . concerl oJ is(lvo/ume
The distinction between isovolumNric and nonisovolumet,ic alterites is significant and interesting
(Fig. 2). If transfonnations and replacements are made
at constant volume, the unit of volume can be used as
a basis, togeuler with the apparent density and bulk
chemical composition, to calrulate the geochemical
mass-balance. Tllis calculation allows quantitative and
exact est.imations of gains and losses of material
recorded in the different horizons of the profile in relation to the extent of their weathering and relative to
the parent-rock, The isol'OJume concepr was introduced
and used for the first time in 1955 bv/ G. tvlillot and M.
Bonifas in a study of the processes of lateJitization and
bauxitization of some rocks of Guinea in Western
Africa.

f the results of chemical analyses, obtained from

samples of an unweathered rock and the products of its weathering, are directly compared,
quantitative information is not obtained concerning the true mechanisms involved during the
weathering. The comparison only involves weight
proportions in rocks and alterltes that have very
different densities. In fact, unequal volumes of
material are being compared (Fig. 2).
The geochemical balances established according to
the isovolume method are calculated by combining the
results of the hulk chem.ic,.1 analyses with the results of
measurements of tlle apparent denSity of the analyzed
samples. This method requires special care when the
specimens Me sampled in the field and when they are
later divided, in the laboratory, into three distinct but
necessarily identical fragments to be used as follows:
the first one I'or the preparation of the tnin section, the

30

3 molar units on P.R, ~ 1 molar unit on W.R.

1 molar unit on P.R, ~ 1/3 molar unil on W.R,

-n,e

2. THe CONCEI"r or ISOVOLU,\\.E,

ch~mic,,1 composi.
tion of an unwi:aLhereJ parental rock (P. R,), ",hose densitl'
1l3S been arbitrarily sel "qual to 3, is made on I g of pnh-",:,
iled material, which corresponds, cxpre5'cd in tenns of \'01
ume. l(l 1/3 cm!. The chemical composition of the pl'OducL
01" weathering of ~hi, same rock (W. R.), whose apparenL densit)' has been :Lrbitrarilv set equal to 1, i-, also made on 1 g of
p\lh::rilt'd material, which corrc.lponds to 1 cm~. E"pres,sed
in terms of \'olumc.<, the compositions at constant weights of
material show thaL the- analysis "f Lhe alreriLe hoS been~ made
on. \'olume three time, larger than the volume 01" the fresh
rock. It is then nccessar;' to multiply by 3 the dat.l concern
ing the fresh rock, or to JI\;d(, by 3 the data concerning the
"'"athcr"d rock, in ord"r Lo get results thaL can really be
compared.

FIGI1RE

second one for the bulk chemical analYSiS, and the third
one ror the measurement of apparent density.
The term alloterire is not synonymous with
aUochthonous alterite, but WiUl alt~lite 'that has lost
some microstructural characteristics. It may be tempting to apply the isovolumc concept to U1e aJloterites
whose autochthonous origin is obvious. It is not
because tlle original microstructures have disappeared
that weathering ha~ developed without preservation or
the original volumes, and that ful-ther transformations
have brought such major modifications that any
attempt to calculate a mass balance could not be made.
By this method, extended to the autochthonous alIaterites, it is often possible to identify and to quantify
transfers of material (SiO h AI,O;, Fe,O" CaO. etc.),
which are not nece$saril)' eA-pressed by spectacular
readjustments of the mineral contents, such as they
may appear in thin section or by X-ray diffraction.
Whatever may be the argument.>, the application of the
isovolume concept to horizons that are not strictly
isalteritic seems, in most cases, as valuable as chemical
mass-bala.nces made assuming of constant aluminum,

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

constant tit.m.ium, constant zircon.ium or constant

quartz, for example.

The isovolume concept can be applied and the

geochemical mass-balances can be estimated only
where several conditions are satisfied simultaneously. It is necessary that the isalteritic character
of the material be confirmed in thin section, and
that the parent rock has been sampled: the

tlbso!ute accumu!acion can involve practically all tbe

chemical clement$, but the moderately mobile elements (Si, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn) are the most easily concentrated in the lower parts of a profile or of a
landscape. There, they can crystallize as secondary
minerals such as guartz, goc.thite, calcite, gypsum, or a
smectite-group mineral. Absolute concentrations of
detrital minerals (mainly unweatherable minerals,
such as guartz, zircun and many other heavy minerals)
are common Iy recorded in the lowest parts of the
tOI)osecluences.

genetic link between the alterite and its parent

THE BEHAVIOR OF ELEMENTS

rock must be demonstrated. The sampling must

DURING WEATHERING

be carefully done: identity among the pieces of a

sample that are

to

be used separately for chemi-

cal analysis, for measurement of the apparent

density and for the preparation of the corresponding thin section must be carefully evaluated.

Relati,,'c and ubso/ule

accumuJali()n~

The concept of relative and absolute accumulations of materials. introduced ~y D'Hoore (1954), is
very useful to describe the m icro- and macrolllorphological features of samples and horizons and to interpret the "ariations of their chemical or rnincl'alogical
contcnt$.
The doma.ins affected primarily by either
processes of relative or ahsolute accumulation (Fig. 3)
are differently distributed ,vithin profiles and along
toposequences. At a large scale, processes of relati"c
accumulation mainly operate in the upper parts,
,vhereas processes of absolute accumulation generally
operate in the lower parts or tht' tnposequences.
Ne\'(~rtheless, detailed study of the promes and of the
toposequences shows that the distribution, at a smaller
scale, can be much more complex and imhricated (see
later),
Re!aci~'e accumulation concerns all materials (chemical elements or minerals) that are- concentrated in .iiw
b,- concomitant losses of the other chemical or mineralogical constituents of the rock dW'ing its weathering.
In general, the most easily concentrated elements are
the least soluble oneS (AJ, Fe, Ti, etc.), that ['arm the
most stahle secondary minerals. such as gibbsite,
goethite and anatase. whereas the most concentrated
minerals arc the less weatherable one, (c.g., quartz,
zircon, metamorphic minera Is).

PAl\TI::~~

Depending on the conditions to which silica

is subjected, it may be either relatively concentrated in or exported from the weathered rock.
Silica can be relatively concentrated either as
primary residual quartz, or as resistant primary
silicates (e.g., epidote, zircon, garnet, serpentine),
or as in situ secondary minerals (smectitic clays
and kaolinite). In the other cases, it is leached
away. The behavior of magnesium largely depends
upon the conditions of drainage at the site of
weathering. Under conditions of restricted
drainage, magnesium normally enters the neoformed smectite-group minerals. but only on a
temporary basis. When the conditions of
drainage are modified and where leaching
becomes important, the smectite-group minel-als
are degraded, and magnesium is leached away.
Under ferrallitic conditions, magnesium is lost
simultaneously with elements such as the alkalis
and alkaline earths.
Re]ati,'e accumulation takes place dUI-ing the first
stages of \yeathcring, at which time an important fraction of the elements is .leached; the relatively accumulated elements are generally concentrated in the
isalteritic part of the profile, and become the main
constituents or most alteromorphs. Relative accumulation is in many cases related to the isovo]umctrk transformation of minerals and rocks. but there are many
exceptions to this rule.
Relative accumulation. by virtue of important
losses
the other elements. leads to the fOJ1TIatiun of
highly porous secondary structures. especially VI'here
the secondary minerals are oxides or hydroxides or Al
and Fe, which generally form porous and mechanically
resistant septo-aJteromorphs. The resulting volumes
arc not diFferent h'om the original volumes. and the
weathering is considered jsaltcritic.

or

31

Absolute accumulation
Gbs

Gt

Gbs+Gt

(Otz)

1 1 1 Otz1 ,
, 1 1
Gbs

PI

Px

Bt

Gt

pt+Kln

IM
PI

Px

Bt

Otz

Otz

..
CJ

..
CJ

Relative accumulation
Exported elements

, , , Otz
, , , 1
Otz

Kin

Gt

KlntSmt

IM

Smt

Vrm

PI

Px

Bt

Colluvium
Alterite
Bedrock

, Otz
,
, 1 , f
Otz

Kln+(Mgt

Smt

(Vrm)

IM

PI

Smt

Px

Bt

Schemaric distrihution of "l:-c-umulations and In,s.:, nf

element;; in a loposcqu<:nce in laterile Jevclopcd from the
weathering of <l par~m rock cOTIlf'osed of plagioclasc (PI),
pvroxenc tl>x), hiot-ite (Ut) and quartz (QI7.). These mincr.lL.
a;'c replaced by sccombr:v products: gibbsitc (Gbs), goethite
(Gt), isotropic material (IM), kaolinlte (Kin), a sm~ctire
group mineral (SOlt). magnclitl' (Mgt) and vcrmiculite
(Vml)

FIGURE 3.

Relath'e accumubtion can play a role not only in

the lower part of the weathered zone of a profile, but
also at higher le~'els, where the early-formerl sccondary products are degraded and transforrned into
secondary products of a second generation (metaaheromorphs. see later). These are more stable minerals
under the new geochemical conditions prevailing in
the upper part of the profile.
Absolute accumulation leach to increases in con
tent of chemical elements or minerals fly migration and
deposition of mJterial coming from other parts of the
profiles or topo~equences. This material Jppears as
inllllings. either \\ithin the porous structures or the
alteromorphs, or in the open macroporcs due to cracks
and fractures opened through the parent material. All
this pore space provides suitable sites for absolute
accumulations of a]]ochthonous material.
The acculllulation of material in an absolute manner is not necessarily expressed by an increase. ill volume of the receiving structures, because it results in
the inhlLing of its inner pore-space. Consequently, this
increase of material without increase of volume is
expressed by a perceptible increase or its apparent den-

32

sity. Materials that are accumulated as a result of

absolute accumuJatioD are often distinctly visible and
recognizable in thin section: they arc infilling materials
within early-formed pore-space, from which they are
easily distinguished either by their mineralogical
nature, or by their crystallinity, or by their calors,
shapes, arrangements, orientations and VariOIL'i other
charactl'Tistics. In the case of infiILing of a porous
alteromorph, or "poro '.alremmorph, the resulting entity
is a cumlllo-alreromorph (Sl,"C later).
The absolute accumulation of an element
within an unstable secondary mineral may induce
mineralogical or chemical modifications that may
be imperceptible in thin section. For example, the
transmil1eral transfer of aluminum from the weathering of adjacent primary minerals may result in
the mineralogical modification of the smectitic
secondary clays formed after olivine. This modification. from AI.poor saponite to AI-rich nontronite, generally unsuspected under the
polariZing microscope, can be detected only with
the help of ultramicroscopic methods of analysis.
In this case. the microscale transfer of AI corresponds quite well to an absolute. but microscale.

ATL"'S Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAl AlTERATION AND WEATHERING

process of accumulation. As such. it will modify

neither the bulk chemical composition nor the
bulk density of the observed sample.
At the scale of the sample, and moreover at the
scale of the horizon, this process of accumulation does
not enter into account because it corresponds to local
transfer, over very short distanct's. of elements
between neigh boring minerals or aJtcromorphs. The
predominant process remains onc of relati\'e accumulation. which prevailed dUring the \veathering of the
l"Ock and of its mineral components.
On the other hand, some elements that are accumulated according to an absolute process may appear
to result from true absolute accumulations if the accumulated chemical element< come from beyond the
horizon or even from beyond the pmi'i.le. Absolute
accumulations of siliC<1, introduced from the upper
part of the landscape, may inyade lower porous horizons consisting of gibbsite-bearing septo-alteromorl)hs
that formed dw-ing an earlier step of relative accumulation. This intlLL\: may tTansform them into kaolinitehearing meca-aheromorphs (see later).
In the upper part of J toposeguence, a horizon of
absolute accumulation generall)' lies ulJon an horizon
of lo\\-er relative accumulation owing to downward
microtransfers of minimally soluble elements (re. AI).
This induces, in the long run, the formation of hdrd
iron-rich or bauxitic crusts, whose residual pore-space
is progressi\'ely infilled by newly recrystallized mdteriaJ, and whose apparent and O'ue densities are comeguen tI ~ increased.
In contrast, in the lower pa.rts of a toposeguence,
absolute accumulations of elements generall~' tend to
foLlow the mo\cments of water along the weathering
front, to participate in the formation of the weathering
products, and to rapidly infill the residual pore-space
of t.I1eir alteromorphs. In this case, the level of absolute
accumu.lation is the base of the profile, e\'eo extending
into the cracks penetTating the unweathered rock. The
accumulated elements in the' IO\\Tr parts 01' the landscape are, for the most part. the elements that were
exported from the upper parts of the landscape.
Depending on the available anions, on their solubility.
and on the dominant role played by one of the main
constituents, absolute accumulations of si.lic-a, of carbonates and sulfates, and of Qx~'hydroxides of Mn may
form.
In the middle part of the toposeguence, the distribution of the rt'.Iative\y- and absolutely, accumulated
materials is related to the solubility of the elements in

PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS

water. The upper part of the prallk may be characterized by slow, \enical, absolute accumulations of less
soluble elements. whereas its lower pan may be
inyaded by lateral transfers and absolute accumulations
or more soluble elements.

transfer of elements in solution. their

gradual concentration, and their later redeposition in the lower part of a profile or of a toposequence. correspond to chemical accumulative
transfers (or migrations) of elements. These
chemical elements were leached (absolute remova0
from the rocks undergoing weathering. and are
transported and redeposited (absolute accumulation) within the pore space of the receiving
material.

Depending on the clistances o\'er \,vhich these elements were tTansported, s('\'eral scales of transfer can
be distingu ished:
nano- (intra) tranjers (inrra: wirhin the boundaries
of the original crystal),
m;cro- (uan.') (rafJSF~n (Irans: throl/sh the boundaries of adjacl>nt crystals), and
Uleso-, maero- and meaa- (inter) cransfers (inrer:
alono the intermineral network of fissures passing
berw~n minerals or alteromOI"phs); the prefix is added
according to the .,-calc or to the JislQnces O\'lT v,,'hich the
transfer is observed (mineral, sample, profile or
toposequence). It is not related to the quantities of
material transferred.
Note: The term transfer. used in some
cases, does not seem to be a very suitable term
because it is already composed from the root
trans (from the Latin trans, through. and from the
Latin transitive verb ferre: to carry). The term
could be used only for the transcrystalline transfers. The term migration. derived from an in"trans"-itive verb. seems to be more suitable.

Ahso.lute accumulation is not onh the result of

migrJ.tions of chemical elements carried as soJutions,
but also the r<:sult of deposits of detrital material carlied in suspension (purriclc or plasma transfers) by waters
circulating in the maCTopores. These are generally
depOSits (illul'ial CUlQns*, argillans*, .ferri-ar8i1lan,.*) of
clay minerals, in some cases depOSits of \"t':ry hne particles 01" quartz or oxyhydroxides or iron (skelewns*.

33

Ierrans*). These deposits are generally ,,veil oriented by

gl<l\-it) or by CdpiJJarity i.n the macropores. C0IlSCquently, t11Cy can easily be cLstinguished from the
alteroplasma formed in sitll and from the residual
material.

stituents. These losses of elements generally lead

to the formation of an important network of
residual pore-space.

he process of absolute accumulation is a later

one that leads to allogenic concentrations of

more soluble material or particles invading the

he process of relative accumulation accompa-

nies the weathering process and leads to an In s;cu

concentration of insoluble elements or minerals
by concomitant losses of the more soluble con-

34

lower parts of the landscapes. infilling the earlyformed residual pore-space, and possibly involving neoformation of minerals. It leads to a
decrease of the residual porOSity.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CHAPTER

Sampling

IN THE PROHLL
J I. 'If" 1/1 ,in the weathered horizons and
in the soils, the successioo of textures and of
volumes, to dis,?"iminate pre-exisring inherited structures Irom newly developed ones,
and to establish the geochemical mass-balances among
its different parts, it is necessary to study the profile
from base to top.

evolved horizons, wh.ich are located today in the upper

parts of tlle profile, have probably shown, in tllC past,
mineralOgical and morphological characteristics comparable to those now observed in the lowest part of the
profile.

his reasoning implies that all the evolutionary

steps observed today are synchronous. and that

The first sample to be sw died is the deepest

one: it is the fresh. unweathered rock, which
must necessarily be the parent material of the
weathered profile. It is an indispensable and irre-

one must go further and further back in time

gradually as upper levels are considered, in order
to infer the original evolution of the observed
horizon. In other words. it is necessary to think
and to work according to a fourth dimension.

placeable point of reference.

The different levels in the profile represent the
different stages through which the rock has passed
from the initial W1weathered state to the ultimate one,
in wh.ich aU the inherited primary srruttures have disappeared. This evolution is slow. In studying a weathered profile, it must be kept in mind that the upper
levels are much older than are the lower levels, near
the parent rock. Consequently, climatic and topographic changes may have occurred, and may have progressively modified the process of weathering during
that long evolution. But it must also be kept in mind
tllat the profiles, even the oldest ones, are in continuous evolution, and that recently acquired features may
have been superposed upon the old ones, or may have
modified or even replaced them.
The mineralogical evolution, which starts from
the rock and is continued into the upper part of the
alterite, is tllen obsen'ed in its real sequence over a
time scale whose duration is only poorly and relativel y
speCified. A static study, made at a given moment or
the history of the proflle, allows recognition of this
evolution in the course of time if, in tlle profile. tlle
di.fferent stages of alteration are superposed upon each
other, each level representing a more evolved stage
than tlle level immediately below. Nevertheless, it
must be kept in mind that these levels are subject to
dynamic and ever-evolving processes. Thus the very

The macroscopic study of a weathering profile

does not allow precise defmition of the boundaries
between the \-arious horizons that compose it, especially where these profiles are sampled \'\-'ithin deep and
c1ark pits. Thc profile is generally seen as an alternating
superposition of well-differentiated horizons separated
by rransitional horizons that exhibit intermediate features. It is tllen very tempting to take samples only in
the characteristic horizons, and to omit sampLing the
intermediate levels. Subsec/uent micromol-phological
study of tllese well-characterized samples would show,
in this case, only the initial and final steps of these partial evolutions, anc1 would give little information about
the details of these evolutions.

ConSeqUentlY. it is necessary to take samples

from the transitional horizons. which are the
most suitable ones to yield information about the
mineralogical and microtextural transformations.
In general. samples can be systematically taken at
an interval of 20 or 25 cm. in order to avoid accidentally missing an interesting horizon. It will be
always possible. during later examination in the
laboratory. to disregard the samples that are too
similar to the adjacent ones.

The samples arc taken as undisturbed prismatic

monoliths, 01' I'ariable size, ,md they must be carefully
extracted and manipulated, According tu their hardness and tu t!le compactness of the weathered rock, thesample" are eXlractt'd by digging four tracks around
the selected I'olume with a knife, a plane-edged hamIn"r or a chiseL The sample, once l"xtracted, is later
II'Tappec-l in pal)cr or curton for protection, ,\Ild is
enclnscd in a plastic bag to m"intain it.~ humidity,
Finally, it is scaled with adhesilT tal)C, The primlatic
shape'and thc constant dimensions of the sample;; facilitate their ordered packing dlld transport, SampJing
,md transport arc in some C<LSC, made easier lIsing rectangular metallic boxes, from 5 to 10 on dcep. with
one or two remol'able cOI'ers. that are progrcssi,ely
pushed forward into the horizon, penetrating along its
I'our edges, This last method of' sampling is practical
and prol'ides good protection of rile samples dLlling
their nansport, In contrast, the ('xtradion 01' the samples out their boxes is often dilficult jf the boxes cannot be c1ism,u1t!cc!, The l'oJume of the sample must be
related to d1e heten)(JenE'ity 01' thL' material. to the
,
number of thin sections to he made ,'rom it, dnd to the
number of Jnalvses or measurements (X-ray diffraclion, chemical anah'ses and measurements of ;)PIJarcnt
demit)')
to be mad~ in order to applv. the isovolumct,
ric reference-Frame.

'"

If the weight of the samples is not a limiting

factor. it is better to prepare large monoliths of
weathered samples, In this manner, if the monolith is accidently broken during its transport, it is
probable that pieces of sufficient volume will be
available upon unpacking, Monoliths that are too
small will probably be reduced inro many useless
pieces of insufficient size,
[n some circumstances, it will be useful to orient
the samples in the profile hefore their extraction, In
most cases, it will be sufJIdent to mark the top of the
s-ample, because u1e other directions arc not I'ery critical. In some special cases, such a.s in the proximity of
I'eins, fractures, and other geological or petrographic
I'eatures, it \\ill he useful to note some orientations and
distances related to theSt: fearures, This can be Kcom
plished with the help or phutos or drowings cleor!y
showing U1t: nature, the directions of these features
and the distances ol which the successi I't' samples were
tokcn. The same precautions must be taken in saml)ling
the concentric weathered shells that surround boulders
of unweathered rocks: each shell should he numbered
separotcJy and, where possible, also oriented rclati\'(:
to tbe centTal boulder (ahol'e or hdoll' the boulder).

36

The srudy 0[' a prollle, i,solated from its geomorphological context, supplies vcry fragmental),' infor
mation only, The distTibution of the horizons. u1eir
thickness, their cht'mical and mineralogical composilions, and their micromorphoJogical characteristics arc
moditle.d not onl)' in the time scale, \\ithin the profile,
but also in the space ,scale, Iyith occurrences of lateral
mudifications along the slopes of the landscapes.
f\ccording to the local climatic, topugraphic i1/ld geological condition,s, weathering and pcdogclldic
processes may cxhibit important lateral variations
which, m01'eOl'er, ma)' h,lI'e been modilled according
to the age of the I'ariolls topogrophic ICI'els that are
stacked '1long the toposequences,
A good interpretation of these processes
and of their origin will only be possible after a
detailed and comparative swdy of several complete and graduated profiles. regularly distributed
along <l slope which is, itself. selected according to
its representativity in the whole landscape, In
other words. the true weathering profile to be
swdied is not only a vertical profile. but it is
mainly a subhorizontaJ one delimited by me
superficial topography (pedological horizons)
above and the weathering front (incipient weathering) below,
Consequently, the sampling mllst be systematic.
In a section of the slope, the samples must be distrib
uted <l,cording to a regular I'ertical grid, with a high
cknsit)' of sampling in the vertical direction. Each vertical line, which is representative of a protlle. a pit or
a hore-hole, mu~t be located according to the 10c,11
charactcri;;t:ics of the . d ope, the \ariation~ of the plant
cover. the den..sit} of the drainage net\I'ork, anJ the
geoJogical or petrographic variations. According to the
length or the slope and to its panicular characteri;;tics,
a mean toposequcnce is formed of a catena of five to
fifteen profiles separated from each other by variable
distances,
Because natural processes. such as transfer
and accumulation. generally act by gravity and are
directed down the slope. it is better to begin the
micromorphological study of a toposequence by
studying the topographically highest profile, One
then proceeds to the lowest profile and. later.
back up the slope for a new micromorphological
study. reserved this time for an inventory of the
stages of weathering and for an identification of
their successive inheritances,

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINoRAL ALToRATION AND WEATHmlNG

The detailed stud)' of aLl these lopo,equl"ntiall~'

arrangl"d profiles provides C'xcellenl insight into the
natural phenomena. whose nature, chronology.
mutual influences and inheritances are better as,essed
in t.he space and t.ime scales t.han in an extremely
detailed stud)1 of an isolated profile, To be convinced
of Ulis. it is informative to read the works
BocquiC'r
(1973) abollt Tchad, or Boulet (1974) about Burkina,
French Gu)'ana and Brazil. or Ddvigne (1965) about
c.')tc (I' h'oire, and of Nahun ( 1976) about Senegal and
Mauritania,

or

At the scale of the landscape, the observations can

hI' more complicated. Indeed, it appears that two perpendicular toposequcncc,. the first onc along the main
slope of the interfluvial crest, the second onc alona the
shortest slope, are CJuite common./)' HT)' difference-The
first toposcCJucnce displays in space tlw mineralogical
transformations and the texlural modifications, In contl'ast, the second toposequcnce condenses them by
overlapping ami telescoping, \\'ith eventual suppression of horizon, or prol1les that are \\ell developed in
the main toposequence.

tron-microprobe analysis. tr.msmi:;sion and scanning

e Icctron lllicroscopy), Conseg uentl y, the mcsoscaJe
(profile, ha.nd specimen) and the microscale (optical
miLToscopy 011 thin sections) are often completely
neglected,
Onl.' of the .lims of this book is to demonstrate that
man~' nbscn'ations can he made and many expla.nations

can be obtained frnm tbe careful stud\' of thin sections

of soil.lnd rock samples correctly dishihuted along lhe
profiles and in the landscapes.' The authol' 11'111 he
happy if his book can stimulate mort' scientists to
undertake stlldies using micromorphology, at the
scales deslTibeo below. Also, he hopes to succeed in
encouraging stlldents to discover the natura./ beauty or
minerals and textw'es, often unsuspected in their samples and nul always re\'ealed at the other scales of
inl'l:,stigation.

ne must remember that micromorphology

is only a research rool. as much In the study of

weathering as in the study of soils. It does not
necessarily provide solutions to all problems.
However. significant contributions are possible if
the results obtained by this method are carefully

ConSeqUentlY. the study of the alterites and

compared to the data obtained from the field and

of the soils of a well-specified and homogeneous

laboratory observations. It is fruitless

area. from the climatic. geological. and anthropic

gard the profile and landscape data and to base all

points of view, must be made in the three dimen-

interpretation on only the micromorphological

sions of the landscapes, The soil scientist must

data resulting from isolated thin sections pre-

to

disre-

carefully choose the most interesting. the most

pared from samples taken. a[ random, during a

complete. the most characteristic and the most

walk on naturally exposed profiles or outcrops.

representative profiles and toposequences among

all the profiles and toposequences explored in
deal with too large a

N o result obtained in the laboratory can be

number of samples for later studies in the laboratory,

correctly explained without bearing in mind the

the area,

to

avoid having

to

fundamental field-based observations, Whatever

the sample. soil. alterite or rock. it will reveal its

Many soil scientists. geologists and petrographers

study only a few samples, often completely isolaterl
from their geomorphological or 'h'uctural contexts.
with the aim of quickJy ootaining new observations and
interesting data to be' briefl~' de~cribed in short I)apers
or posters. For tJlis reason, obsen'atiuns and ana./ ,"st'S
arc. commonly only made al the flanoscak (c'B', ;1",(-

PAP,T I: GENHlAL CONCEPTS

mystery only if it has been carefully sampled in its

geological or pedological environment- All data.
even the most sophisticated data. must be always
subjected to geological arguments. This way of
working illustrates the motto of the International
Geological Congress: "Mente et mal/eo".

37

CrtHTER

The Systems of Pore-space

1111"
of the optic'al microscope, one
can distingu.ish, in a rock undergoing weathering, several main types of media, characterized by their porosity and by the physical
properties of the primary and secondary minerals that
compose them. These properties, mainly the porosity,
directly influence the circulation of water ill these
media, the possibilities of ionic mobility and, finally,
the real nature of the mineral transformations and neoformations.

Normally, these diA'erent types of media appear

successively and invariably in the same order. They are
arranged according to a double gradation in both time
and space scales. COn.';equently, they can be clearly
superposed in the various levels of the alterite at the
scale of the profile. in contrast, if the rate of weathering is particularly IUgh, which leads to a certain telescoping of the systems on each other, they can seern
mixed, or superposed at the scale of tlle thin section.
There are tllree main types of such systems: contact microsystems, plasma microsy'stems, and systems
oJ fissures.

DHIl\,JTIOI ,
\Vater is tlle main agent of the weathering of
rocks. Its beha\ior \\ithin the various systems will be
explained below, and its inOuence 011 the different
types of weathering will be specified.
\;\feathering phenomena were attributed for many
years to free water, which percolates rapidly through
the superficial levels anu which catTies, by an arlvection process, the elements dissoh'ed in the upper part
of the landscape, eventually depositing them, by crystallization, in its lower part. Water is considered to be
responsible for the differential spatial distribution of
the secondary products derived from weathering. The
systern of fissures is tlle mam factor controlling this
process of qu.ick circulation of tlle ions. ln the plasma,
and especially in the contact systems, the processes are
different because the amounts of available water are
much smaJJer and because, consequently, the proper-

ties and the behavior of water are difl'erent (Meunier

1980, Pedro & Delmas 1980).

Water, in a porous material, is better

retained where it occurs in small quantities, The
smaller the quantities of water, the more strongly
water tends to be retained in the smallest pores
of the material. In this way, water mobility
decreases quickly in proportion to the decreasing
size of the pores. Within the smallest pores of
the plasma system. for example, water becomes
virtually immobile, and ionic transfers result only
from slow diffusion-controlled phenomena.

In poorly advective media, the rnineraJogical

replacements invariably occur in the vicinity of less
soluble and less mobile constituents, which support
the neoformations of secondary phases. In the case of
water that moves freely tllI'ough tlle systems of fISsures, the thermodynamic activity of H 2 0 is egual to
t. vVithin the plasma systems, water is more or less
bound; it moves with more difficult\" the activity of
H 2 0 is still more or less equal to I. l~ contrast, \-\-i~hin
the practicall)' anhydrous environment of the contact
systems, the activit:' of H 2 0 may decrease to such an
extent that the H 2 0 molecule is rendered unstable,
and tends to become dissociated into HT and 0 Hions. Under these conditions, hydroxylated but not
hydrated secondary' minerals are fomled. Their chemical cornposition is closely related to tlle composition
of the original primary mineral from which tlle)' were
generated.
Where water is more abundant and more rapidly
moving in a given medium, dissolved elements are easiJy removed, and less soluble elements can be compJexed and removed; on I)' very insoluble ekments will
be retained within the medium.
Depending upon the quantity of water available,
very dilTerent secondary products can be formed from
tlle same primar~" minerals, If tlle available water is

abundant ;md ir its circulation is e<lSY, all the soluble

elements (Na. K, Ca, Mg) and moderately soluble elements (mainly Si) can be leached away. le<lving in situ
only very illsolublc l'lcmcnts such <lS iron, aluminum
and titanium, which soon contrihute to the rorm<ltion
of oxides or hydroxides. The leached t'lement;; (except
rol' Na and K) can el't:ntually form carbonates or sulrates deposited in the lower part.s or tJ1C lancbcapes,
\\hereas sowwn and potassium will only be concentrated in endorht"ic watersheds subjected to <1rid climatic conditions. In this wa:-. the elements originall;
associated within the primary minerab are dissociated.
and each group or elements is deposited separatel~. as
in a large-scale "chromatography" (Tardy 1970), in
\ery different and distant places.
From an olivine-. pyroxene- and plagioclasebearing basic rock. for example, residual boxworks of iron oxyhydroxide (Fe), mixed Fe-AI
hydroxide and gibbsi1e (AI) are formed. respectively. These three secondary minerals form polycrystalline. homogeneous and porous areas
(sepco-a/ceromorphs) without occurrence of element exchanges between the adjacent weathering minerals. No gibbsite occurs within the
alteromorphs after olivine, nor is goethite found
within the alteromorphs after plagioclase. Silica,
Ca and Mg are completely leached away. and they
can eventually be fixed in the lower parts of the
landscape. the first as a conS1iwent of kaolinite.
or of nontronite, and the elements Ca and Mg as
carbonates or sulfates. for example.

If' the available \vater is less abundant and il' its rate
of circulation is slower, the \\'catJlering process is less
aggressive, amJ only a portion of the soluble elements
is remuved.
From the basic rock of the former example.
saponitic (Mg + Si) or ferriferous (Fe + Si) secondary clays are formed at the expense of olivine.
ferriferous beidellite (Fe + AI + Si) is formed from
the pyroxenes. and montmorillonite (AI + Si) can
be formed after plagioclase. It is undoubtedly
within this poorly advective medium. in which diffusion dominates, that the more important ionic
exchanges (chemical cransmineral microcrans(ers)
are observed between adjacent domains of secondary minerals. Small quantities of aluminum
enter the compOSition of the nontronite formed
at the expense of olivine. whereas the montmorillonitic clays formed at the expense of plagioclase commonly are colored by imported iron
oxyhydroxides.
If water is sparse or dissociated. and il' its circulation is of no consequence, the alteratjon occurs without removal or elements. and even the more soluble

40

elements arc not leached away. Only OH ions are

hrought into the ,'stem. Where ravorable thermodyr.anlic conditions arc achieved, hydroxylated mineraJs
are formed. Their chemical composition is closely
related to the composition or the precursor primary
minerals.
Following the same example. serpentinegroup minerals (Mg + Si) or cummingtonite anthophyllite (Mg + Fe + Si) are formed after
olivine. acrinolite - tremolite - hornblende (Ca +
Mg + AI + Fe + Si) or talc (Mg + Si) is formed
after pyroxenes, whereas mineral associations of
zoisite (Ca + AI + Si) and sericite - paragonite (Na
+ K + AJ + Si) are formed at the expense of plagioclase. The element exchanges from one mineral to another during these replacements are
very limited, and are effecrive over very short distances only.

Contact microsystcms can operate, to a limited

extent, in the nrst stages of wcatheling. when the primary minerals are still joined and dosely bound in the
practically unweathered rock, such as can be observe.d,
at great depth, at the base of weatJlering prollles or in
CJuarries. In contrast. contact micros)'stcms commonly
operate to a greater extent in rocks subjected to
hydrothermal processes. These' s)stems 01' contact correspond to the ~url'aces or destabilizatiol1 and to planes
of'discontinuity.
These planes or discontinuity may be eXfernal surfaces of the mineral grains, which are generally true
sLu-faccs, situated i.n the suture planes between adjacent minerals. These surfaces I'orm a continuous network: only poikilitically enclosed minerals are wholly
isolated, ancl their bounding surfaces arc not connected
wid\ that network. They also may be imernal sUljac:es,
wh.ich are generally potential surfaces and ,vhich correspond to planes of weakness in the crystal structure,
They are cleavage planes, tv,in planes, alignmenLs of
micro-inclusions, ere. Only a portion of these planes is
connected with the continuous network of grain
buundaries. Finally. they may be uneven surfaces,
which are true or potential surCaces. and which correspond to open or closed, intTa- or transmineral
microflssurcs. They commonly exhibit a parallel or cl
crossed arrangement, and result from tectonic stresses
and from late- or post-magmatic movements.
At deep-seated levels, the rocks arc compact and
unwcathered. Theoretically, thNe is no network of
open fissures along which circulation of fluids can
operate. The plimary minerals are closely joined, and

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MIN~RAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

the suture [)!ancs are closed. The only possible cas)'

contact between \vakr molecules and the rock lies at
the margins of the veins, joints and faults that cut tbe
rocks on a large scale ;lOd O\'cr long distances. Within
an idealized small volume of ruck, the contact betwecn
v,-ater molecules and minerals is locallv.. restricted to
contacts with external or internal crvstalline defects or
discontinuities. In this environment, onl;' the ven'
slow process 01' diffusion uperates.

Where the concentration of water is very

low, conditions of instability of the water molecules are reached. and the molecules are dissociated: the OH- ions are fixed and progressively
transform the anhydrous primary minerals into
hydroxylated secondary minerals. Only OH- ions
are added

to

the medium, in theory, and the crys-

mineral is later completely weathered, it is generally

repla('ed by an a&,OTegate of secondary minerals aswciated with an interstitial pore-sl)ace whose SW11 occupies the total volume of the parent mineral. The entity
resulting from this replacement exhibits an internal
texture that has in some cases been called the rninphancuscpic text1JIT (Bisdom 1967a). This internal texture
and the relative proportions of solid and porous volumes will be the main keys for the classification of' the
<lltcromorphs (sce Part 3).
Thr' alteroplasma is generally stable in the lo\-ver
In-cls of the weathering profile, and it remains practically unmodified as long as subsequent modifications of
the conditions of weathering do not occur. Such modifIcations may be due to the relative lowering of the
profile by processes of superficial erosion, to the thickening uf the prolile by lowering of the weathering
!Tont, to c1imatk changes, and to internal moJillcations of the pattern of' water circulatiun.

tallochemical composition of the secondary minerals is closely related

to

the original composition

of the primary minerals from which they are generated.

p
Plasma microsystems operate latET, once the more
weatherabk primary constituents begin tu be replaced
b;' !)h)dlitic plasmas or hydroxide minerals. Primary
and secondary plasmas are distinguished.

Note: The size of the secondary crystals

(kaolinite, gibbsite, goerhlte, etc.) can commonly
be much larger than the size (2 mm) usually
accepted for the definition of the "plasma"*. In
this case, the more suitable term crystalllplasma*
is to be used. If the secondary particles are
micro-sized (less than 2 mm), the term argilllplasma* is preferred.

Primary pI .\ma.'i
A primary plasma, or ahcroplamw (I.e., a plasma of
the Ilrst generation) consists of secondary crystalline
microparticles developed at the eXI)ensc of and within
a primary mineral whose size and volume generally arc
maintained. The dumain formed in this manner is an
a/rcromorph (sce belm\- for the best definition of' this
general term). Ollling the- nrst step of its formatiun,
the primary plasma is formed either as a thin film that
surrounds the [irimar) mineral or as a thicker rim that
surrounds a residual remnant of primar)" mineral, but
always inside its original boundaries. Once the primary

PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS

With increasing extent of weathering and increasing volume of the residual pore-space, the abundance
of \vater is much greater, and its role, more important
than in tht' contact system considered earlier. Water is
stable even if, at the bas!:' of this level, the activity of'
HO can be Ies., than I. SecondaiV minerals vary
according to the conditions preYailing in this medium,
to the <luantities of water available, to the extent uf its
saturation with respect to secondary minerals, and to
the rate of its renewal. The neoformations arc composed either of' 2: 1 clay mint'rals whuse crystaLlochemical composition can still be wry close to that of the
replaced primary mineral, or of I: 1 clay minerals
whose comp,)sition is only a weak reflection
that of
the primar)' mineral, or of clJstallipla,;mas of uxyhycLroxides of the least nIobilizable chemical elemenLs
such as iron, <lluminum and titanium. To this decrease
in the: COTl1I)!exity uf the secondary minerals curresponds a decrease in the degree of chcmical inheritance.

or

vVithin such environments, in which microporosity 11Ia)'S a dominant role, the wakl' is tightly bound,
its renewal is slow, and ionic tra.nsfers occur bv d.iJlusion processes. Such transf't:rs operate in both directions: addition 01' water, and subtraction of the soluble
elements, \vhid] do not enter into the secondary
products.
Tht> ions that are liberated from the primary l11in('l'als diffuse slowl\' and migrate only over short distances before being incorporated into the ncof0n11E'd
secondary minerals. The formation of aggregates of
microcrystalline gibbsite at the expense of residual
remnants of feldspar, completely isolated in the newly
formed pore-space of the alteruIl1Ol-ph, pro\ides a

41

good example of these intramincral migrations over

very short distances (imracr)'sralIinc nanormmferI)_
Ion,s also can participate, after their migration, in
the Fonnation of secondary minerals in adjacent alteromorphs (uanscCvsralline microrransjers). The Formation
of aJuminous smectite-group minerals in an alteromorph after olivine pn_)\ides a good exampk of tile
transfer ()f aluminwn, originating from the adjacent
weatJJ."red pyToxenes or feldspars, into an Jlteromorph after a mineral tllJt uriginall),' did not contain
aluminum.
FinJlly, these elements can be trapped by tile
watn that circulates in the system of Fissures, and they
can contribute, by advecrion, to distant neofomlatiom
(imercrJ5wlline macro- or megarranifers). For example,
calcite-rich crystalliplasmas form by processes of
absolute Jccumulation in the lower parts of toposequences dissolution.
The combination of the rates of (Iissolution of the
elements with their rates of leaching detel'mines the
nature and rate of the recombinations of tile ions and,
in this way, determines the nature an(l the composition
of the secondary minerals. The alteroplasma (or primary plasma) is progressively developed, a.nd it gradually replaces the primary minerals. This process is
called altaoplasmarion_

Aherop,asmatjon is a process that results in the

formation of pla.smas. either argilliplasmas or

crystalliplasmas. formed ;n situ by weathering of
primary minerals. The inherited textures are
minphantosepic* textures. The matrix that is pro-

greSSively formed is characterized by the juxtaposition of primary plasma.s and provisional and
ephemeral skeleton grains made of undisplaced,
variably weatherable residues of primary minerals. Alteropla.smatjon is generally developed at a
constant volume and without disturbance of the
original textures, even where residual voids are
abundant. These newly formed entities, or units,
which appear at the expense of primary minerals,
are aheromorphs.

. emnJary plasmas
Secondary pla.smas develop at the expense of the
primary plasmas. They commonly correspond to pedoplasmas, and are plasmas of the seconcl generation.

42

In the upper part of the weatllering profile, under

the lowest hori7.0n ur the true pedological profile, the
I)rimary microstructural featun:s, ...v hich were inherited rrom the parent material and which were until
now relatively well presen-ed, are modified and tend
to disappear. These ahrupt or graduaJ modifications
are produced, on the one hand, by the appearance and
tJll' development of an important and organized system
of fissures and, on tile other, by tile structural reorganizations and the minera]ogial transformations that are
induced by this net\\-ork of Fissures. The sheet silicates
of the alteroplasmas arc progTessi\'el~ fractured,
c\jsplaced, degraded, incorporate-d to the matrix,
impregnated and colored by iron hydroxides. l\s their
size decreases and they are mixed into the second'll"Y
plasma, these panicles ultimately become unrecognizable as distinct cl')stalline units illIder the
optical micro~cope: alterol)IJsmas are replaced by
pedoplasma~ .
The combined effects of internal mo\-ements
recorded in this ell\ironment, involving displacements
of material, mineralOgical replacements, and concentration, compression and srress-related processes,
result in tile rorrnation of a ~econdary plasma much
more homogeneous mineraJogically and microstructurally than was the primary alteroplasma. The chemical and sn-ucturaJ inheritances are progressi\'ely and
definitively lost, The disrribution of the skeleton
grains, until nm\' consisting ot" unw~athered and undispbced residual grains, is modifled. Large grains are
fractured, their fragments arc disjointed, separated,
and displaced, and the fine-sized skeletal grains thus
formed are scattered, to he finally more homogeneously distributed in the newly fanned seconclary
pedoplasma (matrix).
The secondary plasma is formed from tile aggregat-ion of microparticles of secondary minerals, a.s in
the case of the primary plasma. However, tile material
consists of microparticles at" clay minerals and, consequently, most of these plasmas al'e argilliplasmas. The
secondary pbsmJ is first de\'eloped locally, at the
expense of rhe primary pla.'ima, in tile contact areas
with the initial fissures. Jt is later !,'radually and widely
developed under the inlluence of the processes of pedoplaImar ion Jnd of peJorurbarioTl.
Alteroplasmas that arc rich in smectite-group
minerals and in 2: 1 clay minerals arc evidently the first
ones to be subjected to further mineralogical and
microtextural moclifications. These secondary minerals arc mechanicallv unstable. As such, they are easily
Cragmented 01- deformed WIder the innuence of alternating conditions of humicLry and dr)'nl'ss, thev arc

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINE.RAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

easiJy cleave-cl ancl dispersed under the irtnuClll'(, of

exte;'lal mechanical factors, and they are ultimatdy
weathered to newh' formed clay minerals, or to oxy'
hydroxides. These' phases arc more srable umler the
n~w conditions or lmprowd drainage induced by the
developrrll'nt l1l'tlll' network of fissures.
Kaolinite-rich plasma.' are much less sen"iti"e tu
these modifications. The microstructures in which the
kaolinite is found can hl' deformed b)' strelching, frac
luring or dispersion, but uleir mincralogical nature is
generall)' not modified, In spite or its microdivision,
kaolinilc will be dissolved or replaced by gihhsite only
where subjectcd to the mosl extn~llle supergene conditions.
Fcrrallitic cr)stallipL1smas. which are esscntially
composed of imn and aluminum hydroxides, are very
resistant to subsequent modifications. These minerals
form a residual framework whost' parts can be fractured and mixed wilh ".lrious penoplasmas, but their
mincralog:ical constituents can remain unchanged.
even in p~'oxirnit)' of the soil sud:1Ce. \-Vilhin the horizons rhat are characrerized by absolute accumulations
orinm ann aluminum in the profile, these porous boxworks can be filled up with a ncw generation of
hydroxides (cumulo-<Jheromorphs), which strl'ngthens
their frameworb and makes them less and Ie~s vulnerable to the mechanical and chcmical processes prevailing in tht: supl:'rficial horizons,
The large-.,ized particles 01' altcrolJlasma, initially
prese,'n:c1 within the- pedoplasma, can be assimilaten to
the skeleton, in the pedological sense of' the term. II'
tht'se rcsidual structures are ,'olurnillOm and ,veil preserved, they are lirhorelics or <Jltcrordic.i l,-\'cathered
lithorclic:s), 'depending upon the extent 01' their weatheriJlg (Sc.c later, in Part 4).
The pedoplasma also includes all the tran,sfern:d
plasmas, which are deposited a.s cutans b)' physical
mioration
into the horizons of absolute accumulation,
b
and which can be later presl'rved as papules in the
pedotmbed horizons. The pedoplasma first appears
and develops in the alloterilic level or the prollles, and
later bt'Comes dominant in the soil horizons.

he conversion of the primary plasma system

to the secondary plasma system is accompanied

by mineralogical transformations. with degradation and Simplification of the chemical composition (chemical inheritances) of the secondary
constituents. The petrographic microstructures

PART I: GENERAL CONCErn

(structural inheritances) are first obscured. and

later destroyed. The skeleton. which is composed

of the fragmented. dissociated and smaller-sized
residual minerals. is gradually incorporated into
the secondary plasma and is more homogeneously distributed within it. This is the domain
of the alloterites and soils.

The nelHork ojJeep- eQtedJi!> ure.s

Thi~ network of nssure.s has a geological or pl:'D'ological origin. It ">rim a ll1egasystrm that can extend
from the parental m::lterial at the base of the weathering prollJcs, or exposed in Cjuarrie, and outcrops. to
the ulJper part of the supedicial horizons. This network is inherited di/Tetl)' I'rom the geological structunes. It consislS of fracturl's, I'aults, planes or
sc.hjstosity. bending planes. and cooling fractures. lts
occurrl'n~e is independent 01' the sUI)Crflcial processes
or ,yeatlwring and predates them, -n)t:: nl'twork, or its
traces, nom1ally extends throughout the autochUlOnous part 01' the wl'athering profile. and ma)' even
rc.lCh rill:' soil horizons if these are developed From a
weakl)' pedoturben material.

Thl' network of this ml'gasystl'm of fissures COl11nwnh- is open, and thus arlc1\~'s l~asv circulation of
super'ficial water through the weathered levels to grcat
dcpths within the unweathercd rocks. This system
exhihits "aried and generally characteristic networks:
parallel, closely spacen and Jlnely an.lStomosing networb in schistose and gneissic Forlllat.i,)nS, an orthogonal Ill' IJOlyhedral, irregularly spacen nl'lwork in
aranites and in most cndooenic
rocks. a regular, comb
b
monlv vertical and c1o~cll' spaced nl'twork in efl'u~iv('
mag~atic rocks, dl1d para'IIe], densely spaced and originally subhorizontal nct\vol-ks in sedimentary rocks.
The thickness of the weathered horiwns is
strongly influenced bv the extent and density' of this
net\v;'l1:k of Il~sun"s a~d by its orientation and its organization. The thickest we;thered mantles are generally
devel0IJed on vertically' laye/-cJ rocks, such as strongly
inclin,'d schistosc or gncissic formations. TIle orthogonal network. which :ommonl)' is de\"(~lop~n in homogeneousl.,' structured rock, gl'ncra.ll). givcs rise to
spherical and concentric weathering, and the sizl' of
t.I1e firsl-formed boulders is related to rhe original
intL'n'al:" between the fractures. This case is observed
on granitic and. in some cases. on ultramafic rocks.

43

This n('t\\'llrk is responsible For in-egularities and

indentations dewloped at tlw weathering front. It is
also responsible ror the formation or weatheling
minoprofilcs, which can develop along both sides 01'
the deep vcrtical or obligue Ii-actw'es or joints, and for
their possible infillings by clays and allogenic materials
transported o\,er long distanc('s. Thc mio-onlOrph.olog1c'l.l study of these l.k:CI)I~ buried miLToprofllcs,
\vhich correspond to particular gcochemical em'ironments, can bL' made LJnl~ with the help of numerous
and regularly spa 'cd samples carel'ully taken across
these layered m.icrohorizons or alTOSS the concentric
shdls that sUTTolmd the residual bou Iders. The miner
alogical composition of such materials, in "'hid1
,~II()chthonous materiab can be intimately associated
\I'ith autochthonous material, is in most cases \'er~'
complex. Their relatin~ distribution and their rclatj\'(~
chronology necessitate a c<~rdul study of numerous
thil1 sections made from particularly well-distributed
,111<1 wdl-oriented samples,

The. up(!I:qene networks (?fji

and pore'

'I1rc

These appear in the weathered rocks as a result of

the multiplication and opening of Il'actures, fissures.
channels alld pon's through which the waters can move
easjl~. These networks are potentially dependent upon
the original stTucture of the parent rock aDd are
strongl~' influenced h) the supergene processes of
w~~,)thering. Two main typL'S of networks can be dis
tinguished according to their origin: the authigcnic and
the alloaenic
systems.
Features of the two arc
b
.
reviewed belcl"',
The aULhigcnir ysrem '1,(issurcs anJ por"s ,lppears and
de\'elops widlin the wcathL~ring rock. [t results from
the I'racturing or fissw'ing of the ruck and constihlcnl
minerals (Iransml[)f[tIijissures). ITom the dislocation and
separation of the component mincrals (i[}termineraljls.
sures und pores), ami from thc formation of resjJual
pores locatt'rl either \I'ithin the poro-alterol110'1Jhs
(in!ramincral pore,,) or partlv developed be.twl~C'n the
newly fomlCd secondary pruducts and the residual
fragmeIlts (ilJler-rlusma - mineral pores). The formation
a.nd evolution nf must or these voids arc due to the
Jirc:'ct influence of the \I'eadlering processes on th'
rock. without inten-ention 01" external independent
process," such as thuse invoking human or biulogical
acti"jtits. For h"tter rlefinitkln;; of these systems or
pores and fissures. the reader should refcr to the work
of Bisdom ( 1967a), Note that thLs kind of s",stem of fissun:s and pores b 'Tr~' widcsl)read only i~ weathered
rocks and is, in conb"ast, rarely obsc.ned in rocks that

44

were altered under hypogene conditions . .'\11 the Sl'Conclal'~' minerals formed under hypogene conditions
have <1 tendency to fill the \I'hule volume of the a\'ailable sl)ace and, consequently, most alternmorphs
formed under these conditions arc Iwlo-alccromorphs,
Transmineral porosiry is generaled either by the
opening of preexisting c10serl fissures formed in the
parent rock under dle inl1lH:nce of' tectonic constraints, or by recent fraetLlling of the weatJ1cring rock
under the influences or physical, chemical and mineralogical processes, Th.e fractures cut minerals without
I'ollowing their intcrrnineral contact planes, and the\'
arc commonly se"eral centimders or decimetC'rs long.

These networks consist of (a) parallel sets or linear

fissures along directions of breakage, or 01' cun'ed Ossures around residual lloulders. due to physical or
Jlemiol proc('sscs, (b) j-Jdial ~ets of IIssures regularly
distTihllted around alteromorphs whose smectitic clay
content may promote compressi\'c stTt'sses clue to
swelling under alternating variations of humidity and
dryness, and (c) ilTcgular networks of intL:rc.onnected
f.'acnrrcs in weathered rocks, in which the formation
01' numerous meso'alteromorphs produces unidirectional deformation of the weatl1ering rock and, cunscguently, induces dIe irregular fracturing of its
unweathered constituents, JS in mica-rich rocks for
example.

Transm;neral poros;ry corresponds to the opening of fissures and fractures that traverse the rock
and cut the mineral without following the grain
boundaries. These fissures and fractures are commonly pre-existing within the unweathered rock,
and are caused by mechanical or tectonic forces,
These networks generally consist of parallel or
crossing sets of interconnected fractures, which
can extend over long distances and, when
opened, can easily be coated by deposits of
allochthonous origin, The transmineral networks
can be observed at the megascale of the rock
outcrop, at the macroscale of the weathered profile, at the mesoscale of the hand specimen. and
at the microscale of the thin section,
The inlerminem/ncrll'ork ''!Ipores is developed under
the inl1uence of differential mechanical hchaviors 01'
the plasmas am! thc residual unweathered miner,1Is. It
is not direeth inhcrikd from tbe parellt rock, but its
distrihutiun ;nd density can be stT<lI1gly controlled by
the pan'nt rock's texturaJ and structural patterns.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Coarse- and medium-grained rocks that

exhibit equant textures. such as granoblastic and
lepidoblastic textures. are the most favorable for
a well-developed intermineral network of pores.
In contrast. fine-grained rocks, and rocks that
exhibit porphyritic. poikilophitic. diabasic textures., and, generally, all rocks with serrated or
notched grain-contacts. are not favored to form
regular networks of intermineral pores. The
intermineral fissures can be locally relieved by
short transmineral fissures upon intersection
with cleaved. or large-sized, or elongate minerals.
The twc> ,urfaces that limit the opening of an
intennineral fissure or fracture are generally accorJam
su1accs: their opposite margins exhibit complt':mentarv
shapes, which can be fitted by an imaginary movcment
of translation. NC\'ertheless, it Illust be kept in mind
that the dirc'ction of the opening of the fractun' is not
necl'ssariJ~' parallel to the plane of the ulin section and
that, conse(Juentl~, both accordant walls of the fractme Illay not always ne onsen'en together in tl1e same
area of U1(' thin ,ection.
Under particuI3r1~' fa\'orabk conditions of regular, c1o.,e-spaced and interconnected inkrmincral fissures, th: network is nearl~' continuous, and can
extend m'er long distances. Howe\-er, it allows the
easy circulation of water only along a part of its extent,
necause most separation [)ssures are discontinuous ;\Ild
form chains of alternating opened ;lIld closed elongate
pores.
At the scale of the thin section from deepseated weathered horizons. it is not always possible to easily distinguish the opened from the
closed sections of an intermineral network of
pores in relation to the circulation of water. In
contrast. in the upper part of the alterite. which
is subjected to processes of suspension. transfer
and deposition of cola red clayey material, the distincdon is easier. Moreover, the nature, the
shapes or the coloration of the alteromorphic
plasmas are modified at the contact with open fissures accessible to the circulation of water.
Effects of oxidation or dissolution processes.
development of an aureole of diffusion of iron
compounds, and the subtraction or displacement
of particles, are commonly observed. The occurrence of these contrasted features assists in the
identification of this open network of fissures.
If the tra.nsporlcd material has not be('!l filtered
prior to its encounter with consnictiolls along the l'lssures during tile upper part of its rravd, colored
argiLlans and deposits of miscellaneou", parLicle~ ('an
occur in the open sections or the. net\vork of tl1e f1~
sun's. In contrast, if tht' circulation of wJter is slow

PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS

and if the elements migrate in di~solvl'd rorm, crystallaria* and other banded deposits can be observed alung
notl1 the opened and apP,lrently closed section;; of tile
intcnnineral network of pores. Similar dcpo~its of
materi:ll can aJso be observed along the tran;;mincral
networks.
DEPOSITS OF DISSOLVED
AND DETRITAL MATERIALS

In general. deposits of dissolution origin and

those of detrital origin can easily be distinguished
by careful observation of thin sections. The crystallaria or material deposits that originate from
transport as solutions show a tendency to nucleate and grow perpendicular to the walls of the
pore system. whereas those that originate from
transport of detrital material show a tendency to
be layered or microstratified parallel to these
walls. In the first case. the length of the crystals
very commonly corresponds to the thickness of
the deposit. without variation of grain size.
whereas in the second case. the detrital deposits
exhibit a microlaminated texture in which small
variations in grain size are recorded.
The re~idual mineral grain> ulat exhibit shapes and
.siz('~ similar to the shapes and siz<:'s or tl1e completely

weaulered alteromorphs are generally not I'rJctured,

because tl1e~' arc avoided by the network of port~s outlined anon-. The grains art' then sUlTounded, in the
plant> of the thin section, by a peripheral, rounded or
roh'gonal pore that is connected at several places to
the intl'rlnineral network. In contrast, acicular crystals, CO:lrse phenocrysts, ami porph~Toblastic and poikiloblastic minerals are fracnlred, :lJl(] ule resll.lti.ng
fragments are sepal-atc-d by open transverse fractures.
The occurrence of such connected fractures greatly
increases the wC:lulerabilit)' of tile mineraJs that the)'
cross, and of the isolated minerals that are enclosed
wiuun them as inclusions.

Transverse (racrures are those that cut a lathshaped or acicular or prismatic mineral either
perpendicularly or slightly obliquely to its long
axis. Transverse fractures may correspond either
to

transmineral fractures where they cross the

mineral concerned, generally with a slight modification of tlleir direction, or to intramineral fractures, not relieved by external transmineral
fractures, where caused by physical torsion or
bending and consequent fragmentation of the
mineral. Single transverse fractures are generally
observed in the first case. whereas parallel sets of

45

transver'se

fractures

are

more

commonly

observed in the second case.

Among the intemlineral S)'.stt'tnS of nssure.s ur

pores, one c<ln also include the vcr)' common and
widespreao '\:irnUlulOdular" IIssure~ and pores. These
Jevdop around h.lrO nodules, skell"taJ grains or
lithorelics where they arc embedded in a sort enclosing
matrix. This system is mainly clue to the differential
!>ehavior or the adjac~nt volumes. The hard ol.llrl incom
pn:ssiblc volume or the nodule does not e:-.;periencc
dn)' variation due to swelling anJ shrinbge, whereas
the soft and malleable matrix can easily respond to
\'ariatiofls in \'olume (Tcneratcd hy, alternations in
humidity, and dnTle%.
,
~

A continuous CUf\'~'o circular or angular polygonal

open fissure surrounds the hard roundeJ nodule or
angular lithorelic and completely separates it from the
sluTounoing m.ltrix. \Vhere connected with other net
worb of fissures, these circumnodular Il.,surcs anel
pores may be inl'illecl by allochthonous materials,
Tlwse systems or circumnooular porl's commonl)' are
responsible 1'01' tJlC formation and thickcning of SCl"
onoary indurated cortices arouncl the original nodules
or alterorelics (sec Part 4),

ntermineral porosity corresponds to the opening

of the imermineral grain-boundaries, under the

influence of physical or chemical processes. Phys-

ops rapidly as soon as weathering is initiated in the

rock or in it., minerJ.1 components. It appears firM as an
aureole of pores situated either along the periphery of
the alteromorph. peripherally to the residues of pri.
mal')' minerals observed within the altcromo,vh (peri.
nudear or inter-plasma - mineral pores) or, more
rarel). as encloseJ pores within these residues. The
porusity is thereafter widespn'ad as residual alveolar
pores, closcl)' associated with the secondary alttToplasmas and crystaILiplasma~. The shapes and U1C dis
trihution uf thes!'.' pores are descrihed in 1110re detail in
subsequent chapters concerning the "pom"altero
morphs (Le.. pore-bcal'ing or porous altcrol11orph.s).
The ULlnSl'erse .fissllres and pores formed b)' the
breakage of brittle minerals that are either easily dca\,
able (pyroxenes and amphiboJes) or e;lsHy Fragmented
owing to their shape (acicular, fjbroL15 or tabular minerals) can be- also grouped WiUl intramim:raJ porosity,
alulOugh their Formation does not always depend
exclmively on the superficial processes of weathering.
Among these brittle minerals are apatite Jnd atgirine
prisms, actinolite and trenlOlite needles, and tJhular
crystals of feldspar in diabasic: and basaltic rocks.
Intra mineral porespace is irregularly shapecl and is
formed within the alteromorphs where the secondar)'
products do not occupy all the available volume of the
parent mineral. Within partl)' wcaulcred pl'imar:-' minerals. this internal porosity very commonly occurs as
an l"l11pty irregular pore that surruunds Ul(' residual
rcmnant(s) and that separates it (or t.hem) from the
I1cwly formed altcroplasma (inlCf'plasma - mineral pores).

ical processes generally form regular networks of

discordant fractures that delimit the original or
weathered minerals over importi\nt areas,
whereas chemical processes (weathering) give
rise

to

discordant intermineral fractures. whose

irregularities are mainly due to subtraction of

weathered material by circulating waters. The
imermineral network is generally interconnected
over important distances, and allogenic deposits

Expressed in terms or 'olume. inrramincral poroSic,1"

is generally much more important than th!'.' I)orosity
resulting from the t\\'o previous types of sysrcm. It is a
n'sidual porosity, wh.ich is exclusively due to I)roc Sl'S
weathering. IntTamineraJ porL)siry generally does
not exist in primary minerals and rocks.

The volume of the- inter.plasma - mineral pore

depends upon thc nature and composition of both pri,
mal!' and secondary minerals; it also depends on the
degree of lllinerJ.1 alteration. During the First step of
weathering, when the resiclual core is still voluminous,
ule open space that separates it from the secondar~'
plasma is small and barely perceptible in thin section.
But with increasing weathering, the por(" \'olume can
b(~col1le proi:,rressivel)' more significant.

Intramjneral porosit}. at the .scale of the' optical

observation, practically does not exist in most
unweathereJ rocks. Thjs Ilorosity appear" and devel

The occurrence, shape and distribution of resieluaJ

pores within the altcromorllhs arc stTongl)' inOuenceJ
by the phySical ancl crystallocbemical characteristics or

are commonly observed.

or

46

Th.is alteroplasma is permeable to c1ements trans

ported in solution. Hovvever, this internal pore-space,
within the recently fanned alteromorphs, is generall)'
not connected with ule intcmlineral network. C.-ms('
quently. it is not accessible to particlcs tnnspOl1:ed by
processes of aclvcetion. IntramineraJ pores may per,jst
empty for a long time before being filled up b) allo
genic materials.

An.AS

OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AlITRATlON AND WEATHERING

both primary and secondary minerals. On the one

hand, they are strongly related to the regular or irreguJar crystaLlographjc discontinuitiC's specific to each
primary mineral, such a5th\? cle.wages and nC'tvvorks of
fractures (scpw-alrerolllorphs) , and the distribution of
internal ;:onations and micro-inclusions (all'copnro- and
cenrroporo-alrcromorphs). On the other hand. the nature
of the secondary products also in.lluences the shapes
and dist.-ibuLion of the interstitial residual Ilores, such
as the planar and paraJJel sets of thin pores obscned in
the phyl[oporo-alreromorphs, the ilTegular large pores
observed in the glomcro-alrerolllorphs, and the reticulated and merarcmzcd pores observed in the reriporoalr~rolllorphs (see Part 3 for illustrated definitions of
these terms).

For intramineral pores to develop. it is neces-

rare in weathered rocks and minerals. In contl<lSt. such alteromorphs are very Widespread in
transformations resulting from hypogene
processes: for example, the replacement of
pyroxene by amphibole. of feldspar by epidote. of
olivine by "iddingsite", and of nepheline by natrolite, generally gives way to compact and poreless
holo-alteromorphs.
This pore volume is, in contrast, inversely proportional to the \'Olllme of the imported elements or
constituents nccessan for the formation of tJ1<':se minerals, such as water molecules necessary for the formation of hydroxides and clay minerals. The richer in
soluhle elements is a primary mineral, the mort'
porous will be its alteromorpb. For the same primary
mineral, the more drastic the weathering processes.
the more easilv, and more extensively
the chemical de"
ments are removed, ami the more porous are the
resulting alteromorphs.

sary that the volume of the secondary products

be less than the volume of the primary mineral
from which they are generated. The pore volumes are generally proportional to the difference
between the molar volumes of the primary and
secondary minerals and. ultimately. proportional
to the volume of the exported elements, i.e..
those that do not enter the structure of the
secondary minerals.

If some immobile elements (AI, Fe, Ti) are maintained within the alteromorph as constiruents of secondary minerals, the \';:due of the ratio of the molar
\'olume of the primary minerals (Vp) and of the secondary minerals (Vs) determines either the formation
of an interstitial empty pore between these two minerals or the formation of protective surf;lce-Iayers :Jt
the contact with tJle remnant of primary mineral. Tms
concept bas rect'ntly been developed by Velbel (1993).
Where the ratio of these volumes (Vs/Vp) is less than
onc, the primar:' mineral is easil~' weathered to a
porous alteromOlllh. vVherc close to onC'. this ratio
determines the formation of a protective layer characterized by slow diffusion of the chemical elements.
Once wholly developed, tJle altcromorph is compact
ann poreless: it is a true holo-alreromorph. Where the
r;ltio is greater than one, it determines a relative
llnweatherabj\il)' of the primary mineral under the
geochemical conditions prevailing in tJ1C alterite considered.

For example. the we<lthering of a crystal of

olivine, under conditions of restricted drainage
(very limited export of elements), gives rise to a
sheet silicate alteromorph whose residual porosity is not perceptible at the scale of the microscope (ho/o-alteromorph, see later). However,
under more extreme conditions of ferrallitic
weathering (two of the three elements are mobilized). we<lthering gives rise to a very porous
alteromorph (seplo-a/leromorph. see later) of
goethite whose solid volume is small and proportional to the iron content of the original olivine.

nlramineral porosity results from the replace-

ment of a primary mineral by an aggregate of secondary minerals whose total volume does not fill
all the available volume delimited by the boundaries of the original mineral. Its importance
strongly depends upon the nature of both primary and secondary minerals, and therefore.
upon the we<lthering process. This, in turn, is
related to the rate of leaching of the elements
and. consequently, to the drainage conditions to
which the observed minerals are subjected. An
isalterite formed under conditions of restricted
drainage comprises only alteromorphs whose
perceptible intra mineral porosity is very minor
(holo-alleromorphs). A similar rock. subjected to

conditions of ferrallitic weathering, gives rise to

The development of pore less alteromorphs
(holo-alteromorphs). or of alteromorphs in which
the porosity is too small to be easily observed at
the scale of the optical microscope, is relatively

PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS

an isalterite of low apparent density. whose

alteromorphs are very porous (alveoporo-a/leromorphs and seplo-alleromorphs),

47

The three main types of authigenlc secondary

pore-space are easily distinguished in thin section.

TronsminerOI pores, issued from transmineral

fissures and fractures, cut the rock, or at least cut
several adjacent minerals, without following the
boundaries between the original crystals. This
kind of porosity frequently originates in the
breakage of the rock by mechanical forces. independent of the nature of the minerals traversed.
Its occurrence largely precedes the first stages of
weathering. Transmineral pores commonly are
connected with the general network of pores
and, consequently, they are commonly filled up by
later allochthonous deposits.

nlerminero! pores disaggregate the rock over a

certain thickness along the original boundaries

between the primary minerals. Such pores can be
formed either by mechanical forces (in this case,
accordant surfaces are commonly observed), or
by physicochemical processes, which are responsible for less regular discordant surfaces. In both
cases, they are in general connected to each
other and coated by secondary products of
allochthonous or autochthonous origin.

nlrominero/ pores belong to the most wide-

spread system of pores in the weathered rocks.

They are formed within the alteromorphs by
weathering and removal of a part of the chemical
constituents of the primary minerals. Being with
out connection to the other types of pore space,
they are generally not coated by allochthonous
materials. Their distribution, shape and orientation may be related to the crYStallochemical
structures of both primary and secondary
minerals.

The alI<J8cnic ~r51em cjjis5urcs develops under the

infJ.uence of pedowrbarion, which promotes man~' textural and structural modillcatiuns in the upper part of
the alteriles and in soils. The distribution of sud) fissures is largely independent or the distlibution of the
authicrenic networks which were potentiallv preeXisti~g in the parent ~aterial and which reJlI)' became
opened in the lower horizons. However, u)eir distrih-

48

ution may locally be superimposed upon these previ,

ously fOl'med networks. The allogenic system of 115sures is caused either hy external factors .'uch as
colluviation along the slopes, collapse and settlil1g by
gra,-ity, the work of the soil and ~uhsoil by human
activity. animals and plant roots, or b), t.he direct influence of circulating waters, charg:e'd with dissoh-ed or
eroded material, or under the influence of swelling and
expansion within the secondary argilJiplasma.~.
Networks of channels and pores created in this
way may exhibit important "ertieal and later,ll extent,
and the circulation of water is l'e1atin:ly easy. Biological factors are mJinly responsible for the' fonnation of
channels and galleries of important lineJr extent.
whereas physical factors are mainly responsible for the
opening and widening of planar pores along the earl)'formed intermineraJ and transmineral fractures.
The cross-sectiun (Jf biological pores is generally
circular. They are irregular and sinuous, and consequently they appear in thin section as chains of isolated
and elongated p()n~s exhibiting an ellipticJI outline.
Only channels cut perpendicularly by the plane of the
thin section can appear isolated and circulal-. Their hiological origin commonly is conrinncd by the occur,
renet' of root sections or animal excreml'nts
(coprolires) .
Large planar voids form by late distortion of tlIe
alterite and are widened by removal of mateJial, under
the inlluencl' of physical factols. They exhibit, in thin
section, linear extensions and irregular openings: their
walls no longer arc accordant surfaces. They JIT in
gener;l! the result of the easy circulation of \V;lter in the
('Mh'-formed net""orb or intermineral and transminera! fractures. The inegl.lbrities of their lrulcr surfaces
a.re determined either by the weathering of the earlyformed weatherable alteroplasmas or hy Ule internal
erosion of lnicropartides. Their walls conllnonJ~; are
colored by iron oxyhydroxide.s (hypocoatings) formed
either at the expense of the pre"iously formed fenif'erou:, smectite-group minerals or by oxidation and fixation or dissolved i,'on-rich components. Tllcse "'ails
genC'l";llly are coated by argillaceous delJosits (cla)r
cutans) .

In the upper part of the isalterites, at the le'cl of

tbe alJoteritic materials and soils, all these 11L'tworks of
fissures are well developed and form an interconnected and open network that facilitates the circulation
water. 1l)cir inllucncc on t.he behil\ior of the

or

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTE1\ATION AND WEATHERING

materials and on their mineralogicaJ and microstructural transformations becomes progrcssi\'cly more
important. The mi.s'Tation uf the ions liherated from
the resiJual minerals and from the sti II \\eatlwrable
alteropbsmas formed in the deep-scated horizons 01'
the proAle prc,eeeds by ad\ection.
The more soluble ions (Na. K. Ca) can be
displaced over long distances, at the scale of the
landscape, before being newly conceno<lted and
fixed in the lower parts of the landscapes or being
transported away by superficial networks of
drainage. The less soluble ions (Al. Fe. Ti) migrate
only over very short distances, at the scale of the
mineral or of the thin seCtion. whereas moderately soluble ions (Si, Mn. P, Ni) and ions that may
be integrated in the Structure of other secondary
products (Si. Mg. Fe and. possibly, K) have diverse
destinies according to the conditions of dilution
or concentration,
Chemical elements migrate not onl~' as ions in
solution, but also in suspension, as microparticles of
minC'rals. The occurrence of gOt'lhitt' or gibbsite ill
pores and channels can be du(" not oml)' to the precipitation uf hydroxides from \'cry diluted solutions, but
also to in .,jll/ degradation of ferro-argillans previously
deposited from suspensions of microparticlcs.
On tJw walls of the fractures, tJle lIrsl-lrlrlllC<! secondary sheet silicates a1'(' weathered either 10 oxyhydrox.icles or to other sheet silicates whose compOSition
is simpler. Walls of fractures, and, in general, all the
alloteritic levels, arc t.hc' prel'clTed site of the hydroxides of the weakly soluble metallic ions ,lIld of kaolinile. The bulk chemical and nuncralo!,.rical composilions
are simplified and homogeni7:ed in these transitional
alloteritic Ic\-els. ThesC' processes arc' widespread in
the soil-folming horizons.
Alteromorphs that result from the complete
weathering of primary minerals into assorted slllecti!egroup minerals arc degracicd slowh', with Jissolution
of part of silica and magnesium, and lilwration of iron.
Tbe portion of tJle silica not leached away is (()ll1hined
with the alwninum to foml bolinitc, eilher in situ or
in the nc'twork of pores. Iron is fhed as oxides and
h\'Clroxides, which pigment the degraded or neoformed clays. This progl'essi\'e a.nd ccntripetal degradation dnoelops along tJle nctworh of inkrmulcral
and translllineral networks of pores. !\ network of
brown-colored rims is developed around the greenculored smectite-rich ,l!tuomorphs. On onc hand, the
margin between the neighboring allerolllorphs is
obscured bv diffusion of iron, ,,-hieh forms opa~lue
deposits. On the other hanc!, the regtdality of the

PART

I:

GENERAL CONCEFTS

accordant surfacC's of the previous network or t1ssurcs

is progrcssi\'ely deslro)c'd: parts of the s\"Stc'm are
widened by dissolution or erosion of tilt' \\'alls,
whereas other parts are oIJstructed h~' locall\'
deposited illU\'ialion eutans.
InCllmplelely rlt'\'eloped alterol11orphs, which still
contain residual remnants 01' wt'ather<lble minL:rals, are
subjt'et to U1L: same processes as the pre\'ious onC's.
Thc'ir plasma content is degraded slowly, but the remnants oC primary minerals arc now seriously out of
equilibrium "'ith the ne" geochcmical conditions.
\Vealhering processes are now complctd~' different,
and kaolinitc or oX~'hydroxidcs c'an be formed owing
to the leaching of the other cations and of a part of the
silica h'om the earlier-formed smectite-group minerals. As a resuJr, rO~J7'hl.1se alreromorphs or rnela-alreromorphs (or bod)) are Formed (sce Part 3).

/I. ver~' pnrous lacewl.lrk of plasma is fomled. It is

rimmed by brown-calmed depOSits of iron hydroxide.'. These deposits arC' more or less eoncenrrieally
distributed because the~' arc Axed, on the onc hand, on
the walls of the open fissul"e and, on tJle other hand, on
the surfacC' of the central residual milleral or on the
inner surfKe of the residual central pore. From th<?
center to the outer 113rt of the altcrolllorph, one finds
the primary mineral core ,,-ith it.s own rim of ox Fe (=
iron oxyhydrnxides), a Ilerinuc!e.ar void, an inner lim
of oxFe IIxcd on tJle smeetitic cla,vs, a slllectite-mine,-al,rich conccntril hand, an outer rim of oxFe resulting I'rom
the degraclatiun of the previoLls
smcclite-group mineral, and the open volume nl' lhe
surrounding fissure.
Moderatel_, \\'eatJlerablc minerals (hornbkndc,
mUScO\'ilt', orthoclase, mjcrocline), and the coarsest
crystals of the nHll'C' weathl'rable minerals (p).Toxene
or p lagioclasc'), where the~' sUI"\'i \"ed as rcsid ua I core.'
in the upper part of the profiles, are maillly dissolwd,
with tht' Irmnation of residual boX\\orks of hydroxides, withoul Ilassing through the intermediate stage of
a .srnectite-f,'Toup mineral. They can even, under con
ditions of extrvme leaching, be completely dissolved,
without fOl'ming ,1Iwthing hUl empty, ur ncad) empty,
altcromorphs (/.:oi/o-alreromorphs and cenrro-poro-l.1lrcromorphs; sce later).
Vcr)' resist-ant minerals (e'8" quartz, cpidote,
rutile, zircon, iron-rich opaque minerals), whidl were
fLlCtured during the earlier stages, an? now dislocated,
displaced and carried away as a l'OJ1Scquencc of the
remo\'aJ of the nucrosized particles that surrounded
and cemented them. The isolated fragments proJunxl
from a gl\'en mineral grain luse their original oric'llt.ltion (i.e., t.he~- lose thC'ir simultaneous extinction

49

under XPL), and they arc randc)mh' scattered and dis,

tributed within the secundary plasmas, in which they
arc henccfol,th embedded ,).5 skeleton grains. With
their disappearance, the ultimate traces of the original
textures of the parent material disappear, a.nd only the
mineralogical composition of the skeleton grains can
gi"e an imperfect picture of its original petrographic
association.
In the soil horizons, the inlluencL' or thL' networb
of IIssures becomes predominant. Important increases
in the proportion 01' pores arc observed: pL)reS, hssures, chal1I1cls, galleries, tubules and cha.mbers of all
sizes and shalJes are obsen'cd. They are formed by partition and opening of the material, by dissolution of the
remnants or wcatherable minL'rals, by internal erosion
or the colloidal particles, and by the influence of
important factors of biological origin,

new distribution of material is observed:

consequently, most of the inherited structures

disappear, and the material is homogenized. It is
composed of a secondary plasma (M-plasma"' or

S-matrix*) that encloses the skeleton grains of

unweatherable minerals (sand and Silt) and of
residual fragments of parent rock (lithore/ics).

tions of ditTerent secondary minerals. In contrast, the

less weatherable the primary minerals, th,: mOl-e clrastic must hE' the conditions of their weathedng; they arc
\ycathered only in th,> upper part of the profiles, the
number of possihle secondary minerals is vcry
restricted, and these secondary products are less easily
dE'graded.
Among the most weatherabk 11rilllary minerals,
the olivine,group minerals and, to a lesser extent, the
pyToxenes, exhibit the largest range of pOSSibilities in
patterns of \veathcring invoh'ing diffusion and adwction processes. These very vulnerable minerals are the
first ones to be weathered, even under conditions of
rcstricted drainage characterized by slow circulation of
ion-lich waters. More resistant minerals, such as muscovite and K-feldspar, arc completely weathered unly
in environments of thorough leaching and strong
aclvection. The secondary products are few in number
(mainly kaolinite a.nd gibbsite),
Minerals exhibiting an intennediate degree of
wcatherability, such as those of the amphibok group,
may exhibit very different patterns of bcha\'ior
depending upon the geochemical processes to wh.ic:h
they arc subjected and the mineralogiC'al composition
of the rocks in which thev occur. Relative to the other
components of the parent ruck, an amphibole-gl'oup
mineral may behave either as a very weatherable or
\'er)' resistant mineral (Fig. 4).
WHERE DOES ONE ENCOUNTER WEATHERED
GRAINS OF HORNBLENDE?

EaCh mineral has a specific spectrum of potential patterns of evolution. Consequently, within
the alterites whose parent rocks have been
weathered according to diffusion-dependent
processes, an important variability is observed in
the mineralogical nature of the secondary products. On the other hand, where weathering proceeds according to processes of advection. the
mineralogical composition of the secondary
products is simpler and more uniform,
The more \\'Ntherahk the primary minerals, theless dnstic the conditions or their weathering need to
be; they can be weathered even at the base of the profile undcr conditions or restricted drainage. Thcir
incipient weathering can even occur within thc practically unwcathered hard rock belov'i the base of the
.;ampled profile. The many kinds of secondar:' minerals fomlcd may bL' later weathered to other genera-

50

For example, during the weathering of an

ultramafic rock in which olivine and pyroxenegroup minerals are the main constituents, the
more resistant hornblende is weathered after
these minerals. Under these conditions. it can
persist intact except in the upper part of the
weathered profile, where it is directly weathered
to iron oxyhydroxides without passing through a
"smectitic" stage. In contrast. in the weathered
profiles developed on more felsic rocks, with
important proportions of more resistant minerals
such as quartz and K-rich feldspar. the relatively
less resistant hornblende is weathered in the lowest levels of the profile, in which the conditions of
restricted drainage lead to the formation of a
smectite-group secondary mineral. Such smectite
will be weathered to iron oxyhydroxides only in
the upper part of the profile. near the soil surface.
In the first case, iron hydroxides are developed
from the direct weathering of the amphibole
(ortho-alteromorph. see below), whereas in the
second case, they are developed by the degradation of the first-formed smectite-group mineral
(para-alteromorph, see below). The structural

ATlAS OF MICRO~IORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

- - Bux\\'ork after Hornblend,'

lncipient wcatheling

or hp - -

Degraded srnectite ,lite I' Hbl--

A2

82

- - Degraded smectitc aftcr epx

- - Degra<1cd srneetite after OliviJll'

- - Srnc:ctitc <l~lc:r Clinopyrox('ne

- - Incipil'ni weathering
Hnmhlcndc

or

Unweathered Feldspar - - - Smeclile aher Oli\'inc

- - Unwc'lthcrcd Hornblende
- - 1J1cipienl weatJlering of epx
Unwe<lthc'red QUJrtz - -

At

_1~~g~~~~_'1

81

- - SinecUre aher Oli'1nl'

Smcctilc after Hornhlende - Un\\cath ...r"d Feldspar - - - Unwcathcred Hornbkndc
LLnwcatJlered Qua.ru. - Incipicnt weathering of J-ll>1 - - - InCipient wt'athering of Oli,inc

FIGUIlE 4.

Wb\TIIEHI:,,; OF HOR~'FIIXNIiE le; IS.. \UEHITIC PH'. 11'11 cS I1EVFl.< >l'EI J 0'" L1Lnl.~MJ'Fll A:\11 GJ\.\NIlK r.>CKS. IIESPfcTIVEL Y.

A.

Ultramatic rock containing olivine, c1inopyroxcne, and accessory hornblende

/\ I. Low,:r level 01" tbe prnllle, in which lhc weathcr"hlc oliv;nc and P)T')XCnCs drc wcaiJl,~r,"d lu h"I,,-aherom/)rphs of smecble. whereds
the Ies; weatherable hornblen,k n'l1ldil\~ temporMil)' unweath('n'd. Signs or Iht incipienl w("~thering 01" the verv unstable oliville
Jl'p("ar at a low,>r le,'" than "f the pyroxene,.
C

:\2.

Upper level of ilic prolllc. in which previously Iormed ,mcctite i, degraded into J.lveolar pores and internal rims 01 iron ox),hyelroxjell" (meta-aiv"e()poro-altl'romorphs). G",lir" of homblcndc arc weadlcred directlv t() porous "~plo-alLerom(lrphs(hoxworks) of iron
oxvhydroxide,. Al thi' kvel 01" the prnllle, dll minerals arc w,'ath,'red.

B.

Granitic rock contaiuing quartz, feldspar and accessory hornbleude

Lower Ic-vcl 01" th!' prullk, in "Iueh 001) the hornbl,mJe is r:Jirc-ctl~ we,lthered

IS I.
1$2.

to holo-<'ltcromOl-phs 01" smectite, whereas Lhe le"

weatherabl!' feldspars tempor<lrily remain lInwCJLhcred. Quartz n'm"ins ulIweathered (,\,cr the entire isaltl':ritic pari of the pronk.
Upper Ie\'el of the profile. in which prcvinllsl\, rt'rmed sl11cctill'-rkh holo-alteromorphs after hornblende arc; (kgraued to rnetaalvcnl'0ro-alt:rolTlorphs (alveolar pores and rims "I' iron o.,yu)'droxides), whereas the two feldspar' arc progressively wcathned to glomcro-s..pto-alteromorphs of gibbsitt. Quartz. rcmains \lI1wc:athned up to iJK top 01" the isalt .,rite.

Note that t11e iJlicknc.,s of lh,~ isalteritic part of the proJ1le is determined, at its lower I<:'cl, hI' the IIr~t.we~lhering rninual (olivine
in the ultramaflc rock. and hornblenuc in th" gnnitic rock). Its uppu limil is del"rmined by the lower boundary of eiilier Lhe allo
lcrilic con.>r or ()f tJ)C superfiCial soil.

PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTI

51

inheritances are different, whereas the chemical

inheritances are rather similar in both cases. In
other words, to observe the weathering of hornblende to a smeCtite-group mineral, it is necessary to study the lower pan: of profiles developed
on granitic and related rocks. On the other hand,
to observe ferruginous boxworks after hornblende, it is necessary to study the upper pan: of
profiles developed on basic and ultrabasic rocks.
Similarly, the alteration of oli"inc to iron hydrox\\ill he obseryed with (uITicultv; in fact, this primar:' mineral is considen-d to he among the most
alterable or weatherable minerals. Consequently, c\'en
if it has not been subjected to hypogcnc processes of
alteration, it is h.ighl:' likd~' that trus miDcral ",ilJ b~
complete-Iy replaced by a sl1lcctite-group minCI-al,
even at the base uf the proFile. before it has the opportunity, in the mor<.' superficial levels, of being weathercd to iron oxy-hydroxides.
ide_~

The weathel-ing of olivine to ferruginous compounds generally occur~ in recent ilows of basaltic
rocks and in deposits of volcanic ash, in wh.ich the
oli\-ine is subjected to near-surLlce weathering under
conditions of efficient drainage. Till' weathering of
olivinc to iron hydrOXides can also be obser\'ed ill

first component of a fresh rock to be weaulcrcd. These

hard and compact rocks are reached or traversed only
with difficulty at the basC' of manually sunk wells. As a
result. no samples arc availahle for the study of the
incipient 'vvcathering of the otivine-group minerals to
smectitic secondary products.

material is ultimately obtained in which are

operating sensu striao pedological factors. These

lead to the formation. in the upper part of the
profile, of a differentiated level composed of a
gmup of distinct superposed horizons, each with
its own pan:icular mineralogical, geochemical and
microstructural components. These soil horizons
are characterized by an organization, a tenure
and a composition that are quite different from
the lowest levels, either by the relative concentrations of the skeleton grains (A horizons), by
absolute accumulations of clay minerals (B horizons), by continuously renewed accumulations
and degradation of organic matter or, ultimately,
by the homogenization and destruction of the

cndogenous rock, subjected to efficient near-surface

previous fabrics and construction of new struc-

erosion, Outcrops may contain unaJlerl~d cTystaL<; of

olivinc. Weathering to iron h:'droxides sporadjcall~;
occurs \,-hen: olivinc grains hay(> hccn partly altered 1:0
serIH:ntine-group l1linerab or tu "iudingsite", for
L,xa01ple, and where their resiuual remnants ha\'t'
been. in this wa,"'. protected from wcaulCring to a
smeetitc-gruup mineral in the deep-seated le\'c!s of
alterite Carmor-ed" residual minerab).

tures through near-surface factors of biological

or anthropogenic origin.

T o undertake a micromorphological description, one must progressively abandon petrographic techniques and terminology, and employ
different techniques of identification and descrip-

In contrast. the fll-sl: stL'p in the incipient weathering of a Mg-rich olivine to a smcetite-group mineral is
rarely ohsen'ed because dus primar~; mineral is the

52

tion, with the help of a more specifically pedological terminology.

ATlAS

or-

MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINEAAL AlTEAA1l0N AND WEATHERING

HI. I'I-i, 1), 1\111 !t, ),,i< \1'1

illustrates t.he partial weather-

ing 01' plagioda..<C:' u.nJcr conditions ,)1' fen-aJ Utic

weathering. Tht' uriginal

hy ilTegular rransmineral

IT)'StaJS

of pJagioclase arc broken

rraetllre~

Jnd trans,",,~rsc CTacb,

along which wc-athaing has begun. Thick septa of gibbsitl:

microcry~tals

are regularly d,'\'c1oped along this network of

fractures; thin, hrO\\'n w.1eaments along their median pbne

mark the trace of t.Jw initial fraeture.<. Gibbsite crystals are
re~JUlarlv disD"ibuted papendicular to

this median plane,

fonning typical scpta, wl1l'Tl'a., cavernous remnanL' of plagioclase are i~ol'atcd bct',.\"eeJl thel11. In the beginning stage of
wt'athering, no int",r-plasma.mincral pores (or, "'bc-re pre
sent, onJy ,"ery small ones) itrc developed between the primary and secondary minerals. Lat.er, ollee we,llhering ha'
progn'~sed, irregular pores develnp

at the c-xpense of the

resiulIes, when:as the later-fonned crvstals of gibbsite

'lgglol11rratt'. The resulting Jlt.cromorph is a compkx glornero-s,"pto-alteromorph. Ivlore e.."pla.nations are

captioos to photomicrogr<lpbs 308 am] 309.

gi',~n

in t.he

CHAPTER

Micromorphological Descriptions

,hi '.\ proposed here mainly conccrns

the description and classification of the patterns of weathering or individual minerals,
They ar", treated as isolated single grains,
whether they occur as associated components within
the original rock w1dergoing weathering or as truly
isolated grains within the superficial loose materials
(alterites. soils. alJu vium, co Ill! vi urn 01" volcanic ash).
When a thin section is ohserved under the microscupe.
each mineral grain is systematically examined, One can
express. in this way. the extent of weathering attained
by each mineraJ and by all the minerals that constitute
the components of the weathering rock, The sum of
these partial observatiom allows quantification of the
extent of weathering reached by the individual mineral
and by Ule rock as a whole.

11.

The following main morphological and mineralogicalleanlres must be obscn-ed and described:
The extent of weathering. which is expressed by
estimating ti1e modal perccntages of the residual minerals and of their replacement phases, the percentage
of voids necessarily being included in the latter tlgure.
The organization and distribution of I)athway~
along which weati1ering progresses through the primary minerals, and Ule inJluence of the cr)'stallographiC characteristics of each primaY)' mineral on the
development and distribution of secombry product,.
The shape and size of residual fragments, their
internal fI~suring and fragmentation, and the orienta,
tion of these fragments,
The mineralogic,ll nature of the residual grains
and of the secondal-~' products and, c\'entually, the
variations recorded in the coloration, orientation and
the grain/size of the secondary minerals.
The organization and distribution of the secondary pores FOffi1ed by the weathering processes relaD\'(: to the secondary products and to ti1e neighboring
minerals.
The possible occurrence of several generations
of secondary minerals generated from the same primary mioeral under the successive intluences of sev-

eral dilferent factors (polygenetic alteromnrphs, see

Part 3) or the association of several distinct but svnchronous mineral phases formed under the inlluence of
only one process of alteration (polyphase alteromorpIL~, see Part 3).
The e\'entual occurrence of secondary minerals
formed by ionic transfer betwcen neighboring minerals or of abnormal distributions of secondary pruducts
beyond the original boundaries of th.: grain of primary
mineral.
.The sites in the thin section where \'ariations in
the chemical compositions of the primary minerals an?
presumed, or \\1here continuous or discontinuous successions of secondary minerals are obsened, These
sites could be targets for more detailed studies by
ultTdmicroscopic methods.

The degree or weathering, either of the separately

obsen'ed dilferent mineral species, or or the \"hole
assemblage of minerals that compose the rock 01' its
alterite, is expressed by a number, from I to 4 (Stoops
Cf. ul. 1979): the higher the number, the greater the
degree of tJ1e weathering. The number 0 is restricted
to fresh or nearly ti-esh minerals and rocks, in which
less than 2.S% of primary material is 1I'(>athered.
Depending on the aim of the stud)", only the modal
percentages of the products of weathering need be
recorded, or perhaps only the proportion of all secondary produCt's. regardless of their hypogene or
supergene origin, is reCJuired. Most pedologists and
soil slientists consider secondary minerals forTlled by
hypagcne processes (c'8" cpidote, natTolitc, aCl1J10lite) as ~primarj" mineraJs, upon which supergsne
processes will operate, to form "true" (supergene) sceondary minerals.
Classes I. 2 and 3 are restricted to mineral., and
rocks in which the secondary products (residual purusity included) do not exceed 25, 75 and 97.5%, respectively. or the origillal!~' un weathered material. Class 4
is restricted to rocks and minerals that arc (neal-))')

complt'tely weathered, .md in wh.ich the v()ltune proportion 01' du:" residual primary material does not exceed
2.5%,. All thc~e perccntages arc estimated according tu
the areas of primary ,lOcl seconJaJ;' minerals obsen-ed and
mea<;ureJ in the plane 01' the thin section.
In the case of relict minerals isolated in nearsurface materials .1Jld sediment,. an estimate of the
degree 01' weathning is rClaliyely easy if the original
outlines of these minerals are well presen-cct a1H.1
rtrllain identillable. This is true in the cas.... of'minerals
that ba\'(' bet'n \\c.athercd aft<:'r their transport anu
\\hose seconual;: products Jnd pores havc remained
int,let. [-Iowe\"l~r. in most cases, "ccondal;' pr-ududs
ha\"(: been remo\'Cd during transport of' the material,
:lI1d the original sizes and shapes 01" the mineral grains
dre no lunger identif'i.1ble. The remnants arc embedded
within and directly in cont.1et with their ncw surI-ounding matrix, without relics of alteroplasma.
In the case of' part!) \\-eathered primary minerals,
\\ hich are of the san,... mineral s[wcics and which arc
the cornponcnts 01" a partly wcathered rock. cstimating
the percentages is more c!imcult. In the "olum.:: cut b~'
the plane of the thin section, all grJins of the same
species ha v.. . not n,'cC':'sari l:' reached tile same degree
01' weathering, especiall y if the alteritc is developed in
successive cortices concentrically developed around a
r....sidual boulder, in whidl cas..' the \walhcl"ing is
necessarily 1)l"Ogrcssivc and gradual. In this casc, it is
better to ohsenT sepilratel)' each concennic band, and
to attribute to each a different class (numh,"r).
ln the CilSC of more homogeneollsly \\"(~a:thercd
rocks, in which all graills of ule same specie.> have
reached a similar degree of weather'ing, one mmt keep
in mind that the plane of the thin sec1.ion does not necessarily cut all grains through their center. Cuts that correspond to more exce.ntric sec-rions will appear mUCh
richer in sccond.:u;' produCTS than seetiom through the
core, especially' if these minerals are weathered in a
peril)hera! or centripetal manner. The smaller the section of such a grain. the more weathered it appears. In
the case of alterom0I"[)llS in which pores arc clearly distingllislwc], the volume proportion or the \'oids must be
addeei to the volume proportions of tJle .secondar: minnab in order to correctly estimate the degree 01' weathcring reached by the. mineral species concerned.
The case of rocb considered .1S a whole, in which
not all tJ1e primary minerals arc eiistingllished from onc
another, is l1luch more difficult to resolve hecause all
tht'se mincr.1l componcnLs may exluhit \-er)' different
weatherahilities. fndced, mall)' rorks such as granites
and gneisses contain important proportions of \'cry
slowl~' weatherclble minerals, or o[ minerals tltat will

56

be weathered only under exceptional conditions, For

example, can a granite, with 30% quartz, be con~id
cred as completelY weathered if only tJ,e 70% of its
volume represcnt~d by the feldspa~s :mrl accessor~
minl'rals arc effectively \vcathered? Such a granitic
rock, where normally ":-eathered, \"'ill not exc:e~d class
2 of the weathering scale; it wi\llll' nccessary to attain
conclitions of lJauxiti'Lation for quart:r. to 1)(' completely
\\,eathered and di~soh-cd. On t1lC' other hand, a completel:' disag,gregated and loose granitic grit or gr'u.s can
seclll, in the field, as a \v-holly weathered granitic rock,
whc-rcas after consolidation by technigues of impregnation, the gJit can appear in thin section a.s a practicalh'. unwealhered rock, at lc:asl from a mineralooical
b
poin1 of Yiew,
Some apparent incompatibilities may result
in this way, when field observations and micromorphological data are compared. This is the
case for partly weathered rocks whose primary
constituents are distinctly textured and structured. If the weatherable minerals are few in
number and randomly and uniformly distributed
in the rock, and if they are isolated from each
other. the hand spec"lmen of the rock may appear,
to the unaided eye, fairly fresh. This is the case
for basaltic rocks, for example, in which only the
olivine grains and volcanic glass are altered or
weathered. Such rocks will maintain their hardness, color, density and other physical properties.
In contrast. weatherable minerals, even in low
proportions but distributed according to continuous patterns. can give to the sample an aspea: of
a strongly weathered rock, which will not be confirmed by microscopic study. This is the case with
layered rocks, such as mica schists, in which the
weathering of the parallel and close-spaced layers
of biotite can be responsible for the complete disaggregation of the rock.
vVhatever thl' syskm of classification adopteu, it
is bettcT to take into account th~" interpretations
derived from micromorphological observatiuns, even
if it then becomes necessary to complement t.hese
results witJ) a detailed morphological r1escTiptiun of the
samples, as sampled in the t1elrl.
The best appr-oach certainly consists in beginning
the dt'scdption.~ of weathcling by obsening the evolutionary state of the most wC'atherable minerals and
in s..'IcC1:ing among tJ1em thc largest grains, the most
typica! graillS and the grains that do not exhibit natural
ur artil1cial defects (c_y., holes, air bubbles, p-articles of
ahr.1siV<:). The grains that show the largest apparent
diameter arc the grains that were cut closest to their
cguatanal plane and whose \'isible proportions of'
re!i c1' mineral fragments, of secondary products and

ATL'-S Of MICRG~10RPHOlOGYOf MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

of residual pores are the most rcprescntati\'c of the

actual proportions. A photomicrugraph or a drawing
is generaUy useful for efficient completion of the
micromorphological description of a thin section.
Thesc largest grains of the partly weathered minerab
also arc the best ones for cn~ntual further analyses
using ultramicroscopic methods. Thereafter, the
homogerrcity in degree of \veathering of the mineral
species concerned is vcrifled by obsening whcrher
there are gradients in weathering from onc point to
anotlH"r- in the thin section and by comparing the
results with the results obtai.ned From the next thill
sections (above and below in the protlle). All estimate
of volume proportions determined by point-COll11ting
grains of Ule mineral species considt'red, combined
with the characteristic number of the class of weathering (from 0 to 4), are generally sufficient to characterize the debrree of weathering of ule rock and of its
mineral components.

progress of weathcring promotes, in turn, the formatiun or a secondary network of pores, ephemeral or
permanent, which inlluence5 the rate of weathering.
The general description of U1e distribution, the
shape and the size of U1e pores follows the terminology
of Bre\yer (I %4-). This lemlinology, although conceived for the micromorphology of soils, (\In easily be
applied to the micromorphological study of' weathered
rocb and alterite.s. Ne\'ertheless, it seems diFficult to
completely avoid the genetic content of the descriptions and of U1C classification s)'stems because the
observed objects are generated from each other and
are in permanent e\'olution.
According to the dassillcation vI' BiscJom (1967a),
three main pauem~ of di.so-ihution of pore SI).l('C are distinguished: trallsmineraL intemlineral and intramineral.

NEW PARAMETER

A new parameter is here introduced in

which the relative proportions of residual primary mineral (P), secondary minerals (5) and
residual voids M are each assigned an integer
from one to ten, such that the total equals ten. In
other words, the volume fractions of each of
these three textural constituents are in effect
rounded to the nearest ten percent., and the
resulting number divided by ten. In this way, the
volumetric proportions of the three textural constituents of a partially weathered alteromorph
can be quickly recorded and reported.
For example, a parameter 2JSI3 describes an
incompletely developed alteromorph in which
tWO partS of residual primary mineral, five paiLS
of secondary products and three parts of residual
voids occur together within the original outline of
the primary mineral. A complete holo-alteromorph is characterized by the parameter 0/ I0/0.
An empty koilo-alteromorph is characterized by
the parameter 0/0/ IO. The different parts of a
complete septo-alteromorph can be expressed
by a parameter of 0/3/7. for example, if no primary residues are observed in the alteromorph
essentially composed of three parts of septa and
seven parts of residual voids. If a part of the pore
volume is infilled by allochthonous deposits. they
must be considered. in the parameter, as pore
space and not a.s secondary minerals.

Tansmineral pore-space corresponds to pores

that occur along fissures, fractures and cracks
that traverse the rock and the minerals without
following the boundaries between the crysrals.
Such pore space may have been widened as a
result

of supergene

phYSical

or

chemical

processes. The pores generally occur along regular planes (linear strings of pores when observed
in thin section). which cut the grains without
appreciable change of direction_

This network is I;-mned under dle inJ1ucnce 01' tectonic forces (primary tnnsmincraJ tlssures and (Tacks).
Before the rock be,s-rins tl) weather. lhesc transll1inera.l
fractures are c1oscd, and generally marked by parallel
sets of thin Jineativll.5 or discoutinuities that rilll across
the primar)' minerab withollt modification of theil'
chemical composition, and without occurrence of
identifiable open pores_
In man\' cases, these inherited networks of fissures
arc the pathways along which hydrodlermal and other
hypogene processes transliwmed the trallSlxted primar)' minerals into a first generation of secondary nlinerills of hYfJogcnc origin. In this cast', the outline of the
transmineral tlssures and cracks may be emphasized by
the dcYelopment of veinlets of sec~ndary minerals
yariable or regular thickness, such as talc or actinu.lite
in fractured pyroxenes, serpentine-group minerals in
li-acl1lrcd olivinc, 01' epidote in fractured plagioclase.
The mineralogical constitlltioll of the ycinlets is
commonly specific.llly rdatecJ to Ule nature of the

(;r

SECO OARY PO HO"; , n

Chemical weathering generally proceeds along
discontinuities, m.icropores and fissures, wh.ich may
pre-ex.ist in the original rocks and minerals. The

PART

2:

PATIERNS Of WEATHERING

57

fractured primary mineral. The veiolets are succes-"jYely composed of different secondary minerals,
depending on the nature 01" the transected primary
mineral. In spite of this rule of thumb, the mineral
content of the veinlets is in general more uniform and
related to the kind of rock traversed, for example.
vcinlets of tak through pyroxene-rich rocks, or of a
serpentine-group mineral in olivine-rich rocks,
regardless of the nal1u-e of the primary mineral transected.
At the scale of study with an optical microscope,
no pores are c1earl~' distinguished if this kind of materi.ll is altered under hypogene conditions. Under the
influence or weathering processes. the early-formed
tr;lI1smineral fractures may be opened; this opening
allows weathering along the walls of the fractures,
with formation of secondary minerals of supugene
origin. But the main part of the open IJ'ansmineral
pore-space is observed only in partly or completely
weathered rocks. Observations rarely are possible in
the parent rock, where transmineral flssw'es typically
are closed. Weathering processe_' preferentially follow
these textural discontinuitie~. On both sides of the
tTansmineral fissure'S, the mil1erals are weathered, pan
of the secondary products can be removed slowly, and
an open system of fissures progressively develops in
which the porosity can become optically perceptible.
Another kind of transmineral pore-space, of secondary origin, may develop as, for example, curved
concentric networb of pores arOlmd residual houlders, fractures generated by internal SO'esses due to
hydration and swelling of some smectite-rich aJteromorphs, and fractures and pores developed under the
inllucnce of mass movements \\ithin the altcrites and
soils. To these types of transmineral pore-space of
chemical or physical origin, pore-space of biologic-a I
origin can be added in the upper alterite.
The primary networks of pores, mainly joints and
large fractures, may penetrate the rock over long djstances, and their dimensions (length and width) are far
beyond the scale of the thin section and of the sample.
This kind of large-scale porosit;, was discussed in the
previous secti.on (Part 1).
Smaller and straighter transmineral fissures, at the
scale of the profile or ofthc sample. may be interconnected with othel' transmineral and in term.in era I fissures and cracks, or they may extend over unsuspected
distances. This important open pore-space, although of
lower order, may be also infilled with later allochtho
nous materials coming from the upper parts of the protuc. Derived from severaJ meters higher in the profIle,
or even more. the conteot of the deposits may strongl y

58

contnst with the host material. These deposits,

fomled by a process of absolute accumulation, originate from material transfers either in solution or as
suspensions fmm the upper horizons. Perceptible
enrichments of the host rocks in silica, aluminum, iron
and manganese may result before appreciable weathering, regardless of the oatu1'(:. of the transected and
infiJled material. Deposits of green nontronite or of
red kaolin.ite are commonly observed in the fractures
running across ultramafic rocks. Halloysite and secondary apatite are obsel'\'ed as infilling material in
practically un weathered rocks (Bocquier er al. 1983).
If the host rock is not weathered when infilled, absolute
accumulations occur before relative accumulations.
The eer-m "transmineral" can be applied to
the transverse fractures that commonly are
observed in needle-shaped or in thin tabular crystals. or to the fractures whose planar shape,
when crossing an easily cleavable mineral.
becomes irregular and sinuous. The term "transmineral" is also applied to fractures and pores
that cut amorphous materials (which are not minerals by definition) or poorly crystalline materials
(de\litrified volcanic glass). It can be extended to
fr<lctures and associated pores that cross microcrystalline rocks (e.g.. basalts. schists) tOO finely
for the observer to be able lO follow, in a detailed
way. the exact course of these fractures.

Pm'e-space u/onl1 in(amineraJ Jrc.l ture

nterm;nera) pores correspond to the pore space

that crosses the rock by going around and
between the mineral grains. without crossing
through them. If the intermineral pores are
closely spaced and if they surround most of the
component minerals. the rock loses its cohesion,
and is rendered friable. as is the case. for example. in the granitic grits or grus.
The interminera1 netwolk can result from a ph~'s
icaJ process of alteration but, in most cases, it results
from the disa~gregation of the rock by processes of'
chemical weathering that promote the pellicular dissolution of all the weatherahlc minerals. 111e careful
observation of the morphology of the pores commonly
allows tbe identification of the origin of these two
kinds of pore space. Physical alteration produces open
fissures and [nctures that exhjbit regular accordant
walls. Cbemical weathering produces irregular walls,
generally not accordant. that are separated by openings

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTl'RAnON AND WEATHERING

of variable thickness; the isolated mineral grains, completely surrounded by their alteroplasmas, have an
irregular. cavernous or denticulate shape.
In slightly weathered rocks. intermineral porespace occurs as irregular, sinuous and randomly spaced
alignments of alternately open and closed pores,
depending upon tbe inclination with which the intermineral suture-plane is crossed by the fissure. This is
the reason why the intermineral fissures and pores are
rarely infUled by continuous allochthonous deposits, at
least at the beginning of rock. weathering.
In contrast, within the strongly weathered alterites,
the interrnineral network is more efficiently interconnected and opened, because it is formed and ""idened
by peripberal dissolution and chemical weathering,
and DO longer only by mechanical fracturing. The Clrcuiation of water is facilitated along such networks,
and cutanic deposits are much more widespread.
Coarse-grained or less weatherabJe primary minerals occur as isolated grains within more weathered
alterites. These mineral relic., constitute mechanically
resistant units to the deforming forces generated
within the more easily deformed alteroplasmas.
Around tbese relics, a peripheral open fissure is developed. Linked v.'ith the general pore-space of the
weathered rock by a network of radial fissures, tl1ese
generaUy open peripheral pores can be filled by illuvial
cutanic deposits.
Other types of pores may be grouped with
the intermineral pores: these are the circumnodular peripheral pores, which preferentially
surround either indurated fabric units, such as
nodules or concretions, or elements of residual
structures, such as lithorelics and alterorelics.
These fissures and pores are preferentially developed around mechanically resistant units embedded within a much more malleable S-matrix.
Theoretically, these pores form a closed envelope
that surrounds the residual or concretionary unit.
They appear. in thin section, as circular peripher'al
pores. Although these pores can be closed and isolated. they very commonly are linked with the general pore-space by a network of radiating fissures.
which are perpendicular to them. These peripheral
pores may be ephemeral; repeatedly and alterna
tively, they aloe occluded or renewed according to
alternations of the humidity and dryness within the
surrounding matrix. Peripheral pores may also be
artificially opened by drying the sample during the
preparation of the thin section.
At the contact with open J.l]d interconnected
intermineral pores, the primary minerals are partly
weathered in a peripheral and centripetal pattern. The

PART

2: PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

alteroplasmas so formed may wldergo several modifications:

Small particles of plasma may be dissociated.
extracted, displaced, carried a\vay, transported and
redeposited at long distances. These internal processes
of erosion and depOsition contribute largely to the
inegularit)' of the walls of the pores.
.1\ Iteroplasmas rich in a smectite-group minerals
may be degraded into minerals of a second generation
(kaolinite or oxyhydroxides), which are more stable
and more closely in equilibrium with the circulating
waters. That later O'ansfonnation is commonly accompanied by material losses. by residual depOSits of iron
compow1ds of relati ....e accumulation. and by increases
in porosity.

The plasmas, whatever tJleir mineralogical

nature, may be enriched by influx of iron
or manganese oxyhydroxides, which diffuse and arc
depOSited among the particles and so modify their coloration. These are commonly internal deposits, and
hypocoatings* are consequently formed.
Clay cutans and cT)'stallaria may fonn locally.
They progressively fill in the pores until the filling is
complete, and thus stop the easy circulation of water.
Clay cutans, which con.sist of particles removed
from the upper horizons, may be distinct in mineralOgical nature and coloration from the materials in
which they are deposited.
Networks of intermineral pore-space. which
eventually can extend over long distances, may be
preferentially exploited hy microfauna and roots.
Their walls are consequently enlarged and modified by
processes of biopedoturhation. The pores may be
partly infilled by materials of biological origin.
Argillaceous particles of the S-matrix, in close
contact with resistant fabric units, are commonly
subject to mechanical constraints. They exhibit a
strong conce.ntric reorientation parallel to tlle walls of
these units and form constraint cutans (granosu-iated
b-fabric*).

lntraminewl pUl'e-'1pace

nuam;neral pores are localized within areas of

aJteroplasma. and are invariably found within the
original boundaries of the primary minerals from
which these alteroplasmas developed. Alteromorphs that exhibit observable internal porespace are poro-alteromorphs (porous or

59

pore-bearing alteromorphs). Intramineral pores

generally occur without apparent connection
with the intramineral pore-space that develops
within adjacent weathered grains. Their relative
distribution gives an important key for the later
classification of alteromorphs.

More specifically linked with processes of alteratil'ln or weathering th.an intt'rmineral porosity.
intTamineral porosity mu~t be carefully observed. Its
micromorphological description ","ill be the object of
morc detailed studies in Pal1 3.
Intramincral pores result from chemical alteration
of a mineral in which the volume of the products of
weathering is smaller than the original \-olume of the
primary mineral. The ~hape and distTibution of these
pores within the alteroplasmas provide important criteria in the description and classification of minerals
undergoing weathering, and of completely weathered
minerals. "Vhcre the size and shape of intramineral
pores are unc\'en. and wherc they arc randomly distributed. the resulting altcromorph is an alveoporoalteromOl-ph (see below).
Weathering generally progresses into the primary
minerals in a non-uniform way. The de\elopment and
di,m-ihution of the secondary products are strongly
iofluenced by the distribution of speciIJc textural features in the- plimary minerals. Among these, the more
efFective ones arc planes or cleavage (pyroxenes,
amphibub and micas), twin planes (plagioclase and
numerous other minerals), interfaces between intergrown products of a deuteric or metamorphic reaction
(e.H., perthite, myrmekite, s)'rnpleetite, etc.), indusion-I1ch planes and planes that are the loci of crystallographic deflects. The rate of wcathel"ing is also
inllucnced by variations in the chemical composition of
the primary mine.ral (zoned minerals).
The orientation of secondary palticlt~s may ~t1so be
innuenced by the crystal Iagraphic directions of the priman mineral as, for example. in tbe case of Rakes of a
sme-~titc-group mineral in an alteroplasma after pyl"OXene or mica, and of iron oxyhydroxide microcrystals in
a cl"Ystalliplasma after a lerromagncsian mi.llel<ll. irregular' cracks " without any direct r~larionshjp to the cry~,
taJlographic directions of the mineral. are also at least
partly responSible For the uneven distribution of the
secondary products and pores. Their irregular pattern
is then cornhinecl with the regular pattern directlv
inherited from the primary mineral. This resulL~ in the
development of a complex pattern of alteration.

60

The orientation and distribution of secondanproducts are influenced by these bctors, as are the orientation an(1 distribution of the pores tllat arc associated with them, although both secondary products and
associated pores arc complementarily distributed.
Within completely weathered grains of a pyroxcne or
g,1rnet, for example, the iron oxyhydrDxides fOl-m se-pta
that mimic the networks of" ck.a\agcs and fractures
(sepw-ahcromorphs, sce below), wht:reas th.e. associated
pores arc distributed as isolated, dosed and empc:polyhedral volumes enclosed hetwecn these septa.
The shape and distribution of the pores within an
alteromorph may abo be intluenCed by th.e Cl"ystal\ographic orientation of the secondary mineral itseU and
not only by that of the primary mineral. This is the case
for smectite-rich weathering products after pyroxene.
These generally I"orm well-oriented ph}'IJoporo-alrcromorphs in which the pores are distributed parallel to the
more or less opened cleavages of the secondary mineral. without being intluenced by tllt' cleavages of the
prim31-y mineral.
Most intramineral pores arc isolated with.in the
alteromorphs. without direct connection to the tnnsmineral and intermineral pores. As a result. they arc
not reached by the free circulation of water, and they
do not exhihit cutanic deposit" of particle., transported
by such waters.
Intramineral porosity ma~ also appear and develop
at a late stage within the alteromorphs by degradation
of the t1rst-formed uu.stable alteropJasmas. The dissolution and leaching of several constituents lead to the
formation of irreguJar ahc:olar pores (mew-oJ.-coporoahcromorphs) , rimmed by new minerals formed from
the insoluble pal-t of the rlasma (goethite or gibbsite).
This new (mew-) pore-space may be random.ly distributed, or it may be concentrically distributed according
to the mineralogical or chemical variations 01 the
degraded mineral cOll5tituents.
here residual pore's
are cl.irecdy generated by weathering of the primary
mineral, the resulting alteromorph is an orrho-alveoporo-altaomorph; where they Jre generated by the
degradation (If tl1e first-formed secondary products,
t.he resulting alteromorph is a para-all'coporo-alteromorph (see Part 3).

"V

The inter-plasma-mineral pore:-space that dcye!ops between the remnants of primary mineral and tl1c
perrpherall1m of alteroplasma must also be considered
as intramineral pore-space, although it is ephemeral,
and will be replaced by a different kind of pore span>
after the complete weathering and disappearance of
those remnants (alveoporo- and ccntroporo-alreromorphs).

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINfML ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

032
HORNBLENDE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire Sampled at
outcrop
Transmineral fissures
through hornblende
and c1inopyroxene
Objective: x 4

PPL
0.6

0.4

0.2

- 0.0 mm

heing partially transformed into hornblende by a

postmagruatic process, the dinop)'roxe-ne of the- ol-iginal p~Toxe'nlte
\\as intensely Fractured. A set of
parallel thin transmineral f1ssUl'es
runs across several adjacent crystals
clinop~Toxenc. These fissures
may be many centiJneters or
'
decimeters long. During the partial
replacement of tbe clinopyroxcnc
Cl'ystab by large poikiloblast, of

or

PART

2:

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

hornhlende', the transmineral fissures ban: been maintaincd within

lhe chnopyroxene, whereas they
ha\'c been largely obliterated
within the ne\vly formed hornblende. In the hornblende, the original transmineral fissures appear as
\'(~ry thin and short relict Ilssures,
whose distribution and orientation
correspond to oind are in continuity
with those of thc original intramineroil hssUl"cs_ TIle tTaHsmineral lls-

sures, persisting within the dinopyroxene grains, have thus been

replaced by man)' relict intramineral fissures in the replacement
mineral. All have maintained the
orientation of the original continuous transmineral fissw"es.

61

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

013
CllNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at the soil
surface
Transmineral fissures
in c1inopyroxene
Objective: x 2.5
PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

of two subparallel transmineral fissures run across a

typical sample of clinopyroxenite,
\vhich is mainly composed of
ineguigranular cT)'staLs of clinap)'raxene associated with a few small
crystals of orthop)'Toxenc (E3 -4- 5);
both pjTOXene-group minerals may
be locally enclosed within poikiJohJastic brown hornblende (E4-S).

62

The transmineral fissures have provided the cbannelway along which

hydrothermal alteration has begun.
The dark-colored bands are mainlv,.
composed of randomly oriented
and distributed microcrystals of
actinolite. The two thin light-col.
ored lines that run along the central
part of the bands correspond to the
tTace of the original fissures. These

were widened, along their walls, by

the hydrothermal process. A more
detailed view of a similar transmineral Hssure in a related sample can
be seen in the next tvvo photomicrographs (034, 035).

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTEI\ATION AND WEATHEl\lNG

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

034, 035
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire
Sampled at outcrop
Transmineral fissure
in c1inopyroxene
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

I
large crystal of
c1inopyroxenc has been cut by
a transmineraJ fissure, along which
part of tile colorless o'iginal mineral has been transformed to greenish actinolite. The secondary
arnphibole is clearly visible in the
widest part of the banded texture
(D3), whereas along its tllinnest
parts. the fissure has gi,'en way to

PAltT

2;

PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

microcrystalline gra.ins of actinolite

without any particular' orientation.
The opaCJue bJrains of magnetite
that are located along the pathway
of the fissure remai.n undisturbed
and unaltered, as caD clearly be seen
by comparing the oliginal and secondary parts of the rock. Within the
O<Ulsformed bands, tile pattern of
distribution of the magnetite grains

is very simiJar to the pattern \-\-ithin

the original rock:. 1n this type of
clin0p)Toxenite, the magnetite and
the other opaCJue minerals seem to
be either intersertal or enclosed
crystals.

63

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

036, 037
GRANITIC ROCK

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvolre
Depth: 2.8 m
T ransmineral fractures
Material displacement
over short distances
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

-0.6

0.4

- 0.1

O.Omm

, !)arl< of thc landscape, in the contaC1: area bet\\T\::n

ultr,1Hla~1c and granitic rocks, both
rock types may be found interJaycred in the same profile. Within the
granitic layers, mixed smenitic and
kaolinitic clays iJl6.!1 the open traflSmineral fract1.JJ"C's in the minerals of
the granitic rock. Most li-acturcs arc
connected, and the}'- surround
pol)'mincraLic fragments of rock,
which bter will be released from
their man'ix to form isolated
lithorclics. In these illustrations, a
large s'l'Jin of mirrncline ha., becn
fragmented into several in-cgular

64

fragments by wide transmineral

fracntres, which have been inflllcd
by homogeneous clayey materia.!.
M icrolaminations or variations in
grain size are not de\'eloped. These
inflllings are crossed by irregular
empty crach. Small Fragments of
th" primary minerals are engulfed
in the innlling material. Most of
these fragments arc relics of ",eauIered and oxidized crystals uf biotite
(mainly \'isible in C3 and A4-5).
The weathered biotite seems to be
the main source ol- the clay material
of the transmineral infiJUngs. In this
c.m:, tbe iolllling material has a sub-

autochthonous origin, and does not

come h.-om J very distant source.
The obsen'ation of' the next photos
(038, 039) \'ill confirm this inrercnee. Nott' that the separated Ji-agments of microcline ha\'c not
maintainec] the originally homogeneous orientation of the large
miCJ-ocline crystal. Three areas of
myrmckitc are shown in C2, C3
and E4-, and cluartz grains are \'isihle
in Ule upper part 01' the photomicrographs.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEAAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

038, 039
INTERLAYERED ROCK

Koua Bocca. Cote

d'lvoire
Depth: 3 m

T ransmineral fracture
Material displacement
over short distances
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

-0.6

- 0.4

0.2

-O.Omm

,
the rock layers that
exhibit an i.ntermediate composition. c1inopFoxene and hornblende, derived From an uJtramaIic
rock. are more abundant and gener
ally enclosed within large oikocrysts
of feldspar. In this sample. the feldspathiC component is not weathered, whereas the malic minerals.
mainly the c1inopyroxene, afe
brgcly replaced by J saponitic clay
mineral. The wide transmineral
fracture that cuts the rock is inllllcd
with a Sl11cctiuc clay \\'host? chemical composition is very similar to

PART

2:

PATTIRNS Of WEATHERlNG

that of the t)Ve of smectite derived

from the weathering of tht' c1inopyroxene. Compared with the earlier
pllOtom icrographs (036, 037).
taken from an adjacent sample. it is
obvious that the mineralogiC'JI composition of the inllllings depends
strongly on the nature of the fragmented rock. Consequently, these
infiJlings are suhautochthonous, and
ill.ustrate material disl)lacement
over short distances. Fragmented
alteromorphs after clinopyroxene
and Fragmt?nts of ullwl"athcred
hornhlende and microcline arc

engulfed within the inAlling material. These fragments have not been
displaced, as is indicated by the relative position of the fragments of
green hornblende (C4--5). The
infil1ings seem to hI:' formed gradually with the opening of the fractUlY, smaJlmineral fragments being
randomly released from the walls of
the fracture and immediately
tTapped within the infllling material.

65

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

040,04.
HORNBLENDE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
C6te d'lvoire
Depth: I m
T ransmineraJ fracture
Material displacement
over long distances
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

fracture has been opened

in a relatively fi'esh rock composed of c1inopyroxene, olivine,
bornblende and opa9ue minerals.
The: distribution of the: partially
weathered grains of clinopyroxene
(B-CJ, (4) indicates that weathering started after the open.ing of the
fracture. Only the pyroxent> grains
that are located along the walls of
the fracture are partially weathered.
The more ,,-eatherable crystals of
olivine are completely weathered to
greenish smectitic day. A large
alterollwrph after oli~'ine (DI-2)
1

66

has been cut by t.he fracture. Part of

it has remained enclosed in the original rock, whereas the other part
has been engulfed in green smectitic
clay of illuvial origin. These allochLhonous materials arc produced
bv, the wcatherino of rock in the
upper part ofthc prollle. MiLToparticles are eastlv loosened from the
alteromorphs
formed
at
the
expense or pyroxene-gruup minerals and olivine by swelling and
shrinkage. and transported to
greater depths along the large continuous Cracturc.s. These proct'..sse.~
~

0.0 mm

are continuously operating, eyen

after formation of the illuvial material, which explains the microtextures of these. deposits. The clay
material itself' is crossed by numerous irregular fractures, ~~ith more
01' less accordant surfaces. Slight
degradation of the smectitic clay
particles induces the fonnation of a
thin brownish rim of iron oxyhydroxides around each of these fragments.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINEAAL ALTEAATION AND WEATHERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

041
WEATHERED
PYROXENITE

Koua Bocc;a,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 6.2 m
Transmineral fracture
Material displacement
over long distances
Objective: x 2.5
PPL
1.0

0.0 mm

043
WEATHERED
PYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 6.2 m
Transmineral fracture
Material displacement
over long distances
Objective: x 4
PPb.6
-

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

ferrallitic alterites and

soils, the allochthonous deposits
of iUuviated clays are mainly composed of particles of more or less
iron-rich kaolinite, "vhich may
occasionally be associated with silty
particles. These materials gi\'e way
to microlamillated inJillings, i.ll
which tine and coarse layers may
either alternate regularly or fonn
deposits whose grain size varies
progressively within the thickness
of the infllling. Disordered internal

PART

2:

PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

movements of tbe soil material

along the slopes of the landscape
promote the irregular faulting of
the intllJing, and the relative displacement of parts of it, as can be
dearly seen in these two photomicrographs. Several grades of faulting
an: developed; coarse fragments,
det-ived from macrofaulting with
large relative displac:ements, also
have been subjected to internal
microfauJts, which result in the
slight relative displacement of their

miooJaminations. Many secondary

cracks are randomlv distributed in
the illuviated material. Since tbey
do not show any coaling, these
empty cracks are possibly produced
by artificial desiccation of the material in the laboratory.

67

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

044, 045
LUJAVRITE

Poc;:os de Caldas,
MG. Brazil
Depth: 0.4 m
Transverse fissures
in acicular crystals
of aegirine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

distributed and
parallel transl"t~rse fissures can
be assigned to the category of transmineral f1ssur-es, although they are
1I0t clearly seen to <"xlend through
the neighbOling minerals. Such regular orientation is indeed limited to
the acicular cr~'stals, whose particular orientation allows their eaS\'
breakaoe.
Note that the IIssures arc
b
not clearly obsenTe] in the n.eigh-

68

boring crystals; thei.r OIientiltions

make the transmineral fissures indistinguishable from the networks or
fissures due to clea"ages and otJlcr
irregularities. This particular distribution or fissures and rractures is
commonly obscrI'cd in all crystals
in which one dimension is far
greater than the uther two, as b the
cast' for the needle-shaped, fibrous
and acicular crystals or aegirine,

0.2

0.1

=--

0.0 mm

actinoDte, and apatite. SUdl O'ansverse fissures also appear in crystaJs

III which Cloe dimension is l11udl
shortel' than the other two, ror
example tabular and lamellar CJ:;stals of plagioclase.

ATlAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINEAAL ALTERATlON AND WEATHERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

046
GRANITIC ROCK

Koua Bocc.a.
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.8 m
Transmlneral fractures
Material displacement
over long distances
Objective: x 10
XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

047
GRANITIC ROCK

BR 163, Brazil
Sampled by F. Soubies
Depth: 2.5 m
Transmineral fracture
Material displacement
over long distances
Objective: x 4
XPL
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

fracture cuts a
feldspar grain by following onc
cleavage direction of the mineral. [f
the thin coatings are disregarded, it
see.ms that the walls of the fracture"
arc mainly accordant surfaces. and
that the directions of the fracture
are approximately at right angles to
one- another. These fractures arc
formed by lateral translation of the
felelspal Ii-agments. Their opening
is not caused by dissolution, as
the margins of the fl-agments arc
perfectly unwealhered. at least at
1

PART

2:

PATIERNS Of WEATHERJNG

the scale observable with an optical

microscope. A long transmineral
hacture cuts grains of quartz and
weathered feldspar in the granitic
rock. It is probable that the fracture
and its inmling have developed
befure the rock was weathered,
hecause the widt.h of the fracture
remains constant whatever the host
mineral. The inlllling of the fracture
is composed of mcsocrystalline
gihbsi te, whereas the secondary
gibbsite after feldspar is microcrystalline. SUJ1 inflllings can promote

.:Jppreciable enrichments of alu

minun1 in fractured but ul1weathcreel rocks at the base of the
fcrralutic or baux.itic profiles. It is
obvious that the infillings are
allochthonous. and d1at they have
been formed by in silU crystallization from aluminum-rich solutions.
N0te that the Cjualtz grains are not
weathered.

69

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

048,049
OllVINE-BEARING
ClINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca.
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 12.8 m
Transmineral fracture
Material displacement
over long distances
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.2

0./

f
~

I!
transmincral fracture
runs across a grain of olivinl"
that has been
replaced by
"iddingstite" during an early step of
hypogene alteration. Many intramineral cracks (protodastic fractures) are still \isible, and they
appear as dark, curved, mu) lineaments coated with iron oxides
delived from the oxidation of thin
lameUar grains of magnetite, The
reddish browTl "idclingsite" is highly
birefl'ingent, and is homogeneolIsly
oriented according to the orienta,
tion of the original grain of olivine.
Manganiferous solutions were

70

transported over long distances

along the tTansmineral fracture.
\Vhere they crossed an easily impregnated secondary material, such
as "iddingsite", the solution in-egularly difTllsed into and impregnated
both margins of the transmineral
fracture. Irregular hypocoatings are
expressed by t.he local replacement
of the usual bright red color of the
"iddingsite" by black opaque areas.
These displacement.s of manganiferous materiaJ and aUochthonous concentrations are comJnoluy obsen'ed
during the weathering of basic and
ultrabasic rocks, but the impregna-

0.0 mm

tion by these manganese hydrated

oxides is more commonly obsened
in iron-rich materials, such as in
"iddingsite" areas or in alteromorphs rich in iron oxyhydroxides.
The other primary minerals of the
rock, mainly clinopyroxene, are
partial! y wea the red to sapon..i t.ic
smectite which, even in proximity
to the transmineral fracture, is not
coated with hydrated ox.ides of
manganese.

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

050, 05 I
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.4 m
Intermineral fracture
and coatings
of illuviated clays
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

- 0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

, I 11, I I " interm.ineral fracture separates an unweathered

rock into two fragments whose
margins correspond to the external
boundaries of the constituent
grains. The original configuration of
the open fracture has been partially
obscured by the irregular illuviation
of clay materials. The open fractUJ'e
is partiaJJy inItUed by coatings of
smectitic material derived from the
internal erosion of alteromorphs
after pyroxene in the uppermost
horizons of weathered rock, Both

PART

2:

PATIERNS Of WEATHERING

rragments are composed or the minerals usually observed in these

rocks: dinopyroxene, hornblende
and magnetite. AIJ these primary
minerals are unweaU1ered. Along
the intcrmineral fracture, some primary minerals ha\'e heen partially
weathered (A I, 132), the regular
neposits have been partially eroded,
and their more external lavrrs
have
/
been degraded into browTlish clay
materials. .'\s a reJlection of the
irregularities of Ule fracture and of
its coatings, the interrnineral pore

has lost pa.rt of its regular shape, and

is now con\-erted into a chain of
interconnected short pores, With
continued infiJling, parts of the
intermineral Fl'acture probably wi 11
be closed until the fracture is
rt:opened as a rcsuJt of later internal
movements.

71

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

052, 053
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: lA m
Intermineral fractures
Formation of Iithorelics
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

-0.6

0.4

0.2

-O.Omm

ill' I
1I I intennineral frac
tures are closely spaced and
interconnected, rock fragments are
isolated li'om one another. Where
such fragments arc mixed into the
upper soil horizons, they are called

72

lithorelics. The ori(1jnaJ rock is the

'" photomicrosame as in the previous
graph$, and the' internlineral fractures and their coatings show the
same patterns as the previous ones:
irregularity of the fractures, irregu-

lar ulickness of the coatings, constriction of the pores, and partial

weathering of the plimary minerals
in grains that are located along both
sides of the 6:actures.

AnAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEML ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

054, 055
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
C6te d'lvoire
Depth: I m
Interconnected
intermineral fissures
Objective: X 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0.2
0.1

0.0 mm

pyroxene crystals in this

sample of eCluigtanular clinopyroxenite have been separated by a
regular network of intermineral fIssures. These provided the pathways
along which the isolated grains have
been partially weathered to a yellowish saponitic secondary product.
The weathering starts peripherally
around each isolated crystal. The
width of the bancleJ intergranula.r
material is relatively constant

PART

2:

PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

through the ",.. hole thin section.

Cleavages of the pyroxene grains
are enhanced by the beginning of
the weathering; the finely denticulate shapes of Lhe pyroxene remnants are clearly observed around
the most strongly weathered grains
(B2, D2), whereas the shape of the
oLher slightly weathered grains (BC 4- 5) is not yet modified by any
optically apparent denticulation.
Most mineral grains are loosened by

the oetwork of fissures. Under

these conditirlOs, the nearly fresh
rock loses its compactness and is
reodered vcr)' friable, even though
"ery l.imited quantities of secondary
products have been formed.

73

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

056
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2 m
Intermineral porositY
Hypocoatings
Objective: x 6.3

PPL

O.3

l
I11
. ,I I
rock contains
clinopyroxenc grains \vith an
etluigranular texture, grains of
biotitc altered to vermiculite (B J ,
85, 5) during an earlier hydrothermal stage, irrebrular graLns of
magnetite, and small interstitial
grai.ns of apatite. ,'\11 the c1inopyroxene crystals have undergone a
partial peripheral weathering to
sal)onitic clay. The lTansfonnat.ion
of the biotite into vermiculite, ",ith
an appreciable Lncrease in volume,
has promoted the opening of many
intermLneral fbsw'es and fractures.
These, in turn, have promoted the
subsegucDl peripheral weathering
of the pyroxene crystals. The

74

weathering starts along the Lnter

mineral pores: denticuJate remnants of pyroxene are surrounded
by progressively thkker and thicker
rims of saponitic clay as the degree
of weathering increases. The free
circuJation of water allows the
pores to be widened, partially by
intemal erosion of the newly
formed secondary clay, and partially
by their own degradation into more
iron-rich kaolinitic day. True
cutans of illuviation are not
observed, but hypocoatings are
developed around each alteromorph. Normally, in the lower
horizons, the weathering of SUdl
iron-poor clinopyroxenc induces

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

the formation of very lightly colored saponitic clay. In the ul)pcr

levels, the circulation of water
aUows the addition of iron, which
enhances the coloration of the clay
produced. Consequently, these
upper alteroTIlOl1Jhs differ from t.he
lower ones, mainly in their chemical and minerillogical compositions:
they are meta-alteromorphs.

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WE"THERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

OS7
BASALTIC ROCK

Morocco
Sampled by A. Dekayir
Depth: 0.4 m
Circum-mineral pore.
artificial coloration
Objective: x 2.5
PPL

1.0

0,0 mm

OS8
GRANITIC ROCK

Dagolilie, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: I m
Perinodular pore
and clay coatings
Objective: x 2.5
PPL

photomicrograph,an
intermineral pore completel)' surrounds a pyroxene phenocryst and
separates it from the weathered
basaltic matrix. Where such an
intermineral fissure or pore entirely
sUlTounds a grain of a particular
mineral, it is convenient to designate it as a c.ircum-mineral fissure
or pore. This pore has been partially
infilled with allodlthonous ironlich material derived !i"om the surrounding weather.::d matl-Lx, The
open part of tile pore has been arti-

PART

2:

'I

PATTERNS Of WEATHERING

ficially Willed with coloreel S)'11tbetic material for better "isualization of its volume, and also
the
network of connecting of fissures
and macropores along wh.ich the
infilling malel"ial ha~ been transpOl1:ed, Sudl circum-mineral pores
are commonly obscn'ecl where
coarse-grained and hard bodies are
embedded in a weathered matrix or
soil material that can undergo
important changes in voLume under
tJle alternating innuences of humidity and dryness.

or

Th", lower photomicrograph

shows a circum-noclular pore that
sunOlUlds a hard indurated alterorelic in a soft soil material. The
pore exhibits a constant thickness; it
is regularly coated by allochthonous
inFillings of clay material that
delimit a chain of elongate empty
pores in the median plane of the cirClull-nodular cavity.

75

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

059, 060
Koua Bocca,

Cote d'lvoire
Iron crust sampled
at soil surface
Intramineral pores and
allochthonous infillings
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

=---

a IIrst .~t('p ()[ hypogene

alteration, a crystal of olivine
has been partially replaced by an
alteromorph of "iclningsite", sLi11
containing some small remnants of
oljylne. During a further step of
weathering, the area converted to
"icldingsite" lost magnesium and silica, and locally has been replaced by
a homogeneous alteromorph of iron
hyclroxine. At this stage, the remnants of magnesium-rich o]jvine
bave been completely weathered,
and have disappeaJ'ed, leaving
numerous intTamineral pores now

76

coaten by iron oxides of relati\'e

accumulation. These coatings arc
clearly seen, under PPL, as dark
reddish brov,:n deposits sUHounding each empty pore. The result of
the' combined effects of both hypogene alteration and supergene
weathering is a polygenetic aheoporo-alteromorph. During a later
stage of absolute accumulation of
aluminum within the recently
formed iron crust, the intramineral
pores, derived from the dissulution
of remnants of 0 livine, have been
inljUed by crystallaria of gibbsi te,

0.0 mm

which are better observed under

XPL. This last process gives rise to
a polygcnetic eumulo-alveoIJoroaJreromorph. The aJJochthonous
origin of the gibbsite crystaUaria is
establisbed by the fact that olivine
does not contain aluminum. Note
that the network of the original
protoclastic fractures has been perfectly preserved during all these
successive steps of transformation
and accumulation.

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEf\AL AlTEf\AnON ANO WEATHERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

061,062
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote

d'lvoire
Depth: 10 m
Intramineral fissures
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.2
0.1

0.0 mm

I
prismatic cr~'stals of
clinopyroxene were completely encloseo within a large pOikiloblastic crystal of phlogopite.
During a flTSt step of hypogene
alteration, tJle phJogopite was
altered to a meso-alteromorph of
venniculite. with considerable
expansion perpendicular to the
sheets of this layer silicate. This
increase of volwne is responsible
for the fracturing of the embedded
crystals of pyroxene; numerous
open transverse intramineral cracks

PART

2:

PAITERNS OF WEATHERING

parallel tJle layering of the surrounding "enniculitc. The plane of

the thin section is con"enientlv oriented perpendicular to the layering
of the layer siJicate, and clearly
shows the orientation of the resuJting cracks. During a second stage,
weatheJing of the pyroxene prisms
preferentially started along these
transverse intTamineral cracks, and
resulted in the development of Jenticwate remnants, now surrounded
by saponite as a secondary product.
All fragments of the pyroxene crys-

tals have practically maintained

their original crystalJographic orientation, as shown by the homogeneous and uniform interferencecolors exhibited by all the fragments of CJch original prism.

77

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

063
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca.
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3 m

Intra mineral fracture

Objective: x 4

PPL

0.6

0.4

- 0.2

0.0 mm

I crystal of orthopyroxe.nc
(hypersthene), whose pleochroism in shades of pink is rather d1aracteristic, has been peripherally
weathered to nontronite. The
thickness (volume) of the nontTonite-bearing rim is sufficient to promote important \'ariations in
\'olume uncler the influence of alter-

78

nating conditions of bum.idity and

dryness. The"e stresses, whose
result is comparable to a process of
colloid plucking, are responsible for
the breakage of the grain of the precursor mineral into pieces by large
concordant fractures, wbich will
later be the pathways along wruch
weatheriog ,.\rill progress. In the

example illustrated here, it is not

the
surrounding
meso-alteromorphs that caused the breakage of
the grain of orthopyroxene, as in
the earlier illustrations, but its O\,VTl
rim or secondary products.

ATlAS OF MICJ<OMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AL TEflATION AND WEATHERING

TRANSMINERAL FRACTURES

064,065
PVROXENITE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.4 m
Complex assemblage
of trans-, inter- and
intramineral fissures
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0,2

0.0 mm

T\

I
crystals of
orthopyroxene, surrounded by
clinopyroxene (A 1, C-D-ES) and
poikilitic hornblende, are crossed
by nunlcrous flssures. along wruch
the orthopyroxene was partially
altered hydrothermally to talc,
associated with thin bands of secondary magnetite. The network of
fissmes is irregularly disoibu ted.
The IIssures are interconnected,
and are of three main types. Both

PART

2:

PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

orthopyToxenc crystals are crossed

by a common long transmineral fissure, whereas they are separated by
a common interrnincral fissure. The
left-hand crystal exrubits numerous
ino'amineral fissures. along which
thin bands of talc are formed. The
right -hand crystal is crossed by fissures of supergene origin, along
which iron oxyhydroxides were
deposited. The rOWldish crystals
that are enclosed iJ1 the c!'Vstal of

orthopyroxcne on the right are

interpreted as remnants ot' previously o;'stalJized grains of clinopyroxene tilat were not completely
resorbed during later growth of the
orthopyroxene.

79

PAn'ERNS Of AtrERA

identifiable. but its volume has changed in one.

!

AND WI:, THFRING

Primary minerals mOl)' weather according to se\'eral simple or complex patterns, which are generally
predetermined by internal and external factors. In
practice, each mineral species weathers according to its
own pattem. Without outlining all possible situations,
it is necessary to use a simplified scbenlatic classification of the most frequently obser\'ed patterns. More
complex textures can be desLTibed by combining two
or more simple pattems.
Thc weathering pattern observed in t.he ''''cathcred part of a mineral b mainly controlled by the
nature of the primary mineral and hy some of its characteristics. The proposed classitlcatjon can be used as
long as the original outline of the primary mineral is
recogrtizable, and the \'olumes occupied by the three
phases (residual mineral, secondary miner,d and
intram..ineral pore-space) arc identifiable. The scheme
is valid for all CRses of simple or complex, pan:i;:d or
complete altcromorphs. It is also valid in the case
where weathering is not exactly isovolumetJic, i.e.,
where originaJ shapes and volumes arc only impel"
fectly mainta..ined. In contrast, the scheme is no longer
useruJ, without important modifications, to describe
pedoplasmas, pedoturbed alteroplasmas, and other
features in whkh the original textures are no longel'
identifiable .

two or three dlmenslo"ns. These modifications

are mainly caused by unidirectional expansion
produced during the weathering of primary minerals that exhibit an appropriate structure. such
as the phyllosilicates, or by multidirectional
expansion recorded in secondary minerals such
as the smectitic group of clay minerals. This
weathering process promotes the formation of

meso-alteramorphs.

Katamorphic alteration: The external shape and

size of the original mineral are modified to such
an extent that they are no longer Identifiable. The
mineral is partially replaced or divided, the relics
or fragments are scattered, and their outlines
become diffuse and indistinct. Only the mean
position of the original mineral can still be recognized where the secondary products are not too
dispersed.

This results in the development of

kata-alteromorphs.

he term isomorphous. and not isomorphic. is

used here in its general. literal meaning to avoid

any reference

to

speCific meanings in crystallogra-

phy. By analogy, the terms mesomorphous and

katamorphous are used here.

on. en'I1Lion of \'olllme;~
DepencLng upon the degree of preservation of the
size and shape of the primary minerals as a result of
their \vcathering, three main types of alteration and
weathering patterns can be distinguished (Stoops CL aJ.
1979):

Isomorphous alteration: The external shape and

Pellet/'alioll in a mineral;

th pOlhwoy ~f l\'corherinl1
The alteration patterm described below characterize not only isoaltcromorphs, but also mesoalterolllorphs. The case of kata-alleromorphs is more
complex, and can only be addressed by resorting to
specific descriptions for each case.

dimensions of the alteromorph are similar to

those of the original mineral. The word "similar"

n all cases. the entire grain of a primary mineral

must be considered even if. during its weathering,

have been produced during weathering. Such a

it has been fractured into several residual frag-

weathering process promotes the formation of

ments now scattered in its alteroplasma.

iso-a/teromorphs (anhedral primary mineral) and of

pseudomorphs (euhedral primary mineral).

esomorphic alteration: The external shape of

the original mineral is well preserved and remains

80

undetectable modifications of shape and size may

is preferred to the word "identical", because

A secondaf)' mineral phase de\e!ops at the

expense of a primar)' mineral phase foLlowing its planes
and other areas of weakness. The main ones are: the
external surface of the mineral, the. open intramineral
features (intramineral fissures, cleavage planes), and

ATlAS OF MICROMOI\PHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERJNG

the closed surfaces of discontinuity (separation planes

between adjacent minerals or inclusions.
The exremal surface of the mineral forms the
bounding planes with the adjacent minerals. By dc/lnition, all bonds along the external sw-face are unsatisneeL Thus the surface layer is more reactive than the
rest of the grain. Initially. these sw-faces form only
potential pathways of penetration. Under the influence
of physical and chemical factors of near-surface origin,
the suture interfaces are opened, and the weathering
front. which exploits these planes. can penen-ate the
minerals in peripheral and centripetal ways even
where the minerals do not exhibit any internal Fissures
or defects. These external surfaces are the most important pathways for incipient weathering of practically all
primary minerah.
Swface, of intramineraljlssure, cause the minC'ral to
be cJivickd into several potential contiguous fragments.
Where open, these surfaces can be. to some extent.
compared to external surfaces of tJ1e first type, because
weathering progresses into each fragment from the
periphef)' and in a centTivetal manner. Some of these
fractures and Fissures may haq~ been infilled by h)1)ogene products of alteration and coated by hydroxylated
minerals (chlorite in garnet, sericite in Feldspal-.
amphiboJe in pyroxene, serpentine in oliyine). In such
cases, the deScription of the weathering of these composite mjnerals is made either by first considering the
host mineral or b). considering the mineral that weathers First. In any case. the entire mineral grain is (nnsidered, and not its separate fragments.
C1caFa8e planes di\'ide the mineral by following
ont', two or e~-en three parallel, orthogonal or obligue
directions. They are responSible for the fragmentation
of the mineral grain into small. regularly aligned polyhedral fragments. The cleavages 3re also to be consiJered as potential planes, which arc later opened once
the minerals enter the zone of the active weathering,
for example. They may also open in thin sections of
unweathered rocks, subjected to strong med1anical
stresses during their preparation. Systems of planes,
which correspond to poorly expressed cleavages. cut
the mineral into irregularly shaped and sized fragments, each opened cleavage not necessarily being
continuous thmughout the "'hole grain. Stair-shaped
open fissures are common. Where there is only one set
of parallel cleavages, d1e mineral becomes divided into
se\'eral layers, generally regular in shape, but of variable thic.kness in a direction perpendicular to these
planes. Such a case of one perfect cleavage is exhibited
by all phyllosilicates (e.g . musco\'ite, biotite. chlorite).
C1os~d surJ1ces <1/on8 disconcinuilie.' of crystallogra!)hic (e.g., twin planes), mineralogical (e'8" separa-

PART

2:

PATTERNS Of WEATHERING

tion planes and inclusions) and gcochemical (e.g.,

zonation) urigins, despite being vcr; different from
one another, produce compatable effects on the development 01' the weathering process and on the intemal
distribution of dIe alte1'Oplasmas. The influence of
these surfaces of discontinuity is added to tJlat of the
c1eayages and fractures, and thus increases the complexity of the alteromorphs and of their description.
The closed sW'faces of discontinuity are: twin 1)I<1nes.
separation planes between adjacent minerals or inclusions, and concentric zonations.
Twin planes are situated behw'cn two or more in<ii\'idual crystals of the same mineral species present in
dilTerent olientations in same grain. The twin law may
lead to simple or polysynthetic, contact or penetntion
twim. Se\'eral difTerent patterns of twins may cOt'xist
in the same grain (a1bite and pericline twins. for example, in a grain of' plagioclase or microcl1ne). A twin
plane, if combined \\'ith oblique networks of cleavage
on both sides. produces a distinctive "{Ish-bone"
microsn-uctw-e. This pattern is commonly observed
dming the first steps of weathering of elongate crystals
of plagioclase in ba.saltic, rrachytic and diabasic rocks,
of orthoclase crystals in granitic rocks, or of twinned
crystals of augite in some plutonic or elTLLsive rocks.
This specific distribution of symmetrically oriented
cleavages with respect to the twin plane leads to the
development of acantho-seplO-alceramorphs (see below).
Separation planes extend between lamellar or vermicular intergro",ths and their host mineral. These
planes separate distinct mineral species that generally
exhibit a close affmit)' in their mineralogical or geochemical composition. The two cJilTerent m.ineral
species may exllibit very different patterns of behavior
\-vhen subjected to weatJ1ering. Included in this group
are pel'thitic intergrowths of microcline and albite i.n a
K-rich feldspar, m)Tmekitic intergrow1hs of CJuartz in
sodic plagioclasc, lameUae of ilmenite in magnetite,
s)mplectiticintergrov..1:hs of magnetite and orthopyroxene, elC. Many separation planes of this type :Ire
closed systems because they are related to isolated
inclusions, within the host mineral, WitJ10ut cOlmection ~~ith tJ1<~ external pathways of weathering. Their
pattern of behavior is similar to that of surfaces of contact between inclusions and tJ1e host mineral. These
surfaces are closed and without connection with the
exterior in cases \\here the inclusions are few, small
and isolated. They play their role only where the host
mineral is cut by inb-amineral or transmineral fissures.
Otherwise, the separiltion surfaces have no influence
on the v,eatheling of the inclusions, but produce
planes or areas of mechanical weakness. Apatite within
guartz, acgirine in nepheLine, and guartz in garnet are
com.mon examples of inclusions. Whether the

81

inclusion formed by exsolution, by a metamorphic

reaction, or by accidental trapping during gro\vth,
seems "secondary" to the whole issue. If inclusions of
weatherable minerals are completely entrapped in a
practically IJnweatherable mineral. they can persist
unweathered until they reach the upper part of the
proille.
Concencric zonations resulting [i-om continuous or
discontinuous chemical \'an,Hions during growth are
typical of solid -solution series. One of the zones may
be rather more weathcrable than the other, and it can
promote, when weathered, the formation of a concentric handed pattern, in which bands of weathered
material alternate with bands 01" residual mineral. The
development of a weathered central core may induce
the later fragmentation, b~ a radial network of fissures,
of tJle lllQre resistant residual rim. Some of the most
commonly obsern~d exan1ples include zoned plagioclase whose central part is more calcic and more
weatherable than is the more sodic, extelTlal part.
Zoned crystals of oHvine $ho\'\' a relative enridlment of
the forstel;te component in the core, and of the fayalite component in the l;m. Zoned augite also shows a
predictable rirnward enrichment in the felTosilite
cumponent over the enstatjre component.
Parallel ahernarion of interlayered phyllosilicate;; of
distinct chemical composition and different weatherabilities are rather common. This alternating alTangement, combined "'ith tl1e perfect cleavage of these
minerals, promotes the weathering of the most resistant species by inducing dcfomlations in the flTstformed secondary products formed at the expense of
the less resistant species. Some examples include grains
composed of alternating layers of primary biotite and
primary muscovite, primary biotit<> and chlOl-itized
biotite, etc. The more resistant muscovite or chlodte
commorlly is broken into small pieces by the stresses
generated by the smectite-group phase developed at
the expense of the less resistant biotite. The intercalation of microcrysL.lls between tlle layers or some micas
can play the same role in the vveatherability of the.
\\;hole grain. Consider, for example, lenticular inclusions of titanite and calcite hctvveen layers of hiotite
and d110rite, and tl,e sagcnitic rutile and goetl1ite
microcrystals regularly interlayercd in a biotite grain.

The secondary minerals that progreSSively

deYelop at the expense of tbe primary minerals uncleI'
the inIluence of near-surface weathering exhibit specinc patterns of organization, whim are influenced by

82

the nature, distribution, orientation and density of

planes of weakness in tlle original minerals.
During the Hrst steps of weathering, the organization of the alteration textures remains strongly related
to tlle net\'wrk of planes and areas of weakness, inherited from t.he original miner,)\. Thereafter, with the formatioo of new fissures, of irregular dissolution-related
pores, with the thickening and the multiplication of the
secondary microstructures and with the development
of recrystallization, new textures appear awa~ from
the original sites. In spite of tl1cse progressive modifications, tlle original microstructures persist for a long
time, and remain identifiable until the ultimate stage of
weatJlcring, when alteroplasmas have completely
replaced the original minerals. The persistence of the
primary patterns of organization in the levels of complete weathering amount$ to a signature, and allows
the identification of the parent minerals and, so, the
identification of the parent rock, even if it has not been
reached at tlle base of the profile selected for sampling_
The classification and tlle systems of dcso-iption to
be presented below follow a preliminary attempt
(Stoops et al. 1979) and a more recently proposed terminology (Delvigne 1994) that specifically focusses on
tbe completely developed altcromorphs. This most
recent attempt has been refined and is presented in
Pal1: 3 of this book.

Pellitulaz pHtern c!i01'guni:tation

In minerals that do not exhibit fractures or directions of good cleavage, tlH' organization of weathering
features is 01' a pellicular type (Figs. S, 6). It starts from
the borders of the mineral and follows the intemuneral
boundaries. Weathering proceeds centripetally all
around the mineral grain and gradually extends toward
its central part. It surrounds a residual core (or nucleus),
whose size progreSSively decreases. Three main cases
can be distinguished.
Weathering transforms the original mineral into
secondary products whose volume nearly corresponds
to the volume of the Original mineral. Most cbemical
elements of the parent mineral are incorporated into
the structure of the secondary products. There is no
empty space, or very little, around the residual wre.
Once the weathering is complete and the residual mineral has disappeared, a full iso-alteromorph is fonned.
It is a h%-l1/reramorph (or, more precisely, a holo-isoalreromorph). Where the primary mineral is an automorphic mineral, the alteromorph that results from its
weathering is a pseudomorpb. Examples include
the transfonnation of olivine to "iddiJlgsite", the

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL AlTEI\ATION AND WEATHERING

FIGURE

5. PEUJUIUI\

P_\TTEJC'J~ or WE.HHRJNG.

A.

Regular peUicular pattern

O'

cuhedral crystals of pyrite;

I:

thin pellicular rim of iron nxyh)'c1roxides;

1:

thick pclliudar rim of iron uxyhvdroxides surrounding large residual cores;

l:

nearly complete wcatbcring md small residual cor('s;

4:

complete." weathering to iron oxyhydroxides: HOLO-PSEUDOMORPH.

NOle: Concemrk linc.:ltjons comn1C>nJy ar~ dsible witbin the lim or secondan' products; d,CV arc' tbe traces of lilt'- luce""ive. st:'ges of

weathering. Microlaminar.,d alternations or hcmatite - goethile are ohsen'ed in some instances; in this case. a c\\'o'phase bolupseudonlorph results. Th(' weJthering or such cuhedra! cryslals leads to the r'Jrnlation or true pseudl'nlorphs.

B.

Irregular peUicular pattern

0:

anhcdral err,t.al of clinopvro,ene;

I:

tbin pellicular rim or a s~condar)' smecUtegroup mineral;

1:

thick pelljcular rim or well-olielllcd smecrite and large dentieul3te residual core;

3:

nearlv complete weat.hering to \\'dl-oriented s/Deceit" anJ small denticulate residues;

4:

compiete weathering to wcll-oriented smect.ite \\'ithour visihle internal pores: HOLO-(IS0)'-\L TEROMORPH.

Note: Where the plane of the thin sectio" is (nearlv) paroJleI tn the Z axis of the pvro"ene, the opticat orientation or che smectire is W1jform and continuous throughout the "Ic('romor"h, amJ the orkntatian of Ih" denticulation 01' ULe p.ITo'enc residue; is parallel to
thac of the general la~'eJing of the smectitt': particles.

C.

Irregular pellicular pattern

0:

anhedral cr)'st.'ll of onhop\T0"cne;

I:

t!tin pellicular rim or a secoml"rv smeetitcgroup minna];

or rhi" circum-nodutar I'l>sidual void;

2:

t.hiek pellicular rim and large residual wre separated

3:

nearly completc \\'e"thering to oriented smcetite \\ith miml\f: residues rimmeJ DV thick residu"l voids;

+:

orienled smectile ;mc! irregular pores de\'dop('d rrom rh, last r",iuues: (ORTHO)-ALVEOPORO-!\ LTEROMORPH.

i':ote: In an ('rt!toal,,oporo-alcc:rmorph, as ,ho\\-11 here, the shape oftlw residual pores is denticulatC' and similar to the shape afth" residual cor"S chat I.lal'e disappeared; in a para.alveoporo-Jltcromorph, thcir shape is l'Ounder and smoother becau,,' the pore$, rimmed
by laIc iron OX)'hyJroxidcs, develop by further degra,I.1lion of rhe previously lormed smcclire'group mineral.

PART

2:

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

83

~
FIGURE

6.

PELLlCULAI\ 1',,'rrJ;I1NS 01 WE,ITHERlNti,

A.

Combiued ,,;th a linear pattern

0:

suhhcdral crystal uf biotite containing an inclllsion of primlatic apalite;

I:

indIJi(:nt weathering of the biotitc to vermi<:lIlite wjth a small incre,lse in \'olume;

2:
3:

a,hanced weath"l"ing or the mica. Furthcr increa'l' in \'()Iume, amI Fracturing of lh" apatite indusion i

orientc,l verrniculilc and parallel lenticular phylloporcs: PHYLLOPORO(MESO)-ALTEROMORPH.

nearly cumfllete wcathering. widl formalinn ofpa"allel phyllopores and displacement of the fractured indllsion;

Note: Wh(.re th~ pdsmatic indusion i, not exactly perpcndicubr to till' layering of the mica. Ule transverse Fractures lhat segmcnt th!'
u,dusion. owing to the \olume increase of the host mi.neral, also alloll' a lateral displac('rnent of its fi"grncnts. 11,e t'racnLru'g and
di"loc.ltion of the included miner.lls strongly incr~aSl~ thdr weatherabilit>"

B.

Combined with a linear pattern

0:

subhedrill crystal of hior.ite;

I:

indpil'nl weathering to bolin.ite starting on and extending mainly from opposite ,ide,;

2:

thin layers of boliniTe in lcrlayercd \\ilh thick residual COres of biotite;

3:

thick I'avers of bolirntc shOWing expansion of r.heir lateral edges, opening of POr('S, and appearance of minute opaque inclusions;

~:

oriented kaolinitl' and larg.;- lenticular pores: PHYLLOPORO-(MESO)-ALTEROMORPH.

Note: The iron content of the primary biotiTC is expre,s"d by minute 'Ty'tals of goethite distributed para lid to th, bolin.ite layers and
concentrated within the central pall of the alteromorph, The lenticui.lr pores arc not True re_siduJ.l porb. hut rather pore_~ opened
undcr the inllue.uce of mechilflical foru,s developed as a r~sult of tI", e>..-pilnsion of the we3Ulcred mineral.

C.

Combined with a linear patlem

0:

sul)hcdrJJ cn'stal of hiotile;

I:

incipient iJTegular wealh,~ring to a smectit.ic clay;

1:

irregllUr Jistorsion of the primary and secondary miner.lls duI'

3:

'-\~Jl1Jlant' of Ule primar~' minnal and secondary products arc highly fractured and .:ontorted, with the ope.njng of many irregular pores;

4:

irregular. highly fractured and disjoinll~d alterornorph: Ki\TA-ALTEROMORPI-I.

Note:

'n,\:

repla<:emcnt of mica<:eous minc,""s

by

10

the swelling process;

\'ermieulite or kaolinitc is accompanied hy " regular inlTease ill volume, which induce,

th.~ format.ion of ml:So-alteromorphs; swelling smectitir clay, gener.1Ur induee the formation of kat:aalteronl0rphs. 11lC iron con

tent of tI,C biotite commonly is accommodatcd in thc struct'ure of ti,e smectile.

84

AnA'

OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AlTERATION AND WEATHERING

weathering of pyrite crystals into iron oxyhyclroxides

(Fig. SA) and of clinopyroxene into a smectite-group
mineral (Fig. 58).
+'vVeathering I)rogresses in the same wa),. but an
empty pore is rapiJly formed, as a rim around the
residual core (inter-plasma - mineral pore or perinuclear
pore). The width of the pore increases progressively as
the \'olume of the original core decreases. The volume
of the final pore is proportional to the' volume of the
exported chemical elements, which do not contribute
to the development of the alteroplasma. nle external
rim of alteroplasma becomes thicker and thicker owing
to centrifugal nanoscale transfers of elements from the
core to the rim. Once the weathering is complete, a
continuous corona of alteroplasma surrounds a residual empty pore, whose borders are more or less parallel to and concentric with the original intermineraJ
contact-surfaces. They are porous or pore-bearing
alteromorphs (group of the poro-aheromorphs: Fig. 5C).
Where the alteromorph sho\o\'s only a large central
pore, it is a centroporo-aheromorph. This is the panem of
weathering of most un fractured and unclcaved, relativeJy small-sized grains of silicate minerals.
+ Weathering still progresses in the same way. but
with the complete congruent remo\'al of all the chemical elements of the primary mineral. No secondary
alteroplasma is former! in situ, and the size of the residual core progressively decreases, with formation of
only empty perinuclear pores. Where the weathering
is complete, an empty alteromorph is formed (koiloaheromorph). The shape and si__e of the primary minerals are temporarily maintained if the adjacent primary
minerals are not weathcrable minerals, if they are not
yet weathered, or if they have given rise to mechanically resistant alteroplasmas. Rocks that are rich in soluble minerals generally lose their original structures
when undergoing weathcling. Koilo-alteromorphs are
commonly formed by the weathering of very soluble
mineraJs such as calcite, gypsum, apatite and, under
exceptional conditions, quartz. The term can be
extended to nearly empty alteromorphs whose (primary
or secondary) mineral content does not exceed 2.5%.
+ Pellicular patterns are commonly combined
with other patterns of weathering, such a.s Linear patterns (Fig. 6). PracticaJly all plimary minerals exhibit
a pellicular pattern during their incipient weathering,
whatever the subsequent progress of weathering
toward the grain's interior.

PART

2:

PAHERNS OF WEATHERING

In

ar ami land d patLern.

Dw-ing the weathering of minelals, networks of

fracUlres and cleavages play the same role as the intermineral surfaces previously described. Each part of the
fragmented or cleaved mineral, if isolated in these networks, reacts indi\iJually to the ",."eathering process,
and each or them is surrounded either by alteroplasma.'i
or by empty pores. 1n descriptions of this pattern of
weatllering, the original mineral must be considered in
its tot<llity, whatever the extent of its div"ision into
smaller fragments.
U" the primary mineral is weathered to alteroplasma \\ithout development of inter-plasma - minaal
pores, all the lll1weatbered remnant~ within their
matrix of secondary products maintain not only their
position and their alignme.nt, but also their crystaUograph.ic orientation. AJI the resiJual fragments of the
crystal cunsidered go sim uIwneousJ y to extinction (or
do so iD groups if the crystaJ is twinned) by rotation of
the microscope: stage with LTossed nicols. In conb'ast,
where. large empty pores are developed between the
primary mineraJ and the secondary phases, the re.mnants may maintain their position and tbeir alignment,
but generally they may partly or coml)letely lose. by
rotation, their common and uniform crystallographic
orientation.
Primary minerals that lose only a small part of
their constituent elements, and that as a result do not
develop identilhble pores once completely vveathered,
normally give way to holo-alteromorphs, which can be
distinguished .from the holo-aJteromorphs previously
described (peripheral patterns) only by the \isiblc
traces of the original networks of fractmes and cleavages. -nlese traces are in some cases emph.asized either
by deposits of different materials, or by difference.s in
size, orientation or crystallinity of the particles of
aJtcroplasma, which arc distributed along these traces.
In general, within tllc fractured or irregularly
cleaved minel<lls, weathering follows these planes
preferentially. The secondary products are distributed
along them, first as a. linear irregtllar pattern, and later
as a banded irregular pattern where, witll increasing
weathering, the thickness of the secondary products
formed along the planes has i.ncreasecl (Fig. 7A). The
residues of the un weathered primarv mineral are irree:ularly distributed (random residu~s), and their si~e
gradually decreases, the smaJ lest residues generaU),

85

FIGURE 7. u:--i[j\n 1''\

-H"~ OF \\-UHIERINt;,

A,

Regular (parallel) linear pattern

0:

subhedr"1 crystal of bio[jt~;

I:

incipient JIt~rJtion to d'doril~ J.long the ckaVJge; thin layers of chl0rite. d~\'eJop th,rough tlw LT:'s!:aJ;

1:

chlorit" 1< distrihutc'cl in a regular pJ.rallel bmdcd pattern Jltemating \\;th orgJnized residue. of hiotir~;

):

0rgJnized thin la)'c'r" of residual biot;lc ar" e.nclosed in the chlorite;

4:

lompkt~ ,llt~rarilln ofbiotil~

lo chlorite: ISOALTEROMORPH,

Ne.te: The IIrst ""ne< 01' drawings illustntcs the case uf alttTaLioo of a primal)' micac~ou$ min"",lto a chlorite, ,,-ithoul increa.,e of \'olume;
as J result, shape_ of' the original grains w~rc l11aintJ..inco, Thi.., t)'Pl: or alteration, without Yolurne lnC1'"a$~, is I"ss c'oml11onl\,
ubservcd tlrall th", next onc,

B.

Regular (parallel) linear pattern

0:

subhc-dral (:Tptal

I:

incipient alteration

2:

layers or chlonte and r"'sidualbiotite arc equally distributed, but the increase in \'olume is perceptibJc.;

3,

organized thin layers of n'~idual hintite ami thick layers uf chJoriV: alternat,,;

4'

complete altcrMion ')1' hiotit,~ to chlorite \rith regular increase of \'Olumc: MESO-ALTEROMORPH,

"I' biotite;
lO

chlorit'" along dea\'age pbnes; thin IJ."CTS of d,lolite de\'dop through the crystal;

"lOll': Thi, second seri", or drawings illustrates the ,'ase olalteration of a primarv micaceous mineral with appreciable but regular incre.lSe
of volume- in a direction perpendicular to th" ICll','ring of the rill",,; t1Jc ext"rn,11 I'D im of the primary mineral 19 easily rc-cogniz.cd.
but the Jimcmiun,' ha\'c dlanged in onl' direction,

C.

Regular (parallel) lineal' pattern

0:

regulJrI)' d<'aved cI:'st.1 of pyroxene \Vhos~ Z a_'(j~ is I,aralld 10 the plaM of the thin section;

I;

incipi.:nt \\'c<1thcl"lng to

gn~lhil('

along p:trt

or ib rim and its c1eavagt;

thin pellicular (pelil,heral) ilnd f'<1rJllel linear "'ea the ring; large denticula'''' residual core, of primary' PFoxcne;
~:

thick p~lIicular anu paralld ha.nded patterns 'lIld organized minute denriculatt' re.,iducs or primilry pyroxene;

+:

complete \\'c.<1theling to J regular hox\\'urk orgoct.},ite: REGULAR (PARALLEL) SEPTOALTEROMORPH,

Nute: Tbe thickne>s of the "'pta ancl the Si".- of'the rc,sidual ""ids "rc c10sdy rclatc'o to tbe origin-al iron content of the primar} lTIinemJ.
Oncc' the minute r~sidu", ,rc "oITlpletdy i<()iJt~d within a large cir,um-uodular residtLll void, they can Jose their comm"n orienta,
tion ,nd their "imult,n,'ol!.> cxtinction in XPL.

86

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAt AtTERATlON AND WEATHERING

disappeal-jng before the largest ones. Good examples

of random residues surrounded by an irregular banded
network include partial serpentinization of an olivine
crystal (fTactured mine/-all or partial replacement of Kfeldspar (in-egulad), cleaved mineral) by secondary
plasmas. Upon completion of weathering, in the most
common cas"" of thorough leaching of dle original constituents, an ah-eoporo-alteromorph is developed in
which subcontinuous alteroplasmas are a.rranged in
irregularly intercolUlect"cl bands, between wh.ich
irregularly shaped pores have replacecl dlC lastremoved primar} residues.
Where the banded networks of alteroplasma or
crystalliplasma exhibit a constant thickness (septa) and
where they surround empty pores whose total volwlH~
is greater than the volume of the secondary products,
an irregular septo-alteromorph is developed ("boxwork" texture). It must be kept in mind that the intermineral bounding surface that sU/Tounds the primary
mineral playS dIe same role as a fracture and that, as a
result, the aheoporo-alteromorphs and the scptoalteromorphs are always surrouncled by a continuous
banded layer of secondary material whose composition
is similar to that of the intemal septa.
In minerals that show a regular and continuous
network of well-exprf'ssed parallel or crossing cleavages, the weathering products are regularly distributed
along this network. Dudng the first step, they are distributed according to a parallel- or cross-linear pattel11,
which later evolves into a parallel- or cross-bancled
pattern_ The unweathered residue~ arc also organizecl
into parallel alignments (organized residues); each of
tllem is situated in the central part or a cell of'the linear or banded network.
An example of the parallel banded pattern is
given by the weathering of mica- and chloritegroup minerals (one set of parallel cleavages: Fig.
7A. B). whereas examples of regular parallel. linear or banded patterns are also given by the
weathering of pyroxene- and amphibole-group
minerals. where crystals have been cut parallel to
their Z axis (one apparem set of cleavages in the
plane of the thin section: Fig. 1C).
An example of the irregular cross-linear pattern is given by the weathering of an olivine crystal whose irregular protoclastic fractures are the
pathways for the incipiem weathering of the crystal (Fig. BA) or by the weathering of an irregularly
fractured crystal of garnet to iron oxyhydroxides
(Fig. BB).
An example of the regular cross-linear or
cross-banded pattern is illustrated by the weath-

PART

2:

PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

ering of a grain of amphibole (Fig. BC) or pyroxene (two sets of oblique or suborthogonal cleavages). which is distinctly seen in crystals whose Z
axis is perpendicular or oblique to the plane of
the thin section: this pattern gives rise to regular
septo-alteromorphs.
It seems evident that not all th" cleavages of a mineral always appear distinctly in the thin section. Thus
they can be incomplete, discontinuous or interruptecl.
This factor determines the formation of a morc-or-lcss
complete network or hnes, bands and septa whose segments are mostly arranged according to idealizecl linear or crossed patterns. Other particular symmetrical
linear or crossed patt"ms result fmm the weathering
of t\-vinned mU1C:Tals.
An example of the incomplete regular crosslinear pattern is given by the weathering of a crystal of orrhoclase that exhibits partly developed
cleavages (Fig. 9A). An example of a symmetrical
linear pattern is seen in the weathering of a
twinned mineral (pyroxene or feldspar, for example) whose cleaved parts are symmetrically
arranged on both sides of the twin plane (Fig. 9B).

Irrf::H u 111' pultel'n,

A last case is shown by minerals in which no fractures or cleavages are developed and whose weathering develops in an apparently random way, without
evident controls on direction or orientation by internal
or extemal factors.
A first irregular pattern of weathering
occur, where the breakdown starts peripherally
and invades the mineral following irregular and
interconnected digitate lineaments (Fig. 9C).
These are progressively widened (banded) and
connected. leaving irregular isolated residues of
the primary mineral. This pattern is common in
the weathering of apparemly unfraetured or
poorly cleaved minerals such as feldspars.
A second. very common. pattern of weathering occurs at the beginning of weathering. when
the secondary products and associated pores are
developed as randomly distributed specks (speckled pauern) within the mineral. The size of these
specks progressively increase. joining together
forming patches (patchy pattern) at a more
advanced stage of weathering (Fig. lOA. B). The
primary miner-al is pr'ogressively corroded.
divided into several irregular fragments (randomly distributed cavernous residues). The size
of these fragments progressively decreases (dispersed minute residues) until they disappear from
the completely developed alteromorph. Such is

87

A~ ~./
I

'"

;....

,::i c,.....

; ..::".

"'",

'"'

;
",\';'"

".

",

.........

"-'-

.... ,

FIGURF.

8.

L.INeAH r,;TlrHi'S or \\T.-\TJleIlING.

A.

Irregular l.inear pattern

0:

.nhedral enstJI of uli\'inc CTO".l.rl by [nlramineral prl'toc!a.,tic tT-aet.ure.,;

I.

linear weath'ring of the "Ih'ine to nontronitc al,mg p,irt of ils fracture, ann

2:

irregular banded pattern with random rcsidu<:s; iron <)xyhydroxides app,'.ar along the fractures;

3:

smalll."arsd)' ,knticulate residue, ",itl,in tlw nono-onite, part of which L< oriented, mainly along the fracnlres;

4:

complete

w~ath~rilig of

b0undari,~s;

oli'1ne to nl)nlTClIlitil. cia)': HOLO(ISO)-ALTEROMORPH,

Note: U' tbe orit.~nal cr)'stal is largely li'actured, Ihe cia)' particles commonly arc strongly orienr~d along its outer edges and along both
sides of th~ fracmres, "her'cas the inn,'r "olum.,s arT "lied with randomly orientcd and homog~nco", secondary clays, No dinercnces in composition arc rccol'<lcrl betwcl.n the orient(d ancl the random particles,

B.

Irregularly crossing linear pattcrn

0:

undea\(:rl hut irregularl, fractured euhed'-al crystal of garnet;

I:

incipi<'nt linear weathering alung p,)rt of the edge and a.long fractures in the cr),stal;

2:

irregular cro>,-h.mded pattern ,)f gOf'lhite, enclosing random residue> ,:urrounded by residual vuids;

3:

,-andoml\" distributed minute residucs .uld man\' residual "oids within an ilTegular nl'twork of goethite septa;

4:

complete weathering

10

on irregular l)Oxwork: IRREGULAR SEPTO-ALTEROMORPH.

Nore: The richer i.n iron is thr garnet, uie thicker die sepia of gOdhit" anu Ule smaller ore the residual \'"i,k In the case of euheural cryst.ab, the comp!<.:telv w"aUlered grain, orgarncr gi\"e rise to irregular scpto-pseudomorphs. Manganese oxide ucposit, or minute ("I"."s,
till, otgihbsite eommonl) arc observed in the alterumurpbs after Mn-rich or AI-rich garnet, re'pcctin~.J)'.

C.

Regularly crossing linear pattern

0:

wdJc1eaved euhcdral (1"\'$tal of hornblende;

1:

incipient linear weathering along part of the cTosscd cleavage" lea\'ing nalTOW rc.~iullal "oi,";

2:

regular cross-hancled pan"m or ;'oethite (boxwork), organizeJ rcsidues and residual void,:;

3:

organized minute residu<,s of primaT)' mineral isolated ,.-;thin a regular box work ol"gocrllite;

4:

complete weathering tu a rcgularl)' crossing box"'ork: REGULAR ,CROSSED) S[PTO-,\LTEROMOHPH.

Note: During the first slages of weatheri.ng, all th,' nenticu\ate n:sidup-, mai.ntai.n their uriginal orient'ation anti their simultaneous extinction, Once complt:rel)' isobled .1nd free to mO"e within their cells. the)' losc Uleir original orientation, and Ulcir extinction, in XPL,
nu longer is simulrane')us t1U'oughOllt the Jltcrornorph.

88

ATLAS Of MICltOMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL At TERAnON AND WEATHEPJNG

FIGURE

9. LINblR

PA1TERNS OF WUTHERING.

A.

Regularly crossiog linear p"ttern

0:

c1"''''"d anhedral crystal of orthoclas,'; fel\" deal'ages .pp... ar in the unweatl1l'red min ... ral;

I:

incipient linear wealheling

2:

regular cross-b.lnded panern in the secondary material anu org.lIli2.eu cal'ernOllS rt"idues of prinun feluspar;

lO

an isotTtlpic secondar,' material along a part or the rim anu along th ... clc,l\'ages:

3:

nearlv complete weathering to Lsou-opi<: materi.l, and kw org.niz,'d minutl' residue.> or prim"" reIJsp.r:

complete weatherLnl' and I'urtbe! evolution w bolLnile: GRADUAL POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPH.

Note: The isotropic material i, an intermediate phase th,n commonl), t!c-I'c!rJp' between the f",ldsp.,r r"sidues and the bolinitc minerals:
thcse appear as end-products of the weathering under restrict"d t'r IH1rnnl conditions of \\,'athe,ing. Traces or t}le orig'inal clea"ages ar<~ partly enhanced hy thin deposits or iron oxyhydrmcide orallllchl.honous origin.

B.

Regular symmetrical linear pattern

')I' hoth sides of the twin

0:

t\.Iinm:d ilJ1d cleaved orthod,"e; cleavages "re nen",,,,rily symmetrically orknterl

I:

incipient linear weathering to cry"tals of gibbsit" anrl organiz"d Ca,",~rnOllS rl'sidurs of primar~' fddspar;

plan,,;

2:

regular s)~nIl1etrical banded pattern of crystalline gibb"itr and organized ea""r1lllUS re,idu(:s

3:

advanced weathering: s)'lllmetTicJlJy bandd pattern or gihbs.ite and minute residue' surrounded h)' largc residual voids;

4:

<:emr.1 septum and symmetrical septa endosing brg" rt'sidual loids: !iCANTIIOSEPTOALTF.110MORPH.

ot' primMy feldspar;

Note: Under conditions or ",mcic'nt leaching, reldsl)ar'group minerals eommonl\' weather rlirr.:li) to gibbsite "'ilhout passing through an
intermediate ph-as~ of i.;otl'Opic material. The leaching of a.lkalis and silica G complete; the I'olum" or residual void" may he largl-r
than that of the scconclarv minerab.

C.

Irregular digitate pellicular pattern

0:

anhcdral cryslalof feldspar;

I:

incipient w.:-athering to isotropic material :l('L'Ording to a pellicular and irregular digit.lte pattern:

2:

irregular core> within isotropic material (lM): smalJ dot" recently' lormt,d IM. large1' dOL" e.r1~,-rormcd IM:

3:

the lirstlormed part of the IM is r.:-placed h)' gihbsit" er)'stals a(nll-cling to :1I1 irregulJr digi ...l tc h.lJl,kJ texture;

4:

e:lrl)'-fom1ed septa or gibbsite assnciateJ with r"'cently form"d gibbsite: GlOMl:ROSEPTO-AlTEROMORPH.

Note: The chemical composition of the isotropic makri.l, "hieh i' intermediate between thl: t'cldspJr and l>ibt"il<', is gradually nwdill"d
with aging: the tarlv-rormed paJ-LS orlM arc i:onse'luently the flr't ones \.0 be ""plaL'ed bv gi"bsitc. F<~I('jspar rcsidu:s, IM;'d gibb'it!:
<:In temporarily coexist.

PART

2:

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

89

FIGURE 10.

SI'ECKUol) .\ND l\nOI' P.-\TTERNS OF WE.\THEIUNG.

A.

Irregular speckled pattern

0:

irregularly Frncrured eT"sta! of pl'giodast';

irreguJ,u']y sp~ckl.:d pattern of isotropic secondary producLs ,Jong part of th.: intrnminera! Fractures;

2:

i'Tegular patchy p'llem of the secondary material and large

3:

advanced stage of weathering, with Further development or tbe secondary maleri,,1 wd disper'ed minute rcsidues;

4:

complete weath~ling tt> iso!n'pic matnial h/Ofore kaolinit" has develuped: HOLO(lSO)-ALTEROMORPH.

GIVeffiOUS

residues of primar)" mineral;

Note: As early as stage 2, the isolated specks and patdl'" of the secondary matcrial begin to coalt'Scc. and give way to a c'ontinuous
secondary ph"s' in which coarse or minute: cn"croous re~idtll" an~ isolated. Traces of the- original frncrures may be partly enhanced
bv allochthollous ,lq,o,it, of iron oxyhydroxides,

B.

Regul~r

D:

onhoclase crystal with fe'" regular opened deavagc_<, which are pathways ror the development of slUalJ specks of sccondnry mat"rial;

speckled pattern

I:

the earl\'-formed specks coalesce along the cleavages and form regularl\' crossi'ng elongate patches;

2:

most patcho::s form

3:

neuly complete weathering: disperse-d minute residues rmdomJy rltstribut.ecl in;) homogeneous scc:ond'l.ry phase;

4-:

th,' resirlues disappear, and kaolinile [oml., from the seconda,:' phase: GRADUAL TWO-PHASE ALTEROMORPB.

continuous phase or isotropic malerial in which organized cavemOU.5 r"sidues .lre distributed;

Note: Thb cas", very similar to the pre'-;ous one. is distinguished from it by the internal distrihution of the nrst- formed speck.5 and tbe
later patcbes of secondary producr..5. The development of the kaolinite in this example can also occur in the previous onc. sinc' it is
e.\'idelltly not. related to the regularity or irreguJarit)' 01' the rr.ctures or de;}vagcs.

C.

Concentric speckled pattern

0:

wncd crystal of plagioclase, wbose zonati(ln is expressed by lh~ lin~ar and concemric development of incll."iom;

I:

specks and palchr-s of seconda,:' matLeIial are devdopl'd mainly ill th~ cenlJ'nl (more caldc) part of the fddspar:

2:

patches o[ seconda.r:' material are enlarged and coalesce, with repbccment of most of the central zone;

3:

the digitate central patch of secondary products is surrounded by un irregular residual rim of the primary mineral;

+:

crystals of Kaolinite develop in the cl'ntral part (the llrst-fOlmed) of Ihe intermediate isotropic muterial.

:'-Jote: Where olteromorph' still contain both intermediate isotropic material and kaolin.ite. it is more suitable to classi!)' them as gr;"Il.lal
t'Wo-phase "lteromorphs. Where the isotropic material has disappe.ared, it is mon. objectiv!: to classify them as bolo-(iso)-aJtemmorphs (or botryo-alteromorphs if o')'srals are isolated. with inconIlected voilL- het",,,en them).

90

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY

or-

MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERJNG

the case, for example. in the weathering panerns

of most feldspar crystals. whatever their replacement phase, be it gibbsite, kaolinite. halloysite or
isotropic, amorphous material.
A third example is given by the weathering
of zoned crystals, whose more weatherable central parts are attacked before the outer parts. This
concentric panern is illustrated by the weathering of zoned crystals of plagioclase (Fig. IQC).

Comp/e" p tEems
Most patterns described above may combine with
one another to give complex patterns of alteration.
They can be described by combining a number of morc
simple patterns. The most common situations are
those in which several distinct patterns are juxtaposed
side by side or superposed one upon the other. They
develop from the combination of sets of irregular fractures and regular cleavages or tv\-in planes and from the
combination of intemaJ zonations and sets of fractures
or cleavages.
A classical example is provided by the
weathering of coarse-sized crystals of pyroxene,
which are fragmented into several parts by transmineral or transverse fractures. During the first
stage of weathering, the distribution of the secondary mineral (such as, for example. the smectite-group mineral that develops under conditions
of restricted drainage) is related to the network
of fractures. The smectite-group phase is distributed in an irregular banded panern. Thereafter,
during a more advanced stage of weathering, each
isolated but unfracrured fragment of the primary
mineral is weathered in a regular parallel or crosslinear panern, which is related to the number and
directions of the original cleavages.

be either simultaneous and parallel to the ex.tinction of

the pyroxene residues in the case of the weatheling of
an orthopyroxene cryst,,] (straight extinction), or not
simultaneous and oblique to the residues if the "veathered mineral is a c1inopJToxe.ne (obbque extinction)
These differences in angle of extinction
between the smectite particles on one hand. and
the residues of pyroxene on the other, constitute
an additional criterion for identification of the
parent material where the residues are too small
for normal determination by optical methods.
Where the alteromorpb is completely developed,
traces of the first fractures can be still identified if
intramineral pores (strong leaching) or iron oxyhydroxides (differential weathering or absolute accumulation) were formed at their contact. The complexity
of such alteromorphs can still increase by later weathering, either of residues of pyroxene or of the smectitebealing secondary products, as will be shown below.

n summary, the different possible patterns are:

regular

pellicular patterns: mainly controlled by intermineral discontinuities and mineral interfaces,

linear (or banded) parallel or crossed patterns: mainly controlled by incramineral factors, such as well-expressed cleavages. twin
planes and crystallographic directions. or
zoned patterns: with concentric distribution
of the secondary products mainly controlled
by intramineral chemical variations;
irregular

The crystallographic orientation of minute secondary particles is also related to speciJic crystallographic directions in the original mineral. All these
crystaJbtes arc oriented parallel to the Z axis of the
pyroxene crystal, and, thus, independently of the fractures and of both sets of cleavages if these are simultaneously arid distinctly obsencd in the alteromorph. If
only one set of clea\'ages is apparent (as in the case of
lTystals whose Z axis is parallel to the plane of the thin
section), the secondary particles are oriented parallel
to the cleavage. Their straight extinction is then simultaneously observed in the whole alteromorph; it will

PART

2:

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

linear (or banded) patterns: mainly controlled

by transmineral and protoclastic fractures in
uncleaved minerals,
speckled and patchy panerns: mainly developed within the mineral without any apparent
relationship with its crystallographic structure, or
complex panerns: resulting from the combination of several simpler regular or irregular
patterns.

91

PATTERNS OF ALTERATION

066,067
BASALTIC ROCK

Morocco
Sampled by A. Dekayir
Depth: 2 m
Regular peripheral
pattern of alteration
around a euhedral
phenocryst of olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I I
'I
I
of olivinc
has been partially altered to
"iddingsitc" during cooling of the
basalt. The periphc,-al alteration
progresses centTipctally from tJ1C
l'dgc of the grain. Hac.J the alteration
process continued to complerion.
the euhedral crystal would have

1.

92

hecn completely transformed to a

truc pseudomorph of uic.Jdingsitc".
The oriainal
crvstal's
faces have
b
.
remained undisturbed during and
aFter tJ1C transformation. Thc
groundmass of the basaltic rock is
not altered; it contains lath-shaped
grains of plagiodase, smaU interser-

tal grains of c1jnopyroxene, grains

of magnetite, and small crystals of
olivinc that a.lso have been partiaUy
transfonncd to "iddingsite".

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AlTERAnON AND WEAmERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

068,069
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire
Depth: 3 m
Regular peripheral
patternof weathering
around grains
of c1inopyroxene
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

r'l::
0.0

mm

grains of

this eCjuigranu.lar cli.J~l)pyrox

enite are separated by a re,brular network of open intermineral fissures,
along which peripheral weathering
has begun. Most grains of dinap.'"roxene arc sUHounded by a thin rim

PART

2:

PATIERNS Of WEATHERING

of a secondary product of saponitic

composition. The fme denticulation,
which normally develops around
residual cores, has not yet appeared
around most grains; tht> weathering
reaction has not progressed sufficientlv to allow such a featun: to be

clearly observed at the scale of the

optical microscope (compare with
phowmicrographs 054, 055).

93

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

070, 07.
CARBONATITE

Juquia. SP. Brazil

Sampled in a quarry
by A.V. Waiter
Regular peripheral
weathering panern
around grains of calcite
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I1 1,1 I
I carbonatite mck is
essentially composed of carbonat~~ mineraJs, whicl\ exhibit a
gra.nular texture, with variahle
quantities of accessory minerals
such as apatite, opaque minerals
(magnetite, perovskitc), micas,
c1inopyToxene. olivine, monticellite and clinohumite. The dominant
carbonate mineral is generally calcite, but it may contain variahle
amounts of magnesium and iron.
The photomicrograph shows the
fIrst step in the weathering of such a
rock: it starts along the intennineral

94

suture planes, giving \vay to a regular peripheral pattern of weathering. The primary calcite is
progreSSively dissolved. Complete
dissolution will be responsible for
the formation of koilo-alteromorphs (see later), whose original
borders are in some cases emphasized by residual deposits of oxyhydroxides derived from the insoluhle
iron content of the precursor. Note
that as soon as they begjn to
weather, the primary minerals
quickly adopt a denticulate shape,
which progressively will increase

ATI.AS

(see the two next i1lustrations, 072

and 073) with concomitant thickening of the residual deposits of the
insoluble components. Two C1-ystals
of apatite are recognizable, in
A-B2, by their first-order grey
interference-color in XPL. Note
that these slightly more resistant
minerals do not undergo any
peripheral weathering; their outer
surface is not denticulate.

OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTEl\AnON AND WEATHERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

072, 073
CARBONAT1TE

Juquia, SP, Brazil

Sampled in a quarry
by A.V. Waiter
Regular peripheral
pattern of weathering
around grains of calcite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.2

=-

0.1

0.0 mm

ill

PART

2:

Illll

Ill'

.111

\yere

tilken from the same sample as

i.n the previous example, and show
the weathering front. The upper
left-hand corner corresponds to the
weathered part of the rock, and the
lower right-hand corner, to the
un weathered rock. Note the di.fferenn", ShO~11 by the intermineral
suture planes, which are only
slightly emphasized by very thin
deposits of colorcd material in the
unweathcred part of the rock. In
contrast, the regular denticulation

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

is well developed around each partially dissolved grain of calcite.

Although not obvious in this photomicrograph, the orientation of
the denticulation is related to the
cl-ystallographic; orient.ation of the
primary crystal. Note the thickening of t.he residual deposits of iron
oxyhydroxides, derived from the in
(jeu crystallization of the insoluble
iron content of the calcite, the
widening of the interminel-al
residual pores. 'Nhich "'ill promote
the formation of (quasi-) empty

koilo-alteromorphs (see later, 285

and 286), and the relative resistance
of the apatite grains in the weathered part of the rock. This differential behavior of the calcite and
apatite promotes the formation of
highJy concentrated relative accumulations of residUill apatite. which
makes the weathered rock an economically interesting phosphaterich layer.

95

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

074
AMPHIBOLE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote

d'lvoire
Sampled at outcrop
Regular peripheral
pattern of weathering
around pyrite
Objective: X 10
XLP

=- 0.0 mm
075
GABBRO

Cataguases, MG, Brazil

Sampled by LM. Lopez
Depth: 4 m
Irregular peripheral
and internal linear
patterns in
titaniferous
magnetite
Objective: x 6.3
XLP

~ ::
lo.1
t

'11

\I

is partly oxidized

to a peripheraj cortex of iron

oxyhydroxide, which ce.nrripetall~'

invaJes the opaCJue core of the mineraJ. The thicklless of the peripheral
cortex is somewhat regular all
around the residual grain. Note that
the cortex c1osl'l)' surrounds the
core, and that no intermediate pore
is observecl. The primary mineral in
the core is more or less protected
from continued '....eathering by this
protective layer. This phenomenon
generally occurs where the ratio of
molar volume of the secondary

96

mineral to that of the primary mineral is eCJual to or greater than I .

The regularity in thickness or the
peripheral cortex is due to the lack
of intTamineral defects in U1C primary mineral. Such is not the case
in this second .... xample of we,lthering or an opaCJue mineral (titaniferous magnetite), which is crisscrosscd by numerous twin planes,
lamellal' intergrowths ami intramineral fractures. The peripheral pattern of weathering loscs its
regularity, and penelTates the plimary mineral along all its planar

OOmm

defects. The secondary products

cOfllain both Fe and Ti ox.ides. In
the upper right-hand corner of the
photograph, an associated grain of
ilmcnite has been completel;'
weathered to yellov.ish brown
cryptocrystalline anatase. The surrounding grains of feJd.~par are
comple-tc1y weatheJ'ed to gibbsite.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATl1ERING

PATTERNS OF ALTERATION

076,077
GARNET-BEARING
GRANITIC GNEISS

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Peripheral pattern

of weathering
around almandine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I
~I
I"
I
of
almandine (garnet group) is
embedded in a granitic gneiss
whose main mineral constituents
are quartz. alkali feldspar and plagioclase, with biotile and accessory
muscovite as the micaceous minerals. All these minerals are regularly
oriented and distributed, giving the
rock a tvpical layered texture. Note
that the foliation tends to WTap
around the gl-ain of garE1l't. The

P"-R, 2: PATTERN~ OF WEATHERING

peripheral vveathering of the garnet

has given way to the formation of an
irregular rim of iron oxyh)droxides, but this rim seems to he
formed not as a trUe rim closely
bonded to the external surface of
the residual core, but as a detached
I-im formed by diffusion and
impregnation of the surrounding
micat'eolls minerals by the iron
compounds released by weathering
of the garnet. TIlt' volume of the

pore is related to the volume or the

portion of primary mineral that was
weathered. Note that garnet-group
minerals have a cubic wmmetry and
that, consecluently,
the)'
arc
isotropic and at extinction in XPL,
Some quartz inclusions an:~ randomlv distributed \vitrun the garnet
porphyroblast,

97

PATTERNS OF ALTERATION

078,079
BASALTIC ROCK

Island of Samoa
Sampled by V. Targulian
Depth: 2.8 m
Irregular peripheral
pattern of alteration
around olivine
Objective: x 16
PPL and XPL

of oli"ille is panialJy
altered
to '\:hlarophaeitc"
under deuterje \.'onditions. The secondary phase is the isotropic bright
yelluw material that surrounds the
oli"illc core. The secondary product
is mainly peripherally distributed
arOllnd a "Cl)' irreglllar core, whose
mJrgins are coarsely d"JlticlIlatc.
Since the matcri.:t1 is isotropic, it is
not possible to test for concorllancc

98

ur

between the orientatinn

the
ali \"-ine core and mat
th" "chlornphaeite" rim, The "chJorophacit<.:"
usually exhibits this bright yellow
color in PPL, but it may ,'ary in
colaI', from b,-jght orange to deep
green, ;1I1d in index of refraction,
from 1.50 to 1.62. "Chlorophae.ite"
is not a VCT)' common product of
"ltcl<ltion of alivinc, but is used hen:
to illuso'ate all irregular peripheral

or

pattern or alteration. Silica, iron

oxide and H)O are its mClin constituents. The other components of
thf.' rock, clinop)-Toxene, plagiaclase
and magnetite, a.re generally not, or
vcry slightly, affected by such a
hypogene process.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MIMRAL ALTERATION AND WEATl-lERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

080,081
PLAGIOCLASEBEARING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Irregular peripheral
pattern of weathering
around plagiodase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

~ 0.2

=--

0I

~- 0.0

mm

IJ" 11
I,
,. and discontinuous rim 0 an isotropic sC::'condar)' product is developed around
this cuhedral crystal of plagioclase.
The secondary product is easily distinbTUishcd in PPL by iL~ ycUowish
color, which is due to impregnation
vvith iron-rich compounds. similar
to those thilt appear \\-ithin the
inter- and ino.lmineral fissures of
the surrounding rock. The isotropic
character of the secondary product
is dearly' S...,...,11 in XPL. llle isotropic
rim contrash stJ'ongh' with the

PART

2:

PATTEl\NS Of WEATHERING

unweathered gn~y' twinned cl-ystal.

Note Ulat tht' internal border of the
rim is highly irregular, and that the
products of weathering irregularly
penetratc the rcsiJua.l CCJre along
digitabng and branching fissures.
With increasing degrce of we-aUl!:ring. the thickness of the isotropic
rim gradually increases, the rim
matcrial vdll pcnetTatc the core
along irregular fissures, isolating
sm.ll1 rcsidul's raJldomll' distrihuted
within the secondary [)hase. The
isotrollic material will replace must

or

t.he primary corC', am.l remain

until it is itself replaced by secundary crystalliplasm<ls whose
mineralogical composition (kaolinite or gibbsitc) will depend on the
local conditions
vicathcri.ng aJ1d
leaching.

or

99

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

082,08)
KERSANTITE

Brittany, France
Sampled in a quarry
by E. Bernabe
Particular case of a
peripheral pattern
of alteration
around biotite
Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL

0.1

0.1

0.0 mm

T' '

GIn be included as an
exampk of' a peripheral pattern
01' weathering, although thl.: growth
(IF till' weathered .1rcas, as seen in
.1ppropriatel)' oriented thin scctiuns, seems to occur mainly along
the cdgc.s uf' tilL' mica. The weathering h'om penetrates t.he ~T)'$t.al as ,)
series 01' wedges along both lateral
edges
the mineral, whcrea~

or

lOO

weathering seems to be much more

restricted along the tOI) and hottom
edges 01' the stack of sheets that
make up u)e mica. As cummon')'
obs~'rved in such cases, the process
01' mesomorphic weathering, iJ)
which the primar;- biotite is partly
replaced by chlorite, promotes the
opening of' kntindar pores in the
unweatl1ered part of tht, biotite. fn

PPL, the chJorilized edges arc pale

whereas in XPL, the)'
exhibit the commonly obsened
abnormal blue interference'colol".

yellow,

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PATTERNS OF ALTERATION

084,085
K.eRSANTITE

Brittany, France
Sampled in a quarry
by E. Bernabe
Regular peripheral
pattern of alteration
around biotite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

t
-

0.2
0.1

::

O.Omm

11'
I
' i I'
Ill,
I arc
taken from a rock sallllJle very
similar tu the previous one (082 and
083), but the partly weathered crys
tals of biotite are oriented in the
plane of the thin section, so t.hat the
regular pattern of' \\'cathC'ring can
easily be recognized as a true
peripheral and cent.ripetal onc.
Most crvstals
of biotite arc six-sided
.euhedral crystals, and their partial

weathering to l'olorless chlorik

ohviously encroaches upon the' I)ri.
mar)' mineral from its external
margin, with formation of' a reguJar
rim whose lack of coloration contrasts strongly with the deep reddish
brown color of the primary mineral. The layering of the chloritc
alsu is parallel to tJle !Jlalle of the
thin section; this is the reason why
the rims arc at cxtinctiun in XPL.

These photomicrographs show how

differently the weath.ering patterns
can appear, depending on the relative oricnl.1tion of the grains in the
plane of the thin section.

101

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

086,087
NEPHELlNE SYENITE

Pedra Balao,
Po~os de Caldas.
MG. Brazil
Sampled at outcrop
Particular case of
a peripheral pattern
of alteration around
nepheline
Objective: x 4
XPL and XPL + A/4
-0.6

- 04

0,2

- 0.0 mm

I I
of' a peripheral
pattern of alteration i~ shown
by the partial replacement of' J cryslal or nepheline by natrolite, a zculite-group minc:ral. This alteration is
due to a hydrothcj'mal process
according to the idea'li/ed reaClion:
2NaAISiO, + Si0 2 + 21-1 20
NalAIJSi,Olo2H?O. The
nuio
IJhdsC preferentially penetrdtcd the
primary mineral along a direction
parallel to a main axis; in the ca.se
~hown here, the Z axes
both primary and secondary minc-rals arc

or

102

parallel. The contact between

nephelinc: and natrolitT is coarsely
denticulate; the pattern
alteration
is rather s'imila, to that of' hiotite
alteren to ehlurite (082 and 083).
The upper illustration shows the
very low interference-calor (Arstorder grey') of the residual
nepheline core and the low interference-calor (white to first-order
pdle yellow) of both domains of'
natrol.itc. The second illustration,
also taken in XPL but with a 1-./4
auxiliary plate, dcmonstr,lles the

or

opposite signs of the primary (uni<lxialnegatile) and secondal-Y (bia.,,positil'e)

minerals.
The
ial
needle-shaped crystals at E5 arc
aegil-ine, a sodium-rich clinopyroxl~ne, whel'eas the smaller prismatic
crystals, within buth nepbeline and
natrolite grains, arc inclusions of
ri.nkite (= mosandrile)), (a,(c)+
Na(Na,CahTi(Si,07)JF2(0,F)2, a
relati\"(~ly rare mineral whose occurreno: is restricted to sodium-rich
dlkalioe rocks.

ATL~S OF MICRO'IORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALrERATION AND WEATHERING

PATTERNS OF ALTERATION

088,089
PLAGIOCLASE-RICH
AMPHIBOLlTE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Irregular peripheral
and digitate weathering
of plagioclase
Objective: x 4

PPL and XPL

0.6

- 0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I
"
J ' illustrate the incipient wcath('I'ing
of plagioclasc (labraJorite), which
exJlibits its characteristic twin
lamellae. The wCJthering starts
main.I~' in the peripheral part of the
(l',Ystal, but the centripetal ad\'ance
of the weathering li'onl is irregular
and JelC'rmines the formation of'
irregular patches and internal digitations of isotropic material. Thi~

PART

2:

PATTIRNS OF WEATHEIIING

~econdary product. slightly beigecolorerl in PPl, show~ a sharlJ ('onn'a~l with the hl)~l plagiocla.~c in
XPL. An carliC'r incipient alteration
or the mck, lU1dcr a low-g,-ade
hydrothermal process, j~ n:sponsiblc If)r the rormation of microcrystals of epidote and scricire
irregularly distributed lhrough the
feldspar. The surrounding hornblende has not undergone any Illod-

il'ication, either h)' Jllcration or by

weathering l)roL'l:~sc~. Only some
cracks. in the right part of the photograph, are enhanced by brown
iron ox ~'h)'droxjdes.

103

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

090,09.
GABBRO

Zaala. Touba,
western Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: lA m
Irregular peripheral
and linear patterns
in plagioclase
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

02

T . '.

I1 I'" of an elongate
sunhcdral grain of plagiocla.~e
starts according to two irregular
rattcrns, the first ont' along the
reriphery 01' the mineral, and the
second One along many tTansvcrse
cTacks. The combination of both
irregular peripheral and linear pattcrns results in the isolation of manv
irregularly shaped rcsidues. The secondary prorluct is an optically
isotropic material. Commonly
colorless, it appears, in PPL. as pall'
yellowish owing to slight staining by
)

104

iron-bearing solutions, whereas the

median line, which runs along the
lincar fractures, is enhanced by a
brown-calored deposit of clayey
material derived from the neighboring weathl'Ted ferromagnesian minerals. In XPL, tile' isotTopic material
appears as black linear or patchy
an:as. No residual pores arc formed
around the residues of feldspar.
which all have maintained their
original optical orientation. The
isotropic product is ephemeral and
transitory; it will progressi,c('ly Lw

0.0 mm

replaced by aggregates of gibbsite

crystals. Th.is further development
weathering will result in the
gradual formation of a polyphase
alterolTlorph. Gibbsitc crystals arc
not yet observed in this thin section; more evolved samples, higher
in till' profile, must be examined to
see gibbsite and a reduced proportion of feldspar residues. Incipient:
ferruginous weathering can be
observed (B5) within a grain of
dinopyroxene.

or

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

092,093
NEPHElINE SYENITE
Pedra Balao.
Po~os de Caldas,
MG, Brazil

Depth: 0.4 m
Irregular linear
pattern of weathering
in orthoclase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

03

=-

0.2

0.1

~
-

O.Omm

or arthocla.se, characterized by its simple twinning (Carlsbad law), is

highly divid.ed into numerous residual domains by a network of subparallel trans\erse cracks, combined
\vith somc irregular longitudinal
cracks. The direction uf the b'aDSverse cracks is not a reflection of' a
crystallngraphic" direction or the
primary mineral, but rather a result
of tectonic I~)rces Jcti..ng on J thin
tabular LT)'stal. Most open space"

PAin"

2:

PATIffiNS OF WEATHERING

between the residues are Rlled by

small crystals of gibbsite of
autochthonous urigin. They are
directly formed frum the wCJthering feldspar in thf' same way as iron
oxyhydroxides are formed by the
weathering or the neighboring crystals of aegirinc (85). Coatings of
iron oxyhydroxides can be seen in
the gibbsikrich areas along the
margin or l.h<:, feklspar crystal (C4,
D4). In contrast to t.he case shown
in the previous photomicrographs

(090 a.nd 091), the kl<bpar weath

ers dircctly to gibbsitc vvithout
passing through an ephemeral and
transitory phase
01' optically
isotTopic material. The lack of such
isotropic material reflects the much
better conditions of internal
drainage in this proF! le.

10S

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

l\

094,095
NEPHELlNE SYENITE

Poc;os de Caldas,
MG. Brazil
Depth: 1.8 m
Irregular peripheral
and patchy weathering
of nepheline
Objective: X 4
PPL and XPL

0,6

0,4

0,2

0,0 mm

01 nephelinc
exhibit~ incipient weathering to

isotropic material. 111e microscope

stage has been rotated to gi vc the
best cuntrast betvl'ecn the host minLTal (IIrst-order grey interkrencecolor) and the secondary isorropic
material (always black in XPL), The
"'cathering process gj"cs rise to a
secondary [)rnduc( tbat is irregularly
distrihuted (i) along the periphery of
the erysta'! of nephcline, leading to
the formation of an irregular and
discontinuous peripheral area of

106

isotropic matc-rial> and (ii) also

within the host mineral, as irregular
patches surrounding the intramineral inclusions of aC'girine and
rinkitc (= mosanclrite?). The firstnamed inclusions are greenish
hrown in PPL, whereas the second,
small Cl' than the first, arc pale
brown. 80th minerals arC' brightly
colorcd (second-order interfer('nce-colors) in XPL. The left part
the IJhotomicrogmph mainly shows
suhparallel elongate crystals of
aegirine (sodic p~!roxenc), whereas

the right part shows a poikilitic

cTvsta.! of arfvedsonite (sodic amphibole). Both minerals are common in
sodium-rich alkaline igneous rocks,
such as ncpheline syenjte. Rinkite is
a rare silicate mineral containjng Ti,
Na, r: and cl)e rare earths.

or

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PAITERNS OF ALTERATION

096,097
ACTINOLITE-RICH
AMPHIBOLlTE

central Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 0.6 m
Regular peripheral,
cross-linear and
transverse patterns
in actinolite
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

-0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I
I . . or the a..rnphibole
group are genera.lly much less
weathcrable than most rock-forming minerals. Where they are the
main component of the rock, as in
this example, they allow the ,'ock
the opportw1it;' to remain practically unweathercd until the upper
levels or the proHlc- or to form outcrops of practically un weathered
ampbibolite in the upper part of the
landscape. In these cases, incipient
weathering is gener.1l1y expressed
by regular patterns of thin lincar

PART

2:

PArr-tANS OF WEATHERING

networks of ironrich secondary

minerals. Thes~ photomicrographs
exhibit nearly all the possible pattCI'llS of weathering. A regular
peripheral deposit of a lerruginnus
secondar~'
product IS c1eady
observed all around the largest' cr~s
tals. The cr)stals .1150 are crossed h~
tranS\'crse cracks, which arc U1C
main pathways for internal weather
ing of the cf)stals. All crystaJs
exhibit either parallel or obliquely
intersecting cleavages, which arc
also enhanceJ by thin dCP"lsirs of

iron oxyhydroxide. The photograph

in PPL clearly shows the complex
distribution of the secondary product, whereas the photograph in XPL
shows that the colodess parts (in
PPL) \vithin the cr~'stals arc not
residual pores, but unweathcred
parts of the primary minerals. These
part.s are not empty septo-alteromorphs formed at the expense or
coml)letely weathered grains, but
rather primary crystals undergoing
incipient \\-eathering.

107

PATIERNS OF ALTERAnON

098,099
NEPHElINE SYENITE

Pedra Balao,
Po~os de Caldas.
MG. Brazil
Depth: 1.2 m
Regular linear
(transverse) pattern
of weathering in aegirine
ObjeCtive: x 10
PPL and XPL

:- 02

0.1

of tranS"\'erse
Ilssures dew>loped within long
needle-shaped crystals of acgirine
(~odic pyroxcne), Most transverse
fissures arc oriented parallel to each
other, a.nd more or less pcrpcnrlicular to the Z axis or the primary min,
crak Most transverse fissures are
colort~cl by thin deposits 01' iron oxyhydruxides, These beL'ome thicker
as the weathering of the primary
mincralllroceeds; the linear pattern

J08

i~

then replaced by a banded pattern

that will isolatt> sma.ller and smallel'
residues of pyroxcnc, whosc shapes
will IJrogressively change from
smooth ITgular to finely denticulate
shapes. Thicker and thicker residual
pores also arc dc\'c1oped betwcen
them (sce 139 and 140), As long as
thl' linear distribution of IVc,\thering
products remains narrow, the
pyroxcne rcsiduc;s, c10scly iittcd
between the secondarY products,

O.Omm

maintain their original optical orientation, As the perinuclear pores

subsequently widen, the resiJues
\\'ill have the possibility of rotating
fTcely, and the simultaneous extinction of Ule residut's will he lost.

ATLAS OF MICR0110RPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

100
ACTINOLITE-RICH
AMPHIBOllTE

central C6te d'lvoire

Depth: 0.2 m
Peripheral and
transverse patterns in
actinolite

Objective: x 10

PPL

0.2

0.1

=-

0.0 mm

101
ACTINOLITE-RICH
AMPHIBOllTE

central C6te d'lvoire

Depth: 0.2 m
Peripheral and
transverse patterns in
actinolite

Objective: x 10

PPL

B.

~ I I I )
11
show details
of th~~ distribution of secondar;.
products along the periphery 01" the
crystal and along its trans\"('rse
cracks. The conditions of Ferrallitic
weathering prevailing in this superllcial en\'ironment induce the lcaching of most chemical componcnts of
the actinl,litc, and rhe fLxation or its
residual iron and subsidiaryI aluminum_ This process of leaching
leads to the formation of large residual voids. During incipient weathering, the residual dl;posit of iron oxyhydroxide is close to the mineral

PART

2:

PATTERN, OF WEATHERING

remnant, without appn:ciabJe porespace between them. But with

advancing weathering, the oxyhyclroxide hands become progressively separated fwm th" dissolVing
residues, and the iron, liberated
from the actinolite, must migrate
over short distances, through ne\vl)'
Formed residual pores, to increase
the tJJicknes~ of the ferruginous
deposi t previous I)' Formed. An
Cllll)ty
I)ore- vol ume
develops
between both primary and secondary minerals. The residucs of
actinolite acquire a denticulate

shape characteristically developed

on the wa.lls of the transverse
cracks, whereas the outer faces of
the prism are essentially un III odilIe'd _The first opening of the cracks
is still identifiable a~ a regular empty
pore rW1lling between two parallel
thin hands of Ferruginous products.
The development of such interconnected pore-\'olumes makes the rock
friable, caLLsing it to crumble to
loose sand-size particles.

109

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

102,103
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Complex
(peripheral + banded)
pattern of alteration
in olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

- 0.6

- 04

02

0.0 mm

.I
I I1 I " I j"
1, r - show
a complex pattern of alteration
of a crystal of oli~ine, which at first
is
replacecl
by
red-colored
n
"iddingsite along its periphery 'lOd
along the Ol-iginal protoclastic fractures. Most protoclastic fractures
originally contained thin lamellar
c1eposits 01' magnetite (black),
which have remained undisturbed
dW'ing the transformation of the
host miner;!!. They are still clearly
recognizable in the banded and
peripheral areas of secondary

no

minerals. Some of tnese fractures

have been ouly slightly opened at a
late stage. The peripheral areas of
secondary products arc irrehTUlarly
developed and contain small
residues of unaltered olivi.ne. The
banded textures arc more regular,
and their thickness remains rather
constant over their entire length.
Several small branches of secondary
products are del'elopec1 in a constant orientation (C3) pel-pendicular to a main ax:is of the olivine. No
residual pores are observed in this

part.ially developed alteromol-ph.

Once completely developed, it will
become a holo-alteromorph in
which the first-developed banded
tex'tures will remain clearly recognizable within a contrasting, more
homogcneous mao-ix. Note that at
this level of alteration, the graiJ1S of
cl inopyroxene and poikiloblastic
hornblende are not altered. Th 'S~'
photomicrographs should be COIDpared \\ith thl:' next ones, taken of a
sample from the same outcrop.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOlOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

104,IOS
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Complex
(peripheral + banded)
pattern of alteration
in olivine

Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

~ 02

~ 0.1

O.Omm

I '1 I
of a complex
of alteration combines
an irregular peripheral and a welJcleveloped banded pattern. Compared to the previous illustlations,
the banded textures are \'I'idened,
which aHows the internal organization of the associated "iddingsite"
and rc-siducs of early magnetite to
be more clearly recognized. As in
the pre\rious ilJustrations, the thin
section has been rotated in such a
way (4S~) that both olivinl? and
"idclingsite" ex.hibit their nighest
"

l'

l"'\ pattern

PART

2:

PATTtRNS OF WEATI-iF.RING

interfcrcnce-colorSi when rotated

parallel to the polarizing filters (0"),
both phases an' optically at extinction simultaneously (not shown).
The oli .....i ne residues .l.re finely denticulate in a direction perpendicular
to a main axis of the primary mineral. No residual pores are
observed, and the sinuosity of the
denticulation is common to both
primary minef'al and secondary
product. As alteration progresses, a
LTansitory comb texture is developed; it will Jisappear once the'

olivine rcsidue_~ have ht'en comIJleLcly altered. The oJiviJle grain is

then completely replaced by a holoaltcrornorph in wh.ich the earlyFormed handed textures (with their
original deposits of magnetite) wiH
contrast v\ith the more homogeneous matrix developed at the
expense or tJle last-rcmoved
residues of olivine.

111

PATTERNS OF ALTERATION

Cl

106, 107
OllVINE-BEARING
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Peripheral and banded
complex pattern
of alteration in a
polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.0 mm

"'"

show
an oUvine crystal that ha.< been
partially altered to a polyphase association of serpentine and magnetite
during a IJrst step of hypogcne
alteration. The large rcsidues of
olivine cores ha\'e been later subJCTted to a second process of alteration, to bro.vnish "idclingsitc". The
areas altered during the first step
are minor, ancl restTicted to straight
colorlcss bands that follo\\' part of
the network of protoc!astic fractu res and part of the periphery of

112

:1

t.

the olivine crystal. Deposits of secondary magnetitc, genetically associated with the formation of
serpentine, are locally developed
(A I, C4). During the second step of
alteration, parts of the' l)livine cores
are altered to "idwngsite" that either
surrounds the early-fOl'mcd sel1Jentine bands, or follows the hitherto
wlI110dificd protoclaslic fractures.
"lddingsite" also penetrates the
ol.ivine crystal accorrling to a
peripheral and an irregular linear
pattern. No resirlual pores are

observed bel,vel?n the olivine cores

and areas transformed to "iddingsitc". The contact bct"veen them is
expressed, in X.PL, hy a regular concentric distribution of the interfer
ence-colors, whose variation is due
to the relative thicknesses of both
phases in the thickness of the thin
section. These cOllcentTic colored
bands are somewhat similar, mW,oris
muwndi" to the contours on a topographic map.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

108, 109
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Boeea. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 13.8 m
Irregular 'banded
pattern of alteration
in olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

:- 0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

J\ \" 1'1 ! I 1 . 1 '

of an
["\ oli\ine grain that is nearly completely replaced by bright red
"iddingsite". The secondar), products exhibit an irregular banded pattern, with the commonl), observed
deposits of relict magnetite. The
banded textUl'e, near tJle residucs of
olivine, is marked by an intermediate fringe of a reddish brown secondary product wbose chemical
composition
is
intermediate
between "iddingsite" and nontrorute
(polygenetic altcromorph). Elec-

PART

2:

PATTERNS Of WEATHEIUNG

tTon.microprobe analyses show that

the nontronite is richer in Si and Mg
than the early. formed "iddingsitc".
The interference-colon of the
"iddingsite", in XPL, are completelY
masked by its intense natural coI01-,
but its transparency allows one to
see that all tJ1e bands of"iddingsite",
whatever tJlcir thickness l)r orientation, exhibit the same intensity of
lighting. All have inherited tJlejr
optical orientation from the original
primary oUvine. The IJandcd textures, JS well as the septa, which

dC\'elop b~' Ule Jlteration or later

we<J.thering of ferromagnesian minerals like oJivine, pyroxenes or
am phibole. are at extinction
between crossed polarizers when
oriented in such a way tllat their
constituent particles are parallel to
a main axis l)f the primal-y mineral.
They go to extinction simultaneously with tllc relict cores of the
primary minerals.

113

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

I I 0, I I I
CALC-ALKAlINE
GRANITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Concentric intramineral
pattern of alteration
within plagio~lase
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

- 0.0 mm

III
1.11111
of the secondary products IS closely
related to the internal zoning of the
primary mineral. In this subhedral
crystal of plagioclase, the core .lnd
some of the concentric zones of the
primary mineral are more caJciumrich than are the remaining parts.
The zoning of the chemical composition is expressed by the concentric
distribution of the secondary products: minute inclusions 01" mus-

114

covitc
paragonite, which arc
responsihle for the cloudy habit of
some of its parts, and inclusions of
epidote (high interference-colors in
XPL.). Tne secondary minerals are
restricted to U1e more calcium-rich
parts of the crystal, whereas the
more sodium -rich zoncs remain
clear and free of any inclusions.
Note that the distribution of the
inclusions of epidote closely follows
that 01" the micaceous secondary

minerals. Th(-; alteration of the

feldspar to an association of hvo
secondary minerals result, in the
formation of a partiaJly developed
I)olypbase alteromorph according to
a typical concentric intramiJleral
pattern.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINrAAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

I I 2, I I 3
DIABASE DYKE IN
BASALTIC FLOW
Ribeirao Preto.
SP, Brazil

Depth: 3.2 m
Intramineral weathering
along twin boundaries
in plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.2

0.1

f
~

O.Omm

T"

\',1
11'
.1. or a twinned
lath-shaped C1")'staJ of plagio.
clase has begun along intramineral
cracks. which bave mainly devel
oped parallel to the twin planes, The
smectite formed as a secondilr}
product after plagioclase has a
chemical composition ,'cry similar
to that or the weathering products

PART

2:

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

after the neighboring minerals, such

as c1inopyroxene, and to that or the
cryptocrystalline l1lateri'll formed
after volcanic glass. The chemical
and mineralogical homogeneity of
the secondary products indicates
that the weathering of tbe rock
started in a det~ply buried horizon,
where transfers
elements among

various primary minerals or materials occurred easily, by slow dirrusion

along the network of intergranular
micropores.

or

115

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

1 14, 1 15
BASALTIC ROCK

Ocean floor,
Costa Rica Rift
Leg 70. Drill site S04b
Sampled by C. Laveme
Irregular patchy pattern
of alteration in quartz
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

I p,ltkrn of
alteration appeared eiuring the
parti:d replaccment of a subherlral
cryst.al of qua.rtz by secondary nUJlel'als of the- 7_eolite group under the
influence of a late hydrothermal
process. Under XPL, both minerals

lJ6

arc c<L'iily distinguished by their

interference-colar, pale grey for the
remnants of quartz, contrasting
with dark grey I(Jr the zeolite mineral. The iJTcgularly shape-d patches
of secondary product an:: randomly
distributC'd hecau:>c quartz is a wry

0.3

=--

0.2
0.1

0.0 mm

homogencous mint'ral. There an: no

cleavages, nor twins, nor zones to
provide likely st<lrting points for the
alteration, and tu influence its later
J~,velllpment.

ATU\S Of M,CROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERA.L ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

1 16, 1 17
BASALTIC ROCK

Ocean Ooor,
Cosra Rica Rift
Leg 70. Drill site S04b
Sampled by C. Laverne
Irregular patchy
pattern of alteration
in plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

~
-

0.3

02
0.1

O.Omm

I I I
can be
compared with the previou~
ones. The cuhedral crystal of plagiodase illustrated is partially replaced
by irregularly shaped <l11J oistribllLed palche~ of a zcolite-group
mineral. Note that the optical orientation at' nearly all p.ltche-s of the

PAKT

1:

PATTIRNS OfWEATHfRING

zeolite is related to thc orientation

of the twins. In XPL, the patches 01'
zeolite ::lppCtlr medium grey within
the part of the plagioclase t\\'in
ne::lrl)' at exLilll:tion, whereas the
patches cjf zcolite in the mcdium
gre)' member of the twin arc p;\!er,
.'\." in the previous case, the alter-

ation uf the feldspar to a zl:oli te is

due to a hydmthcrmal process that
occurred long after lTystalli'Altion
of the basaltic magma,

117

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

-~""'

I 18, I 19
NEPHELINE SYENITE

Por;os de Caldas.

MG. Brazil
Depth: 1.2 m
Complex polygenetic
pattern developed
in nepheline
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0.2

:.- 0.1

=-

of nephdine
..,'as first partially replaced hy
randomly distributed "olume~ of
secondary natrolite l)~' hydrothermal
origin, c:oncCIllTatcd in its peripheral and central parts. During a later
step or weathering, natrolitc was
replaced by microcrystalline gibbsite, whereas the residual part of the
nepheJine was completely replaced
by an isotropic secondary material.
In XPL, the microcrystalline gihbsite appears JS briJUilJlt white patches
that contrast sharply with the SIIT-

//8

rounding isotropic materia I, at

complete extinction. The isotropic
material exhihit, ilJl incipient reticular pattern or pores, which m<Jkes
it a rctiporo-alteromorph. No visible trace of thE" replaced nephcline
and natrolitc is left. This particular
situation can lead to misinterpretJdon about the origin of the polygenetic
alteromorph.
Without
obs(Tvations on le,S); weathered SJmpies, one could conclude that the
nepheline was first weathered to an
isotropic material which, with

O.Omm

aging. wa:; partially conve-rted to

secondary gibbsite. A comparison
with later photographs shows t11at
the transformation of a retiporoaltcromorph of isotropic material
after ncphdine gives way to gibbsitc
microcrystals concentrated along
th(' reticular network of pores and
not to the patchy pattern shovm
here. The surrounding minerals a.re
elongate crystals of aegirine and
twu areas of partially ,veathcred
pink cudialyte.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PATTERNS OF ALTERATION

120
NEPHELlNE SYENITE
Po~os

de Caldas,

MG, Brazil

Depth: 1.8 m
Irregular patchy
pattern of allochthonous
natrolite in orthoclase
Objective: X 4
XPL

0.6

0.4

- 0.2

0.0 mm

121
NEPHELlNE SYENITE
Po~os

de Caldas,

MG, Brazil

Depth: 0.6 m
Irregular patchy
pattern of
allochthonous
gibbsice in orthoclase
Objective: x 6.3
XPL

03

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

T"

1,',.11 ,.
illuscontrast quite sharply in XPL. The
trate another case of possible
first is nearly at extinL1:ion; its dark
misinterpretation of the origin and grey calor C'onb'asts with the bl-ight
the affinities of the secondary prod\I'hite coJor or the natrulite. The
uct'. The upper illustntiull shows a , lower iJlustratiOll shows the completl:' weathering or the natTolite
large crystal of onhoclasc that has
heel] fractured and partiaUy reGppatches to microcrystallim; gibhsite,
talli7.ed, lea\ing irregular alTas
k-a\"ing the host orthoclase practiquickl)' infillcd by a natrolitc L1ystal
cally unwealhered. The substantial
(s\"llC'hronous with the natrolite
difference
in
weatherability
sho\\"ll in t.he pre\iuus photographs).
hetween the minerals allows the
The texllIre suggests a case of parnatrnlite to be weathered lonoI:>
tial alteration of the feldspar to
befun,: the orthoclasc crystal. When
natrolite. Orthoclasc and natTolite
stud:;ing a thin section similar to

PART

2:

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

that shown in the lower iUustratiun,

hut without knowinub of tlle occurrence of the intermediate stagenarrolite formation, onc could conclude cllat the gibbsite results from
the direct weathering of the orthoclase, A comparison with later
photographs (308 and 309, for
example) shows that \\'Carhering
patterns
(septo-altcromorphs)
involving gibbsite after fcJdsp,~r
gm up llJinerals hal"(; a "cry c1iHerent
appearance.

or

119

PATTERNS OF ALTERATION

122,121
QUARTZ VEIN IN
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d')voire

Depth: 3 m
Irregular patchy
pattern of weathering
in quartz
Objective: X 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I '
of ferraJlitic weathering, a large grain
of quartz in a leucocratic vein is partiallY; weatJlered to an irreoular
b
patchy pattern. The dissolutioninduced voids are randomly <listrihuted within the grain, wiUlout any
apparent relationship to the crystallographic orientation of the mineral. As the voids are opened by
further dissolution, they are par-

120

tially i.nlllJed hy reddish brown clay

coatings. This allochtboDous material comes from the upper horizons
of the soil. Some quartz particles
apl)ear as isolated remnants, but the
preservation or their simultaneous
extinction with the large domains of
quartz shows Ulat th('~c remnants
are intcrconn~~cted, in the third
dimension, by irregular bridges not
visible in the plane of the thin sec-

bon. As weathering proceeds, the

volume of the remnants will
decrease until they become fi'ee to
move and able to rot3te. The photograph in XPL is included to show
Ulat Ule calm-less areas in PPL arc
not holes hut ~l partly weathered
colorlcss mineral.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAnoN AND WEATHERING

PATIERNS OF ALTERATION

124, 125
NEPHELlNE SYENITE
Po<;os de Caldas,
MG. Brazil
Depth: 0.8 m

Irregular patchy
polygenetic alteration
of eudialyte
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0.2

f
-

0.1

0.0 mm

Iltl
is a lujauite,
a nepheline-bearing syenite
whose main constituents arc
nepheline, orthoclase, aegirinc (a
sodic dinopyroxcne) and coarsesized crystals, up to 5 cm of diameter, of eudialyte, associated with
minor proportions of arC-veJsonite
(a soJic amphibole) and rare tiraIl.ium minerals. Eudialyte is an uncommon complex lTigonaJ silicJte
whose general f(lrmuJa b Na l6 Ca 6
(Fe)- ,Mn 1+, Y)jZJ-/Si 30<j)1(Si'.P 21)2
(OH.CI)~. In PPl, the mineral is

PART

2:

PATTERNS Of WEATHERING

pleochroic, colorless to pinkish. A

variation in its coloration can be
seen even within the same CT)'sta\.
The uPIJcr photogra[Jh shows that
the pink color is restricted to the
parts of the mineral in cont.act with
aegirine.The second photograph, in
XPL, shows the characteristic
uneven distrihution of its low interference-colors; some internal parts
appear to be nearly isonopic. During a I-Irst .,tep of hydrothermal
alteration. part of the eudialyte was
altered, in an irregular patchy pat-

tern, to natrolite, a secondary mineral of the zeolite group, whose

higher interference-colors are
clearly seen in X'PL. During a later
step of weathering, these Sdme
domains were partially weathered
to poorly crystallized iron oxjde~ in
which part of the original zirconium
content has been camoullaged.
These dark brO\\-"11 iron-rich areas
are better cLstinguLshed in PPL.

121

C /-/.1

PT [R

Partly Weathered Minerals

thl' description or the IIrst

steps of wC.:Ithering must i.ncluck morphologic.:Il details concerning the shape of the
unwe.:lthercd rc.~iducs Jnd the intern.:ll organization of the seconda'}' minerals that SUrrCllll1J them.
'<It. " '\1111 11 '.1' ,

Partly weathered minuab generally occur in the

lower part of thC' weathering profile, Jt or near the cont,let with the llJ1\Vcathcrcd rock. The thickness of this
intermediate level depends upon the 1OC.:I 1 conditions of
climate, topography =d drainage. In f'erraUitic L~OVers.
this intermediate. partly weathered level CJn be some
milljmctcrs thick on])', whereJ~ under difft'rl'nt condition.', and on similar parent materia], it> thickT1CSS can he
much greater. Higher in dle prollle. all wcatherable nunera Is are repbccd by alterolllol"phs of argillipbsmas or
crystalliplasmas, in \vhich all residues have disal)peared.
The thickTless of the intermediate level JIso depend~ on
the nature of the parent rock. On gran.itic rod,s, wllO.~e
constituent minerals exhibit J wider range or weaUlLTability, the intermediate level is generally much thicker
than on maRc rocks, \\-hose constit11ent nUnerals exhihit
b
_
J narro.......er ranoc
or \\eJUltTJbilitv.

FTHI:: PR1MARY

OI1-S

Peripheral pellicular weathel-ing, and to some

extent, Ule oUlcr patterns of weathering, tend to gi . . e
to xenol11orphjc minerals their automorphic ~hape, at
least during an ephemeral t.ime and in an imperfect or
incomplete way. The primary residues can acguire regular geometrical ~hapcs that they did not exhibit Ln the
unweathered rock. 50111(' examples follo\\-.
RcgulJr and planar surfac('~, with linea.r houndaries, at least at the scale of the opticalmjcroscope, are
in some cases de . . eloped owi.ug to congruent dissolution along specific internJl planes. Quartz grains
in bauxitic alterites and in old ferrallitic duricrusb
are slowly dissolved, awl thcir residues are in some
instances demarcated hy regular planJr margins_ The
dissolution of calcite and dolomite can promote a similar rcsul t (rholllbobedral and sCJlenoheclra I shapes).

Weathering of xcnomorphic crystals of pyroxene

;lnd amphibole, which arc mineral~ with VI'clleXI)ressed c1ea.. . ages. commonly forms reguJarly shaped
ami parallelepiped-shaped residues that arc isolated
from each other by a net,"'-ork of open cleavages.
Where weJthering is more advanced, these residue~
more or less maintain their geometrical shapes, but
detailed ohservJLion shows that the I-csidues maintain
regularl; lineal' outlinl'"s on faces parallel to the original Z-axis or the mineral, whereJs tlw other faces are
finely denticulate.
Nevertheless, all these secondary sbapes (diamondshaped or rhomb-shaped residul's) do not exactly correspond to the aut,)morpnic shape thJt the mineral
could ha\"C in tbe rock if it hacl surncient free space for
its development during growth. These finely denticulate outline~ Jre commonly nbsen'ed, and are generally
a charaderistic fe~1t11re of the weatherilw
of the chain
b
sil i c,lt cs (inosi Iicate,). These c1enticu lations a I~() are
observed at the ultramicroscopic scales.
ORIGIN OF DENTICULATE REMNANTS

Where denticulate remnants are observed

in soils and in colluvial or alluviaJ materiaJs. and
generally in all materiaJs that have been subjeaed
to a transport process. it can be concluded that
the remnants were extracted from a lower level
of the alterite (in which this denticulate shape is
common). and not from a rock outcrop subjected
to erosional processes (in which fractured or
irregular remnants are more common). Moreover, the distance of transport has been very
short between the site of weathering and the site
of deposition; otherwise. the very small and brittle denticulations would have been abraded
during the transport of the mineral remnant.
In contrast, detrital grains of pyroxene. for example. can exhibit denticulate shapes within soil or
alluvial materiaJs if these grains have been weathered after their transport and deposition. In this
case, either an empry peripheral pore or a thick
rim of secondary products surrounds the denticulate remnant, and the shape of its external
boundaries is inherited from the shape of the
detrital grain.

The IIrst stage of weathel-ing uf fddspar-group minerals leaves generally irregular and cavernous residues
without an)' particular geometrical shape. Nevertheless,
the weat.hering of orthocla..~e Coln in some cases liberate
triclinic: residue.s (para.11elepiped-shape'd residues in thin
section) whose shape is governed by the main c1eJ.Yages
01' the feldspar. Thesf' well-Illted rcsiducs within the
alteropla,smas can maintain their orientation and their
simldtancous extinction in crossed nicols 101' a long
period of time. The regular and geometrical shape of the
residues rarel~, corresponds to Ule euhedral shape of the
original J:,JTain of orthodasC'._
Th t' ouvine-grOllp minerals commonly arc b-agmenl;ed by irregular C-TJcb of protoclastic origin. The
shapes of the residu<?s arc rarely regular. Nevertheless,
under certain circumstance.~ of" weathering to chlorite
or saponite, the secondary mineral follows tht' pathways of' these protoclastic fractures, but leaves residual
fragments that are charaettTized by a sawtooth-shilped
outline. The angles of the teeth are open, and the linear
corners of the dcnticulation an: parallel to the' potential (00 I) faces of the [)Ii~-ine CT)'StaJ. Tllis coarse dcnticulation is reproduced parallel to itself whatever the
orientation of the fracture followed by the fluids
responsible tor hyrogene or supergene alteration. In
contrast, a.ltcration to talc, and weaUlering to nontronite or to iron oxyhydroxides. leave residues that exhibit
a fmclv denticulate outline rather similar to the dcnticulation observed in weaUlerecl pyroxcnes and amphiboles. Alteration of oli\-ine to serpentine generally
gives residues of nlivine with a curved and smooth autlint:', at least at the scale of the optical microscope.
Wbere the primar;; mineraJs do not exhibit Fractures or w('lI-expressed clcavagc. or a tendency to
autom0rphs, their residues arc irregularly shaped, wiUl
curved and cav,;rnous outline, \\ith rc-entrants due to
corrosion or cml)ayments, and intramineral patches.
Tb", residues can be closely fitted within the aJteroplasma without forming perinuclear voids, or they can
be loose and freely rotating in larger alveolar pores
delimited by septa of argilliplasma or crystalliphsma.
In this last case, all the residues coming from the
weathering of a minel-al grain lose their unique orientation and, freely rotating in their a.lveolar pores, they
lose their simultaneott5 extinction under (TOssed. nicols.
Two more examples follow:
TIle first step ofweathcTing of feldspars to gibbsite or
to bolinite. by \.. .'ay of an intermediate- opticaJly isotropic
aluminosilicate phase, leads tu nwneroll.~ cavernous
residues. which arc isolated From eilch other by se pta of
gibbsite, by bands of kaolinite, or by irregular area.., of
isutropic material. Inter-plasma-mineral pore-space is not

124

obst'rved, and all the \-,-elI-tltted resiclues maintain thecrystallographic orientation of th,' primary mineral.
The first step of weathering of olivine or garnctgroup minerals to iron OX)'hydroxides leads to a porous
and irregular structw-e. It consist~ of two component-s:
ferruginous septa t.llat arc distributed according to Ule
originill intramineral fractures, ilnd irregulal- ca\'ernous
residue'S. As the t.llickness of the f"elTuginous network
increases and as the volullle oJ the residues decreases,
perinuclear voids de\'cJop around each residue. The
thickening of the septa i~ achicv<.:d by intramineral
naIloscalc transfer or chemical elements from the core
through the perinuclear pore. The residues arc: then
loose in their cell, and their rotation promotes the IOS5
of their common crystaJlographic oJientatiorl.
In s-ulllll1ary. the residual fragments that are isolated within their alteroplasmas, with or without perinuclear pores, exhibit the follOWing charactcri~tic
shapes, at least during pal-t of their ("'olution:

Regular geometrical shapes, generally ephemeral,

result from the subdivision of the mineral by the
opening of its cleavages and by the linear distribution of its secondary products.The remnants are
numerous, regularly aligned in one or two dimensions. and exhibit a linear outline. These geometrical shapes are observed during the first step
of weathering of well-cleaved minerals such as
inD-, phyllo- and some tecrosilicates.

Irregular shapes result from the developmem of

the regularly shaped residues imo particles with

finely or coarsely denticulate outlines.These shapes
are mainly developed when the weathering proceeds, and the secondary plasma's structure
becomes thicker. The irregular demiculation
strongly obscures the previously developed geometrical outline. These shapes are commonly
observed in partly weathered pyroxene and
amphibole and. in some cases, olivine.
Very irregular, cavernous shapes. observed in the
randomly distributed residues, result from the
weathering of fractured but uncleaved, partly
cleaved. or poorly cleaved minerals. The remnants
vary in size and commonly show imernal areas
and patches of weathered material. These shapes
are generally observed during the weathering of
feldspars and of many other primary minerals.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOlOGY Of MINERAL ALTIRATION AND 'vVEATHERING

The pattems uf organization and of distTibution of

the secuncbry products within Ilartl; weathered [lrimar)' minerals arc generally re~llar and bom()gencou~.
The orientation or the elementary crystals or the
argilliplasm~ and crvstalliplasmas is strongly influenced by the orientation of the primary mineral and, in
some cases, by the orientation or transmineral I"rJCtures and intermineral suture planes. The di~tribution
or the nrst-Formed seconc.lan' minerals and of the associat~>d pores is determined by the pattern of the networks 01" discontinuities, which were f"ollo\Ved during
this first srage of weathering. Thi~ tirst, early-developed
distTibution generally remains identitlable within the
completel_" developed and later-formed alteromorphs.
V'/ithin the partly weathered alteromorl)hs, in
which the mineralogical I)' homogeneous secondary
flroducts arc still associated with remnants of primary
minerals, only a part uf t.he s(;:l"eJlldary phase can ex..hibit
a particula.' inherited or imposed orientation, whereas
the other pan is arranged according to it~ own regular
or irregular pattern. Within the IJoly!lha:;c altemmorphs, which contain two or more nistinct mineral
phases, only onc of the components, generally the 11rstformed one, is regularly oriented, wherea, the other
onc is randoml\' orieuted.
Concordance bet"veen the crystallographic orientation of the secondar~' minerals and that of the primary remnants is commonly obser\'cn. It is expressed
eitJlCr by the simultaneous extinction, uncleI' crossed
nicols, of both primary and scccJlldary millerals (as in
the weathering of orthopyroxenc to a smectite-grcJUp
mineral, for example) or by a difTerence in extinction
angle between the secondary' and the r<'sidual minerals
(as in the weathering or c!inopyroxene to a snwcr-ite,
for example).
Some coincidences may be obsern:d in the distribution and orientation of" the inclusions !"ormed within
the secondar~ produCTS. They re.:;uJt from the local concentration i.n the primary mjm~ral of immobile. ell:ments that cannot enter the structure of the secondary
mineral. Well-oriented needles of ruti.le (Ti0 2 ) are
commonly observeu between I<lyers or vcrmiculite
fOl"nled by weathering of titanium-rich hiotitc
Since some optical characteristics of the secondary
minerals arc in concordance w'ith those
the primary
minerals, at least partial inherit,lnce of some crystallographic structures musr necessarily he maintained during the wCJtJlering of the primary mineral, and must be
tnlllsferren to the structUrt' of the' secondar)' mineral.

or

PART 2: PATTeRNS OF WEATHERING

This inheritanc-c can only be maintained during the

carly stage of the weathering process. These hrstformed crystal lites arc the suhso'ate for the later products of IT)'stallization and for their patterns of
distribution. Indeed, as soon as a perinuclear void
dcvelops, the chemical elements must migrate in solution through tllis void to re<Jeh the lir.st-rormed sec,
onclary septa, making them thicker. The direct
inheritance is then lost, but the common orientation is
reconstructed at the contact with the previoLlsly
formed seconclary LTystallites. This case is common in
partly developed septo-alteromorphs after pyrox.enegroup minerals, in which the sept,l are composed of
cr,vstallites of goethite whose optical orientation is
determined by' t.he orientation nf the residual fragments, !"nJI1l wh.ich the)' are separated hy somc tens of
micnHneters. [n the C!-,;C of the weathering of' pyroxenc-group minerals to gocthitc or to well-oriented
flakes of a smectit{", the nirection of extinction or the
secondary products allows the directjon of the Z axis of
the primary mineral to be cletcrrnined c"en where no
remnants are still observable \\ithin the alteromorph.
The morphl)logy of the hl-st-developed secondary
crystals can also he determined by fractures and cleavages and call exhibit regular patterns of orientation,
size Jnd crystallinity. Later generations of similar sccondary I)roducts are less regularly oriented.
This is me case in saponite-or nontroniterich alteromorphs after olivine (holo-alteromorphs), in which bands of well-formed and
well-oriented crystals of saponite or nontronite
follow the pre-existing protoclastic fractures. The
internal volumes between these bands are
entirely occupied by unoriented and microcrystalline material of similar mineralogical composition (see Fig.8,A4).
This is also the case in gibbsite-rich alteromorphs after feldspar (glomero-septo-alteromorphs). The first crystals that develop along the
fractures are coarse grained, well formed and distinctly oriented relative to the fracture walls. The
later-developed crystals are smaller and clustered
or agglomerated following an irregular and unoriemed pauern,
This is also the case in goethite-rich alteromorphs after pyroxene (glomero-septo-alteromorphs and botryo-septo-alteromorphs), in
which only the central part of the septa has possibly preserved the optical orientation of me
pyroxene. The lateral parts of the septa, formed
by thickening of the central pan:, do not maintain
any pan:icular orientation inherited from the
pyroxene, and occur as optically disoriented
microcrystalline accumulations.

125

PAITER
TIll' orientation a.nd cr~,stallinity of the secondary
mincrab Glll vary from point to point within the
aJteromorphs. Consequent I)., the distribution and the
morphology of the residual pores, wlllch arc associated
wid, residual primary and ncoformed secondary
phases, ilrc not homogeneous, even \\ithin monophase
altcromorphs. If the weathering proceeds in a wellJr.uned horizon, which promotes the leaching of must
chemical e1emcnts of the primary rruncral, the rcsiduill
parc.-span' may become dominant. In exneme C<lSCS,
onl)' J periphcrJI \'oid is develuped around the remnant, or a practicalJy empty box'work structure results.
Microporosity Jnd mc.soporosity arc distinguished
acconling to the size uf the pores conneLteJ to the secondary material. The tcrm macroporosiLy is restriLted to
the fissures, fractures and channels of higher ordcr,
which cross the <llterites O\-er longer distances.
The microstructures that are connected to the
developmcnt of micro- Jnt! mL'soporosities arc
described in more det.uj in J subsequent chJpter, in
which t.he micromorphology of completely developed
Jlterunlorphs i~ described. Ne\'erthclcss, some of the
main chJracters that allow one tu differentiate these
t\\'o t)1)CS of pore space arc listed here.

This ruicroporosity, which is reduced to the empty

pores existing betwel,n the milTopanicles of secondary
products, is not easily distinguished at t.he scale of resolution of the optical microscope, but it can he
enhanced by naturJI impregn<ltion of colored mJterials, such as iron and manganese oxyhydrox.ides. Water
is strongly retained within dlesc pores, and the possible ionic transrcrs an: slow and occur 1>)' way uf diA'usion-dominated processes.

Me opor sic)'
Mesoporosil)' results from the development of
secondary minerals tllat do not occupy all the Jvailabk
space created by the weathering of the primJry mineral. It is comlnonly observed within the crystaJJipbsmas developed under conditions of ferrallitic
wCJthcring, in whil:h the vulume of exported elements
(Na, Ca, Mg, Si) is much grealer tJ1an the volumes of
the imported constituenb> (H 2 0, C02), combined
with those corresponoing to the resiJuJ] elements
(Fe, AI, Ti).
The shapes of the pores, tJ1cir nwnber and the regtheir distribution depend strongly on the
ularity
IJotential or actual microstructural properties of the
primary mineral that have determined the pathways of
penetrJtion Jnd the rate of the weJthcring processes.
the
Mesoporosity is eJsily distinguished Jt the scale
ol)tical microscope e\T11 ifthe pore space is maintaincd
emp\), Mesoporosity COffl"5pOnds to residual pores_
Conseguently, it is distTibuted within the altcromorphs
and not at their periphery_ V/here distorted, opened, and
connected with the other systems of IJorcs, mcsoporcs
can be inlJlIeo by lakr materials of allochthonous origin.

or

or

rJlicroporo, it
Microporosity gencl-ally i.,> an i.lltramiocrJ] porosit\" (a.s 1~1r as origin:!1 borJers of the primary grains arc
concerned), associated with the microcrystalline structures of the argilliplasmas. The distribution of this kind
of pore SpJCC is interparticulJr and generally uniform,
c"pecially where no inheritance of specific orientation
is observed in the secondarv products. This microporosity is mainly obsence! within t.h" argilliplasmas,
which occupy all the J\-aiIJhle slJace resulting from the
clisappearance of th\" primary mineral.

126

The distTibution and patterns of orientation of the

mesopores provides convenient bases for fw-ther clasthe Jlteromorphs where all the primary
sification
residues hJVC disappeared (sce later the cbapters concerning "poro"-JI teromorphs).

or

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAnON AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

116, 117
CARBONATITE

juquia, SP. Brazil

Sampled in a quarry
by AV Waiter
Thick pellicular
dissolution around
ankerite
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

02

0.1

0.0 mm

11'
,Ill
"canbc
compared "...ith those shown
pre,ioush (070 - 073), taken or
similar samples in the same tluarry.
These were chosen to illustrate the
case of a thin pellicular pattern of
weathering developed along intermineral fissures. Now, the dissolution of the carbonate mineral has
progressed to the extent that thick
pell icu lar wssolutiun-inclucul 'oids
surround denticulate cores. The
in>n content of the ank('rite,
Cal-e 1 +(CO')1-, .....1!in:s Will' tu irrecr1!)

PART

2:

PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

lar autochthonous deposits or insoluble iron ox)'hydroxides, which

partiall~' inl"ill the residual poresrace. These deposits allow the original texture of the rock to be
lllaintaLn(d on Ule short lerm, at
least during: the first steps uf weathering. The later-Je\'cloped koiloalteromorphs do not exhihit any
resistance to crushLnI1.
\,yithout the
b
uccurrence 01" these insoluble secondary products and of late-formed
crystallaria or secondary apatite in
these phosphate-rich rocks (see

later, 285 and 286), the)' will soon

disappear_ Note that the shapl:' o!" the
dcnticulation of the primary mineral residues differs rTOm that of
residual pyroxene or olivine. The
angle of the denticulation reflects
the rhombohedral system of the
carbonate; the weathering uf th~'
crystals of carbonate minerals is
strongly influenced by their regular
c1ca,-agcs.

127

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

128,129
KERSANTITE

Brittany. France
Sampled in a quarry
by E. Bernabe
Irregular banded pattern
and organized residues
after biotite
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

has been partially alterE'd to a chloritegroup mineral. The residues or

biotite are regularly distributed and
oriented parallel to the cleavage of
the primary mineral, whereas the
chlorite exhibits a more irregular
pattern of wstribution. The secondary mineral forms a continuous
pbase, in which renmants of the primary mineral are isolated. The cbJorite is pale green in PPL and
exhibits its cNlracteristic abnormal
.1

128

blue interference-color in XPL. The

biotite is hro\\ll in both photomicrographs. The minute dark brown
patches that are randomly distributed through the alteromorph are
small cr":"talJaria of titanium oxides.
Titanium was a constituent of the
biotite. It has been rejected by the
chlorite and, consequently, it
appe.ars in a separate secondary
phase. The alteromorph is poJyphase. This example of an ilTegular
banded pattern can be compared to

another example (151, 152) of a

I'ery regular parallel pattern developed during a comparable process
of alteration. The sUITounding
grains consist of pi agiocla..-;e , partialh' altererl to sericitc as the
biotite was being converted to duorite.

ATlAS OF MICROMORFHOLOGY OF MINEf\AL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

130,131
BASALTIC ROCK

northern Kivu,
Democratic Republic
of Congo
Sampled at outcrop
Irregular banded pattern
and random residues
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

show
the beginning 01' the replacement of a subhedral crvstal of
oli\"ine by a polyphase association of
chlorite and saponite along irregular transverse fra('lur~'s. The chlorite-gTlJUp mineral is greenish
bro"'l1 in PPL, ,md rebrularly distributed ailing and oriented parallel to
the Z axis of the crystal, whereas the
~. ('llowish oeige saponjtc inbll, the
areas between the tl"Lick regular
bands or chlorite and the remnants

PART

2:

I,

PATTIRN$ OF WEATHERING

oFoli'inc. Note that the typical den

ticulation of the oli\'ine appears as a
"Sdvv-toOth" pattern, which is "ery
different from the find)' denticulate
pattern developed by the weathering of pyroxencs and amphiboles.
'vVbatever the orit;ntation of the
original transverse fr'Jcl"ures, the
"dges of t.he denticulat.ion always
exhibit the same orientations in the
cl)stal. Note dlat. the saponite flakes
;In,, abo oriented eith!"r parallel to
the edges of t.he denticulatioll or

perpendicular to the Z axis of the

olivine crystal. Note that the tlLin
cracks parallel to the Z axis of' the
cr>'stal ha\"(:- not generated a bandec.l
texture, but some of them have
influenced the development of the
denticulation and the distribution of
it~ apices.

129

PRJMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

132, 133
HYPERSTHENEBEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 2.6 m
Irregular banded pattern
and random residues
after hypersthene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

-=--- 0.0 mm

cr\,st.:tI
(hypersthcne) shows incipient
weamering to nOnlTonite along sev
eral irregular transverse and longitudinal cracks parallel to the
cleavage. The Z axis of the crystal is
more or less oriented in the plane 01'
the thin section. Compared to the
prc,ious iIJusb-ations, note that the
denticulation is much liner than in
the coarse "saw-tooth" denticulation
de\eloped on the residues
ohine. This flnC' denticulation onlv
develops along the banded textures
~

or

130

more or less perpendicular to the Z

axis of the cr~'stal, whereas the
th", residues that are paraledges
lel to this axis (and to the cleavage)
do not exhibit any denticulation.
This particular distrihution of dentkulation is im"ariably observed in
the weathering patterns of all ferrothe oliyille,
magnesian minerals
pyroxcne and amphibole groups. In
special cases (see 163), it has also
been obsened in feldspar-group
minerals. This distribution illustrates a general rule: the apices of

or

me denticulations art' invariably oriented parallel to the Z d-"is for all

the relevant mineral species. The
thin chains or pores obsened
between me primary and secondary
minerals are I)robabl)' due to artillcial :;hrinkage or me secondary
products.

or

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTE.l\ATlON AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

134, 13 S
SERPENTINIZED
KOMATIITE

Munro Township,
Ontario, Canada
Petrographic collection.
Universite d'AixMarseille III
Banded serpentine
around random residues
of olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL
0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I \
I I
of olivine
whose shape a.nd rdativc distribution ar0 characteristic of komatiitic web (uJtrabasic now,;), are
partially replaced hy .ul association
of serpentine and magnetite. The
serpentine is distributed a.s sinuous
banded units 01' regular thickness
running along small residue,; of
olivine, which show smooth and
cun'ed shapes. The serpentine,
colork_s,; in PPL, exhibits in XPL a
flrst-ordlT to>(lTe)', interference-color,
which contra.sts sharlJly with the
second- and third-order interfer-

PART

2:

PATTI~NS Of WEATHERING

ence-calors of the olivine residues.

The serpentine is regularly associated with alignments or microgranular crystab of magnetite (black
deposits in PPL). In the upper left
corner of U1e lo""er photograph,
part 01 the oli vine crystal is rcpl<lced
by talc, which exhibits high interference-colors. It is distributed in thin
irregular banc1s, isolating maIlY
c1osel)' spaced residue.'; 01' olivine.
Both specific characteristics allo\\'
t.he area of replacement by tak to bc
easilv distinguished from the areas
of replacement by serpentine. In the

luwer right corner or the upper

photograph, the dark brO\\TI band
corresponds to an interstitial area of
microcrystalline protocrystals of
augite. The arrangement of olivinc
CTVstals as sub[Jarallel elongate or
tabular l.T)'st.als lined with areas of
m.icrocrystaJline 3ugite (and, originally, glass) is characterictic of
komatiitcs, and i.s referred to as the
"spinifcx" to:ture.

131

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

136,137
SERPENTINIZED
PERIDOTITE

western Cote d'lvoire

Sampled by Y. Noack
Irregular serpentine
+ saponite bands
around complex residues
of olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

O.Omm

network of hierarchized tram- and intramincral

band~ of serpentine dh-jdcs a crystal
of oli"ine into man~ irregular and
random Iy distributed residues. This
flrst partial transformation to serpentine preceded .1 second phase of
alter.ltion, t1uring which the perilJhcry of each oli'ine domain wa~ partially replaced by brownish saponite
(formerly IulOw11 .lS "bowlingite").
These two first steps of alteration
belong to an early phase 01- h~vo
gc-ne origin. During J more recent

132

episode, incipient Ferrallitic weathering transformed the paiphery of

each residue tu dark brown iron
uxyhydroxides. These successive
partial replacements consequently
led to the formation of a polygenetic alterolllorph. The last phase is
alsu responsible for the: ,veatJ1ering
of the thin lining of magnetite
within the serpentine bands. This
weathc/-ing of the magnetite,
together with the incilJient weathering of the oli,'ine residues, arc
responsible for the ~'eljo\\' col-

oration of the serpentine, which is

normally colorlcss in PPL, and for
the darkening of the saponite areas.
which normally are greenish
browll. The lower photograph
shows that ;)11 these partial transFormations, 'lnd all the secondary
microtextures that they induce,
affect a single crystal of oli'cine, as
can be deduced ]i'om the uniform
(blue) interrerence-color or all the.
residues.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOlOGl: OF MINEJ\Al AlTEf\ATION AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY R.ESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

Il8
HORNBLENDEBEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d']voire

Depth: 1.2 m
Irregular banded pattern
and random residues
after hornblende
Objective: x 10

PPL
0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

crystal 01'
hvrnblende is shown in its first
stage of weathering to iron oxyhydroxiLies. The netwvrk of intramineraJ li'actLlres is irregular and
independent of the orientation of
the deayage. Several fissures cross a
long, thin prism 01' apatite. These
are intramineral Fissures in the
hornblende, L,ut become transmineral (transverse) fissures in the
apatite. The weathering ol' the hornblende begins in the uPIJer part of
the altcritc. This explains why the
secondary l)l"oducts after hornblende are exclusil'eh' brownish
iron ox yhydroxides. The original
iron cuntent of the hornblende is
relatil'ely km', and as a result the
secondary l)roducts do not infill all
till" ITllume available. The thin dark
brown lineaments arc surrounded
on both sides by empty pores,
whose I'olume is related to the
amoLlnt of' matter rernol'(,d from the

PART

2:

PATTORNS OF WEATHeRING

primary mineral. The amphiholc

residues art: finelv denticulatt> in a
direction that is independent of the
orientation of the fissures, but
close Iy related to the Z ax is of the
mineral, and consecjuenty parallel
to its cleavage. Note that the alJatite
crystal does not seem to han:, been
weathered. fts transyerse fIssures
arc coated with iron oxyhydroxides
deril"ed fi"olll the lVeatherina
of the
b
enclosing hornblende. Some hexagooal sections of other apatite CT)"Stab arc I"jsible ill the lower right
corner of the flhotomicrograph.
Some l'cTmiculite alteromorphs
after phlogopite are observed in the
upper leh corner, along Il'"ith interstitial allol'hthonous infillings of
organic soil material. As the degree
of weathering increases, the I'olume
of the residual hornblende will
decrease, the open spaces will
become Ivider a.nd wider, and new
fissure,s will probably appear. This

example of incipient weathering of

hornbknde may be compared with
a similar st.age of weathering of a
Feldspar-group mineral (e.8 . 161,
165). Although the fissure is also
emphaSized by a thin deposit of iron
compounds, there is no residual
empty pore-space, or almost none,
between t.he Ilssure and the residual
feldspar. Nearly all the available voltune generated by the dissolution 01'
the Feldspar is filled by the secondary crystals of gibbsite. The a1uminum content of the feldspar is
much higher than the iron content
of the hornblende; furthcrmore.
al!oc:hthonous aluminum can be
added from the weathering of
neighboring grains of feldspar.

133

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

<:

139,140
NEPHELlNE SYENITE

Pedra Balao,
Po<;os de Caldas,
MG, Brazil
Depth: 0.6 m
Regular banded
(transverse)
weathering pattern
in aegirine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

:- 0.1

0.0 mm

I1
can be
compared with photomicrographs 098 and 099. The samples
used ror the two sets of photm
belong to the same weathering
sequence and to the same prohlc.
The distribution and orientation of
the banded I)atterns arc similar to
those shown earlier. The bands
result from tbe thickening of the
rihbons of secondary products
oWing to more advanced weathering

134

and concomitant decrease of the

volume of the p:Toxene residues,
which t,lke on a denticubte shape,
or arc even completely dissolved,
leaving residual empty pores (04).
These bands are composed of two
parallel alignments of crystallized
iron oxyhydroxides on both sides of
the median plane (central parting),
which is the trace of the earlyForrneu Fissures; they can be considered as lTue transyc:rse sCI)ta. At this

level 0[" the weathering profile,

under conditions 0[" strong ["errallitic weathering, the associated primary orthoclase and nepheline arc
vveathered to gibhsite (B I, E4).

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINeRAL AlTERA'Tl0N AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

141, 141
HYPERSTHENEBEARING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 2 m
Irregular banded pattern
and random residues
after hypersthene
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

[ "'

l::
-

0.0 mm

It

11

11'(

+J

,11

can be

compared with the previous

ones; the weathering here is a little
morc developed, which results in
the formation of thicker bands of
secondary products and thinner primary residues. The distribution of
the denticulation and the patterns of
its orientation are similar to the
prt\ious cast>. Note the ch,)raeteristic pinkish calor of tbe orthopyroxene relics. Residual pores, which
are irregularly distributed between
the secondary and primar~' miner-

PART

2:

PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

als, were artificiaUy developed during the desiccation of the sample.

All residues, well fitted within their
secondary products, exhibit a parallel optical orientation, and their
interferencl:-coJors are homogeneous. The orientation of' the secomiary products is dearly observed
in this alteromorph, although it was
also observable in the previous photographs. Note that in the lower
right corner, the pyroxene residues
are directly weathered to a smcctite, whereas in the upper left cor-

ner, incipient later weathering to

iron oxyhydroxidcs is clearly d.istinguished. This gradual weathering
,'viII gi\'(:' rise to a polyphase altcromorph, whose later development is
shov.-11 in photographs 377 and 378.
The surrow1ding crystals of c1inol)Yroxene are weathered to saponite.

1]5

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

143
ClINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'!voire

Depth: I 1.4 m
Regular transverse
fractures and weathering
patterns in prismatic
c1inopyroxene

Objective: x 4
PPL
06

0.4

0.2

- 0.0 mm

144
ClINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 10.6 m
Regular transverse
fractures and weathering
patterns in prismatic
c1inopyroxene

Objective: x 6.3
PPL

0.3

02

0.1

~
~

I I
" . { J'
and lower photographs show the regular trans\'t~r:;e breakage of prismatic crj'stals
of clinop}Toxene under the inlluence of U1e mesomorph.ic alteration
of the intersert<l! phlogopite to vermiculile, The resulting expansio(l
has led to the regular breakage of
the prismatic crystals originally
included in the mica, It is ob\'ious
that this breabgt' is linked to the
particular orkntation of the vermiculite layers, perpendicular to the
prism axis of the pyroxene. Where
this orientation is difTercnt, a~ in the

136

uPI)cr part of U1C tol) photograph

(C I and C2), the conjugi1tion of
both orientatjO(lS resulb in an
oblique breakage of the included
prisms. Such breakage allows the
incipient weathering or the pyroxene fragments to a smectitc. It
seems ob\'ious that if included
within wKle'I\'ed poikilitic hornhlende, for example, these clinopyroxene prisms ,,'ould not be broken
or indpi('ntly weathered.
The lower photogragh illustrates a similar distrihution of both
host and includt.'d minerals, but the

0.00101

relatiyclv higher position of the

sample in tht profIle leads to the

development of thicker bands of
smectitc and denticulation of the
p)TOXene residues. The central part
of the fractures remains empty
o\dng to the intense breakage of the
dinopyroxene into many slices sep'
arJ.ted by wide empty pores. The
depth or the samples does not allo\\'
deposition of allochthonous material.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINJ'I\AL ALTEI\ATION AND WEATHf.RING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

145, 146
PHLOGOPITE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 2 m
Complex peripheral and
banded patterns with
minute residues
after c1inopyroxene

"2

Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

-::- 03

=-

0.2

0.\

0.0 mm

I1
01' the ori~inal
been replaced by
meso-alt~~romorphs of vermiculite.
These havc given rise to many irregular intC'rmineral ancl transmineral
pores, along which weatllering of

!I

"

rock

has

U1C clinopyroxcne grains has progressed_ The c1inop}Toxcne is an

iron-poor diopside, and the iron
content of its secondar)' products
(mainly saponite) is \'er)' low. The
re(JUlaritv
of the banded texture is
o
.
obscured by the SUlllutaneous uevelopment of peripheral weathering

PART

2:

PATTEfl.NS OF WEATHERING

around the ensta! and around a.11

the residues. Ranuomh- uistributed
within the secondary phase, thesc
resiclues exhibit tlle lille denticulation, r;picalJy oriented parallel to
the Z axis of the crYStAl. Several
inclusions of apatite and magnetite,
both primary, are included within
the alteromorph. The pale beige
calor or the .,aponite is characteristic or a secondary product after such
iron-poor dinopyroxenc, but a
slight in.flLLx of an allochtbonnus
iron oxide is responsible for th~

slight darkening of the margin of thl?

alteromorph. The photomicrograph
ill XPL shows the consistent orientation of tbl:" saponite througbout
the alteromorph. This prderrccl orientation will be better explained in
next fow' U1ustrations 147. 148,
149 and 150.

137

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

147, 148,
149, 1SO
ClINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I m
Oriented but irregularly
distributed resldues and
regularly oriented
secondary products
in an alteromorph
after c1inopyroxene
Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL
::- 0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

texrura] and mineralogical characteristics of this

<lltcromorph after clinopyroxene
are similar to those shown in previous examples. However, lhe primary residues arc much smaller,
and the main aggregate of residues
(D2) is surrounded by saponitc,
whose usual color has been darkened hy rclativ( acculllulation of
iron oxvhydro.xides
derived from
, ,

138

U)C more recent weathering of the

residues (147). Photograph 148
shows the straight extinction of the
secondary product, parallel to ule Z
.lXis or the clinop~Toxenc. The
residues arc not at e:-.'1:inction
hecause c!inop):roxenc is monoclinic. Photograph 149 shows Ule
oblique extinction of all the
residues, whereas the secondary
product is near its position of Jl1<Lxi-

mum illumination. Photograph 150

shows the simultaneous illumi.nation of both primary and secondary
minerals in a position of intermediate rotation. Note that the acute and
sharp denticulation of the residues
is well matched by the complementary denticulation of the secondary
pl'Oducts.

ATlAS OF MICR.OMORPHOLOGY OF MINEAAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

151,152
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

Koua Bocca area,

Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at outcrop
Parallel banded and
organized residues
in an alteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL

0.2

01

O.Omm

.'

I'
'Ill has been partially replaced by chlorite. The
alternation of chlorite with residues
of biotite gives the alteromorph cl
regular parallel handed pattern. The
oricntations of both prim;1ry and
secondary minerals also are parallel.
which causes simultaneous extinction when the stage is rotated (not
shown). Compared with previous1~'
sho\'m photogr.1phs (128, 129), the
intcrlaycring of the secondary mineral within the primary mineral is
much more regu br. with straight

PART

2:

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

contact". The characteristic natural

co!ors of both sheet silicates arc
shown in PPL, whereas in XPL, the
abnormal IHIl-I)le-blue interferencecolors or the chlorite contrasts
strongly with the secono-order
interference-colors of the biotite_
Note that the thickest layers of
chlorite extend thnJugh the: whole
widt.h of' the crystal, whcn:'as the
thinner ones are ahsent in its central
I)Jrt. Replacement of the biotitl'
evidently started along the two
opposite ends of the grain, follo\\-

ing the cleavage. The lack of traces

of radiating IIssul'cS or of late products of c.Tvstallization around the
alteromorph suggests that the partial rCI)lacement of" the biotitc by
chloritc has given rise to an isoalteromorph, and not to a mesoalteromorph.

/39

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

IS3,IS4
PYROXENITE

Tapira. MG, Brazil

Depth: 2 m
Par.lllel intergrowths of
replacement calcite
within exfoliated
phlogopite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

document cllt' partial replacement of

a large broken o-ystal of phlogopite;
it is distopted into several layers,
het ween which regular bands of
microcrystalline calcite arc intercalated. The margin of the original
grain is obliterateo by line-grained
calcite. which has replaced most of
the rock. Onh remnants of mica are

140

identifiabk within a grounclmass of

calcite, whereas all other n1illerals,
such as the calcic clinopyroxcDc,
have completely disappeared. Once
weathered, or upon morc ad"anced
replacement by calcite. such a bramorphic crystal of phlogopite wiU
become a phanto-altewmorph.
Note that, up to this stage, most layers
the mica have maint.'lined

0.3

0.2

=--

0.1

0.0 mm

their original parallel orientation, as

iB clearly seen in PPL, and also ill
XPL, where the separated layers
exhibit a nearly ic1entical position of
extinction.

or

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MlNERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

ISS,IS6
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

Blapleu. near Man.

western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.8 m
Cross linear pattern
and organized residues
after plagioclase
Objective: x I0
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

'. I of plagiodase is divided

by a crossing net\\'ork of linear
~Issures. which lollo\\' the two intersecting dea\'ages of the mineral.
Secondary products are formed as
the linear partern is widened to a
bandcd pattern. During early
weathering, the primary mineral is
replaced along its open cleavages by
color!ess or pale beige isotrolJic
material (black areas in XPL)
Formed by (liIferential leaching of
the ;)1 kalis and alkal.ine ealths, and
of a I);)rt of its silica content. The

PART

2:

PATIERNS OF WEATHERING

highly hydrated material has a

chemical composition intermediate
between that of the original feldspar
and that of kaolinite. The isotropic
material is slightly stained by an iron
compound originating from the
neigh boring weathered minerals.
With aging, the widest, and consC'quentJy oldest, banded iSOlTOpic
parts become lined by crystalJites of
kaolinite, whose coloration is due to
the iron stain. The grey parts
obs(Tvcd \ovithin the feldspar
residues in XPL reflect a lowering

of the interference-colors owing to

thinnjng of the residues where they
are cut b} the third cleavage. It lit'S.
in this example, nearly parallel to
the plane of the thin section. When
complete, it will be a gradual
polyphase altcromorph (see later).

14/

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

157
CALC-ALKALINE
GRANITE

Blapleu, near Man,

western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.4 m
Irregular
cavernous residues
after plagioclase
Objective: x 10
XPL

0.2

=---

0.1

0.0 mm

158
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

Blapleu, near Man,

western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.4 m
Irregular
cavernous residues
after plagioclase
Objective: x 10

XPL

show morphologic<ll details of cavernous

residues of pbgioclase, first embedded within a secondary isotropic
phase before the later emJuuol1 of
this intermediate phase to microcrystalline gibbsite h,lS begun. In
alterite horizons subjected to
processes of FerraJlitic wE'athcring,
speCifically ill the lower parts of the
toposcquence, plagioclase is at least
partially replaced hy isotropic material. GraduaLly, as it loses its silica
content, t.I1is isotr0l)ic phase \vill be-

142

replaced b)' gibbsite, whereas new

parts ulthe fcldsp,u- residucs \"ill be
weathered to morc of the isotropic
phas~. The process is gradual, it
de\'elop~ through an ephemeral
isotropiC pha,e, and it finally givcs
rise to a definitivc secondary material, the m..icrocrystalline gibbsite. As
weathering is not complete, it is a
gradual polyphase alteroll1ol'ph.
Both photographs illustrate the
in-egular network of d1C iSOlTOpic
product (black areas in XPL),
whose patchy or banded textural

Pattern is related to the c1eavaaes

b
and lractures of the primar)' mineral. Note in the lower photograph
the presence of round ish isotropic
patches. They are not isolated tnclusions of secondary material, but
rathe.r perpcodicular or obli<]ue sections, relative to the plane of the
thin section, of tlnger-like pt:>nctrations into the resiclues.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

159
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

Blapleu near Man,

western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.2 m
Randomly distributed
cavernous residues
after feldspar
Objective: x I0
XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

160
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

Blapleu near Man,

western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2 m
Regularly distributed
minute residues
after plagioclase
Objective: x 10
XPL

I'
I
were taken a Few
deciml?tcrs higher than the pre\'ious sanlpk in the qme weather,
ing profile. The photomicrographs
show the progrcssi\'e disappearance
of the feldspilr resielues and the
incipient crystallization of gibbsite;
tbe thin microparticle, are randomly distributed wit.hin the
isotropic philse, at \Ihose expense
tJl('Y are growing. The first illustration shows several cavernous
J'esidues whose size is muchsmalkr
than in the prc\'ious example, but
\-\'hose shape is very similar, The

PART

2,

PATTERNS OF WEATHERING

elongate gr<lins that cross tbe

isotropic materi,ll ilre secondary
!<lmella(:' of J.lbik, \vhich an: not yet
weathered. The innumerable vcry
small specks that are rJ.ndomly but
homogeneously dist.rihukd within
the isotropic phase are the gibbiite
<.T),stallites. With aging, these will
progressively gruw to gi\'e rise to a
bon')'o-al terolnorph.
The second illustration shows a
vcry speCial case in wh.ich the primarv mineral is reduced to man"
.
minute re;;idues whose regular
alignment is due' to the combined

effects of cleavages and t\\'in planes.

The largest unwcathercd graim an'
not residues 01' kJd.spar, but rather
iHc!usions of primary quart?. Once
the r{"sielues have completdy disappeilreel and the gibbsitc crystallitcs
have grown, the gradual polyphase
alteromorph will be conwrtcd to a
hotryo-alterornorph, just as in the
abo\l:: sample,

143

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

f>.

161
PYROXENE-BEA.RJNG
CHARNOCKITIC ROCK

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain,
western Cote d"voire
Depth: 0.6 m
Development of
cavernous residues
after plagioclase
Objectives: x 10
XPL
0.2

0.1

O.Omm

162
PYROXENE-8EARING
CHARNOCKITIC ROCK

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain.
western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.6 m
Development of
cavernous residues
after plagioclase
Objectives: x 16
XPL

r'
i

! 11.
to conditions
of strong leaching prevailing
at the top of Tonkoui Mountain,
which receives more than 1000 mm
of rain annual I)', plagiocJasc weathers directly to gibbsite without
passing through an intermediate
ison-opic phase. The upper illustration shows juxtaposed all the steps
of' weathering of a feldspa'- grain. In
the Ill'st step (at the left), the gibbsite crystals deyelop on hoth sides of
t.he fissures or crystal defects, producing typical septa of gihbsj te. Very

144

few re.sidual pores are observed

betwecn the gibbsite and t.he
residues. Gradually, as the volume
of the residues decreases (in t.he
center), more and more empty
pores arc developed and, where the
weathering is complete (at the
right), a complex but very porous
glnmero-septo-alteromorph results
jll which no more n~siducs are
observed. As long as the residues tit
tightly bctween the septa, they
maintain their original orientation;
but as soon as the dissolution pores

O.Omm

are \\-idened, they can mo\"c freely,

and lose their original orientation"
The low"er iIlustntlon sho\-\'s the
detail of a cavernous residue, corn
pletdy isolated in a large dissolution-induced vugh. The dissolved
aluminum remo\"cd from the.
residue must migrate over a short
distance to allow for con tinued
growth of the early-formed crysta.ls
of gihbsite"

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEP.AL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

163
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

Blapleu, near Man,

western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.2 m
Denticulate residues
after orthoclase
Objective: x 10
XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

164
BAUXITIC PROFILE
DEVELOPED ON
GRANITE

Siagozohoin, Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 2.2 m
Quaru inclusions in a
gibbsite-bearing
alteromorph
after feldspar
Objective: x 10
XPL

III ,l"

'I.

I ,

shows the unusual habit of

residues in a crvstal of Qrthoclase.
They are finely denticulate. The
common orientation of all tht'
residues indicates that they originate from a single grain, and that
they an' not free to move. They are
completely
embedded
In
an
isotropic secondary product that
maintains them in their original ori
entation and spatial distributiun.
The internlineral Fissures that Sllr
rOW1d the alteromorph after ortho-

PART

2:

PATTERNS OF WfArnERING

c1ase and the transverse fractures

that divide them have givcn rise to a
rim Jnd to ilTe~rubr septa or \\'e1lcrystallized gibbsite. The isotropic
material is not yet replaced by
gibbsite crystals (or if so, to a very
limited extent); these win take on a
glomero-altcromorphic pattern in
each inter-sephun area. Note that
thE' quartz grains l CS) are not
weathered. Quartz also apl)cars
with sodic plagioclase in a
myrrnckitic intergrowth (A3). It has
preserved its characteristic shape

and dish-ibution, whereas the associated sod.ic plagioclase has completely wE'athcred to the isotTopic
phase.
The lower photograph shows
inclusions of quartz (unweatherL'd)
within a gibbsite-bearing alteromorph after feldspar. The intermineral fissures around tbe inclusions
have served as pathways along
whjeh the weathering of the
feldspar began.

145

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

165
CHARNOCKITIC ROCK

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain,
western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.6 m
Complex pattern : regular
and irregular distribution
of secondary minerals
in plagioclase
Objective: x 10

XPl
0.2

0.0 mm

166
CHARNOCKITIC ROCK

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain,
western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.4 m
Complex pattern: regular
and irregular distribution
of secondary minerals
in orthoclase
Objective: x 10

XPL

'I
I
I l
I . ~ sho\v J.
combination 01" an ilTegular IJattern or incipient weathering, which
is rclatecl to irregular tr,U1smineral
fractures, and a regular pattern of
disnibutiun of the secondary gibbsite, which 'is related eithc-:r to the
presence of polysynthctic twinning
in plagioclasc ( 165) or to tll(' poorly
dc\e1oped c1eavJ.ges of orthoclase
(166). In both cJ.ses, the median
111ane 01" the septa is emphasized by

146

bro"'n-colored iron ox yhyclrox ick

deposits, ma.inJy in the widest septa,
which are r('laten to irregular fractures. Note that the f(1rmation of
septa, which are regularly distTibuted within the larger residues, is
soon replaced, in the completely
weathered parts, by the cleveiopment of a more complicated texture
in which the early-formed scptomorphic pattern i" associated with a
glomcromorphic pattern (along the

right edge of bocl) photographs).

Before disappearing, the feldspar
residues take on an 'irregular cav('rnoo.' habit; shapes are indepencient nf cl)t' presence of twinning
and a network of cleavages.

ATIAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALITRATlON AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY RESIDUES AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS

167
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

Blapleu, near Man,

western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.2 m
Complex regular +
irregular patterns of
weathering
in plagioclase
Objective: X 10
XPL
-

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

ill

IIf

I ,. III It< , I, II1

~hows

the distribution and details 01

the shape of the residues acquired
after initial fen'alotie weathering of
plagiodase. Fracturc~ and IIssures
cross the primary mineral in (i) an
irregular pattern. giving rise: to
large irregular bands of isotropic
material, and (ii) a nenvork parallel
to the twin domains, as is clearly
seen to the right. Within the large
areas of isotropic material, microcrystals of gihbsite arc randomly
distributed. without any particular

PART

2 : PAmRNS

Of WEATHE.RING

orientatjon or concentration. On
the other hand. a.long the twin
planes, the microcTystals of gibbsite
exhibit a regular arrangement typical of septo-alteroll1orphs, in which
they are invariably oriented I)("rpendicular to the trace of the f1ssure~,
'who~e orientation is sb-ongly inlluenced by the twin planes or the precursor. All residues of feldspar show
an irregula.r outline and a cavernous
shape, as is t}'pica.l in such weathered material. Some rcsidues
exhibit holes or irregular internal

black patche.~. These holes and

patches are probably not iSDlated
features vdthin t.l1e host mineral,
but perpenrucular or oblique cuts of
digitations and embayments. Traces
of the twin planes are visible within
some residues.

147

\\;1111 H\I 11'"

ofoli,;ne has been ahel'cd. by a

late magmatic process, to a

hol().L~ll-alteromorph

of

"icldingsitc". The altt;romorph is characterized by the ,lhun

dance of the secondary product, which completely fills
(halo-) the \Olume al'ailable ,,;thout: forming intrarn.i.neral
pores. !\t the same time, the originJ..! shape and volume
(b0-) of the original grain of oli~nc are maintained. Mosl

cracks in th(' alteromurph arc traces of protodastic fractures

that are still coated with minute grains or magnetite. likely
()f

earl)' posnmgmatic origin. The \'ariabilit\' of the red CDlor

in several sectors is due to imprcgoation of black Mnoxide

along a tr.lOsmineral fracture. For flutbn explanations, see
pholomiO'ographs 265 and 266.

CH:lf'TER

Defini tions

III \" .11 'introduced classiJkations (Stoops a

L1/. 1979, Bullock er al. 1985) arc satisfactOl"Y
for Ule description and classification of the
micromorphological patterns observed within
panl~. developed alteromorphs (classes of alteration I,
2 and 3), but these classillcations arc imprecise when it
comes to patterns that occur within completely altered
minerals (class of alteration +). In order tu fill this gap,
a new classification ha.s recently been proposed (Dehigne 1994).

The terms pseudomorpho,-is and pseuJomorphism are

to describe the process by \\ hich a primary mineral. identified by its specific shape, is
replaced by a secondary mineral (or by an aggregate of
secondary minexals) with retention of the shape and
\'olurne of the primary one, whatever the mineralogical .1I1d chemical compositions of both primary and
secondary constituents. The result of the replacement,
as it appears in thin section, is a pseudomorph. According to tJle ct}'molog~: of the term (from the Greek
4JUOllS wrong, false, that which is not what it seems
to be, and I-l~P<l>ll = shape), and according to the
above definitions, the terms pseuJomorphosis, pseuJomorphism and pseudomorph should be used only in the case
of the repJacement of an automorphic (From the Greek
aUTOS
own, particular, from itself) or eubedral
(from the Greek EU well and EOPO: = base, face) primary mineral, characterized b~ well-developed crystallographically indexable faces, by secondary
minerals, with presen-ation of the shape anu characteristk outline of the autolTlorphic (cuhedral) primary
mincral.
commonl~" used

Most rock-forming minerals have poorlv de\.-.:;]aped faces, and their shapes are uneven and ~ot diagnostic; they are xenomorphic (anhedral) minerals
(from the Greek ~EVOS foreign and av
without). [n
most cases, the use of the term pseudomorph is thus
improper to describe the secondary products a.nrl textw-es derived from xenomorphic primary minerals
which, by definition. do not exhibit a characteristic
shape or well-developed 1:1C(:s.

Although the term pseuJomorph is commonly used

by most mineralogists and petrographers to describe,

from a geometrical standpoint, the entities derived

from the replacement of a primary mineral by secondary miner.lls, with preservation of original outline
of the mineral considerecl, rcg;Jr(Jlcss 01: its shape, a
new term is prolJosC'd to designate such an entity:

T=

he general term olteromorph (from the Latin

olter

other, and from the Greek I-lOP<Pll

shape) will be used in all cases of transformation
(alteration or weathering) of primary minerals to

secondary products, whatever the shapes of both

primary and secondary minerals and whatever
the extent of preservation of their original shapes
and volumes.

This c1dlnition does not concern bodies that result

from the intilJjng or pre-ex:isting or synchronou~I)'
developed pores, such as open transmineral* fractures,
vesicles in effusiH' rocks, and all pores of pedologieal
or biological origin. These ('ntities are situated oUl~ide
the alteromorphs, from which they arc genetically
independent. The alteromorph's structure corresponds
to the min-phanro-sepJc* fabric: a completely \veathered
prinlary mineral is present in the plasma as a distinct
entity (Bisdom \967b).
The term altcr(lmorph is of generaJ utility, and not
only applicable to the case of near-surface weathering
of minerals. It also applies (0 the case of replacement
of a mineral by hypogene metamorphic or hydrothermal processes. In theory, the. use of this term should be
resn-icted to the case of completely altered or weathered minerals in which no primary relllnants ,1rc
observable. If the process of alteratiun or weathering i.'
not complete, the terms pemly Je"c1opcd aheromorph and
parrial aheromorph are more adequate, and the nomenclature disl1.Jssed in the previous chapters is applied.
TIle illustrations in th.is chapter include many I)hotomicrographs of partly de\'eloped alteromorphs. They
arc mudl more interesting than completely developed
altcromorphs because- they give more information

about tht' paLhwa)'s by which these altcromorphs

acYeloped, and about the nature of the primal")' mineral from which they are inherited. The e.stncric, contrasted and didactic impact of these photomicrograph.s
is much en.hanced by the fact that they show primary

/52

and secondary minerals together. The reader can more

easily imagine both the initial s1:ate and final result of
the alteration or vveatherlng process, and the progressive development of the alteromorphs.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CH.-IPTfl\

Preservation of Shapes and Volumes

'

"'ere proposed (SLOOpS cr al. 1979). B~' using the same

etymological roots and by maintaining the content of
the previous definitiuns of these authors, three new
terms, based on a geometrical concept, have been pro
posed (Delvigne 199+); these arc iso-, meS(l- and karaa!rcromorph (Figs. 1 1- 14).

11 Illlll\1lll1'll thal develops by the complete weathering of a primary mineral r10b

not always exactly preserve tbe shape, size
and \'olume of the mineral that it has
replacecl. Depending on the extent of preservation of
the original structures and volumes, the terms isomorphous, mesomorphous and katamorphous alterations

PRIMARY MINERAL
ALTERAnON OR WEATHERING.
FORMATION OF ALTEROMORPHS
WHOSE SHAPES ARE

PRESERVED

ISOALTEROMORPH

EUHEDRAL MINERAL

EXPANDED

MESOAL TEROMORPH

PROTRUDING

PSEUDOMORPH

ECHINOALTEROMORPH

DESTROYED

KATAALTEROMORPH

EPIGEHETlC PROCESS

PHANTOALTEROMORPH

'

INTERAL TEROMORPH BOUNDARIES NOT DISTINGUISHABLE

f
CRYPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

FIGURE

11.

Dcllnition~

rical criteria,

I.e:. ,

and boundaries.

or alt"ronlOrphs on the hasis 01' gcom"l.

vxtent

01" prescf\';1rit)n of '"o!UnlCS, :-:hJpe:s

Uneclual modifications in one or two dimensions

may introduce perceptible and measurahle deformation of the secondary texture. Thjs kind of alteromorph
also is common in isalterites, but it commonly corresponds to the weathering of ~peci1k groups of minerals, such as the phyllosilicatcs (sheet silicatL-s).

Cl: M rRICAI CHJTFRI

G R. L.
~ -s
I~

-alter

m()rrh~

he term iso-alteromorph (from the Greek

LCTO~ = similar) is used where the volume of sec-

ondary minerals is equal to that of the primary

mineral. and where its eXTernal outline and size
are preserved, whatever the volume of the internal residual pores that may eventually appear
(Fig. 12).

PAlMARY MINERAL

FIGUlIE 12.

lSO-ALTEROMORPH'

RelaL;on,bip cl.m i,n'J.lLeromorpb Lo

grain 01" a

primar)' minnal.

It must be emphasized that repJact'mcnts involving

a modilkation of shape ann size imperceptible at the
scale of the optical microscope may be included in the
above definition. Iso-alteromOTphs are the main ~tTUC
tural components of isaltcrites (ChateL11 \ 974) ann
saprolites (fTom the Greek CTC(,lTPO~
rotten, and
AL!30~
stone).

The weathering of biotite to vermiculite or

kaolinite is accompanied by an important expansion of the original volume perpendicular to the
layers of the mica, whereas the other dimensions
remain practically unmodified.
The development of meso-alteromorphs, eSI>ecially where tlley aTC abundant in a weathered rock,
,-apidly leads to the fracturing or dislocation of surrounding or included minerals. Some meso-alteromorphs may form onl)' if the primary mineral is
entirely 'isolated \~ithin a large pore, which allows its
full development. The weathering of crystal~ of vermiculite into mesomorphous (or in some cas('_s, katamorphous) kaolinitC' occurs only where the (lakes of
vermiculite an" subjected to strong leaching once the):
are isolatl"d within large interconnected pores or
chambers. The original rectangular shape of the \'crmiculite (lakes becomes rounded. swollen and wldulating. with a final shape similar to popcorn
(pop-aheromorph?) (sec below, photo micrographs t 93 196).

l\.ata-alterom()lph

he term kata-alteromorph (from the Greek

KCI'.TCI'.

= downward) is used where important

modifications of the shape and volume have

.He'iC>-lJ It erornorphs

occurred in the three dimensions. Outlines are no

longer clear or continuous, but the position of the

he term meso-alteromorph (from the Greek

original mineral is still recognizable (Fig. 14).

f..l.ECTO~ = middle) Is used where the general

shape of the original mineral is well preserved, but

with perceptible modifications of its size in one.
[Wo or three dimen.sions (Fig. 13).

PAlMARy MINERAL

KATAAl.TEROMORPH

RclaLionsllip of a kot-a-alt~rumnrph tn a grain 01' a

primar)' mineral.

r'IGUJlE 14.

MESa-AtTEAOMORPH

PRIMARY MINERAl

FIGWlI' 13.

Relationship of

primary minero.l.

154

,1

me,n-a!teromorph to a gr.tin .:,f a

Kata.alteromorphs are common in alloterites. and

their importance increases up the weathering profik.
The distortion of the altcromorphs during their

ATlAS

MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTeRATION AND WEATHERING

dcvelul)mcnt i_~ commonly inlluenced eithl"r hy

swelling and shrinkage in expanclable secondary minerals. by external processes such as fracturing. dislo0ltion, and dissemination of brittle or breakable
_~t'cOndar~i minerals, or by degradation and assimilation
or the secondary products (hu-ing later processes of
pedoplasmatiun* or pedoturbation*. All iso- and
meso-alterumorph.s can later be convcrted into kataalteromurphs either by chemical degradation and alter-

PART 3:

ALTEROMORPHS

atioll of their argillipJasmas, or hy phYSical deformation

of their content of c1ea\'Cd and easily deformable clay
minerals. Whereas the c1e\-elopment of mOst mewalterol11oq)hs seems tu be responsible for the ckformaliull of the surruunding minerals, the development of a
kata-alternmorph. in contrast, is more commonly the
result of cLsrurbance or destruction due to ph~'sical or
chemical factors external to and independent of the
altcromnrph considered.

155

MINERAL PATTERNS

168
PHLOGOPITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, C6te d'lvoire

Depth: 2.6 m
Meso-alteromorph
after phlogopite
Objective: x 6.3

PPL

169
PHLOGOPITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, C6te d"voire

Depth: 0.8 m
Meso-alteromorph
after phlogopite
Objective: x 6.3

PPL

11

sho'v.s that expansion in a growing meso-alterornorph developed at

the expense of phlogopite can break
the sU!Tounding hrittle minerals,
hornblende or magnetite For example. into isolated fragments. This
process can pia)' an important role
in the furtkr weathering of rnicabearing rocks by dislocating the
rock. by opening new pores, and by

/56

fragmenting and disaggregating the

rock-forming minerab.
The lower pholomjcrograph
illustrates lhe extent of deformation
resulting from the alteration of a
phlogopite crystal to a w:rmiculite
meso-altcromorph. Thl' increasc in
volume is only perceptible in a
direction perpendicular to the layering of the mineral. The basal section of the apatite inclusion allow.s

onc easily to visualizt' the (lirection

and the extent of volume increase.
By measuring the actual diameter of
both inclusion and sUlTounding
pore. the percentage
the volume
increase in this case can be estimated to lu\'t' been 50%.

or

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

150-, MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

170, 171
PHLOGOPITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 10 m
Meso-alteromorph
after phlogopite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

03

=-

0.2

(
-

0.1

0.0 mm

11
ri,
I1
showcrl
the case of an apatite inclusion
lying parallel to t.he plane of the JayCl'S of the host \crmiculite. Formation of a peripheral pore occurred
as a result of expansion in isolation
[i'om the matrix. The present Clse
shows what happens when a prism
of apatite is nearly pC'rpcnr1icular, or
slightly oblique, to t.hes\" IJ!.mes.
Owing to the expansiun of the host

PART

3:

Al.TEROMORPHS

minn,11 (now vermiculite) in a

direction perpenwcular to il..s b.:el'S, th(~ inclusion, which cannot be
cumpressC'd nor ("lIn-cd, is fragmented; numerous tranS\'erse I'ractUrt~S divide it into a scries of
juxtaposed slices. Their relative displacement allo\\-, one to visualize'
the orientation and extent of tht~
expansion. Note that prisms of
diopside (Cl, A4-, 85), wh.ich are

parallel to the' 3patitc inclllsion ancl

in a comlJarable situation, also are
broken up by several tranS\TrSe
fr,1ctures, along which the dinopyroxenc fragments ha\'e partially
weathered to saponite.

157

Iso-. MESO-.

KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

172, 171
BIOTITE-RICH
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 4.8 m

Meso-alteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

.- 0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

. ". huse layers

arc nearly perpendicular tu the
plan<:'
the thin section, is transformed into a mesu-alteroll1orph
characterized by Ule occurrence of
mcmy lenticular intramineral rare,.
The weathering pruceeded in twc>
sters. After havi.ng lost most of its
illtcrla)'cr potassium, th~' layers of
octaJledra in the structure lost iron,
......hich prccipitated a, minute parti.
c1es of oxybydroxide ,,ithin the
cleavage of the mica. The-se brown
colored centers uf crystallization

or

/58

I)rotectecl the Ia)'ers from further

\'xpansion, and considerably diminished the accessibility of the central
part tu the agent of weathering.
nlCSC ironrich parts cannot ea'-iil)'
he cxpanded without furrller
release of the cementing iron ox)'hydroxides. In the periplwral parts
of the crystal, where the exchanges
arc easier, the iron compounds were
lost, and the layer silicate was more
easily expa.nded and tramfarmcd to
colorless kaolinite. This transforma
tion is made with considerable

increase in 'olume in a din:-ction

perpendicular to the layers. Consequently, kaolinite wedges developed
along tbe margin of the meso
alteroJl1orph promole the separation of the central part and the
opening of lenticular inbamineral
pores. The
mesoalteromorph
(according to geometrical criteria)
has become- a phylloporoalteromorph (according to intefllal
microlC:xtural criteria).

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Iso-,

MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

174, 175
BIOTITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROx.ENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 4.8 m
Meso-aJteromorph
after biotite
Objective: >< 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

:-- 0.\

0.0 mm

. . .
in the
formation
of
knticular
intramineral pores as a result of thl?
transformation of biotite to a
bolinite meso-alteromorpb. The
strongly indurated central part of
the ox.iJizeJ mica cannot expand in
response to the stresses de\'elopeJ
in the kaolinite-rich domains at tht'
margin. Considering t.hat the layering 01' the primary mica is nearly
perpendicular to the plane of the
thin section, the expansion accom

'I'

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

panyil1g the formation of the meso

alteromorph can he estimated by
comparing the total thickness of the
alteromorph to the slim 01' the
thicknesses of each iron-oxideenriched layer (the mea.surements
arc restricted to the rectmgular
part of the alteromorph included in
BeD and from I to 4). Such measurement., give an approx.imate
expansion-ratio of 2.50%. This
meso-altcromorph thus exhibits in
its central part a pore volume

la.rgely exceeding the volume of the

residual material. Its internal
microtcxture can be compared to a
laJder whose sidepieces are the
kaolinite-rich parts, and whose
rungs are the layers of resi<"1uaJ
hiotite ("la<"1t1er-shaped" mesoaltcromorph) .

159

Iso-,

MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

176, 177
KERSANTITE

Brittany, France
Sampled in a quarry
by E. Bernabe
Interlayered lenticular
deposits within a
meso-alteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x
PPL and XPL

'0

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

pron:s~cs

transform a biotite crystal to

chlorite, th{ expansion pl"()\'oked by
the mesomorpb.ic character of the
o';:lIls[urmatjon can open lenticular
pores, which become infilleJ by
allochthonous materials transferred
from other parts 01' the rock hy
hydrothermal f1Ldds. In the GISe
shown here, lenticular pores .lIT

160

inlllled either by calcite or quartz.

The two sc:condary minerals are not
easily distinguis.hed in PPL, but the
difference in interference-colars, in
XPL. allows these minerals to bc
(,.15ily distinguished. Pale green
chlorite has dc\-eloped either on
both sides of the biotite crystal or
according lo irregular pathways
through its central part. The origi.

na] t.itanjum content of the bioritc,

which does not coteI' t.he structure
of the chloritc, is expressed a~
mjnute indh-idual cl).-stals of titan.ite
(dark brown graim randomly distributed within the chloritized
biotite, as at BI 'lnd D3).

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAl. ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Iso-, MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

178,179
GRANITIC ROCK

Siago:z.ohoin. Lakota.
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 1.8 m
Meso-alteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

~ 0.2

=. 0.1

0.0 mm

I I I
I I
to conditions
of ferrallitic weathering,
crystals of biotitc arc generally
tra.nsformed to polyphase mesaalteromorphs of bolinite and iron
oxyhydroxides. Thick layers of
kaolinite are re6rularly distributed
and interstratified between lllore
iron-rich layers, which hold the iron
content of the primar)' mineral.
Lenticular intramineral potes also
may develop. The)' may be inJilled
eitber by kaolinitc of allochthonous
origin, or by cryslalliplasmas of

PART

3 : AI.TEROMORPHS

alJochthonous gibbsitc. The appearance of gibbsitc generally is concomitant with the destruction of the
previously formed kaolinite and
witb its replacement by crystalliplasmas of gibbs.ite of autochthonous origin. The photomicrographs
sho\v a meso-alteromorph after its
final stage of weathering. The redcolored layers of iron oxyhydroxides arc regularly associated with
lenticular or planar intJ'arnineral
areas, which represent the final
stag" of desilication of the kaolinite

to form a gibbsite-rich crysta.lliplasma.

The
occurrence
of
allochthonolls gibbsite is confirmed
by the tact that crystalliplasmas also
appear \\ithin the irregularly distributed round pores and \~ithin all
the extraminera.l pores, in some
cases assoLiated with inllllings of
dark brown ferruginous products.

161

150-, ME50-, KATA-ALTEROMORPH5

180
GRANITIC VEIN IN
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 5.8 m
Meso-alteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x I 6
XPL

181
GRANITIC ROCK

Akuvikro, Dimbokro,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.6 m
Meso- (ka la) -a Iteromorph
after vermiculite
Objective: x 10
PPL

photomicrograph
sho\vs a small crystal of biot.ite
that has been completely weathered
to a booklet of kaolinite. t..,1ost of
the original iron =ntent has been
leached out, but the surrounding
iron-cnrichl'd intermineral fissure
has pro\'oked this difkrential bcl1a\-'
ior in the margin relative to the
internal area. The iron-enriched
parts have not expanded to the sO:l1ne
extent as the central part, which
results in this unusual habit of the
meso-alteromorph.

162

The lower photomicrograph

illustl'ates the behavior
a coarse
L'Tvstal of bolinite after \'ermiculite
in response tu stre.<ses within tht:superficial soil horizons. The brittle
and m,lllcahle meso-altcromorph is
strongly deformed, it get's a curwd
habit, ,md many or its segments arc
relati\'Clv displaced along intramineral joint-planes. Although this
alterol11orph displays, in three
dimensions, a shape that dilTers sig'
nillcantJy from its original shape, it
seems that the term mcso-altero-

or

morph is mort:: appropriate than the

term kata-alteromorph, which pertains to more complex and divided
shal)es (compJ're, for example,
the St photographs with 197 Jnd
198, taken in the same profile).

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAllON AND WEATHERING

150-, MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

181, 183
PHLOGOPITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 9.4 m
Meso-(kata)-alteromorph
after phlogopite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
-

0.2

0.1

=-

0.0 mm

i l l " ~. originally consisted of

phlogopite-rich c1inopyroxenite. Its phlogopite crystals "'''ere
altered to \'ermicuJite during In
early step of hypogenc alteration.
During a later step of weathering, in
the lower part of the deep pratlle,
the clinopyroxene grains were
weadlered to phylloporo-alteromorphs of a smectite-group mineral, whereas the \"crmiculite djd
not undergo any later t:ransforma-

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

lion. Higher in the profile, under

conditions of strong leaelling during
a pn'\ious episode of ferrallitic
weatllering, the Slllcctite compo,
nent of the alterite was transformed
to many small CI)stals of kaowute
irregularly associated ,,itl1 dark red
concenO'ations of residual hemalite
(black patches and lineaments in
PPL), whereas the \"Cl"miculite
meso-alteromurphs were weathered to a second generation of

meso-alteromorphs of kaoJinite.
The increase of \"olwne during this
second transformation is added to
the earlier increase due to the
transformation of phlogopite to
\'ermiculite, and is expressed by the
long. Gln'cd and faulted crystal of
kaoJinite.

163

Iso-.

MESO-. KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

184, 18S
GRANITIC ROCK

Sakassou, Dlmbokro,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.8 m
Meso-(kata)-alteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

02

0.1

0.0 mm

01' restricted
drainage prevailing in the
lower part. of' a profile developed on
a biotite-bcaring granitc, the t1akc~
of biotite are weathered to a smec
tite. The replacement generally
starts along the periphery of the
flakes, and extends irregularly
t.oward the center of the mmeral.
IrreGular
intercalations of ~ecb
ondary l)rocluets progressin.>ly separate the primary biotitc into many
flakes of variable thicknes~. The secondary pronuct is a S\.vclling clay,

164

which results in the irregular

expansion of the primary mineral
and in the progressive destruction
of it~ original shape. The result is a
mesoaltcrolllorph, which is turned
into a kata-alteromorph progJ'cssively as weathering develops. The
large incl-case ill ,'olumc of the kataaltcromorphs, compared to the
original volume of the primary
grains, promotes the opening of
many LTill1S- and intermineral fractW'e~ in the neighboring Fcldspars
and a large increase in the likelihood

that they ",rill weather. Most of the

biotite in thc deformed basement
granite is regularly diso'jbuted and
interlayered with leucocratic layers
of quartz and fddspar minerals. The
Ineferential
weatheri.ng
and
swelling of these mica-rich layers
thus cause the opening of the regular foliation of the rock over a thickness of several meters.

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHffilNG

Iso-, MESO-,

KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

186, 187
GRANITIC ROCK

Koua Bocca, C6te d'\voire

Depth: 2.8 m
Meso-(kara)-alteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x 6.]
PPL and XPL

0,3

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

of weathering of
mica shown in these photomicrographs is rather similar to the
one previously illustrated. The
biootC' has weatherer! to a smectitic
clay but. in this case. the weathe,-ing
is complete, and no residual biotite
remains in the meso-kata-alteromorphs. The buildup of pressure
due to the swelling of the clay promoted the deformation of all the
partjalJ)' den~loped alteromorphs
after biotite into small elliptical
meso-alteromorIJhs, each of them

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPH>

resulting from the individual

swelling and relative movement of
separated parts of the primary
grain. The deformation of the mesoalteromorphs is expressed by irreguJar alignments of elliptical
domains. which may ha\'c developed
from a single cryst~J of biotite. The
internal mo\'ements of sLiding and
faulting abo promote the breaking
away of very fine particles 01' smectite, which are soon displaced and
concentrated as WIlling material
within the neighboring open fr~c-

tures and pores. The uniForm optical

orientation of the particles still
observable \\Cithin the meso-alteromorphs is lost whcn the IJarticks
are individually displaced. This
infilling material is then associated
with small skeleton grains of less
weatherable minerals. such as
quartz and feldspar.

165

Iso-, MESO-,

KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

188
MICA-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 13.4 m
Kata-alteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x 4
PPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

clinopyroxenite, in which the

biotite-rich zooes alternate with
pyroxene-rich areas, is partially
"-eathered. The hiotite has been
weathered to kaolinite after an
intermediate stage of a Iteration to
vcrmiculite_ Both processes are
responsible for the strong deformation of the sizes and shapes of tht'
mica, and ror the consequent development of kata-alteromorphs. The
other rock-forming minerals arc
fractured, relati vely displaced, a\1(1
partially weathered to a smectitic
product. The opening of large transand intcrmineral Fractures allows
cutans or suhautochthonous smecrite to be deposited. The volume
I

166

increase of many aligned adjacent

alteromorphs induces the development of irregular, curved and distorted bands of secondary kaolioitc,
whose 0I1entation is related to the
oriented texture of the original
mek, The' distorsion of the kataalteromorl)hs occurs in the three
dimensions, as can be deduced from
the fact that the kaolinite layers,
even in a gil'en alteromorph, are not
alwa),s perpendicular, but are often
progressively oblique and rhen parallel to the plane of the tnin section,
This can be deduced from their
interference-colors and by the progressive inclination of their optic
axes in XPL (not shown), and especially from the regular I'uiations in

the quanti ty of greyish black

microparticles interlayered within
the booklets of kaolinite, These
microparticles mainly consist of
titanium oxide. Titanium, derived
from the primary titanium-rich
biotite, does not enter the structure
of vermiculite, nor that of kaolinite.
It precipitates as insoluble particles
distributed between the layers of
the secondarv sheet silicate,

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINE1\AL ALHRAnON AND WEATHEI\ING

Iso-,

MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

189, 190
ALTERITE DEVELOPED
ON CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I3.8 m
Kata-alteromorph
of "iddingsite"
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

I)

I' I
I of late mac'matic alteration, several grai~s
or oJj'ine were completely transformed to "iddingsite" iso-<Jlteromorphs, whereas the phlogopite
present in the rock was altered to
vermiculite meso-alteromorphs.
During a later step of supergene
we<Jthering, the "iddingsite" was
replaced by goethite. Magnesium
and silica were lost, but the original
orientation of the "icldingsite" was
maintained. The clinopyToxene was
first weathered to saponite and later

PART

3:

ALTF.ROMORPHS

to kaolinite, where<Js the HTmicuUte also was weathered to kaolinite. The interna.l movements in d1e
a.ltercd and then weathered rock,
due to stTong expan.sion of the secondary product~ during their formation, provoked the breakage of
the brittle grains or "iddingsite" and
the ~ubseqLlent deformation and
breakage of the iso-alteromorphs
into kata-alteromorphs. Under
XPL, the different colorations of the
"iddingsite" areas inclieate that their
optica.l oricntations haye been

clirectly inherited !i'om severa.l randomly oriented grains of olivine.

The relative movement of the fragments of the broken alteroll1orphs
led to the somewhat heterogeneous
coloration or each alteromOl-ph. The
small blaek areas (XPL), mainly visible within the Uiddingsite" areas,
correspond to interstitial pores
derived from the breakage of the
alteromorphs.

167

Iso-, MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

191, 192
KERSANTITE

Weathered building
Brittany, France
Sampled by E. Bernabe
Kata-aJteromorph
after biotite
Objective: x 6,3
PPL and XPL

..
I

show
tht' recent weatheI'ing of a
building stone subjected to rain and
to atmospheric pol!ut.lnts. A thick
weathererl cortex progressively
became separated from the fresh
building stone by a progn:s~ivel'y
thicker and thicker irregular fissure
as the weathering extended toward
th l' center of the building stone.
Exfoliation or a biotite crystal
resulted in a typical kata-altemmorph under the influence
many
minute crystals of gypsum grov.ing
I

I I

or

168

benveen the layers of the mica. The

gypsum clearly shows up in XPL as
minute diamond-shaped crystals
\vith low interference-colors (Firstorder grey). The minute black
spots, which are widespread along
the margin of the aJteromorph, are
minute residues of organic material
(fungi, lichens, erc'). These residues
are. associated widl small particles
of secondary calcite. The large
empty pore, whicb lies along the
lower edge of the photomicrograph, corresponds to the opened

ATlAS

or

fissure formed between the weathering crust and the hard building
~tone, Wlder the combined inOucnces of rai.n anJ atmospheric pollutants. The part of the hiotite crystal
that is not exfoliated shows several
in-egu lar inclusions of titanite.

MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Iso-, MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

193, 194
SOIL DEVELOPED ON
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 0.8 m
Kata-alteromorph
after vermiculite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

,;..... 0.2
.

0.1

0.0 mm

I
of hyp0gcnc
alteration, the phlogopite jn
the rock has been altered to "ermiculite, "'hich resulted in the form<1tion of many meso-alteromorph,;
and promoted the disruptiun of the
primary rock. When subjL'cted to
superficial processes, under the
innucnce 01' pedOtlirbation, many
residual minerals have been mixed
into U1e reddish brown pedoplasma.
The vermiculitc residlll:'s arc
quickly transformed into kataaltcromorphs of kaolinite under the

PART

3:

ALTIROMORPHS

influence of' cc.>nditions or c'(n-erne

leaching that prC\'ail in the highly
fissured and fractured superllcial
horizons. Where the ''L'rmiculite
grains fIt tightly within the snil
material, liltk d<Jll1age occurs, but
",here they protrude within the network of l)Ore,; in the soil, they
expand irregularly and form kataalteromorphs composed of kaolinite, "ho,;(' volume ami shapes difkr
sign iI'ican t1)i ("pop -altcromorph")
from the original ,-olullles and
shape., of U1C primar)' mineral. In

the beginning stage of weathering,

th~ vermiculite is irregularly weath-

ered, and many thin and distorted

layer,; of unweatltcreJ vermiculite
are still distinguishable ,,,ithin the
colorless kanlinjte component of
the kata-alteromorph.

169

150-, MESO-, KATA-ALTEROMORPH5

195
SOIL DEVELOPED ON
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 0.4 m
Kata-alteromorph
after vermiculite
Objective: x 6,3
PPL

["

~
=-

0.2

-- -- 0.1

0.0 mm

196
SOIL DEVELOPED ON
CLlNOPYROXENlTE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 0.2 m
Kata-alteromorph
after vermiculite
Objective: x 4
PPL

- 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

l I
l
I
photomicrogTaph
illustrates the case of a small
residue' of vermiculite. Part or it,
fitting tightly within the soil material, is not yet weathered. The other
part, protruding \\'ithin a large
empty pore, is completely wC'J.thered to colorlcss kaolinite. The
bolinite portion of the alteramorph has aClluired a roumlish fanlike shape under the inOul'nce of the
exp.:msion that prc\ailed during the

170

mesomorphic weathering of the

vcrrnicu lite.
Once completely released rram
tlle surrounding matrix, all the
residues o!" verm.iculite weather to
TUundish bra-Cpop ~)-alteromorphs
of colorless bolinite which, under
the influence of furt'her pedoturbation, can be again mixed within tllC
surrounding matrL'(, as arc We other
residual primar)' or secondary minen]s, gi\'ing rise to Wc- unusual dis-

trihution shown in the lower photomicrograph. The pale yelkm'

coJor of tue pore areas is due to artiflcial staining of
impregnating
material during the making or the
thin section. This allows
colorless kaolinite-rich
kata-alteromorphs to be easily distinguished.

we

we

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MlNERAL ALTERATION AND WEATl-lEl1lNG

150-, MESO, KATA-ALTEROMORPHS

197
SoiL DEVELOPED ON
BIOTITE-RICH GRANITE

Akuvikro, Dimbokro.
central Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.6 m
Meso- and kataalteromorphs
after vermiculite
Objective: x 6.3
PPL

0.3

0.2

c-

0.1
0.0 mm

198
SOIL DEVELOPED ON
BIOTITE-RICH GRANITE

Akuvikro, Dimbokro,
central Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 4.8 m
Meso- and kataalteromorphs
after vermiculite
Objective: x 10
PPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

photomicrograph
shows an irregular assemblage
of many meso- and kata-alteromorphs resulting from the weathering of biotite crystals to kaolinite
after an intermediate step of vermiculite. All these chemical Iv/ resistant
alteromorphs are now mixed within
the soi I material, but their poor
mechanical resistance is responsible
for their deformation. The irregular
distribution of all these alteromorphs, and the cLiJficult)' to recognize the original shapes and outhnes

i l l .)

PART) : ALrrRoMoRPHS

of eacD alteromorph, make them

comparable to a cryptomorphic
assemblage of alteromorphs (sec
later). Alteromorphs are deformed
o\\ing to the internal pressure generated by soil movements; many of
them are microfaulted and distorted
by internal faults and microglides.
The lower photomicrograph
shows, in its central IJan, a kataalteromorph after biotite ~ vermicwite that has become fragmented
and distorted, in the tbree dimensions, into many pieces whose

shapes and orientations allow tile

position and the nature of the primary mineral to be easily recogn..ized. These micromorphological
characteristics satisfy the deFinition
of a kata-alteromorph.

171

GEOMETRI 'A
PARTICULAR

CRITEIUA:
ASE.-

Four more particular cases of alteromorphs are

common. Their patterns are closely related to the first
lel'c1 of classification, hasecl on the extent
preservation uf the shapes and sizes during the weathering
process. These characteristic modifications are
included in the definitions of Ule four following terms.

or

p~

uJomMpb.

he term pseudomorph (from the Greek

tjJEv6oi;; = error) refers to a particular case of an

alteromorph: it reslilts from the isomorphous

weathering of a ellhedral mineral, which maintains
its well-developed

and

characteristic faces

The characteristic shape and crystal faces of the

primary mineral are pedectly mainta,ined regardless of
the crystallographic systems of the secondary minerals.
Exam~)les include: a euhedral bipyramidaJ prism of
oli\'ine (orthorhomhic symml'try) replaced hy an
aggregate of Oakes of a smectite-group mineral (phyllosiLcate with a monoclinic symmetry), a eubeclral
monoclinic crystal of augite replaced hy an aggregate
01' gueth,ite microcrystals (orthorhmnhic symmetrv), a
euhedral crystal uf plagioclase (triclinic) replacl'd hI' an
aggregate of small crystals of gibbsite (monoclinic
symmetry), a cubic crystal of pyrite replaced by an
aggregate of hematite crystals (hexagonal symmetry).
All these alteromorphs maintain the shape and \'(Jlume
01" the original minerals; the shape typical Cor the symmetry of the primary mineral is preserved regardless
of the symmetTy uf Ule secondary mineral. This preservation of the characteristic shape justifies the term
pseuJomorph. The secondary mineral, or the aggregate
of secondary minerals, has inherited a characteristic
shape that is not its own.

(Fig. 15). The term "pseudo-alreromorph" cannot

be used, because it conjures up a contrary

Echino-a/t eromorphs

meaning.

EuhedraJ minerals are not I'cry widespread in

comrnon rocks. ConseCJlIent ly, pseuclomorphic aJu:romorphs are not commonly observed in their alterites.
,'\mong the common euhcdral primary minerals arc
some accessor~' minerals such as zircun, apatite, titanite, magnetite, pyrite, garnet, staurolitc and epidote.
The quartz of hydrothermal veins in some cases
15.
Rdatiun,hip uf a pscudorllurph to
roan' miner;.}!.

fiGURE

grain of a pri.

exhibits a cuJ1Cdral outline. Many of these minerals are

not easiJy weathered, and the)' can persist for a long
time in the weathered layers and soils. EuJledr,,1 phI'"
nocrysts 01' olivine, allgite, plagioclasl' and leucite also
are obsefl'ed in effusive rocks, and cuhedral crystals of
pyroxene, amphibole, garnet ancl epidok are common
in intrusive or metamorphic rocks, These more
weatherablc minerals commonly produce pSl'lldomorphs, whate\'l'r the conditions under which they arc
weathered.
Natural crysTals are not always perfectly
developed. Thus the definition of pseudomorph can
be extended to alteromorphs derived from welldeveloped crystals whose outlines exhibit some
defects, embayments. inclusions and irregularities.
such as are found in subhedr'al and skeleton*'
crystals.

he term echino-alteromorph (from the Greek

EXLVO~

= urchin) refers to a particular and

uncommon case of the mesomorphous pattern,

from which it is distinguished by the fact that a
part of the secondary material, mainly a smectitic
clay, protrudes beyond the outline of the original
mineral by infilling radiating intermineral* or
transmineral* fractures opened around the primary mineral by the internal pressure of the
expandable plasmas of the alteromorph (Fig. 16),

The general shape of the primary mineral is rela-

tively well I)rescrved, because only racliating"spines" of

alteroplasma arc added to tile slightly modified olltline.
The inlllling material of these open radiating fractures
is generally the same as that within the alteromorph.
lnfillings of nontron,itil~ or saponitic clay expelled

PRIMARY M\N~RAL

ECHIt'fQ,ALTERQMORPH

16.
Relationshjp of an cchino-.'ltcmmorph to;) grajn (If
a pri,nary rninerJI.

FIGUHE

172

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MIN.EJ\Al ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

= phantom, ghost) refers to a partic-

beyond the border or an altcromOl-ph after o!iline or

qHXVTG'.(TfJ.-Cl

p~~-o.xene are COIDlllon in rarbating intermineral Irac-

ular case of a katamorphous pattern of weather-

tures opened among adjacent grains all around the

ing in which minute residues or traces of

smectit,~-rich alteromorph.

secondary products or textures, with irregular.

In alteromorph~ that develop uncler the inOuence

01" hypogene processes, the s('condary products may
consist or tlm different mineral species. In this case,
the main constituent generally occupie~ most of the
altel"Olllorpb, inside the original boundaries, whereas
the minor (or the most mobile) constituent is concentTated pel"ipherall~ and in tbe newly formed volumes
den"loped in tbe radiating fi-actures. For example, the
hydrotherma.l alteration of orthopyroxenc may give
rise to tale associated with minute particles of magnetite, which concentrate the iron that has not been
incorporated in the relati'-cly magncsian talc. Talc
forms most or the alteromorph inside the original
boundaries, \vhereas magnetite grains are preferentially concentrated in a rim and as infillings of the radiating fractures. The serpentinization or isolated grains
of olidne in an olivine-bearing pyroxenite pr,wieles
another example of' echinn-alteromorphs. Serpentinegroup mincrals occupy tJle innermost part of the
alteromorph, \\-hereas the associated magnetite is l)r('Fcrentially concentrated in a peripheral rim and as infillings of radiating fracturc,S (sec belol\-, Fig. 371\).
Another example of an echinomorph is given by
the metamorphic or Iwdrothermal altcr:ltion 01" pyTOX('ne to aIllphibolf'. A monomineralic grain of p~Toxene
is replaced by a radiating aggreg<lte or amphibolc needles and prisms (cummingtonite, tTemolit(, aclinoUte). These secondary minerals have a tendency to
show pronounceel automorphic eleveJopment; they
may continue to grow outside the original outline. and
they penetrate into the secondary products larmcd at
the expense of adjacent minerals. 11' the aeljacent millerals <Irc also grains or pyroxene, tJleir transformation
results in similar patterns, and contiguous echinomorphs arc formed whose radiating needles and
prisms arc strongly intercOlmeeteJ and intl'icate (sec
below, Fig. 37B). The original outline or the grain b in
some cases identiJlable owing to thin deposits or magnetite, regularly distributed along these outlines.
Where tJlese outlines an:: no lunger identillabll', the
a~gregate of ecbino-alteromorphs may belcome an
aggregate of "Xpw-(cchino)-alraomorphs (sce below).

Phanto-alt r morph-

T
PART

3;

he term phanto-alteromorph (from the Greek

ALTIROMORPHS

discontinuous or diffuse outlines, are observed

within a matrix with which they contrast by their
color, density, crystallinity, shape or internal texture (Fig. 17). Phanto-alteromorphs are commonly observed in partially replaced materials.
The original margins are no longer recognizable
hecausc the~' arc progressively ohliterated and assimilated by tJJe surrounding mab-Lx. The position of the
primary mjneral is generally identifiable; it i~ seg-

PAIMAAY MINERAL

17.
Hc!Juon.sh.ip
primar! millcral.

fl(;UHI'

PHANlQ-ALTEROMORPH

(>f a phanw-altcromorph to a grain of"

mented. and it., dd'ormed rragments gencrally exJubit

<111 ilTealUar aJld diffuse outline. The final volume of the
reCo~ltzeel
part of the phanto-alteromorph is ~oenerallv.
b
much smaller than the inferred original volume of the
primary mineral. An inlporrant fraction of' tJle mineral
has been replaced owing to an epigcnetic proccs~* hy a
s~'condary proeluct similar to 81(' Jllilterial or the surrounding matrix. Phanto-altcromorph~ generally
invuhc residual parts of more complete and more
voluminous alteromorphs. Strictly speakiJlg, they are
mew-aJreromorphs (see helow).
Thrcarl-shaped or lalialed relics after micas anel
.sellta structures after felelspar, completely embedded
in a hematite- or gibbsite-rich matrix, are Cummon in
olel iron crusts Jnd bauxite. These arc good examples or
phiU1lo-Jlterolllorphs in which the epigenetic process
ilJ\'ohing iron and alulllinuln has progressively modilied the shape and internal texture of the prcyiously
larmed Jlterornorphs. The residues arc shapeless. and
their primarv origin is iclentilied only with difficult)'.
They seem slightly different from the surrounding
matrix only by a perceptible modification of their
color, or the degree of their crystaUinity, or h~' a
difference of optical orientation. Such phanto-alteromorphs OCCLU- within calcretes and silcretes, and, is}
general, witJlin alllavers and horizons where an epige;'etic process invohj;lg elements such as Fe, AI, Ca, ~nd

173

netic process invol \ing elements such as Fe, Al, Ca, and
Si plays a dominant role.

Cl~\Pto-OIte romorphs

Crypro-alteromorPhs (from the Greek

KpVTITHV

= to hide. to mask, to conceal) result from an

assemblage of adjacent alteromorphs. generally
iso-alteromorphs. whose

individual

original

boundaries. although maintained, are no longer

clearly identified under the microscope. All adjacent crypto-alteromorphs exhibit similar mineralogical and microtextural contents (Fig. 18).

Where se\'eral adjacent grains of a specific mineral

arc completely weathered to similar aggregates of secondary products, it is common for the products not to
exhibit any particular characteristic or specific orientation. Although the replacement ha.s uccurn.:d without
modification of size and shape (to give, for example, a
group of iso-alteromorphs), the boundary of each original grain is no longer identifiable because all the
alteromorphs exhibit a similar composition and a
similar internal texture. Several different outlines can
be suspected, supposed or imagined For each of them.
This case is common in monomincralic and in
some glomcroporphyritic rocks. Most of their constitul?J1t minerals arc weathered to similar secondary
minerals, which exhibit similar textures. It is also
observed ""here different associated primary minerals
arc all weathered to the same secondary products.
Both olivine and pyroxene, in a basic rock.
may be replaced by crypto-alteromorphs of iron
oxyhydroxides; orthoclase. plagioclase and
nepheline in alkaline rocks, and plagioclase and Kfeldspar in a granitic rock (Fig. 18A). may be
weathered to complex gibbsite-bearing secondary structures in which internal boundaries of
each primary mineral component have become
indistinct. Most examples of amphibollte, mainly
composed of randomly oriented needle-shaped
crystals of amphibole surrounding smaller volumes of light minerals, commonly exhibit a texture consisting of areas of cryptomorphic
ferruginous material enclOSing small areas of

174

residual quartz and secondary gibbsite after pia.

gioclase. All ferruginous a.lteromorphs are imbricated in a such a way that their original
boundaries are no longer identifiable.
The development of crypto-alteromorphs is possihie only where the internal textures or patterns of orientation of the alteromorphs arc all similar. An
assemblage of contiguous septo-alteromorphs (see
below), whose individual septa are al.l characteristically
oriented in preferential directions inherited from eadl
individual primary mineral, does not constitute an
assemblage of crypto-alteromorph.s because the original boundary of each primary mineral can be inferred
from the different and particular orientation of each
group of se-pta or of each a.rea occupied by a seconda.ry
smectite-group mineral (Fig. 188). In contrast, assemblages of glomero-altcromorphs (sec helow) commonly give rise to crypto-alteromorphs because all
individual secondary minerals are randomly distrihuted and randomly oriented in all the alteromorphs.
The first case is common in completely weathered
pyroxene- or hornblende-rich rock.s, under conditions
of ferralhtic weathering, wherea, the second c.15c is
more common, under similar conditions of weathering, in completely weathered feJdspar-ricll rocks such
as anorthosite.
Potential crypto-alteromorphs can be
observed in ultramafic rocks in which olivine and
orthopyroxene grains are intimately associated.
Both minerals may be weathered to very similar
smectite-group minerals. In fact, they can only be
easily distinguished from each other where the
orthopyroxene-rich part of the assemblage
exhibits the distinctive symplectitic* texture, in
which intergrowths with unwearhered magnetite
clearly show the original contacts between grains
of orrhopyroxene (With magnetite) and olivine
(Without magnetite) (Fig. 18C), Potential cry ptoalteromorphs also may be found where alteromorphs after olivine exhibit traces of curved
protoclastic fractures, whereas the alteromorphs
after orthopyroxene exhibit traces of linear
transverse fractures. If the optical orientation of
the secondary products is different in the two
alteromorphs, they are not classified as cryptoalteromorphs. but rather as groups of iso-alteromorphs.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

fIGURF.

A.
0:
I:

2:
l:
4:

18.

Mod,> of formalion of crypto-alteromorphs.

Three dilferent pt'imar), minerals, and only onc secondary minel'al is produced
irregular assemhlage of anhedral crystal., of orthocla.'e and plagiodasc wilh ,1 "uhhedral'T)'stal of hiotitc;
irregular p,'lIieular anti une"r incipient wNth,'ring of th,: main primary minerals tu gih!>site;
G1H'rnOUS residues ar,' isolated. with residual void" bctwe('n sepia of gibhsil". BionIc we.ld,crs 10 kaolinite;
minute residues uf j<-Idspar. mall.\' f('sidual voiels and incipient weaclll'ring uf the hiotit' - ka,-,Iinil'~ to gibhsilc;
glomero-Sl'p"ric and linear le"tures Wilhout clearly recognized boumlarics: CI\YPTO-ALTEROMORPHS.

No"': The parallel linear te"ture and the interlJ~'crcd deposit, of iron o"~'h~'dro,,ides allow the altcromorph Jflcr biotite tl) he clearly distinguished. in the cryprulUorpnk assemblage, from the alteromorphs aft,'r the feldsrars. The ,'dei'pars start to wealher along fractures, cleavage' amJ twin planes; intcrmincral houndarics rrogrcssivdY tend tu disarp'-'lr.

B.
0:

Two dilTerent primary min""als, and only one second.ary mineral produced, but io different orientations

2:

an olivin" crystal wiu, its curvcd protoda.sric fract1Jres has gl'Own in cuntan with a c1ea\'cd crystal of orthopyn,x~ne;
ncady complete wcathcring uf me olivint: into lerrifewu" ,meetite and incipicnt weathering uf the orthoPFoxene;
unorienkd texrur.. of the smectil': after o!i"in<" and para 11,<1 band"d te"tur<.- d.. fineJ by oriented particles of ,mect;le after the

3:

sparse denrjculate r",iuu,'s "f orthopyro""ne I\'ithin regularly orienled sml"clile; (hin depo'its of Ft' o""h~'dro"ide, along fractures and

I:

p)'roxenc;
dt~(n"ges~

4-'

both minerals arc cumpletd~' wcathcn:d to smeclil"; UIC)' arc CI\YPTOALTEROMOHI'HS.

Note: The hOLUldal')' het""en the alreromorphs is delimited Oltl)' b)' the difrerent or;t'ntatiul15 of the sme<,tite. In the casc of an oli\;n<:- and
orthopyroxene.rich rock. the weathered rock can ""hibit many ",;semhlages of cr)'plo-allernmorphs, whl)s~ origin is "ecognizable
only hy the orientation of the smcctitc and hy the ,unlu(k (If the original ti-,lCl'Ures.

C.

2:

Onc. partly polyphase alteromorph (with primary' mineral) and similar secondary products
a larg" 'Tvsul of nli"ine is partl)' rerlaccd I", a ,'On)!la (>1' a >y,nrlcctilic assemhlage ,,1- hyp('rslhene and lllagmtilc;
in(ipi~nt weathering or the residual cur" uf uli\'ine to a smecLite along ir., rrotoclastk frKnlreS;
complete weathering of the olivin,' enre 10 ,mcetite, \\'Iwrea~ the svmpkctiric corona is still UIlwcalh"rcd;

]:

par-d:' weathered h)'persthcnc to sn'1cctitc \,ho.<i~ cornp1hilion is similar to that oJ' the "'1nl"'ctit<.: '.:d'rer oli\'inc;

4:

hQlh ol;,-;nc dnd hypcrsthene an' '\(,<lcllered

0:
1

10

unoriented srne<.titc: CRYI'TOALTEROMORPHS.

Note: Only tht presence "I' the original intcrgrowth with magnetitc .11l"ws cl,e srnectik-hcaring alternmorph after orthl)pyroxent to he
dearlv distinguished !'rom Ihe intcrgmwth.h"c a!tcr<lInnrr'!> after oli''-;n". Thi' complc" assembl,lg"
mineral.. lead.. tl) the devel
IJp'tlent ,,1' pol~rhase, polygen(tie "ry'ptu-altanmorphs,

or

P"'I\1 3: AlTEROMORPHS

175

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

199,200
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
OLlVINE

Kivu. Democratic
Republic of Congo
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0.2
0.1

0.0 mm

201,202
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
OLlVINE

Sonora. Mexico
Sampled by L. Paz
Moreno
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

six-sided shape
or a euhedral crvstal or olhrine
in a basaltic rock. r\ thin rim oC dark
green sapon.it{" is irregularly dc\'cl
oped around the cTJ'stal. The higher
interCerence-color or the rim is an
indication of a higher iron content.

176

Below, .1 skdetal (incomplete)

euhcdral crystal or oli\i.l1e sur
rounded b:-; a regular rim or reddish
brown "iddinosi [1".". Dom.ains of
'"
basaltic groundn1a.ss
are located
inside tht' skeletal phenocr:-'st.
Note the anomalolls intcrfncnce

color, caused by dispel'sinG of th...

optic axes because the crystal is cut
nearly perpendicular to an optic
axis.

ATLAS Of M,CROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

203,204
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
ORTHOPYROXENE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

20S,206
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
CUNOPYROXENE

Kivu, Democratic
Republic of Congo
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

t
I,,
,
of orthop)TOXene (bypersthene) is characterized by its pleochroism, in
shades of pink. The cr)'stal normally
has a slTaight extinction. bUl the
c:ry~tal shown has been fractured
and slightly deformed by tectonic
forces, 'The two halves of the prism

PART

3 : AiTERml0RPHS

are not exactly at l'xbnction at the

S<lme angle of rotation of the microscope stage, Note the occurrence Ol
many lTanwersc fractw'es,
The euheural phcnoCTyst of
dinop}Toxene (augitc) in a b.lsaltic
rock is cut nearly perpendicular to
an optic axis. Consequently. its

intcrFerenc~-colors

are very low.

Note the irreguJar inclusions of
basaltic groundmass and the chemical 7.On.iog of the crystal, expressed
b, slight variations in l:olo]' in both
PPL mu Xl)L photographs.

177

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

--~

207,208
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
ClINOPYROXENE

Kivu, Democratic
Republic of Congo
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

- 02

0.0 mm

209,210
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
HORNBLENDE

Koua Bocca,
Cote d'lvoire
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

of a euhedral phenocryst of c1inop)Tox.

enc (augitc) in a basaJtic rock shows
sector zoning, each sector displaying particularly wcll-dcvc.lopcd
oscillatory wning. During its
growth, the lxystal cogulfed many

178

small inclusions of basaltic material

and broken crystals of augitc.
Below, sc\'eral euhcdralcrystals
of hornblende and anhedral crystals
of clinopyroxcne are emhedded in a
poikiloblastic c~'stal of quartz. The
two crystals of h~)]"nb)cnde in con-

tact exhibit the charactelistic shapes

of amphibole-group minerals. The
grain is six-sided \.. . here it is cut perpendicular to the Z ax.is, and rectangular when~ it is ClIt parallel to the
Z ax.is.

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERA1. ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

111,112
SUBHEORAL CRYSTALS:
PLAGIOCLASE

Visoke volcano,
Democratic Republic

of Congo
Objective: x 4

PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

213,214
EUHEORAL CRYSTAL:
PLAGIOCLASE

Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

Objective: x 10

PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

i l l .\ I of porphyritic basalt
shows a typical glomeroporphyritic texture. Lath-shaped subhedral phcnocrysts of plagioclase
are clustered in aggregates of radiating crystals carled glomerocrysts.
They are enclosed by a fIDe-grained
ground mass composed of ouvine,

PART 3 : ALTEROMORrHS

augite, plagiodasc and magnetite.

The\' exhibit the characteristic elongate shape and albite polysynthetic
twinning (locally combinecl with
twinning according to the pericline
and Carlsbad laws). Set' also the
previous photographs t 10, II I, I J 6
and 117.

The central part of th.is rectangular section of a zoned euhcdral

crystal of plagiodase is altered to an
oxidized sme-ctitic secondary product along its cleavages and frartures,
whereas U1e external, more sodic
part of the zoned crystal b much
less affected by weathering.

179

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

215,216
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
TlTANITE

Koua Bocca.
Cote d'lvoire
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.2

0.1

0,0 mm

217,218
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
EPIDOTE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0,1

I
is commonly observed
as an accessory mineral in many
igneous rocks. Crystab are generally diJmond-shaped, as shown
here. Its shape, its bra,","""!] color Jnd
its high relief mJke it casy to identify in th.in section, Its \'ery high

180

birefringence Jnd its dark color

cause it to show a similar color in
both PPL and XPL.
This well-developed crystal of
epidote i[lustrates the typical shape
of a euhedral crystal, Jchieved
vl'hcre it can freely LTystallizc bcfore

0.0 mm

the surrounding minerals, Nevertheless, the o)'Stal is not perfeetl~'

euhedr.ll, as it contains many inclusions of quartz and plagioclase,
trapped during the Ia.~t stage of
growth.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AlTERATION AND WEATHERING

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

219,220
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
GARNET

Brittany, France
Objective: x 4

PPL and XPL

0,6

0.4

0,2

0.0 mm

221,222
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
STAUROLlTE

Port Cro, France

Objective: x 2.5

PPL and XPL

1.0

0,0 mm

T'

i r
11
t.
I
of garnet
exhihits nearly all the charactelistic features of members of this
group. Coloration in shades of pink,
a high relief. numerous inclusions.
and radial or crossing fractures are
clearly seen in PPL, whereas its
cuhic symmetry makes the grain

PART

3:

ALTEROHORPHS

isotropic and completely at extlnction in. XPL, whatever its orientation.

A euhedral six -sided prism of
staurolite is ClIt nearly pel'pendieular to its Z axis. This orientation
dctenllines its first-order gn.'y'
interference-calor in XPlo Plco-

chroic in shades or yellow, staurolite

is easily idcntificable in mediumgrade metamorphosed argillaceous
sedimentary/ rocks. The mineral is
"cry resistant to weathering.

181

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

_--

.....

--"

223,224
EUHEDRAL CRYSTAL:
PEROVSKITE

Tapira, MG, Brazil

Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

225,226
EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS:
APATITE AND PYRITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

and Brittany, France
Objective: x 6.3 and x 16
Both views In PPL

0,3

o.1

0.2

=-

0.1

0.0 mm

perovski te
(orthorhombic, I)seudocubic
symmetry) exhibits in thin section
some similarities witb titanite,
namely a high relief and a dark
I)rown coin!". However. the presence
of multiple twinning observed in
XPL, a more roundish shape, and
t.he mineral J.ssociation of the host

182

rock make perovskite (CaTiO J ) easily dist.inguishable from titanite

(CaTiSiO s)
Apatite (hexagonal symmetry)
and pyrite (cubic symmetry) are
common minerals of many igneous
and metamorphic rocks. A prismatic habit with a hexagonal crosssection and a low bircfringence in

0.0 mm

the case of apatite, and the opacity

of the subhedral sections in the case
of pyrite, make these minerals ea.s)'
to identif)' in thin section.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEItAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

227,228
BASALTIC ROCK

Ocean floor
Costa Rica Rift
Leg 70, site S04b
Sampled by C. Laveme
Pseudomorph
after olivine
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

03

!
~

02

':- 0.1

0.0 mm

I
of oli\'ine is
completely altered to a pseudomorph of' saponite. No internal
pores are distinguishable at the .scale
of the optical microscope. It would
seem that the molar volLmiCs of the
P rimal-Y. and secondarv minerals arc
similar, such that the resulting
alteromorph is an iso-holo-pscudomorph. The orientation of the secondary particles 01" sapon.ite is not
uniform.
Most particles are
arranged accord.ing to a parallel
bannen pattern. which corresponds

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

to internal cracks orient.:d perpendicular to the long axis of the original crystal of olivinc, \vhcreas the
other clay rich domains are oriented par;dlel to the plane or th::
thin section. The banded texture
cxh.ibits bright interference-colors,
whereas the other domains are at
extinction
under
XPL. The
pleochroism of the saponite can be
seen in PPL; the clay mineral is pale
),ellow where oriented perpendicular to the plane of the section, and
brownish beige where oriented par-

alIel to it. Such differences in orientation are verv.' commonh observed

in alteromorphs, whatever their
mineralogical origin and the nature
of the secondary mineral. The two
circular black spots and the gre~'
elliptical patch arc artificial holes
and an air bubble napped by the
cow.r glass, respectively.
)

183

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

229,230
BASALTIC ROCK

Ocean floor
Costa Rica Rift
Leg 70, site S04b
Sampled by C. Laverne
Pseudomorph
after olivine
Objective: x 16
PPL and XPL

[01
[

can also

be applied to ~kelet.ll IT)'stab,

which ha\'e not reached their full
development because of rapid
gro\\-th, as in the case of this sixsided grain of oJi\'ine. The fat:l'~ ,Jre

\\'cll developed, but onc dome face

cxhihits large regular rc-cntl-ants.

whereJs t\Vo other faccs enclose

elongate inclusions of matrix mat,'riaJ. Thc groundmass of the basaltic
rock also show" man)' skeletal. Jath-

/84

shaped crystals of plagiocJase, along

with intersertal cryptocrystaline
dinop:Toxcne grains. The olivinc
crystal is tTaIlsforrneu to saponite.
Its diso-ibution and orientation are
very simiJar to those in the two preceding photomicrographs. Whate\'er the orientation of the
secondary minerals, the (llteromorph is not considered to be
polyphase, a:; the same species of'
secondary mineral occupies the

OOmm

entire \,olume of the original primary mineral. There is no modilkation of \o]ume., and intramincral
pore~ are absent. The alteromorph
is

holo-r)seudonlOrph.

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

231,232
CAlC-AlKAUNE

granitic rock
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at outcrop
Pseudomorph
after allanite
Objective: x 16
PPL and XPL

[J
-

0.0 mm

1
I ,\
of allanite
(epidote group) ha~ been comIJletely weathered to poorly crystallized saponite under the inHucnce of
two processes. Metamictization,
which strongly disrupts the crystal's
structure, is due to the allanite's
high content of' radioactive elements. Near-surface weathering led
to the preferential replacement of
this damaged crystal. In PPL, tJ1C

PAf\T 3; ALTEROMORPH5

secondary product i~ regularly and

cOllcentricalJy distributed relative
to the crystal laces whereas in XPL,
the cryptucrystalline natw'c of mnst
of the pseudomorph is expressed by
a nearly isotropic character. The
pseudolllorph is irregular-Iy surrounded by all incom[JJere rim of
skeletal primary eridote. The surrounding rock-forming minerals are
mainly guartz, plagioclase, apatit(',

present in small grains, and micas.

In this rock, only the allanite crystals are completel)1 weathered.
Among the associated minerals,
only the biotite is partially weathered, to saponite.

185

EUHEDRAL CRYSTALS AND PSEUDO MORPHS

211,214
BASALTIC ROCK

Ocean floor
Costa Rica Rift
Leg 70, site S04b
Sampled by C. Laveme
Polyphase pseudomorph
after olivine
Objective: x 16
PPL and XPL

0.0 mm

six-sided crystal of olivine is altered to an

irregular sepro-altcromorph of ferriferous residual sccon<iar~' clays,
whereas the inner volume of each
cell is filled with radiating assemblages 01" flbrous LTystals of a zeoLite-group mineral. Both secondary

186

minerals have formed dUling the

same late-magmatic stage, and they
are associated in the same alteromorph. The result is a polyphase
pscudomorph. Both secondary
phases exhibit a specific orientation;
the clay mineral seems preferentially oriented perpendicular to the

septa and to the extemal margin of

the primary crystal, whereas the
fihrous crystals of zeolite are preferentially or-iented in a radiating pattern.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEAn<ERING

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

23S, 236
METAGABBRO

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Echino-alteromorph
after hypersthene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

.Jl,l"

1"

is composed

01' PIagioc Iase, c IinopyToxene

and orthopyroxene, and minute

grain.s of magnetite. Subjected to
high-grade metamorphism owing to
the emplacement of younger granites nearby, most rock- forming
minerals of the original gabbro have
been completely replaced by secondary minerals. The plagioclase is
replaced by c1inozoisite (colorless
areas 82, 84), associated with a
chlorite-group mineral (pale green
areas, CS) where the border zone of

PAR'T 3 : ALTEROMORPHS

the grains abuts grains of dinop)'roxene. The clinopyroxene grains

are replaced by actinolite, whereas
the orthopyroxene is replaced by
bundles of acicuJar crystals of
tremolite associated with minute
inclusions of magnetite (C3). Small
grains of titanite (A2) and a few
Oakes of biotite (132) have been
formed during the metamorphic
transformation of the rock. The
original margins of tbe primary
minerals have been partially
obscured by the crystallization of

the secondary products, but the

position of each of them can be easily recognized. The cenn-al area
(C3) shows an alteromorph after a
prismatic crystal of hypersthene;
ule acicular crystals of tremo]itc
that replace it are oriented parallel
to the main axis of the original mineral, and many of them protrude
beyond the limits of the primary
mineral, ghing rise to a good example of an echiDo-aIteromorph.

187

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

237
MICA-RICH
PYROXENITE

Koua BOCGl, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I m
Echino-alteromorph
after hypersthene
Objective: x 6.3
PPL

0.3

=-

0.2

0,1

:0- 0.0 mm

area wi th thc' surrounding )'ow1gcr granites, the

pyroxenite of the ultramallc igneous
suite has been strongly recrystallized, and most of the original ('onstjtuenL~ have been replaced by
secondary minerals. The a~gregate
of minerals shown in thc' central
part or the photomicrograph is an
altc..romorph after orthopyroxene,
composed of an irregular bundle of
prismatic crystals of tremolirc. The'
aggTl~gate exhibits a more-or-less
radjating or divergent pattern, and

188

some crystals of tremolite have their

terminations Jargel)' protruding
beyond the original boundary of the
primary mineral, emphasized by an
irregular rim or minute grains of
magnetite, During their growth,
two prisms of treinolite' have
pushed aside pan of the magnetite
lim (El). The tremolite penetrat(>..$
the surrounding vermiculite, which
is formed at the expense of large
grajns of phlogopite. The result is a
typical echino-alteromorph. The
other altered grains just visible in

the upper left and in the lower right

corners are also orthopyroxene
LTystals, entirely replaced by bundles of tremolitc associated with
1l.unute crystals of magnetite. The
magnetite contains the .iron of the
original hypersthcnc that has not
been consumed in the formation of
the tremolitc. Consequently, these
alteromorphs and the central echinomorph are polyphase altcromorphs.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

238,239
ORTHOPYROXENEAND
BIOTITE-RICH
PYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.2 m
An illustration of
the further development
of echino-alteromorphs
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL
-

0,6

0.4

- 02

0,0 mm

T .

I1 I' I "" has been salnpled iu the lowest part of the

landscape, where the drainage is
restricted and where, as i\ result, the
rates 01- weatbering are rerluced,
TIle rock, which is rich in orthopyroxcne enclosed in large poikilitic
crystaJs of biohte, has been altered
by a hypogene process to iso-alteromorphs of talc after orthopyroxene
and to meso-alteromorphs of vermiculite after biotite, The isoalteromorphs are surrOlUlded by a
regular rim of secondary magnetite,
corresponding to the iron or the

PART 3 : ALTffiOMORPHS

ortllopyroxene tbat does not enter

the structure of the talc. These iso,
alteromorphs after orthopyroxene
are polyphase (talc + magnetite)
altcromorphs, The volume increase
01' the surrounding vermiculite
explains tbe opening of many interlayer voids, In XPL, the talc areas
show a micro-aggregated texture
and the expected second- and thirdorder interfercnce-colnrs of talc,
whereas the unidirectional arrangement of the vermiculite is obvious,
The sizes and shapes of the altcromorphs or talc seem to be similar to

those of tbe original grains of

orthopyroxene, Consequentl.y, they
can be classified as iso-alteromOl'phs, As is c:ommon in most
alteromorphs of hypogene origin,
no resirlual voids are obscn'cd. The
iso-alteromorph is also a 11010altel"Offiorph, Note that the rim of
magnetite clearly outlines each
alteromorph of talc (sce next pho'
tomicrographs, 24-0, 241),

189

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

240,24.
ORTHOPYROXENE
AND BIOTlTE-RICH
PYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I m
Complex and imbricated
echlno-alteromorphs
after orthopyroxene
and biotite
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

.- 0.2

0.0 mm

1I
, I
is similar to
Ulat shown in the former photographs. Although the rock is
strongly metamorphosed, UJc original texture is clearly recognizable. A
rim of magnetite surrounds the
alteromorphs after pyroxene; these
rims are thuUler than UJose shown
in the previous iUustrations, but UJe
size, shape and distribution of Ule
alteromorphs are similar. The higher
I:,rrade of the hypogene process has
resulted in UJc replacement of both
primary orthopyroxene and biotite
by UJe same secondary mineral: aJl

190

needle-shaped crystals, regularly

oriented through the area shown,
consist of a monoclinic al.11phibole
of the tremolite - ferro-actinolite
series. Its nearly colorless appearance, in PPL, indicates t.hat its composition is near UJat of t::remoljte.
Most of the iron content of the
orthopyroxcne had preViously been
im:orporated in the magnetite rims.
Consequently, 110 more iron enters
Ule composition of fie arnph.ibolegroup mineral. Compared with
photomicrographs 238 and 239, talc
has disappeared, and a parallel tex-

ture replaces the radiating texture

of the tremolite needles, but the
preserved rims of magnetite allow
the tex"ture and Ule mineralogy of
the original rock to be easily recognized. The tremohte needles protru(k~ out of the alteromorpbs after
pyroxene, and continue into the
neighboring alteromorphs after
biotitc; this justifies a classification
of UJe alteromorphs as (reciprocal)
echino-alteroroorphs.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALT"ERATION AND WEATHERING

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

242,243
GABBRO

ltapeva. SP. Brazil

Sampled at outcrop
Echino-alteromorph
after olivine and

plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
-

0.2

0.1

~ 0.0

mm

I,

I,

of' olivine

and plagiodase have been par

tjallv,
weathered tu -yclkl\vish
saponite and to colorless isotropic
material, respectively. The result of
this comhined weathl2riJ1g can be
described ,1S an cchinoaJteromorph
because the domains of saponite
protTude from the original volume
of the olivine, aJ1d penetrate the
f'cldspar grain along lhe median
planes of the digitate network of fissures filled with isotropic material.
The saponitc is regularly oriented as

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

long as it is included vdthin the

original volume of Ule oli\'inc, but it
is de\'oiJ of rc.oular orientation
'='
within the ncighboring grain of
feldspaJ', as can be clearly seen in the
picture wken in XPL. A le\\' clenticulate' remnants of 0Ii\'iJ1C persist in
part or the alteromorpb (A3),
whereas sC\'cral remnants ba\'e bt'en
later Wl\lthcred to hydrated oxiclcs
iron. /\ccording to the distribution of all these secondar~ products,
it is highl), probable that this last
,tep of weathering of olivinc is con-

temporaJ1cous with the weathering

or the feldspar grain to isotropic
material. In contrast, the digitations
of saponitc occurred in the early
weathering step of the fellbpar, at a
stage when many radiating fjssw-e_~,
which are artributeJ to the increase
in volume of the altcromorph af"tcr
olivinc, broke the then unweathcred
grain of feldspar.

or

191

ECHINO-. CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

244,245
GABBRO

ltapeva. SP, Brazil

Sampled at outcrop
Echino-alteromorph
after olivine and
plagioclase

Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0.2

0.0 mm

arc to
be compared to the two preceding ones. In the medi= part of
the thick oxidized cortex that surrounds the relatively wlweathered
core of the weathered boulrler from
which the preceding photographs
were taken, the sapuni.te domains
are oxidized, and replaced by reddish brown secondary products
whose optical characteristics arc
very similar to those of the cam
monly observed "iddingsitc". The
origin of this secondary I)roclllct is

192

made c!c<Jr by the fact that all intermediate steps of coloration can be
observed, the alteromorph after
olivine being yellow in the core of
the boulder and red in its corlex.
This comparison allows the penetration of the sal)onite formed at the
expense or olivine into the feldspar
to be better \cisualized, although in
this case, agra..i.n ofpyroxene (C3) is
parrly located between the ouvine
and the Feldspar grains. Dark brown
areas of iron oxvhvdroxidcs
are ran,
doml)' uistTibuted around the
)

alterolT1orph after olivinc and

within the partially weathered rock.
Note that the volume of the
isotropic secondary product after
feldspar has not increased compared
to its volume in the earlier pho.
tomicrographs. It will be necessary
to examine a thin section 01' the
external part of the cortex to evaluate the further replacement of the
isolTopic material by gibbsite. These
four photographs illustrate guitc
well the fact that ol.i.vine is the most
weatherable mineraJ of the rock.

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AlTERATION AND WEATHERING

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

146,147
BASALTIC ROCK

Morocco
Sampled by A. Dekayir
Crypto-alteromorphs
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

\
I

I of olh'ine
crystals has been weathered to

i '

bro'wnish green secondary products

of nontronitic composition. The
intermincnl boundaries of the original grains of olivine and the irregular interrnineral and transmineral
fissures bave been the pathways
along \\-hicll dark brown deposits of
iron oxyh~'droxides ha\'t~ formed.
The complicated network resulting
from aJl these fissure, and deposits
makes the different alteromorphs

PART

3 : AlTEROMORPHS

indistinguishable from onc another.

E\'cn under XPL, it is 110t possible
to clearly distinguish the boundaries
uf all the original grains. Such a
complex aggregate corresponds to
an assemblage of erypto-alteromorphs. No residual pores are seen
within the alt<::rnmorphs: they arc
conscCjuently crypto- holo-alteromorphs. Note that same areas of
sccoDlhry products after oli"ine
either exhibit a constant orientation
of their particles or do not e.:,hibit

any particular orientation. In eertaiD cases, some areas exhihit two

different (rane/om and parallel) patterns of internal orio:ntation. Crystals of the mucb less weather,lble
pla!orioclase are only partl~' affected
along the intramincral cracks ami
along their twin planes.

193

ECHINO-. CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

148,149
DIABASE

Touba.
western C6te d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Cortex on a boulder
Crypto-alteromorphs
after c1inopyroxene
and plagioclase
Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.00101

has been
transformed, LUlder conditions
01' f'en-allitic weathering, tu a typical
cr)'ptomorphic
assemblage
of
alteromol'phs after pbgiuclase (colorless lath.shaped altcromorphs in
PPL) irregularly associated \\'ith
alteromorphs after lerromagncsian
minerals (brown-colorcd altemmorl)!ls in PPL). The lower photomicrograph, take_n in XPL, clearly
shuws the mineralogical and micnJtextural differences ~xhjbited hy the
two kinds of alteromorphs. The
feldspar crysta.ls have been \ycathcred tu glomero-altcromorphs of

194

gibbsitc (first-order white), and the

irregular grains of clinopyroxene
have been replaced by septo-alteromorphs of redd.ish brown oxyhydroxidcs of il"On. The boundaries
between rJ1C two kinds of altero
morphs are dearly seen because
gibbsite crystals arc absent within
the septo-altcromorphs after pyroxenes, whereas fe.rrugu10uB material
is absent (or nearly so) within the
glomero-alteromorphs after felcbvar.
But the exaet boundaries between
ncighboring alteromorphs of similar
mirreralugicaJ origin ca.nnot be
clearly seen, even with detailed

obsenations by optical microscopy.

This is especially tJ1C case where
septo-alteromorphs are concerned.
Se\'eral possihle boundaries ca.n be
considered for each of them.
although the original boundaries are
certainly maintained around them,
Thi_~ curresponds lo the aho\'e definition, and both groups of altel'Omorphs are CI')'pto-alteromorphs.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAl ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-. PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

250, 25 I
AMPHIBOLlTE

(metadiabase)
Guarulhos, SP, Brazil
Sampled by M. Bergman
at rock outcrop
Case I:
unweathered rock
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

06

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

and
the next four are taken from
onc large sample that contains a
large core of uJlweathered rock surrounded by a very thick cortex of
completely weathered rock. The
photomicrographs of the unwC'athered rock are shown here to better
\izualize ho\\" quickly a rock with
typical and easily identifiable minerals and texture has become, under
conditions of ferrallitic weathering.
a completely weathered cortex; in
it. both minerals and textures are

PART

11',

11.

3 : ALTEROMOR.PHS

'.

\,

those of a cryptomorpruc assemblage in which the origiml minerals

are no longer easily distiliguishable.
The lU1\\'eathered rock is composed
of bundles of green amphibole,
irregular
interstitial
colorless
islands or quartz md alkali feldspar,
and opaque minerals. The amphibole consists or an assemblage of
bundles of subparallel elongate
CTystals. Each bundle of amphibole
CT;-:stals is diversely colored, in PPL,
owing to the pleocllrobm of the
mineral, which varies from dark

green to pale yellowish green. Each

amphibole bundle appears with its
own general coloration because all
its component crystals are oriented
more al' less parallel to each other,
whereas their average orientation
appears different relative to that in
neighboring bundles. The boundJI-jes of each amprubole crystal or
a5semblage can be dead>, identified
when carefully observed with
medium to high magruficJtion.

195

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

252,253
AMPHIBOllTE

(metadiabase)
Guarulhos. SP, Brazil
Sarnpled by M. Bergman
at rock outcrop
Case 2:
partly weathered rock
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

-- 0,6

0.4

- 0.2

0.0 mm

ill L1Strate the thin U"J.l1siLiol1al fringe

(some mm thick) that wparates the
unweathered rock (250, 251) from
its completely weathered curtex
(254,255). Most of the feldspa..r is
replaced by irregular glomeroalteromorl)hs of gihbsitc (A4, El).
\\hereas each crystal of the slightly
less wealberahk amphihole has
wldergone its own pellicular weathering to bruwn-colored oxyhydrox
ides of iron. V/here
more
complctel)' weathered, after the disappearance of the residual relll-

196

nants, the bundks of all these partially developed alteromorphs will

bl' turned into irregular assemblages of alveoporo-altcromorphs
whose original margins, although
maintained. \\ill become i.ndistingUishable from onc another; tlley
will have' hecome as.~cmblages of
crypto-alteromorphs. The orientation of the particle!' of iron oxyhydrox.ides formed from each odginal
crystal is not clearly seen hecause
the original crystals of amphibo/e of
each bundle are thin and oriented in
subparallc.1 fashion. ancl not strictly

parallel to each other. Ne\'erthele~s,

the common optical orientation of
many J.mphibole remnants is clearly
recognized in observations of each
amphibole blUldle separately. Many
remnants exhibit the typical denticulate margins of partially weathered
amphibole-group minerals. The
opaque minerals (A4) arc not yet
weathelcd.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ECHINO~I CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

254,255
AMPHIBOLlTE

(metadiabase)
Guarulhos. SP, Brazil
Sampled by M. Bergman
at rock outcrop
Case 3:
completely weathered
rock
Crypto-alteromorphs
after amphibole
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

two photomicrographs focu~ on the completely

we~thered cortex that surrounds
the unweatl1ercd COlT and the intermediate fringe, iJlustnted above.
No amphibole or feldspar remnants
persist in this part of the weathered
rock. Only residual quartz and
opaque mineral grains are preserved. The w(athercd rock is composed of large brown-colored arl?as,
derived from the original bundles of
amphibole, now com'crted to ironrich sccondar~' products, and of
irregular colurless areas composed

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPHS

of residual quart7 Jnd feldspar, the

latter now con""Ttecl to assemblages
of crypto-glomcro-altcromorphs 01'
gibbsite. Both colored and colorlcss
area~ ha\'c given rise to irregular
CT),lJtomorphic assemblages or 5CConcl~r)' miner:lls: hydrated oxides of
iron, which origin:lt( from the
\\'cathering of the amph.ibolc-grnup
mineral, and gibbsilC, which originates from the v.. . eathcring or the
feldspar grain:;, Note that halos or
colored material ha\T im'adeo the
gibbsitcrich areas by irregular Jissemination of iron-rich compounds,

whereas no gibhsitc crystals are

clearly distinguished in the iron-rich
areas formed at the. eXIJense of
amphibole (the small birefringent
crystals in these dark areas are vcr~'
small grains of quartz). The weathered rock, whose original mineralogical and textural p:ltterm have
beeollle ohcured, is now converted
to a complex assemblage of two distinct oomains of crypto-alteromorr hs .

197

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-. PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

256
IRON CRUST
DEVELOPED
ON MICA SCHIST

Embu-Guar;u, SP, Brazil

Sampled by
S.R.. Soares Silva Vieira
Depth: 1.2 m
Phanto-alteromorph
after a mica
Objective: x I6

PPL

[01

0.0 mm

257
IRON CRUST
DEVELOPED
ON CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Phanto-alteromorph
after vermiculite
Objective: x 6.3

PPL

--

0.3

0.2
_

0.1
0.0 mm

shows a micaceous mineral, the

original species not. identifiable,
cumpletely weathered to a kataalteromorph of kaolinite that has
been partiaJj).. replaced by iron
oxides during a later step of iron
accumulat.ion. This later process is
responsible for the dis<lplJearance of
most of the alteromorph, now
reduced to traces of a fan-like
assemblage
of
residual
and
deformed layers of iron-free kaolin-

198

ite. The shapes and colon of the

residual minerals contrast with
those of the more homogeneous
iron-rich matrix; a typical phantoalteromorph results.
The lower photomicrograph
shows a phanto-alteromOl-ph in
which some tnin irregular relics are
harch dsiblc in the iron-enriched
matrix of a tropical iron crus\.
Observatjon<; in the lower part of
the pro!!le show t.hat it results from
an early step of mesomorphic alter-

ation of a crystal of phJogopite to

vermiculite which, during a later
step of weathering, has been partJ~'
weathered to a second meso-alteromorph of kaolinite. The latter still
contains liany ioterlayered remnants of vermicuJite, now replaced
by iron-rich material, recognizable
by its contrasting dark bro\\-TI colol".
TI1e interlavered kaolinite has completely disappeared where replaced
by the less ferruginous, pale brown
matrix.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHffilNG

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

258
ANORTHOSITE

Near Porto Allegre,

Rio Grande do SuI.
Brazil
Depth: 1.5 m
Phanto-alteromorphs
after plagiocJase
Objective: x 4
XPL

0.6

0.4

- 02

O.Omm

is a
monomineralic rock composed
of coarse-graine<1 crystals of plagioc1ase (labradorite). The weathering
of this ca1ciWll-rich rock results in
the release of very important quantities of C<J1cium ions, which are
IeJChed a\\'a~' from the weathering
profiles, being transferred within
the soils and ,,-ear.hering profiles of
the lower parts of the landscape.
There. they accumulate as cakrete
or as nodules of microcrystalline
calcite (microspa.rire) several centimetcrs or decimeten long. vVhere

f'

PA~T

3 : Al1iJ\OMO~PH~

this accumulation invades parental

or partially weathered fragments of
rock, U1C plagioclase grains are
irregula.rly
replaced
by
the
microsparite. The grains are graduall~' reduced to smaller and smaller
residual fragments. Most fragments
crystallomaintain their oriainal
b
_
l:-rraphic orientation, but some of
them may also be slightly rotated.
which is expressed b~' the different
interference-colors
exhibited,
wlder XPL, by neighboring fragments. Regardless of the degree ot'
preservation of t.he original grains,

their original shapes ,md boundaries

arc no longer discernible because
t.he epigenetic process progr~ssl:'S
not nnly along the intramineral fractures, but also along the intennineral suture planes. The extensive
Fragmentation or most grains and
the disappearance of most original
margins make U1C resulting alteromorph a typical phanto-alrl"romorph.

199

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

159,160
PVROXENITE

Tapira. MG. Brazil

Depth: 1.6 m
Phanro-alteromorph
after diopside
partially replaced
by calcite
Objective: X 6.3
PPL and XPL

OJ

~ 0.2

~ 0.1

=--

whose main constituents are diopsidc and phlogopite, is partially replaced by

microcrystalJ ine calcite (microsparite), which develops at the
expense of nearl~' all minerals of the
ruck, especially the calcium-rich
minerals such as diopside. PhJugoI)ite, which is calcium-free, is essenbally LUlalTcctcd hy this process; it
remains de'Hly recognizable as
undisturhed
domain"
isolated
within a largdy replaced groundmass. Such portions of wlaltcrcd
phlngopite are visible in the ldi

200

upper and lower corners of tJw photomicrograrhs. The largest alT<l of

the photograph exhibits a grain of
cliopside that is partiaUy replaced by
aggregate~ of unorientcd microcrystals of calcite. which appear
grey in PPL and bruwllish beige in
XPL The colorless remnants of
unaltered cUopside exhibit t1H,ir second-order interferenceeolors in
XPL. Nute that all remnants of
c1ino[))'Toxenc exhibit a denticulate
shape and an undisturbed common
orientation. Some cracb (as near
the eenter of the cr~'stal) are filled

0.0 mm

vvith coarse crystalline calcite

(sparitc). Where more advanced
and where several contiguous grains
of c1inopyroxene are obscrn:d,
their own original limits will be recognized only with diffjcult~. , because
the orientation of the secondary calcite is uneven and not influenced by
the crystall(lgraphic o"iel1tation of
the replaced mineral.

ATLAS Of MIC~OMO~PHOLOGYOf MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

161
IRON CRUST

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Phanro-alteromorph after
a Fe-Mg silicate mineral
Objective: x 6.3
PPL

0.3

02
0.1
0.0 mm

, ~.
(:
primary mineral has been completely
weathered to ox yhydroxides of
iron. The original boundary' of the
alteromorph has been largely
obscured by the later replacement
of the iron compounds during the
formation of the iron crust. The
internal mOI-phology has also been
destroyed by successive episodes of
recr)'stallization of the secondary
crystalliplasmas and by the opening
of n('wly formed internal pores.
Traces of' several rransmineral fractures are easily recognizable within
the alterol11orph: a large Fracture

PART

3 : ALUROMORPHS

(Cl) has its two walls coated by iron

oxides, whereas a large empty pore
is maintained in the median plane of
the fracture; several. more transmjneral fractures are deadv seen near
the right Jower edge of the alteromorph, but their walL<; are joined
together without lea\-ing any' central
pore. Traces of septa (B2) are more
or leeSs distinguishable within the
areas between the fractures, but
their pattern is not sufficiently preserved for unambiguous identification or the primary rruneral. It may
have been either dinopyroxene,
orthopyroxene, or amprubole. In

view of its ~iz(' and shape, the

phanto-<1.lteromorph must have
originated from the weathering of a
coarse-grained prismatic crystal of a
ferromagnesian mineral. The material that surrounds the pbantoalteromorph does llot contain any
trace
the original textures
the
parent .-ock.

or

or

201

ECHINO-. CRYPTO-. PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

262
IRON CRUST
DEVELOPED

on Blrrlmian schists
Toumodi. Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.8 m
Phanto-alteromorph
after epidote
Objective: x 4
PPL
0.6

0.4

- 0.2

0.0 mm

of primary silicate minerals has been

completely weathered to a cluster
of \'ery porous altcromorphs,
mainly composed of dark brown
iron-rich products. The \\cathcred
rnck i, now a tbick iron crust (more
than two meters thick), oe\'c loped
in the ul)l)er part of the prollle; the
textures of the rock ha\"('
orioinal
b
completely disapP(ared. These
alteromorphs, most of whose original margins Jre no longer easily distinguishable, give rise to an
ilsscmblage ()f crypto-alteromorphs.
The\' Jre embeddeo within a secondary iron-rich plasma that does
not seem to be formed Jt the
expense of in )'iCll primar~' mincrab,
but
rather
corre_ponds
to
illIocht.honous inllllings of a large
cavir: produced b~' the weathering
or a \'('in of hydrothermal origin.
The ohsen'ation of more thin Sl?C-

202

tions of t.he profile, and mainly of

the' slightly weath('red rock From a
depth of s('\'eral meters, indicates
that the original rock is crossed by
numerous \e.inlets of quartz, chlorite and epidote. These obsen'iltions
allow the nature of the primary
mineral re be recognized, because
neither the shape nor the composition of the :dteromorph.s, such as
thev/ are obsened within the iron
crust, are fully characteristic. A
comparison \vith the unwcathered
"einlets indicates that the chJoritegroup mineral h<1.'; been completely
weathered, and that its soft secondary products \\'ere cl.islJerseJ and
eroded, whereas the harder ironrich alteromorphs have resisted to
internal erosion. The epidote is an
iron-poor primary mineral. This is
the reason why illteromorphs
formed at the ('xpense of epidote
grains ilre highJ;' porous; the irregu-

lar rerru~rinous septa correspond to

th",. ratlial Fractures and to the twin
planes of the original grains. Several
alteromorphs ha\'e lost tJleir original shilpe, ilnd were partly
destroyed by erosion; se\'eral residual intramineraJ pores have been
invaded by aUochthonous secondary
products. Under these' conditions,
an identification of th", alteromorphs as phanto-alteromorphs
seems to better correspooJ to the
partly destrnved residual textures.
Some residual gnins of quartz (0 I )
are still maintained witJun the pilJC
brown secondary plasma.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ECHINO-, CRYPTO-, PHANTO-ALTEROMORPHS

163,164
GABBRO

Ribeirao Preto,
Sao Paulo, Brazil
Depth: 0.4 m
Complex meta-cumulophanto-alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

=--

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

T ' ..

11

\'

observed in the upper part of

the profile, results from the Sllccessive intluences of alternating weatb(-ring and accumulation under
conditions of I"errallitic weathering.
A comparative study \\'ith sample~
lower in t1w prullle allow~ the
chronology 01 the successive e\'tents
to be established. The plagioclase is
first weathered to a gibbsite.rich
gl omero -se p to -iso- a Itero mo r ph.
Higher in the profiJe, the residual
voids are inlHled \\-ith allochthonous
kaolinite. As the voids are grJduaUy
in61led, the gibbsite is dissoh-ed,

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

Ica\'ing more and more empty

spaces for illuviation by kaolinite.
The tT-1CeS of the original twin
planes and i.lltramineral cracks of
the feldspar are progressi\'ely
clU"iched in dark brown iron ox)'h~. droxicles. During a later step, in the
upper levcl of the profile, the
allochthonoLls kaolinite is weathered, and rcplaced by J new generation of "autocht1l0nous" gihhsitc.,
giving to tbe complex alteromorph
a new a Ivcuroro-glomero-al teromorphic texture. The brown coloration of tIle gibh~ir.:-rich areas, in
PPL, is duc to the iron content uf

the illuviJI kaolinitc. In XPL. colorless rims of relativel\', coarse crvstals

/
of gibbsile, in an iron-depleted rim
arOlmd t1le residual empt~ pores,
contrast strongh' \\ith the micro
crystals in tJ1e glomero-altcromorphic texture. The
recti linear
ferruginous septa are the. only textural feature of the previously
formed septo-alteromorph tu be
prcsencd in this more recently
degraded phanto-alteromorph.

203

CH,HTER

The Content of Alteromorphs

tJlC primar~' nLinerals (fractures, clea\'ages and twins).

Such features inlluence the progress of weathering
reactions affecting tJ1e primary mineral and, ,15 a I-esult,
the distribution, orientation and micromorphology of
the secondary products (Fig. 19), Whate,'er thL' degree
of preservation of the originaJ shapes and volumes, the
completely (b-e!oped alteromorphs Illay be classified
Hrst]) according to tJ1e total \'olumc of the secondary

III"'.)( 1l1'11' 1'.1111111 regular or irregular,

homogeneous or heterogeneous internal
te:"tures that are independent or tJ1e de?Te.e
oJ preservation 01' the shape and size 01 the
original minerals, These textw'es are closely related
either to dissolution l)rocesses, which deternLine the
volullles of the secondary products and of the complementary secondary "oids, or to tht: internal pattern or

PRIMARY MII\IERAL

WEATHERING

NO RESIDUAL PORES

= FULL ALTEROMORPH

HOLOALTEROMORPH

SECONDARY PRODUCTS AND PORES

= POROUS ALTEROMORPH

I
"PORO"-ALTEROMORPH

FIGURE 19.
Ddll\iti(lIl~ or Jltcrolflorl'hs on u'e hJ.'i' r)r micro[",'1.Ural crileria, I,"., the compl,'mentat! rJi'l.rihlltio" of I..he
seconder) product., and "I' Uil' resid lIal pore' w i ill.in ,-he
alternmorphs. For further criteria

w'es 23 and 27,

NO SECONDARY PRODUCTS
= EMPTY ALTEROMORPH

or dassil1carion,

S(:L'

Fil:!-

'

KOILO-ALTEROMORPH

voids, regardJess of their disn'ibution and organization,

and secondly, <Jccurding to their inherited or neo
formecl intC'rnal textures, which control the complemental")' distribution of the solid ncofOl'med product~
and the residual voids,

TIlL PROPOJH10N 01

OUD

.'\ U POI{I VOLU lE-

AItcromorphs are first classified according to the

r:ltio of the volume of their secondary products to that
of their residual voids. Most residual voids arc formed
\\ithin the alteromorphs, and peripheral residual voicls
surroun<Lng the secondary products are rarely
observcd. Where they are, they probably result from
the opening of a prc\,jously existing intermi.neral*
void.
1-101(1-(1 If cmmOl."hs

olo-alteromorphs (from the Greek

OAO~ =

whole. full. complete) correspond to fully developed alteromorphs in which the volume of the
secondary minerals is apparently equal to the
original volume of the primary mineral. The volume of the possible micropores is not perceptible
at the scale of the optical microscope. and it is
not taken into account.

The se.condary phase exhibits a dense and homogeneous aspect, with or without particular iJ1ternal
textw-cs due to variations i.n grain si.ze or orientation or
the sccondar~' minerals. Holo-alteromorphs are generally produced by peripheral centripetal weathering of
poorly clea\-ed alld unrractureJ minerals under conditions or leaching that do not promote rhe extensin'
removal of th", original soluble constituents. 111 tl1i~
case, the VOlWl1C of the voids is minimal (fig. 20).

Where the primary mineral is not cleaved or frac

tured) the resulting holo-alteromorph is homogeneous, not only in its chemical and mineralogical
composition. but also in it~ internal texture. This is the
case, fOl' example, of the weathering of a pyrite grain
to iron oxide. In conn"ast, where the prim<Jry mineraJ
is fractured or cleaved, the resulting alteromOl"ph may
exhibit some microtextural heterogeneitics. The
occurrence of fractures and cleavages in the primary
mineral promotes ule development, along these
planes, of bener crystallinity or of a preferred orientation or a greater compactiol.\ of the secondary
micropartlcles.
Nontronite-rich holo-alteromorphs after
fractured olivine commonly exhibit such microtextural differentiations. The hypogene alteration
of forsterite (olivine-group mineral) into talc may
give good examples of hoto-alteromorphs in
which the secondary talc may exhibit perceptible
differentiations of the size and orientation of its
elementary particles. Some holo-alteromorphs of
"iddingsite" after olivine may exhibit an intemal
t"sticulate banded network of more compact or
more strongly colored "Iddingsite". In this case.
the network. whose distinct formation is due to
the occurrence of protoclastic fractures, may
become enhanced by minute deposits of earlyformed magnetite.
The holomorphic cbaracter of an alteromorph i~
independent of its mineral content. Aggregates of
secondary products ma)' consist of onc or two (or
more) distinct mineral species. The criterion of clillerentiation of the holo-alteromorphs is based only on the
abscnce of perceptible residual voids.

Kni h)-ultt: romorph.

KOi!o.alteromorphs (from the Greek

KOlAO~

= empty, hollow) correspond to empty alteromorphs. wIthout any secondary mineral. developed by weathering of a soluble mineral (Fig. 21).
The outline or a koilo-alteromorph is ephemeral.
and corresponds to a part of the outline of adjacent mineral grains. The definition of a koiloalteromorph may be extended to an alteromorph
whose content of residual material does not

PRIMARY MINERAL

HQLG-ALTEROMOAPH

e.xceed 2.5%.

FIGURE 20.

Relabol1.shJp or a holo-alrcromorph to a grain or a

primaf")' mi.nera.!.

206

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL Al.TEl\ATION AND WEATHERING

PAIIJ.ARY MINf:FtAl

....OILQ..Al TER,OMORPH

21.
R~la{ionship of a koilo-all('''Orl\orph
prim,,,';' lTJineral,

fiGURE

In

a grain of 'a

Alteromorphs that contain Cl small quantity (less

than 2.5%) of residual material or newly formed secondary minerals may also be included in this group,
The small proportion of residual material consisls of
either unweathcred primary inclusions originally prc:.'sent in the' parent mincral 01' of insoluble impurities
originally present in the host mineral that has been dissolved.
Calcite and dolomite (with a low content of
the ankerite and rhodochrosite components) may
produce. upon complete weathering. practically
empty kollo-alteromorphs containing only small
quantities of residual insoluble iron or manganese
hydroxides, These hydroxides renect the low level
of Fe or Mn substituting for part of the Ca or Mg
in the primary mineral-Apatite crystals commonly
give rise to koilo-alteromorphs surrounded by a
thin rim of brown depOSits owing (Q the precipitation of allogenic iron oxyhydr-oxides in the
phosphate-rich contact area.
Koilo.alteromorphs may persist 1'01' a long time if
the soluble minerals from which they de\'eloped are
relatively few Jnd isolated in the parent rock,The presence of slightly weatherable 01' =\veathcrable surrounding minerals, with persistent outlines and
resistant HJlumes, allows the empty volumes of the
koi!o-a!trromorphs to persist until these surrounding
minerals also arc \veathered and have crumbled. [n
contrast, if the soluble minerals are th", main constituent~ of the rock, as in calcareous rocks (such as
limestones. marbles and carhonatites), the deri\'lo:d
koilo-alteromorphs are ephcmera\. because they ha\'e
no mechanical resistance. KOilo-alteromorph-rich
alteritt'S arc soon subjected to s,~ttling and compae-tion,
and the inhclited structures and textures consequently
disappear.
VVithin horizons of absolute accumulation, or dUl'ing a later stage 01' weathering, koiJo-alteromorphs may
become infilled owing to the later cryst<tllization or
deposition of material transl)ortcd in solution or in
suspension by \'ertical or lateral tl-anskr. These
allochthonous infiJhngs may occur either during or
after the weathering of the mineral. If the inJll1ing is

PART

3 : AlTROMORPHS

synchronous \\ith \ycathering, the potentiaJ koiloalteromorph does n0t develop, and the identification (lf
its origin is easy if examples of ephemeral coexistence
of primary mineral residue,~ and IIrst-fOl-med in fillings
an' ohserved. E\'en where ephemeral two-phase
alterolTIorphs arc not obscned in the thin section, the
nanlre of their infilling material \vill be similar to the
infilling material of fracturcs and pores of the surrounding alteriLc. Therefore, the allochthonous origin
of the inJllling material is suggested, and the presence
of potential koilo-alteromorplv; is con.flrmed, The
narllre of the inFilling material may be in geochemical
discordance with the composition of clle observable
residues or the primar~' minclal. Where such genchemicalJy discordant alteromorphs arc obscn'ed, the
occurrence of potentiaJ kOilo-alteromorphs at the
expense uf completely' soluble minerals may be suspected, and the allochthonous origin of the inlllling is
confIrmed.
Those altemmorphs cllat contain onl)' infilling
materiaIs of allochthonolls 0rigin are wmulo-( koilo)alu:romorphs (see below). Their origi.n \\-iJl be identified
only with JifTjculty withollt residues of the primarv
min('ral in the. alteromorph concerned or in similar
neighboring alteromorphs.
The most common example of such a koiloalteromorph later infilled by allochthonou5 material is probably given by the dissolution of quarcz
grains in an old bauxitic or iron crust, As a quartz
grain is gradually dissolved and as its outlines are
corroded, the newly formed pores and embayments are immediately filled up with gibbsite-rich
or ferruginous allochthonous material, which
comes from the surrounding matrix or is transported through neigh boring fractures. It must be
emphasized that in such a case. the infilling material has a chemical composition that differs
strongly from the composition of the replaced
mineral: quartz does not contain aluminum or
iron, and the infilling material does not contain silica. The infilling of a kOilo-alteromorph after
quartz by calcite cryscallaria' exhibitS a similar
geochemical discordance,
The cumulative infillings may also occur much
lat('r. In such a case, the empty koilo-aJteromorph is
completel)' devdoped long before the first allochthonou,; deposiLs occur. As a result, empty koiJo-alteromorphs and Clunulo-kOilo-alteromorphs are normally'
not ohserved in the same thin section, but they may be
found within two different le\cels of the same profile.
The)' may also never have developed. Empt)' holes
obsCl'ved in old ferruginous crusts and within ferruginous cortices arowld nodules and concretions may

207

have developed D)' ITIe later complete dissolution of

quartz. grains, whose remnants do not persist and
whose residual empty volumes are never infilled by
al1ochthonous material; comparison with neighboring

208

samples, in which the quartz is only partly dissolved,

commonly permits conflrmation of the rleriyation of
these kOilo-alteromorphs.

ATlAS OF MICRO~10RPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTIlV\nON AND WEATHERING

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

265,266
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 14.6 m
Holo-alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I..
I'd I
;1 process has
altered an olivine crystal into
reddish brown "iddingsite", and a
typical holo-alteromorph results:
no rcsidual pores arc observed at
the scale of the optical microscope.
The small specks, colorless in PPL
(Be2) and extinct in XPL, are sec
tions of thin pl'ismatic crystills of
apatite..'\nother crystal of apatite,
lying in the plane of the thin section
(C4), is barch- visible through the
transparent "idcl.ingsite". The original network of protoc!astic fractun's of the primary o]j"ine has

PART) : ALTEROMORPHS

been perfectly prcscr\'(d during the

tnI1sformation of the mineral; it
appears as criss-crossmg dark lineaments that divide the grain and
delimit several adjacenr domains of
secondary products. More recently
developed transmineral fractures
gi\'e rise to opaqul" deposits of
allochthonous manganese oxides.
Note that several domains of
"idd.ingsite" adjacent to these !i'a,tures have also been stained by a
coating of iron compounds, ",bLch
gives them a dark red color. The
original calor 01 the "iddjDgsit~" is

that 01 the more externa] parts of

the alteromorph. In spLtc 01' this late
modification, the optical orientation of the whole alteromorph is
homogeneous, and its extinction
between crossed polars (not shown)
is simultaneous in all iL~ domain.~.
"Vhere they pcrsisl, hoth the remnants of olhine and the secondary
~iddingsitc"
usually extinguish
together (straight extinction). The
grains of clinopyroxene are slightly
\\'('athered to saponite, 'which surrounds denticularc residues (04).

209

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

267,268
OllVINE-BEARING
ClINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I 1.2 m
Holo-alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0,4

0.2

of oli\int>
has been complete-I)' altered,
under the influence of hypogl"ne
processes, to an assuciation of talc
and magnetite. The associatiun of
these two minerals i:-; commonly
encounter~d, and the resulting
altcromorph after olivine is a
pol>phase alteromorph, a~ both
minerals, talc and secondary m:lgnetite, ha ye. formed together during
the same hydrotherm,11 step. The
minute graim of magnetite are
mainly developed within the rim of
the alteromorph, and the~' are

210

related to the original iron content

uf the. o]i\-inc, which has not aJI
entered the structure of the talc
Minute grains of magnetite are aJso
distributed according to a linear
pattern that corresponds tlJ the net
work of protoclastic fractures of the
primary crystal of olivine. No
intraminC'ral pores are observed, at
the scale observable with an optical
micros ope; it is a holo-altcromorph. In XPL, the minute particles of talc arc ranclomlv oriented
through most of the ~11tC'romorph,
whereas relativel)' coarse crystals of'

0.0 mm

taJc are regularly oriented. This orientation is probably related to the

crystallographic orientation of the
original olivine. However, since no
olivinc relics arc observable within
the aJreromorph, this hypotJwsis
cannot be proven. Such an altero
morph clearly shows a typical composite pattern 0[' orientations and
distribution of the secondary
products.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MIN8\Al ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

169,170
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 10.2 m
Holo-alteromorph
after olivine

Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0.2

0./

O.Omm

11
I
of oli\;ne isolated
within this c1inoJJ)'l'oxene-rich
rock are completely weathered to
holo-alteromorphs of saponite,
whose layers are regularly JrraJlged
in a parallel set of thick lamellae.
The volume and number of the
residual pores, visible at the scale of
the optical microscope, are very
small, and are probably due to
imperfect impregnation of this
sample, in which most minerals arc
not weathered. The saponite layers
exhibit their usual yellow colors in
PPL. In X PL, the parJllel stacking

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

of the layers and their uniform orientation are ('},:pressed b)' the uniform second- Jnci third-order
interference-colon over tl1e entire
holo.alteromorph which, for the.>t'
illustrations, has been rotated to the
angle of maximum illumination.
The original o'ystal of olivine was
broken by several proroclastic fractures, regularly coated by a thin
deposit of magnetite, which is now
weathered to irregular bro\\'n
patches. Coarse opaC]ue grains of
magnetite, inside (D2) or olltside
(D5) the oJivine crystal, arc appar-

entl\' not \V<?Jt.hered. The sw-rounding grains of clinopyroxene (A3,

E3) show incipien I wcathC:'ring
(denticuhtions and emphaSized
c1ea\'agcs), whueas part of the
biotitc has been replaced bv reddish
brown secondary products (D5).
O\\"ing to the mesumorphic alteration of the mica it contains, the
rock is fractured by transmineral
and intermineral cracks (A I,
1\4-, E2).

211

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

271,272
PEROVSKITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Tapira. MG. Brazil

Depth: 2.5 m
Holo-alteromorph
after perovskite
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

of' permskitc
(CaTi0 3 ), commonly associ,Heel with magnetite or lIme-nite or
both, ha~ been completely weathered to secondarv, mic:rolTvstalli.ne
,
anatase (Ti0 2), whereas the c<llcium
content of the original mineral has
been leached away. The associated
magneljte (E5) is not, or barely.
weathered. The grain size of t.he
anatase is different according tn
location in rc-htio)) with the

212

intramineral microfissures. As can

better be seen in XPL. the size or
the crystals is much greater along
the intcrnallk~urcs whereas. within
the irregular cells delimited by
these ['issurcs, Lhe anatase is chief1y
cryptocrystalline. The intTa-altem
morpluc pores are due to the dissolution of' apatite or carbonate
inclusions, and not to the Formation
of' the alteromorph at the ex.pcns('
of the original puo,skitc. The

brown color in PPL and the bright

vellow color in XPL arc characteristic or anatase; dwy are radler similar
to the colors exhibited by some
other titanilcrous minerab, such as
rutile.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF M.Nl-RAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

171,174

--~"''''''II-

OLIVINE-BEARING
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I 1.2 m
Holo-alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.2

01

0,0 mm

, composed of
two joined crvstab whose
respective orientations differ, is
completely altered to saponile,
wbose regular optical orien.tation is
~trongly dependent upon the original ol'ientation of the primar)' cry~
tals of olivine. The orientation of the
secundarvI mineral in the 10\H'l' left
part or the altcromorph. which is
bright ),ello\\ in PPL, is nCilrly parallel to the plane of the thi.n section,
whereas in the upper right. part or
the Jlteromorph., heige-calmed i.n

PART

3'

ALTEI\OMORPHS

PPL, the orientation is marc or less

perpendicular to this plane. Both
orientations are conllrmed by the
interference-colors, in XPL: very
low colors, nearly at extinction, For
tlle first part or the al teromorph,
and second -order colors I(JI' the second one. These photomicrographs
illusn'ate the: fact that the Cf\'stallographic orientation or the secondar;
products can be strongly dependent
on the o'ystallographic orientation
of the primary minerals, although
this must not be gener<llized to al.1

a Iteromorphs formed at the

expense of aU primary minerals.
Since no intramineraJ residual pores
are observed \\'ith.in these joined
alteromorphs.
the
alteration
process has given risc to holoalteromorphs.

213

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

275,276
OUVINE GABBRO

lcapeva. SP, Brazil

Sampled at outcrop
Holo-alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

of oJivine
has been replaced by a holo,
alteromorph of saponite under the
infl uenee of a late- magmatic process.
111f' original network of protoclastic
fractures of th~' primary crystal,
with their content of minute grains
of magnetite, is sull c1earl~' distinguishable as randoml)' miented
bJack-colored alignments. Thesc
strOllu]y
contrast with the ,vel lowish
l=-.J
or,lIlge color of the secondary clay
minNal. Ooly onc secundary mineral has becn formed during the

2/4

alteration process.
5illCC
no
intnmincral residual pores are discernible, the resulting alteromorph
is consequently Dot a polyphase
alteromorph, but ,-ather a normal
(monophase) holo-alteromorph.
The small roundish colorless crvstals included within the alteromOl'ph are primar)' crystals of
apatite. Note the conspicuous pattern of internal distribution of optical orientations of the saponite. This
lmusual pattern, which appears only
in X PL, is rarely encountered.

Along the protoclastic fracrures,

irregular banded pattern~ have been
formed in which the optical orientation of the s~condary products is
qujte different from that of the main
volume of the alteromorph.

ATlAS Of MICROr~OI'.PHOLOG'Y OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHEI'\ING

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

277
IRON CRUST ON
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil suriace
KOilo-alteromorph
after quartz grains
Objective: x 4
PPL

- 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

of
'luart7. may become trapped in
old ferrallitic irun crusts formed on
tlle deep weathered profiles del'eloped on ultl-,unafic rocks. Under
conditions of ferraUitic weathering,
these iron-rich rocks may develop a
I'ery thick weathcrcd mantle, whose
upper part is subjected to intense
leaching of silica, with concomitant
relative accumulation of the insoluble components such as iron, aluminum and titanium. The alurninllm
content of the primary rock (410
AI20~1) is tOO low to alk)l\' tlle formation of impoTta.llt alurninum-rich
residual materials, whereas their
higb iron content promotes the formation of thick. hardened cOI'ers of
iron-rich crusts in ,,-hieh th,~
unweatherable residual mineral,
may become trapped. The quartz
originates from the numerous veins

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

of quartz and microgranite that lout

the ultramallc intrusion, The residual quart? grains are completely
encased ill. the crust in such a ,,-a)that their boundaries are pLTfenly
nlOlded by the surrounding ironrich matrix. \;Vith later reactioll
uncler new geochemical conditions.
these guartl grains arc slowly dissolved. without formation uf any
residue, Once they are completely
rlestroyed, the~' form true koiloalteromorphs whose 1'()IUlllE' and
shape closely correspond to the
original volume Jlld shape or the
grains that dbaIJ[1eared. The photomicrograph shows, in its central
part. a partially dissoh'ed grain or
guartz_ Ca\-ernous residues arc scattered within a large residual pore
whose volume and sh::Jpe correspond to those of the ol'iginal grain
before it was dissolved_ If a quartz

grain is broken into several Fragments, each residual fragment is

Free to move in the cavity, anrl the
isolated fi-agments lose their common optical orientation_ 111e photomicrograph or a completely
dissoh'ed grain of guartz, leaving an
empty kOilo-altcromorph, would
haw' been 01' lesser interest. because
nothing could be left lO IJrovc wat
the cavit), had really been formed by
the dissolution of a quartz grain.

215

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

278
GRANITIC ROCK

Locality: unknown
Sampled in Brazil
by A. Melfi
Cumulo-koiloalreromorph after
quartz grains
Objective: x 2.5
XPL
10

0.0 mm

aggregate of
quart? is partly weathered by
congruent di.~,olution along irregular cracks and patches: empty open
dissolution-induced
pores
are
f'ormed, either withln the quartz
grains or along the intergranuJar
boundaries. The occurrence of several distinct component quartz
grains is attested to hy the fact that
U1CV do not exhiblt the same interI
fercIJce-colors in XPL. The dissolution-induced pores are efficiently
fillet.! hy rdati"ely coarse crystals of
gibbsite of alluchthonous origin;
these do not occupy <Ill tJw al'ail<lbk
volume of the residual pores. The
alignment of the gibbsite crystals in
the fractures and cracks does not

216

IClrm true continuous septa; the

crystals exhibit a random optical
orientatiun. Where gibbsit.e LT)'stals
form infillings or more extended
areas I as in 13-C 3, they exhibi t a
glomeromorphic texture of joined
but randum..!;' oriented crystals. The
cl iffe rence
Get "'een
pr imar)'
autochthonous
and
secondary
allochtJlOnous minerals is crth3J1Ccd,
in the photomicrograph, I>y the fact
thJt the thin section is slightly
thicker than usual, which leads to
higher interference-colors for the
gibbsite crystals. They appear as yel10\\ ish domai.m, whereas the original quartz cores have maintained.
their first-order grey intcrferencecolors in XPL. Without these in1'l1l-

ings by allochthonous gibbsite, the

dissolution of the polycrystalline
quartz assemblage would have promoted the formation of a koiloalteromorph. The occurrence of
these inflllings will make this alteromOl'ph a cumulo-(koilo)-alteromorrh once ajj domains of residual
qU<lrl7 have disappeured.

ATLAI Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINE.flAL ALTERATION AND WEATl-IE.RING

HOLQ-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

279,280
BAUXITIC PROFILE

developed on granite
Siago:Lohoin, Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.4 m
Sampled by B. Bou/ange
Cumulo-koiloalteromorph
after quartz
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

OJ
0.2
0.1
~

0.0 mm

!
,
I I'
11 ~
is strong Iv
affected bvl conditions of fcn'allitic and baux.itic weathering: tJle
plagioclasc and orthocJase are converted into gibbsite-bearing glomero-septo-altcromorphs, and the
quartz grains are partly dissolved,
lea\ing residual empty pores. The
weathered horizon is then subjected
to illuviation of allochthonous
materials coming from tlw upper
part of tile profue. The quartz grains
are fractured and partly dissolved;
empty CTacks and dissolution pores
surround smoothl), shaped G1V-

PART 3 : ALTEROMORPHS

ernous residues. The photomiCTograph.s show how a partly dissolved

quart!- is filled up progn:,grain
sivel) JS it is dissolved; a peripheral
rim is formed, and crystals 01" gibbsite are aligned around the intemlineral boundaries and along the
First-formed fractures. After this
First step of in.fiLling by gibbsite, tile
progressive dissolution or the
quartz leaves more and more empt}'
peripheral
dissolution -induced
pore.". The rore sl)Jce betVi'Ccn thc
quartz residues and the first-formed
gibbsite rims then is inlllled by iron-

or

rich aJlochthonous material. Inn 11ings can alternate or can be incomplete or C'xternJl1;' distributed, A
second generation of gibbsite
deposits is observed ill some rnOI'e
recently formed residual pores. The
shapes of the concentric rims of
gibbsite seem to be related to the
successive shapes of the dissolved
q uart7. grain.

217

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

~.

281,282
BAUXITIC PROFILE

developed on granite
Siagozohoin. Lakota.
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.8 m
Sampled by B. Boulange
Cumulo-koiloalteromorph
after quartz
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

~ 0.2

ill ustrate another example of a

quartz grain that has heen partly
dissolved, and whose residual
eml)t} I)ores have becn progressi\(:ly inl'i1leJ by allochthol1ous
material as the volume of the residual cores rlccrcased. Thin rims and
alignments of small crystals of
oibbsitc disc> are observed around
b
the altcromorph, as in the pre\-iolls

218

f)hotomicrographs, but in this case.,

thc inhlling material is mainly composed of iron-rich secondary materi,ll. The round ish cavernous re,jelues
of quartz are lughly fracrured, and
the irregular network of internal
cracks is also intilled by the browncoJored secondary allochthonous
materi'll. nIl' photograph taken in
XPL shows the compactness and the
asepic* fabric (If the iron-rich mate-

0.1

0.00101

rial, and the distribution or more

recently formed Pcril)heral pores,
immediately adjacent to the quartz
residues; these pores are not yC't
inlllled by the itJlochthonous
material.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAl ALTERAnON AND WEATHERING

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

283,284
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 3.4 m
KOilo-alteromorph
after apatite
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

:.... 0.0 mm

,JII

formjng mjnerals, apatite and

calcite are certainl\' the best examples to illustrate the beha\'iar of
\'en- soluble minerals and the formatjon
residual koi\o-alteromorphs. But the presence of
ephemeral residues in the area photographed is necessary for a better
understanding of the weathering
process and the mineralogical evolution ol" the alreromorph. The photomicrographs sbow relatin:ly small
crystals of apatite that are panjally
weathered. rrregu lar residual frag-

or

PMT 3 : ALTEROMORPHS

ments are temporarily maintained

within large pores, whose outlines
ol)\iousl~' correspond to the uutlines of the original crystal. lllin
cJefJosits of iron-rich compounds
form a thin rim arouncJ the koiJoalteromorph. The iron does not
originate From the apatite, which is
iron-free, but from the intennineral
ac/ueaus solutions \\'hich, in contact
with the phosphate- and c.1lciumthe \\'earheTing
rich en\'irorunent
apatite, precipitate part of their iron
COntent. The rim has an aJJogenetic
origin; it is probably mostly fL.\:ecl as

a rim external to the original surface of the apatite crystals. Once

completely weathered, u,e final
alteromorph will be a true koi]oalteromorph whose mineralogical
origin carmot be decJuced from anything but their size, shape and cJistTibution, in contrast to less wcatherecl
samples.

or

219

HOLO-, KOILO-ALTEROMORPHS

185,186
APATITE-RICH
CARBONATITE

Juquia. SP, Brazil

Sampled in a quarry
by R. Flicoteaux
Cumulo-koiloalteromorph
after ankerite
Objective: X 4
PPL and XPL
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

rrll I
I

,in

PPl, shows the cnd-product of

weathering of an apatite-rich carbonatite. Grains of ankerite have

been dissolved. gi,ing rist:: to large
kOilo-alteromorphs, but their 10\\
content of iron has led to the formation of a dark bn1\\n rim around
most of tne koi lo-alteromorphs. The
high concentration of apatite of the
original rock has allowed the ol-iginal texture to be maintained in the
completely weathered rock, and has
promoted the later crystallization of
a second generatiun of apatite

220

,vit.hin the koilo-altC'romorphs. The

lower photomicrograph, in .KPL,
shows the residual, less weathered
crystals 01' partly recrystallized
apatite (A 1, E3), whose glomcroalteromorphs exhibit sizes and
shapes comlJarable to those of the
koilo-alteromorphs after ankerite
(13-C3). The se,onclary alJatite
forms
needle-shaped
crystals,
mostly arranged according to a
radial texture; these arc fixed on the
residual ferruginous rims, whose
slenderness and brittleness arc considerably incrcast,d. Only the l)rc5-

enee of' these tlrst and second generations of apatite crystab has
allowed the isalteritic character of
the completely weathered rock to
be maintained. The second generation of apatite crystals has an extraalteromorphic origin; the koiloaJteromorphs that host them are
cumulo-koilo-alterolnorphs.

ATlAS Of MICRO~10RPHOLOGYOf MINERAL AU1:RATION AND WEATHERING

loporo ,. -Q I tcrom rp h .'i

"P
TIOPOL

oro"-alteromorphs (from the Greek

= pores) form a group of alteromorphs

transitional between the twO extreme cases

due-cd) either according to (a) the pattern of voids. if

these are few or small, ;md if they exhibit a characteristic pattern of cUstribution within all important continuous solid phase, or (b) the pattern of the solid
phase. if its \'olume is smaller than that of the \'oic!s,
and if the solid phase is the one that exhibits the characteristic pattern.

described above. in which the ratio of discernible

voids is importam compared ro the volume of
newly formed minerals with which these voids
are genetically associated (Fig. 22). In practice. this
general term is not ro be used as a single term.
but it is proposed only for the introduction of the
next items. "Poro"-alteromorphs are porous or
pore-bearing alteromorphs: they are not emities
that result from the infilling of a pre-existing
external pore. nor entities that exhibit the shape
and size of a pore.

Pc

I ,VOLUM.E,

CRITERIOJ

111(' term "pol'O"'alteromorph pertains to a group

of porous alteromorphs. It cannot be used as a single
term. and it must necessarily be preceded by a prefIx
that describes the main featw'cs of the pores, their
number, their shapes, their distribution and their sl)a
tial relationships with the solid phase (Fig:. 23). Several
specific "poro"-aJteromorphs can be distinguished.

A/\ eoporo-alteromorph

Atveoporo-alteromorPhs (from the latin alveolus

= cell, small

caVity)

are characterized by the

occurrence of irregular pores that are distinctly

PRIMARY MINERAL

POAO"Al,TEROMQA,PH

discernible at the scale of the microscope. and

a grain of J

whose rotal volume is considerably smaller than

The voids observed within the alteromorph must

be gt'nctically cOlU1ected with the secondary matl'r;al
of the alteromorph, TIlerefore. this newly coined term
calmot be used to describe entities that result from the
infilling of a pre-existing void (\'esicle in a basaltic
rock, miarolitic cal'ity) or of a mor(' recently formed
pore (e.g., pedotubule, channel, of pedological or biological origin). In order to a\'oid any confusion, the
term poro-oheronlOrph is never used; the term "poro"altewmorph. with the prefix "parol> in quotation marks
.md without additional prefix, can be usecl to convey a
more general meaning.

inner volumes. and they are invariably surrounded

FIGUIU 22.
Relarionsllip of a "poro"-"Jrerolllorph
primary mint'rJ!.

10

"Poro"-alteromorphs constitute the main group

among the aJteromorpbs because most primary minerals, whatever the process of weathering, c1evelop intimate associations of secondary product., and re$idual
voids . .i\t constant volume, the alteroplasmas and residlIal \'oid~ are complementariJy proportioned and distTibuted.
Depending on the complementary proportions of
tbe solid phase and. included voids. "poro"-aJteromorphs can be described (and new terms can be intr... -

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

that of the a/teroplasma.The pores correspond to

by the alreroplasma (Fig. 24).

The volume of the discernible pores is smaller

than that of the solid phase; commonly, the alveolar
pores are randomly distributed, and they exhibit
uneven shape~ (e'8" lenticular, elliptical, denticulate,
amoeboid). They are located within an abundant and
continuous alteroplasm3 whose texrure and crystallinity may be homogeneous or not. ArolUlcl the alveolar pores, a rim of CT)'stalliplasma* cOlllmonly is
formed. B:\' the size and, in some cases, the orient.ltion
of its constiruents, the rim cont"rasts sharply \\;th the
more uniform habit of the micro- or cr),'PtocrystaIJine
part~ of the altcromorph (Fig. 24).
AJ\'t~aporo-alteromorph" generally result from the
weathering, under conditions of moderate leaching, of
unc1eaved and unl'racrured minerals. The importance
of the total volume uf the pores is proportional to the
quantity of dissoh-ed and leached elements, which thus
are not incoq)oratcd into the crystal structure of the
secondar~' minerals. In general, these po((>s represent

221

PORO"-ALTEROMORPH

PLANAR PARALLEL
ORIENTED

IRREGULAR ALVEOLAR
RANDOM

PHYLLOPORO-ALTEROMORPH

ALVEOPORO-ALTEROMORPH

THREEDIMENSIONAL NETWORK
RETICULATE

t
RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPH

I
+

ALVEOLAR CENTRAL

CENTROPORO-AlTEROMORPH
FIGURe 23.

Ddinitiull" ,)( alkrolllfwpbs on lfw. hasis uf m.iaot,-,tural criteria: the classification ()( the nporon_alrcroDlorphs
aL-cording to the disnibution l)r voids.

222

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEliAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Centroporo-a/rt?l"Omorp!ls

CenuoporO-Olteromorphs (from the Latin centrum

FIGlIllt: 2+.

RdJriollsl-up or an a!l-coporo-alt,'roll1orph

or il pl-jm"rv miner.l.

= center. middle)

are characteriz.ed by the

occurrence of a single large pore. located in the

AI- VEOPORQ-Al TE AOMOAPH

PAIMAFlY MINERAL

tu a grain

central part of the alteromorph. completely surrounded by a continuous rim of alteroplasma.

which is generally formed by peripheral cen-

the final stage of ("volution of perinuclcar* and int<:rplasma - mineral* pores developed in panly weathered minerals_ The\' arc located at the sites from which
the last remnants llf the residue have disappeared.
Where not disturbed b~- external processes, this
internal pore-space is generallv not connected to
external pores. /\s a result, it is rarely inllll~d by later
deposits of allochthonOllS origin.

tripetal weathering of a homogeneous primary

mineral. Its location within the alteromorph and
its shape are generally determined by the position
and shape of the last residual core before its complete disappearance, whereas its size is generally
determined by the relative proportions of soluble
and insoluble elements contained in the parent
mineral.

Follo\\-ing the numher of distinct internal pores,

the alveoporo-alteromorphs can be divided into monoail'co-, aliBo-alreo- and po~y-ah-eoporo-(Jlrcrom(lfph.,
(respectively, from the Greek I-l-ovo!;;
one, alone.
o/\vyov
few, and 00/\
many, several)_

Vs =

This intramineral porosity may also result I'T om

later alteration of a (non-porous) holo-altcromOl-ph,
whose alteroplasma itself is modilled by irregulal'
degndation and incomplete dissolution of its mineral
constituents. In this case, the a~pect (calor, microporosity, crystaL! ini ty and orientation) of the sUITotUlding part uf the altcroplasma, around the alveolar pore"
may differ greatly Crom the llriginal a~peLt of the fJr~t
formed alteroplasma. They arc mera-all'coporo-alrcromorphs (from the Greek I-l-ETO'.
after, laner), if J
genetic concept is added to the murphological de_m-iption (sce belo\y).

r\lvcoporo-altcromorphs may be genetical I)' very

different, even \yhere the~' exhibit very similar patterns, and where the clear distinction between them is
not a.lways ob\ious. If the aheolar pores are directly
formed during the weathering of the primary mineral.
and if all the secondary products belong to this ilrst
generation, the alteromorph is an orLho-alrcoporo-alteromorph_ If the alveolar pores are deriw:d from the late
partial Jegradation or dissolution of the Ilrst-formed
secondary I)wducts, the alteromorph is termerl a para
alreoporo-alteromorph. It is obvious that this case can
occur only where the t1rst-lormed sec()ndar~' producb
are themsel\'(,s weatherable (smectitic secondary products. for example). The inner fringes of the new]y
formed alveolar pores commonly are rimmed by ironrich secondary products or by other highly contrasting
materials of a second generation.

PART

3 : ALTER-OMORPHI

This is the t\lJical caS{' of a mono-ahcoporoalteromorph. This particular ryp'" of internal porosity
is common in alteromorph_~ rleveloped by weathering
uf small, unclea\"(~d and unfracturcd gra.i.ns or primary
minerals. TI1('" residual wlume of the primary mineral
progressively decreases b~' periph~ral centripetal
weathering. Simultaneously. the thickness of the rim or
alteroplasma and that of the perinuclear void both
increase. The chemical elements that do not enter the
mineralogical makeup of the altemlJ!asma are leached
out, and their removal is responsible for the main part
or the residual POfT_ The chemical elements that make
up the Illincrals of the altt'roplasma must be transferred rrom the surface of the rcnmant to the surrounding rim through the inter-plasma - mineral void.
Where the leaching and re:mo\-al of the chemical constituents are \'er~' important, the \'olume of the residual products ma~' be vcry small. ;\ continuous thin HIm
of secondarv products is de\'elllpccl along the internal
sw-face of the alteromorl)h_ That particular pattern of
distribution makes the alteromorph vcry similar to a
koilu-a.l terommph_
The external outline of the rim on the alterorJ!asrna generally follows intennincral boundaries. Its
pattern is Simple, more or less polyhedral, and linear_
In conlTast, its internal outline may be either smooth
ami regular, which gives a rim of constant thickness, or
irregular and denticulate, which gh'es, at least in detail.
a rim of' irregular thickness.
Small grains of pyroxene and amphibole.
where completely weathered. commonly exhibit
such a pactern. with a denticulate central pore.

223

Indeed, at the beginning of weathering, when the

alteroplasma is still in contact with the primary
mineral from which it developed, the direction
along which weathering preferentially develops, as
well as the alignment and orientation of the secondary minerals, are strongly influenced by some
crystallographic directions of the primary mineral. The central primary I'esidue exhibits a finely
denticulate outline in one direction, against which
the first-formed secondary particles were tightly
molded. The empty perinuclear void, which develops later and which is progressively widened,
maintains the particular pattern of denticulation
until the remnant of residue has disappeared. It is
possible to recognize the original optical orientation of the primary mineral by observing the orienu1tion of the inherited denticulation and, in
addition, the common crystallographic orientation of all the secondary particles that compose
the alteroplasma.
Centroporn-altcromorph, an: particularly common in mcdiwn- amI Fine-grained rocks that are
we2lthered under conditions of eFficient leaching.
Where the weathe-rable minerals are abundant i.n the
rock and \-"here they contain small quantities of insoluhle elements (such a.., in torsterite, diopside, enstatite,
trcmolite), the central pore may be volwninous relative to the thickness of the peripheral rim or secondary
mjnerals. Their alterites are H>ry porous. and may ha\'e
a low densit), (::0; glcm 1).
Coarse C1-ystals (e.g., phenocrysts, porphyroblasts)
weather more slowly than smaller oncs; as a result,
their residues C-;ln persist for a longer time in the
wcathered profile. During the hrst stage of weathering, at the lowest level of the profile, where conditions
of restricted drainage prevail, these crystals may he
parcly replaced by a tllin rim and internal ribbuns of
smectitic clay along their iI1l1er Fractures and dea\ages.
Without any modification of the drainage conditions,
the coarse residue'S would weather to a homogeneous
holo-alteromorph or to a phyllo-poro-alteromorph,
whose secondar)' product would consist of a homogeneous smectite-group mineral.
In contrast, ,It the higher levels of the profile, the
different, and the
prQcesses of leaching a.re more extreme, The residues,
until then preserved, are no longer ",'cathered to a
smectitic clay, but directly to iron oxyhydroxides or
even to a residual empty pore. In the first case, the
iron-rich compoW1ds cf\'stallizc as an internal rim
against the First,formed rim of smectite, leaVing a
residual central pore. In ule second casc, an alveolar
ernl)t) pore is formed directly, w'ithout a new gene-ration uf secondary products. In both cases, a centro-

c()nJition~ of weathering are

224

poro-alteromorph is formed. The first is a two-phase

(smectite-brroup mineraJ + iron oxyhydtoxides) ceotroporo-alteromorph, whereas the second onc is a normal single-phase (smectite-group mineral only)
centroporo-a.lteromOl-ph (sec below for the definition
of the Single-phase and tv'l'o-phase alteromorphs). Since
the iron oxyhydroxides are formed by weathering or
the primary residucs and not hy later degradation of
the nrst-formed secondary products, these altl'ronwrphs art' onho-ccm roporo-alLeromorphs.
More commonly, the l'oarsc-grained pl'iIll3),)'
cryst<Jls are crossed by tTans\'crse fissures that determine the isolation of se\'eral remnants and, consequently, of several ah"eolar pores (oIi8o-alveoporo- or
P0 0'- a/l'euporo-alceromorphs) , Each of these alveolar
pores may be later rimmed by iron oxyhyclrox.ide. produced either by the weaulering of the last primary
remnants (onho-alc:eroJDvrphs) or by concomitant degradaUon of the nrst-formed secondary products (poraalceromorphs) .
The central pore, well protected by a continuous
rim of alteropla.S1J1J, is generally closed and wi.thout
con.nection to the external macrol)ore-space as long as
it is not disturbed by e."temal physical or chemical
processes.

P/~rlJop

ro-ulteromo"ph'

Phyl/OPOro-alteromorPhs (from the Greek

cj>VAAOV = sheet) are characterized by a regular
distribution of elongate. planar or thinly lenticular
and parallel pores whose volume is somewhat
smaller than that of the solid phase. The pores
may be continuous or discontinuous, a.nd are parallel to one of the axes of the alteromorph. Their
direction is generally inherited from the primary
mineral where it is a mica, whose perfect cleavage
is the determining factor, or from crystallographic
orientation where the primary mineral is a ferromagnesian phase; in this case. its structure determines the orientation of the porous aggregate of
secondary phyllosilicates (Fig. 25).

This particular typ" of layered microtexture is

common in alteromorphs that develop by weathering
of micaceous primary minerals, which djrectly determine the distribution and orientation of the secondar\'
products. The microtexturc also may arise by weathering of oilier pri.mary minerals, such as pyroxenes and

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

mica. This is also the case for the crystals of

quaru. or even of gibbslte. of allochthonous
origin_
The_~e compound alteromorphs are wmulo-phyIIopOJo-aIceromorphs (see below).
Pf!lMMW MINeRAL

FIGURE 25.

Relationship
of a prlrnary mineral.

F'li"YLLOPOAOALTEROMORFH

or a pnyllol)oro-altcrnrnnrph to a grain

amphibolcs, to alteronlOrphs in which '>vell-oriented

l1akes of a smeetitic clay are the main constituenb.
Either the primary mineral or the secondary mineral
can be resl)onsiblc for the orientation of the phyllopores.
An example of the first case is provided by
the weathering of biotite or phlogopite to smectite- or kaolinite-rich alteromorphs.The sheets of
the secondary silicate are well oriented parallel to
the sheets of the primary mineral, even where
weathering has promoted a mesomorphous or a
katamorphous transformation. The pore-space
thus opened commonly is developed by the separation of thick layers of primary or secondary
sheets under the influence of internal stresses
during the formation of an expanded alteromorph, or under the influence of a later swelling
of the secondary clay by hydration.
An example of the second case is provided
by the weathering of a pyroxene. Under conditions of restricted drainage, an alteromorph composed of a smectite-group mineral will consist of
particles strongly oriented parallel to the Z axis of
the primary mineraL The resulting phylloporoalteromorph is regularly textured, and the interlayered pore-space, which is much thinner than in
the previous example, is strongly Niented, continuous and parallel.
In both examples, the porosity along interlayers
may be connected with the nearby intermineral porespace and with fissures and fractures commonly developed a.round the meso- and kata-alteromorphs. The
intnmineral [)Ofosity can easily be tilled by products of
later crysta.llization or b)' deposits 01" allochthonous
origin. Crystallization of bands of gibbsite, kaolinite.
calcite or guartz is common in the phyl1oporo-alteromorphs derived from the alteration or weathering of
micaceous minerals.
The distinction between generations of
kaolinite, for example, commonly is easy The
sheets of kaolinite formed by weathering of primary biotite are parallel to its foliation. whereas
the sheets of the infilling kaolinite have a tendency
to crystallize perpendicular to the sheets of the

PART] : ALTEROMORPHS

Infillings of lenticular pores by quartz, calcite

or even titanite have also been recorded in phylloporo-alteromorphs derived from the hypogene
alteration of micaceous minerals.They also can be
classified as cumulo-phylloporo-alteromorphs_
Where observed in a plane parallel to the layering of the mica, these lenticular infillings of quaJLz
or calcite may appear as circular or elliptical bodies, whose constituent crystals in some cases
exhibit a radial distribution.
Deposits of autochthonous ongm can also occur
within t.he phyllo-pores. These secondary products are
dcri\'ed from the primary mineral itseU", but consist of
chemical elements that ha\-e not entered the structure
of the main secondary product. Needles of sagcnitic
rutile or micropartic\es of iron oxyhydruxide commonly occur as thin deposits regularly distrihuted
within the phyllo-pores or \'ermiculite or kaolinite
alteromorphs after a Fe- and Ti-bearing mineral like
biotite.
This kind of porosit} can also result from the anitJcial shrinkage of a foliated secondary phase during the
preparation of the thin section. Obviously, this artificially created 110re-space is in\'ariably empty ami, normally, it does not contain allochthonous material. Note
that artificial deposits of abrasive material may he
present.

ReLipol"u-aJreromorph!>

RetiPoro-alteromorPhs (from the Latin reticulum

= network) are alteromorphs in which voids are

distributed according to a three-dimensional network of planar open fractures that cross in suborthogonal directions. These fractures exhibit a
constant or hierarchical thickness, and divide the
solid phase into isolated polyhedral volumes of
comparable shapes and sizes (Fig. 26).

This particular texture is not common, hut it can

occur under specific conditions of weathering. It seems
to be the result of the natural dehydration, shrinkage
and subdivision of an originally continuous and homogeneous h)'dratcd solid phase_ The more strongly

225

inJilling materials may thus be the same as the

autochthonous secondary minerals. The i.dentification
and description of the resulting complex textures and
of the chronology in their development are not always
easy.

FIGURE

26.

THE COMPLEX PATTERN OF WEATHERING

RmpORe-At TrnOMORPH

PRIMARY MINf:RAl

Rcbtiomhip or J rctipurn-Jlteromorph

10 J

grain uf

a primary mineraL

dehydrated tbe solid phase, the more numerous and

the smaller the polyhedral volumes. New gcneraLiolls
of open fractures cut the pre-c-xistillg volumes,
whereas the Grst-formed empty fractures are progressively widened. This phenomenon of successive subdi\'isiol1 leads to a hierarchizatioll of the thickness of the
fractures, and aCCOlults for the regulal-it)' in their distribution. COl1$eguentJy, the density of the netyvork of
fractures, and thus the size of the solid volumes, may
exhibit more or less concentric variations. The outer
IJart of the alteromorph is more dehydrated and, as a
result, morc strongly miCTodi\idecl than iLs ce.ntTaI part.
This case is common in polyphase alteromorphs (see below) formed at the expense of
plagioclase and nepheline. These minerals may be
replaced. during the first stage of their weathering. by a homogeneous. continuous. highly
hydrated. isotropic. amorphous phase. It later
becomes divided into isolated polyhedral volumes
by the formation and development of a reticular
polygonal network of shrinkage-induced fissures.
During a later stage of weathering. the solid phase
is progressively replaced either by kaolinite or by
gibbsite microcrystals. or even by alveolar pores.
whereas the reticular network of pores may be
left empty or may be infilled by allochthonous
deposits.
The retiporo-alterollJorph thus is an ephemeral
kind of alteromorph (qraduaJ po0"phase alceromorph). It
is later replaced by a more common type of alteromorph, such as a glomero-alteromorph or a septoaJteromorph (see below, Figs. +1, 42).
Tbese reticular structw'cs arc easily filled by
allochthol1ous material derived from the neighboring
vveatbered minerals or from a higher horizon. These

226

OF NEPHElINE

In the case of the weathering of nepheline.

for example. the empty reticular network that
develops in the isotropic. amorphous. secondary
material is progressively infilled by regular alignments of allochthonous microcrysrals of gibbsite.
Each volume of the isotropic solid phase may persist for a long time before also being replaced by
autochthonous microcrystals of gibbsite. which
develop peripherally at the expense of each
volume of the isotropic phase. At the end of the
weathering stage, the first-formed retiporoalteromorph Is replaced by a gibbsite-rich polygenetiC g/omero-septo-a/!eromorph. The septa
consist of the first generation of allochthonous
gibbsite, whereas all the inner polyhedral volumes
are replaced by a second generation of aggregated autochthonous crystals of gibbslte, formed
by peripheral evolution of the isotropic phase.
which regularly surrounds a central alveolar residual pore. The complex alteromorph results from
the superposition of three successive processes:
(I) a retiporo-alteromorph is formed. which (2)
later is filled by allochthonous material (it is converted to a cumulo-retiporo-alteromorph); the
geochemical evolution of the isotropic material
(3) finally gives rise to a very complex cumuloa/veo-retiporo- alteromorph.
Similar "retiporous" textures can be produced by the late evolution of vesicles and glass in
a basaltic rock. A somewhat similar texture also
can be observed in the nucleus of ferruginous or
bauxitic nodules (see below). which can become
divided according to radially oriented and concentrically distributed patterns of shrinkageinduced fissures.
Note that the reticulate texture can also develop

by artificial shri.nkage ofhyJrated material as a result or

exaggerated desiccation of the weathered sample
during tile preparation of' the thin section.

An.A5 OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATrlERING

ALVEOPORO-, PHYLLOPORO-, RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

287
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 6.4 m
Alveoporoalteromorph
after c1inopyroxene
Objective; x 6.3
XPL

0.3

1
0.2

~ 0.1

0.0 mm

I
I of the profile,
uDder conditions of restricted
drainage, several randomly oriented
crystals of c1inopyroxene have been
completely weathered, peripherally
and centripetally, to well-oriented
packets of clay. Each aJteromorph
exhibits its own orientation according to that of the Z axis of the precursor grain, During most 01' the
weathering process, the p:Toxene
has been directly weathered to
saponite without the fOl'mation of
residual pores between the secondary product and the residual
cores of pyToxene. The n.:trrow
interlayer pores are typical of phylloporo-alteromorphs, as v'vill be
shown in photomicrographs 292
and 293. At the enJ of the weathering process, under conditions of less
restricted drainage, the residues of
p)TOXene have beeD dissolved, without producing anything but irregu-

PART

3 ; ALTEROMORPHS

lar residual pores, which gives COOl,

plex
alveo-phylloporo-alteromorphs. Although all residual cores
have completely disappeared during
this last step of weathering, the orientation of the secondary products
allows the original boundaries of
tlle primary mineral to be easily
recognized, and the optical orientation of the grains to be easily
deduced. In contrast, without
knowing the natW'e of the original
rock from studies of neighboring
thin sections, it is not possible to
determine the nature of the original
p)'Toxene. Both orthopyroxene and
clinopyroxenc give "vay, once
weathered, ro alteromorphs whose
secondary products are oriented
parallel to me Z axis of tlle primar,"
mineral. The orthopyroxene iD
these rocks is generally prismatic
and coarse-grained. Consequently,
alteromorphs aFter ortJlopyroxene

clearly show the traces or the frac,

turi.ng of the mineral and of the
early-formed banded textures that
have resulted. Note tllat the alveolar
pores are situated in the cenh'al part
of the alterornorphs, and that tlley
have an irregular shape and sh.e.
Their \o\"alls are denticuJate, in a similar way as were the denticulate
remnants before their djsappearmct'. Iron oxide or hydroxiJe has
not been formed during the last
step of the weathering of the
resielues; they wouJd be expected
where the residucs are subjected to
more oxidil.ing conditions (sec next
pbotomicrographs) .

227

ALVEOPORO-, PHYLLOPORO-. RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

188,289
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 3.8 m
Alveoporoalteromorph
after c1inopyroxene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I I
I
..
illustrate a case of clinopjToxene
weathering that i~ very similar' to
the previous onc. The first step of
weathering corresponds to the for
mation of a partly developeu ph)'lIo.
alteromorph, whosl" secondary
pruducts are well molded against
the residues of p~Tuxene, "vithout
perinuclear pores. The secondary
prouucts are well oriented parallel
to the I axis of the primary mineral
With increasing intensity of weathering, rJle r)~TOXCne residuC's are
then dissolved, without the forma-

228

tion of a smeetitic secondary pro(lliet, as in the predotls case. The

more oxidizing condit.ions found in
the upper horizons lead to the pre
cipitation of iron ox yhydroxides,
md to the development of quasicoatings* of colorcd material d.ue to
influx 0(' iron and stajning on the
inner parts of the secondary pruducts, whose coloration increases
progressively as the residues are ills
solved. The resulting alveoporoalteromorph, which is composed of
two cliA-ercnt secondary products
(tlle c-al'ly-I'r.lrmeJ smec:tite and

later-formed iron oxyhydroxjdes}

call Gc considered as a polyphase
altcromorph (sec later). Note the
irregularities of the pores, the dis
appearance of most of their denticulate border, and the graJual
coloration of the smcetite from the
walls of the- pores inward.

me

ATLAS

Of MICROMORPHOlOGY OF MINERAl ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALVEOPORO-, PHYLLOPORO-, RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

290,291
CLlNOPYROXfNITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 3.8 m
Alveoporoalteromorph
after c1inopyroxene
Objective: X I 0
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

T.

is I'cry similar to
the previous on~, but the
alteromorph is cur perpcnclicubr to
the Z axis
thc clinopyroxene, not
parallel to it. Both sets or perpendicuLlr deal'ages arc normally
obserl'able in such a section. Since it
is only developed acconfutg to a
direction parallel to the Z axis aoci
not along the clcal'age planes
the
primar~; mineral, t.he dentiC1.lJation
of the res.idual core:, of dinopyroxlOne and of its seconcJary products is
largely obscured in such a section.
Traces or these cleavages can be dis-

or

or

PART

3: ALTEllOMORPHS

tinguishcd within the secondary

products. Alveolar pores arc numerous and randomly distributed. The)'
correspond to numerous and very
small residues that hal'e disappearcc!
by dissolution after the Form'ltion of
the smectitic m:lterial and during
the cJel'elopment of' the aureolar
coloration or the pores h~' permeation of the iron compounds. Nute
that e\'cn in a such section. the
sllleetitic
secondary
products
appear JS well-oriented particles
throughollt the aJteromorph. In a
dun sectiun that would be C\.lt

accord.ing to a NE-SW di.rection, in

this alterolTIorph, the orientation of
the lavcrs (If smeLtitL' and its maximum interference-colors would be
clearly observed, whereas in a cu t
parallel tn the layering (NW -SE),
the layered texture of t.he secondary
11roduet lIould disappear, its interference-coJors, in XPL, would be
v<?.ry lo\\', and the alteromorph
would appear as nearly at extinction.

229

ALVEOPORO-, PHYUOPORO-, RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

292,293
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 8 m
Phylloporoalteromorphs
after c1inopyroxene
Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL

"of clinop)Toxene
ha\'e been completely weathered
to a smectitic clay mineral of
saponitic composition. No primary
residues are present in the alteromorph, whose intel-nal texture corresponds to that of a regular
phylloporo-alterornorph. The thin
regular pore-space is only distingUishable at high magnification. The
regularity of the pores is mainly due
to the fact that all secondary particles are well oriented parallel to the
Z axis of the primary mineral. As a
" I

230

I.

result, each alteromorph exhibits its

own orientation of the secondary
products and of the interlayered
secondary pores. Some defects and
alveolar pores are observed i.n some
altcromorphs; they are due to the
late disappearance of the residual
remnants of primary fJ)Toxene and
to early-formed transverse fractUl-es. This kind of phylloporoalterol11orph after clinopyroxene is
g enerallv observable only where the
primary crystals are not too coarse;
otherwise, the residual remnants of
J

clinopyroxene are maintained high

up in the weathered profile, and
they are cHrectly weathered to ironrich secondary products, giving rise
to polyphase or polygenc:tic alteromorphs. Here, the primary interstitial phlogopite has been replaced by
ydlo\vish vermicu11te, wherea.< the
magnetite inclusions are not yet
weathered.

ATLAS OF M,CROMOI\P!-IOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALVEOPORO-, PHYLLOPORO-, RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

294
GRANITIC ROCK

BR 163. Brazil
Sampled by F. Soubies
Depth: unknown
Phylloporo-alteromorph
(meso-aJteromorph)
after mica
Objective: x I 0
PPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

295
BIOTITE-RICH
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 4.8 m
Phylloporo-alteromorph
(meso-alteromorph)
after mica
Objective: X
PPL

ill

'0

11

'111.1111',

I)

(to be compared t.o photomicrographs 172, J73) shows the

typical pat.tern of a phyUoporomeso-alteromorph. Many pores sti'll
exhibit a biconvex lenticular shape,
whereas with more advanced leaching of the iron-bearing compounds
in t.he internal part of the altero
morph, the residual thick layers are.
microdivided. Thin dark brown
iron-rich layers are regularly interlayered with thin beige-colored layers of kaolinite_

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

The lower photomicl'ograph (to be

compared vvith 174, 175) shows a
compa.rable but. inverse microtextural pattern, vvhich is promoted by
a similar process. In this case, t.he
areas that have been the most ironenriched are the walls of' the previously formed transmineral fracture,
which crossed t.he biotite crvstal in a
direction perpendicular to the
sheets. ExpanSion is then restricted
to a handed surface U1<lt crosses perpendicularly ule sheets of the mjca.
This results in a moderate expan)

si on of the iron-poor and weaker

internal parts, whereas t.he ironrich and more resistant transverse
band is fractured. The remlting conFiguration is somewhat inverse to
that sho\\-Tl in the previous illustrations: the residual expanded parts of
t.he mineral are elliptie<ll, whereas
t.he pores an; delimiled by a biconcave outline.

231

ALVEOPORO-, PHYLLOPORO-, RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

296,297
COARSE-GRAINED
AMPHI80LlTE

Southwestern
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.6 m
Retiporo-alteromorph
after feldspar
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

::.... 0.0 mm

is completely
weathered to a n:llo\vish
isotropic material. This secondary
material is divided into se\'eral
pieces by an irregular network of
open intramineral fractures. These
fractures exhibit a somewhat llierarchical pattern, and their walls are
mainly accordant surfaces. Each
part of the divided secondary phase
is in turn irregularly lTossed by a
nur-ober of thin Fractures of se-conel
and thirel order. This successive Fracturing is due to a process 01' progressive dehydration of the isotropic

232

material. Tbe reticulal" network of

pores generates a typical retiporoaltcromorpb. The yello~'ish color of
the secoodar~' product, in PPL, is
caused by pcrmeation of an ironbearing solution from the neighboring grillls of krromagnesian
minerals, mainly green hornblcnde,
whose weathering is incipielJt, with
oxyhydroAides of iron pC'llctrating
into the nCt'-\'ork of intersecting
cleavages. The isotropic ch:lrJcter of
the secondary product after feldspar
is proven by observing the second
photomicrograph, taken ill XPL.

Some patches of crystallized material appear within the retiporoaltcromorph; they arc small
crystallal'ia of gibbsite, which normally develop later at the expense
of the ephemeral and transitory
isotropic material. The sample was
taken at the base of a profile showing ferrallitic weathering.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALVEOPORO-, PHYLLOPORO-, RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

298,299
COARSE-GRAINED
AMPHIBOLlTE

Southwestern Cote
d'lvoire
Depth: 4.2 m
Retiporo-alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

;- 0.2

0,1

0,0",,,,

Ill. I
"of feldspar has
been completely weathered to
an intermediate isotropic secondary
prodUCT in the lower horizon of a
ferrallitic profile. The rock is COIn
posed of coarse-grained plagiodasc
and hornblende. Owing to the illf'
ference of weatherability of the two
primary minerals, the plagiocla,e
call be complete I)' weathered.
whereas the hornblende still seems
practically unweathered. The occur
rence of nwnerolls grains of com
pletely weathered plagioclase gi\'cs
to th~, paruaJJy weathered rock a

PART

3 : A.LTEROMORPKS

crumbly texture, which is emphasized bv.. the network~ of closeJ".

spaced fissures within their altem
morphs. As in the earlier photomicrographs, the isotropic material is
largely JTagm~nred by a hierarchical
network of fissures and fractures,
wh.ich gin's to the alteromorph a
typical retiporo-alteromorphic pattern. Some open transmineral !TactlU'~S are in,Rlled by mio-oLTystalLnc
material of allochthonous origjn
(deep yellow materiaJ in PPL). It
consists of a smectitic clay mineral.
A d~ta..iled obscn'ation of the inter-

na'! mio-otexture of these deposits

shows that most crystallites have
grown pcrpenilicularly to the walls
of the fractures. Their deposition is
a consequence of crystallization in
siw !Tom an ionic solmion. Very few
patches of gibbsite are obsen'ed
\vithin the isotropic material.

233

ALVEOPORO~, PHYLLOPORO-, RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

300,30.
NEPHELlNE SYENITE

Pedra Balao,
POt;OS de Caldas.
MG, Brazil

Depth: 0.6 m
Retiporo-alteromorph
after nepheline

Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0,3

0.1
0.0 mm

T"

f (luja\rrite) con
tains prismatic or neeclleshaped
crystals
of aegil-jne,
equidimensional or euhedraJ coarse
crystals of nepheline, and large
areas of eudialyte as main constituents associated with variable
amounts of arf\'edsonitic amphibole
and tabular or lath-shaped crystals
of orthoclase. As accessory minerals, rinkite ("mosandrite"J). astrophyllite,
lamprophyllite
and
complex. titanium and zirconium
silicate minerals are commonly
observed. The photom icrographs

234

show a completely weathered crys

tal of nepheline that has been
replaced by an intermediate
isotropic material whose microte.xtural pattern is very similar to the
pre~iotlsly shown retiporo-alteromorphs after feldspar. The alteromorph is surrounded by large
crystals of eudialyte (AS, ES), by a
grain of orthadase (E I), and by
numerous external Luclusions of
needle-shaped aegLrine. Within the
alteromo'-ph, many sma.II unweath
ered inclusions of pale bro\,,.n
rinkite can be seen. The reticular

network of h.ierarchical Fractures

and fissures is particularly well
developed in this retiporo-alteromorph. Note the occurrence of
smaU iITegular patches of' microcrystalLnc gibbsite along the contact area \~th the orthoclase crystal
and within the alteromorph after
nepheline.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALVEOPORO-, PHYLLOPORO-, RETlPORO-AlTEROMORPHS

302
NEPHELINE SYENITE

Pedra Balao.
Por;os de Caldas.
MG. Brazil
Depth: 0.5 m
Retiporo-alteromorph
after nepheline
Objective: x 6.3
PPL

illustJ"ates another particularly welldeveloped example of a retiporoalteromorph formed at the expense

of a nephdine crystal that has been
completely weatllered to an intermediate and ephemeral isotropic
secondary product. The pW'pose of
this photomicrograph is to show the
regularly distributed and randomly
oriented fractures and fissures in a
typical I)' welJ-hierarchized network. The larger are the open fractures, the older they are. In such a

PART

3;

''I

.11

ALTER0l'10RPHS

I"

way, the alteromorph material is

successively divided in fraetaJ fashion into smaller and smaller fragments, which increases the bulk
porosity of tile weathered rock and
decreases its apparent denSity. Once
the weathered minerals ""ill come
into contact at the accumulation
front with tile aluminum-bearing
solutions derived from the upper
part of the proftle, the net-work of
pores of the retiporo-alteromorph
will be infilled by allochthonous
deposits of gibbsite, vvhereas the

isotropic material will be, in turn,

dissolved in order to generate more
gibbsite in the ne;..:1: lower part of
the profile. This leaves a cellular
septo-alteromorph, wh.ich "''ill be
the negative picture of the previously formed retiporo-alteromorph
(see later, 430 and 431, for the
complete weathering of nepheline
to gibbsite).

235

ALVEOPORO-, PHYLLOPORO-, RETlPORO-ALTEROMORPHS

303
DIABASE

Ribeirao Preto,
SP, Brazil
Sampled at rock outcrop
Retiporo-alteromorph
after volcanic glass
Objective: x 4
PPL

06

0.4

0.2

- 0.0 mm

304
DIABASE

Ribeirao Preto,
SP, Brazil
Sampled at rock outcrop
Retiporo-alteromorph
after vesicular glass
Objective: x 6.3
PPL

r~
-

) . .,. ,
I

illus-

.)trate the special case of the

weathering of poorly crystalline and
amorphous materials. The first
example corresponds to the weathering of cryptocrystalline basaltic
glass that is intt:'rstitial among plagioclase phenocT)'srs, whereas the
second one illustrates tht:' weathering of vesicular glass to brovvn-colored palagonite. The basaltic glass
that surrounds the vesicles is not
very weathered; it exhibits an inter-

236

nal textw-e composed of many fans

of very small di\'erging needles of
plagioclase set in a vitreous groundmass. These photomicrographs
clearly show bow an isotropic
hypocrystalline or amorphous
material is divided into many angular volumes by the forrn,ltion of a
reticular network of llssures, which
progressively are widened as "veathering progresses. Most open fissures
are hierarchized, the widening of
the first-formed fissures taking

O.Omm

place as more tbin fissures are

formed. The pattern of the reticular
network is better developed and
more regular in the case of vesicular
basaltic glass, which is perfectly
isotropic and which does not contain any cryptocrystalline material.

ATLAS OF MICR-OMOR-PHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

which the. primary minerals were weathered and, on

the other, the internal structural c1iscontinlLities of
these plimary minerals, along which the first-formed
secondary products may have been distributed. Some
micromorphological features are thus directly inherited from speCific IC<ltures of the primary minerals.

The diso'iburion of the second.ary minerals in the

alteroplasmas and in the crystalLiplasmas commonly
exhibits a particular microtextwc (Fig. 27). This texnU'e reJlects, 011 the one hand, thc conditions under

"PORO"-ALTEROMORPH

ISOLATED CRYSTALS
INTERSTITIAL VOIDS

BANDED TEXTURE
IRREGULAR BOXWORKS

l
BOTRYO-ALTEROMORPH

l
IRREGULAR SEPTOALTEROMORPH

l
GLOMERO-ALTEROMORPH

ISOLATED UNITS
INTERSTliAL VOIDS

BANDED TEXTURE
REGULAR BOXWORKS

AGGLOMERATED CRYSTALS
CONNECTED VUGHS

Irregular seplo-alleromorphs
mainly after fractured minerals
suchs as feldspars.
RegUlar septo-alleromorphs
mainly after cleaved minerals
such as pyroxenes
and amphiboles.
BOTRYOALTEROMORPH

REGULAR SEPTO-ALTEROMORPH

27.
Defmition' of aJterom(>rph, on the basis of rnicrotextural criteria: the cla'Sifkatioli of the "poro".alterornorphs
according to the distribution of the solid pbas

FIGUH

PAR1 ) : ALHROMOP.PHS

237

These microtextures are also porous; however, the

organization and distribution of the voids are not diagnostic, but they clearly appear only if they are considered as complementary features of the solid textures.
Only the solid volumes are to be discussed here. Consequently, the prefrx "puro" is no longer necessarily
included in the newly coined terms used to describe
such alteromorphs.

Botryo-aJruomr. rrll.-

Botryo-a'teromOrpl1s (from the Greek (3ctTpv1;

grape. cluster) are characterized by an internal

structure consisting of homogeneously distributed and sized (sub)automorphic crystallites (or
clusters of crystallites) of secondary minerals.
which are stacked side by side. leaving among
them small interstitial interconnected voids mor
phologically similar to packing voids* (Fig. 28).

PAIMARV MJ'~ERAi.

FIGURE

28.

BOTRYQ.ALrEROMORPH

Relationship of a botr),o.alteromorph to a grain or"

develop within the empty pores of septo-alteromor-phs. It also develops by weathering of grains
of feldspa" which. by evolution of an intermediate
phase of homogeneous amorphous material, gives
rise to isolated subhedral microcrystals of kaolinite or glbbsite.These booklets of kaolinite and single crystals of gibbsite are regularly distributed in
the alteromorph.They are clustered in such a way
as to have between them small polyhedral interstitial "packing" voids.
The botryomorphic texture is highly porous, and
its internal pore-space i.5 interconnected. Near the
periphny 01' the alteromorph. the internal pore-space
is commonly directly connected with the fissurerelated pore-spaces of the alterite. It thus easily
becomes filled with materials of allochthonous origin.
During a later stage of infiUing by processes of absolute
accumulation, the characteristic internal structures of
the botTyo-alteromorphs may either become obscured
and even disappear. This wiJl happen where the
imported material has the sanle mineralogical composition as that of the receiving texture. 00 the other
hand, it may remain clearly distinguished if the material transferred has a different mineralogical composition, or if it exhibits a sufficiently distinct color or
microtextille. In this last case, the botryomorphic elements of the alteromorph may appear as a mosaic-like
assemblage of isolated crystals completely embedded
within the cumulomorphic part of the alteromorph.
Botryo-alteromorphs of gibbsite or kaolinite after
feldspar may possess a striking contrast if the voids are
filled w;th a hematite-rich deposit.

prima.!")' mineral.

The volwne of the interstitial voids may still be

important, because most crystallites tJlat compose the
alteromorph are isolated from each other by interstitial
interconnected voids. The crystal lites arc generally
comparable in size throughout the entire alteromorph,
although in the plane of the thin section (and as a rule
for all stacking structures in which each crystal is not
necessarily cut along its equatorial plane), some crystaUites may seem smaller and surrounded by wider
voids.

Glom 'rv-cllteromorpl1'

GlomerO-alteromorphS (from the Latin glomerare

= to agglomerate). are alteromorphs in which
individual crystals of supergene origin show a tendency to agglomerate into small. compact and
irregular areas separated by large interconnected
vughs*. Within the solid volumes. the individual
crystals are assembled into a pore-free (at the

This microtexture commonly develops during the weathering of small grains of iron-bearing
minerals such as olivine. pyroxene or garnet.
which form alteromorphs partly infilled with small
spherules of radiating needles of goethite. These
small spherules are generally closely spaced and in
mutual contact, and they delimit small triangular
interstitial voids (tetrahedral In three dimensions), with curved sides. This texture can also

238

scale of the microscope) microgranular texture

(Fig. 29).

The textille of the glomero-alteromorph is very

similar to that or the botryo-alteromorph, but the distribution and, ultimately, the proportions of the interstitial voids differ. In the botryo-alteromorph, the

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

cpto-a I tcmmol'phs

SeptO--OlteromorPhs (from the Latin sepwm. pI.

septa = partition. compartment) are characterized
PRIMARY MINERAL

GLDMERo-ALTUlOMORPH

29.
Rdalionship or a glomcro-allcromorrh to a grain or
a primar)' mineral.

F1GURE

pores are numerous, small, isolated and interstitial,

whereas in the glomero-alteromorph, the pores appear
as a few large, interconnected \"Ughs. The ver), small
interstitial voids in the agglomerated areas, not \'isible
at the scale of the optical microscope, are not taken
into accoWlt. In the first texture, most crvstallites are
isolated, or they are in contact at a few point.~, whereas
in the second case, most crystal lites are agglomerated
and in contact along the major portion of their outlines.

by an internaJ fabric in which all the secondary

minerals are distributed in banded textures
(septa). among which empty, isolated polyhedral
voids are enclosed. Most septo-alteromorphs are
illustrations of the so-called "boxwork" texture
(Fig. 30).

PRIMARY MINERAL

SEPTO-ALTEROMORPH

What\~\'er

the distribution and organization of the

voids, their volWl1e is appreciable. In most cases, the
pore-space is guantitatively more important than is tbe
volume of the solid phase. These aJteromorphs are as a
result more common in the weathering of minerals
subjected to conditions of strong leaching, which promotes the remoy-al of the major portion of the chemical constitltents originally present.
Discontinuous traces of the original fractw-es or
incomplete septa commonly are recorded within the
glomero-alteromorphs; these give rise to complex a/omcro-sepro-alteromorphs.

fiGURE

30.

R~lationship

of d septo-alteTOll1orph [0 a grain of a

rlimar\, mi.n~ral.

Scpto-alteromorphs are cerrainly the most characteristic and the 1Il0st commonly encoWltcr~d alteromorphs, ('specially in lateritic isalterit~s. The layout of
the banded textures is influenced by the regular (cleavage and twin planes) and irregular discontinuitjes (fissures and cracks) that controlled lJ1e initial stage of
weathering of the primary minerals.
Tht' elementary septum is a partition, a small and

thin wall, formed by the regular distribution of secFor example, the weathering of feldspar
grains under ferrallitic conditions usually gives
rise to complex alteromorphs. On the one hand.
well-oriented crystals of gibbsite are regularly
juxtaposed to form septa whose organization
corresponds to the network of original fractures.
On the other hand, unoriented crystals of gibbsite
are clustered, leaVing empty vughs among them.
The formation of the gibbslte-bearing septa along
the original fractures always precedes the formation of the clusters of gibbsite formed at the
expense of the residuaJ remnants. Conse<juently. a
partly developed septo-alteromorph forms
before the agglomerated part. According to the
order of formation of the structur-al elements in
the finaJ alteromorph. for cases where all residues
are weathered, the order of the prefixes must be
written as glomero-septo-alteromorph, and not
as septo-glomero-alteromorph (see below, the
case of complex poro-alteromorphs).

PART

3 : ALTIROMOR.PHS

ondary crystals that are jlL,taposed into a ribbon (if

observed in thin section) consisting of one or more
parallel layers of crystals and arranged on both sid~s LIt'
a median plane (the so-called "centraJ parting"), which
corresponds to the trace of a nssw-e or cleavage. A11
indi\idual crystals in a septum are generally oriented
parallel to each other and commonly perpendicular to
the median plane of the banded texture. The linear
development of a Septllm, as observed in thin section,
does not correspond to a digjtate linear development
of the secondary products, but rather to an artificial
cut through a planar arrangement of secondary crystals. If seen in the three dimensions, the septa are not
one-dimensional and linear, but rather t\-\'0-din1ensionaJ and planar.
The details of these elementary textures are not
identical in all septo-alteromorphs. Three main cases
are recognized_

239

 The orientation of the elementary Illonocrystals

that compose a septum may bt> Wleven. In this C<lse, this
lack of preferred optical orientation is observed in all
septa and throughout the whole septo-a1tcromorph.
Simultaneous extinction, under o-ossed nicals, of all
single crystals making up a given aJteromorph is never
observed.
The orientation of the single crystals may be
perpendicular to the median plane of the scptum whateH'r its orientation; in this case, the orientation of the
crystals follows all the vvindings and irregularities of
the septum. jf the septa of a given alteromorph are
irregularly curved, only the crystals that are parallel to
the optical planes of the microscope wiJ I go to extinction under crossed nicols, and the extinction of the
septa will be unduJatory. Single crystals do not go to
extinction simultaneously along the whole septum. The
partial extinction of the septo-altC'romorph exhibits a
dark cross that persists when the stage of the microscope is rotated, a.ll individual single crystals heing successively suitably oriented parallel to the optical planes
of the microscope.
The orientation of the single crystals also may be
controlled by the orientation of crystals of the primary
mineral itself. In this case, all tile second.ary crystals of
a given septo-alterolTlorph exhibit the same general
orientation in all pans of the se-ptum, and in aU septa
of the alteromorph, whatever the orientation of the
septa. As a result, the extinction of the septo-alteromorph is complete and simulta.neous in all it.s parts
\\' hen the optical directions of the single crystals are
.,uitably orient.ed with regard to the optical planes of
the microscope. At 45 to these planes, the birefringence of the whole septo-alteromorph is maximum;
this is the most suitable position for photomicrography.
The first two cases, especially the second
one, are commonly observed in septo-alteromorphs of gibbsire after feldspars. The internal
microstructure of each septum consists of rwo
parallel layers of subparallel crysrals on borh sides
of the median plane (Which represents the trace
of a pre-existing fissure). These crystals are
arranged more or less perpendicular' co this
plane. Thicker septa in some cases consisr of rwo
or more successive layers of gibbsire crystals. The
regular orientation of the gibbsite crysrals is
nevertheless slightly obscured, in thin section. by
the faer that gibbsite has a monoclinic symmetry,
and thus an oblique extinction. Furthermore.
most crystals are rwinned. This case of regular
orientation of the secondary minerals is also very
common in the septo-alteromorphs of goethite
developed at the expense of iron-rich garnet.

240

The third case is more commonly observed

in septo-alteromorphs developed at the expense
of iron-rich minerals. such as those of the pyroxene and amphibole groups. As soon as the weathering of these miner-als begins. the secondary
crystallites of iron oxyhydroxide are strongly oriented parallel co the Z axis of the primary mineral. whatever the orientation of the fractures or
cleavages along which weathering began. Thereafter. once the septa are thickened by material
transfer. the regularity of orientation of the crystallites tends co decrease slowly with increasing
distance berween the residual remnants on one
hand, whose volume rapidly decreases, and the
newly formed septa. whose thickness slowly
increases. Be that as it may, the uniform orientation of most secondary crystallites promotes a
perceptible extinction of the whole septo-alteromorph upon rotation. under crossed nicols. co a
position parallel co the Z axis of the primary
mineral.
The pores that a.re delimited by the septa are generally polyhedral volumes with planar 01' curved faces;
they are theoretically closed \olumes ancl largely inaccessible to transmineral transfers_ Some septa may be
discontinuous; they may be interrupted, and several
adjacent polyhedral pores may be interconnected.
The volume of the voids may be much greater than
that of the secondary phase. The thickness of the septa
depends, on onf' hand, on the conditions of weathering, which determine the vo.lume of the exported elements and, as a result, the volume of the residual
pores. On the other, thickness depends on the chemical composition of the primary mineral, which determines the proportion of the immobile elements. The
richer in immobile elements the primary mineral, the
thicker \-\iJl be the septa of its alteromorph, and the
smaller will be the proportion of internal residual
voids. In this way, the alteromorphs formed at the
expense of different kinds of primary p),Toxenes in a
weathered pyroxene-rich rock can easily be distinguished (Delvigne 1965).
All these septo-alterol1lorphs possess the so-called
"box work" te),.'ture_ Septo-alteromorphs that consist of
iron or aluminum hydroxides are chemically and
mechanically resistant, because they an.' supported by a
strong three-dimensional network of stable secondary
minerals. Consequently, they can persist for a long
time, not only within the isalteritic horizons of the lateritic profiJes, in which the septo-alteromorphs are
particularly abundant, but also within al10teritic horizons, and even within weathered Jitl-toreJics
(alieroreltcs), which occur in soil horizons, in coUuvium
and in ferruginous and bauxitic Juricrusts. At these

ATlAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

different levels of weathering. the interseptum porespace may be filled by later products of crystallization
or deposition of dissol ved constituents or material
transported over long cLstances (from higher horizons
or from upper parts of the landscape).
Depending upon the Ol-iginal network of fissures,
cracks, cleavages and other structurally imposed directions in the primary minerals, and in accordance \\ith
the previous c1assilkation of partly weathered minerals
(Stoops et al. 1979), boxwork textures can be
described as irregular or as regular septo-alteromorphs. It is ob\ious that even within the so-called
regular scpto-alteromorphs, the observed textures are
not always perfectly developed; many small accidents
may 10caJl)' interrupt their regularity. For example,
small interrupted septa may occur as branches on main
continuous septa or as isolated fragments (bridged in
the third dimension) within the polyhedral voids.
The combination of a regular cleavage and irregular
fTactures may promote the formation of complex
septo-alteromorphs (see below). The septa corresponding to fractures generally develop before those
developed along a cleavage.

rreguJor septc>-o/teromorphs correspond to an

uneven arrangement of the septa, without any
particular distribution or orientation. controlled
by the pattems of fissures and cracks developed
in the uncleaved primary mineral.

The discontinuities that control the distribution of

the septa correspond mainly to transmineraJ and
intramineral fissures and to traosverse* fractures.
Intermincral fissures play a similar role. and the alteromorph commonl)' is completely sUlTounded by a
polygonal and peripher;tl rim of secondary products,
whose internal texture is somewhat different than that
of the internal septa. -nle peripheral "septu.m" does not
contain a median plane against which the two layers of
crystallites are symmetrically organized, as is the case
for the common internal septa. Instead, it consists of
only one layer of secondary products; as a result. its
thicknes~ is generally less than the thickness of the
internal septa.
Where adjacent scpto-alteromorphs ha~e the
same mineralogical corn position because they are
dewloped from the same primary mineral, the conjoined peripheral rims can simulate the usual organization of a septum by the simultaneous development of

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

identical secondary products on both sides of the- intermineral fissure. Wnere these peripheral rims and internal septa are incomplete or irregular, the original
boundaries between alteromorphs arc no longer clear,
and an area of several crxpw-sepw-alreromorphs is developed. These remarks apl)ly to all J..inds of sepro-alteromorphs.
This kind of irregular septo-alteroDlorph is commonly developed at the expense of olivine and garnet
and, in general, otller uncleaved or poorly cleaved but
fractured primal: minerals, such as the feldspars.

regular sepw-a{teromorph is developed where

the septa are clearly oriented parallel to the
cleavages of the primary mineral. Depending on
the mineralogical composition of the primary
mineral and its optical orientation with respect to
the plane of the thin section. the sapto-alteromorph may exhibit either a single network of

parallel septa or a double network of crossing

septa.
Pyroxene- and amphibole-group minerals and
some types of feldspar commonly show a regular network of cleavages. This network is followed during the
incipient stage of weathering, and is the starting point
for the development of the later internaJ pattern of
septo-alteromorphs. The network determines the density, distribution and orientation of tlle septa. Depending on the nature of the primary mineral and the
orientation of its cleavages, regular septo-alteromorphs may be further subdivided into orrhogonally (or
nearly so) crossing networks (in the case of pyroxenegroup minerals and albh feldspar) and obliquely crossina
networks (in the case of amphibole-group minerals).
Pyroxene- and amphibole-group minerals generally give rise to iron-rich septo-alteromorphs. If the
original content of aluminum in the primary mineral is
minor, the resulting a1teromorph may be composed of
alluninian goethite, in some cases associated witll isolated small crystals of gibbsite. If isolated crystals of
gibbsite appear, polyphase alteromorphs result. Ironrich PFoxenes and ampbibolcs (hypersthene, augite.
aegirine. hornblende, actino]jte) give alteromorphs
with thick septa and relatiyely small residual pore.s,
whereas the more calcimn- or magnesium-rich minerals (enstatite, diopside, tremolite. anthophyllite) usually give aJteromorphs with thin septa and relatively
larger residual pores (Deh-igne 1965).

241

The acamho-septo-a1t~romorphis J partiC'UIJr case of

an alteromorph developed at the expense of twinned
crystals. Grains of alkali feldspar and, more rarely, pbgioclasC' develop septo-alteromorphs composed of
gibbsite whose (possibly coarse) crystals are regularly
organized along the cleavages. Coarsely twinned crystals of orthodase can develop septo-alterolllorphs
characterized b>' two sets of septa, separated by the
twin plane; each of these sel~ follows the c1e~l\'age
planes particular to each individual original crystal. If
each or them shows only one network of parallel cleavages, oblique v,'ith respect to the twin plane and with
an orientation necessariJy spnmen-ical with respect to
it, a special bnd of septo-alteromorph is deVeloped
v,ith an internal "nsh-bone" pattern (acantholllorphic
pattern, from the Greek cxKcxv8cx flsh bone). Gr.lins
of pJagioclase more commonly produce inegular
septn-alteromorphs by the combination of the networks of' FractmC's \\'ith the numerous (poly~)'nthetic)
twin 1)lanes. Nevertheless, the "fIsh-bone" pattern can
al.so be obsen'ed ill the single-twinned (Carlsbad law)
thin tabular crystals of plagioclase, common in ophitic
and diabasie textures. Similar structures composed of
iron oxyhydrox.ides may occur in acantho-septo-alteromorph.s derived from tile weathering of nvinned crystals of pyroxene or amph.ibolc.

IF the feldspar is sun-aunded by a variety of m.i..nerals, thl:" regular or irregular septo-alteromorph that
dcvelol)s can easily he identified in thin section. In conmst, if feldspar crystals are abundant in the paTent
rock, the resulting septo-alteromorph.~ may well be
contiguous, with their incl.i\ridual outlines no longer
clear or identifiable; they arc then crJpw-sepro-alceromorphs or CTypta-a!al1lero-scpw-altrromarphs_
AlJ adjacent grains in a given area may consist of a
pyroxene or an amph:ibole.These may give rise to ironrich aJtcromorphs wbose secondary crystallites are all
weU olientcd parallel to the Z axh of each grain of primary mineral. The boundaries between alteromorphs
are expected to remain ident::ifiable because wlder
crossed pol.ars, complete extinction or transmission of
the different alteromorphs is not obtained simultaneously upon rotation of tile microscope stage. The
cryptomorphic pattern of the contiguous septo-alteromorphs appears clearly only under plane-polaI-ized
light, but it disappea.rs if the polarizers are nossed.

RPIIS
It is ol,,'ious that the textures observed within
altcromorphs are rarely simple and perfectly developed. Numerous combi.nations of elementary textures

242

can occur togetheT within the alteromorphs. This complexity can arise in a serendil)itous way, in which case
it occurs only locally in tlle thin section. In this
ins-tance, the complex texture is accidental, and its
description can be omitted. Complexity can also occur
either commonly, under sim.ilar conditions of weathering independent of the nature of the primary m.iner.lls,
or uniformly, in al temmorphs developed From the
same parent mineral. In these cases, the complex patterns observed in the alteromorphs are characteristic,
and a detailed description must be made. The most
common cases of complex alteromorphs (Fig. 31) are
described below.
Within a gi\'cn alteromorph, the networks of
cleavages and fractures together can inJluence the
development and orientation of tile septa. Within some
septo-alteromorphs, large areas of regtJarly organized
structure can be separated by one (or more) irregular
septum. If the irregular septum is formed at the
expense of a wide open fracture, it commonly appears
as a complex curved or Linear septum composed of two
distinct parallel and relatively thick layers of crystallites separated by a planar and empty median pore. This
pore corresponds to the opening of the fracture such as
it appeared during the first stage of weathering. The
more regular parts of the aJteromorph correspond to
the traces of tbe cleavages developed within the unfractured parts of the primary mineral. The resulting
altcromorph is an irrcBu]ar-re8u]ar-sepw-a!cerornorph.
This seems to be the simplest case of a complex alteromorph.
In altcromorphs developed From feldspars under
conditions of ferraIJitic weatllering, the First-Formed
crystals of gibbsite regularly follow the nen-vorb of
cleavages auel fractures. They are arranged in banded
tcxtures of relatively constant thickness, which surrOWld cavernous Feldspathic residues. During a Further
stage of weathering, the progressive disappearance of
these residues does not result in tbe thickening of the
first-formed septa, but in the development of irregular
aggregates of gibbsite crystals. The peri.nuclear pores,
until now regular and of constant thickness, are CODverted into large irregular vughs. In the final stage of
weathering, the alteTomorph shows an intimate combination of two distillct microtextural patterns: thin
septa, containing a double layer of vvell-oriented single
crystals, constitute the elements of an embryonic septomorphic texture whose development was interrupted in fuvor of volumes i.u which a glomcromorphic
textme is progressively developed. This last textme,
located between the se.pta of the first generation, is
composed of aggregates of randomly oriented C1ystals
of gibbsite associated \\ith large irregular pores, both

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEJ\.Al. ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PRIMARY MINERAL

BOTRYO-ALTEROMORPH

SEPTO-ALTEROMORPH

COMBINED PATTERNS

BOTRYO-SEPTO-ALTEROMORPH

GLOMERO-ALTEROMORPH

COMBINED PATTERNS

GLOMEROSEPT0-ALTEROMORPH

31. D~fUlifions of alteromorphs on the basis of mic'Totextural criteria: the classification of complex alreromorphs.
First example: the \\"ealhcring of a feldspar-group miner"J le.>
gibbsite. Weathering occurs aCf:orJ.i.ng 1'0 three basic patterns.

FIGURE

PART

3 : AlTEROMORPHS

243

formed during the final stage of weathering. The complex altcrODJ0rph that shows the association and the
intercolUJcction of these t\\'o types of elementary textures is a s/omero-sepro-uherolllorph.
The later evolution of some retipoTL1-alteromorphs. which arc composed of a weatherable
isotropic material, divided b} a continuously retjcular
nenvork of pores, can k3d to the development of
glomero-alteromorphs and septo-alteromorphs of a
[)articular pattern. Indeed, each elementary polyhedral
'-olumc isolated by the reticular nen~ork of IISSUl-CS can
later be \"eathered to gibbsitc. These crystals of gibbsire either define a concentric banded textw-e, owing to
the peripheral and centripetal weathering of these volwnes, or are arranged in irregula.r glomcrornorphic
textures, where weathering proceeds in a more disorderly fashion (Fig. 32).

In the llrst case, an a/l'eo-reriporo-aheromorph is

developed. It consists of a pre,-iollsJy formed network
of POl"CS inherited from the retiporo-alteromorph, and
a group of volumes all composed of a regular rim of
gibbsite crystals surrOlUlcling a small residual pore.
Each volume is converted into a slJlall "centroporoalteromorph". Two generations of distinct orgaruzations of pores are intimatel~' associated. The Arst one
con.'>ists of a single, open, continuous and reticular
pore, whereas the second consists of many small,
closed, discontinuous pores surrounded hy a thin rim
of gibbsite. Such rims consist of crystals of a similar
size, arranged parallel to one another and perpendicular to the reticular network of pores. The organization
of the crystals in the peripheral rims is similar to that
observed in a septllm. The only difference reneets the
fact that the closed mewan plane obsen'ed in common
septa is here replaced by an open median plane, which
corresponds to 0ne of the branches of the reticular network.1l1is case is common in alteromorphs developed
at the expense of nepheline and, in some instances,
feldspar, where these minerals have weatbered to
gibbsite after an intermediate step involving further
weatherable, easily shrunk and divided isotropic or
amorphous material.
ill the second case, a complex texture results
whose different steps leading to their formation arc
recognized only with great difficulty. The reticular network of pores, which originated. From the previous

244

step, is wcl! maintained during the later step. However,

its boundaries are obscured or obliterated by the fact
that the gibbsite crystals are no longer djstributed as a
reguJar rim around each solid polyhedral volume, as in
the former example, but as aggregates of randomly oriented CJ-ystals exJuhiting irregular boundaries and containing small isolated micropores. The irregular
external porosity of these aggregates is, in this W<1;',
added to the regular pattern of the previously formed
reticular pores. The resulting alteroDlOl'ph is a glomeroret iporo-alteromorph.
An incorrect interpretation can result from the
super-flcial observation of regular aggregates of smaU
C(~ntrof)oru-alterolTlorphs developed by the simultane0US weathering
many small grains of a primary mineral that were organized, in the parent rock, into a
mosaic-like, cquigranular or granoblastic texture. The
weathering can develop synchronously within all the
constituents of the aggregate. It proceeds in a peripheral and centripetal manner from the intermineral
suture planes. After the disappearance of the last primary re,idues and after the development of the residual pores, the compound structure, an assemblage of
many minute centroporo-alte.romorphs, may be vel-y
similar to an irregular l'oarse-grained septo-alteromorph. More detailed observation of such 3 texture
generally shows that the fUle denticulation of the thin
rims around the central alveolar pores exrubits v3riolLS
orientabons. Trus observation provides proof of the diffe.rent orientation of the original minerals and shows
that the so-called se pta are, in fact, only the b'aces of
into-mineral boundaries.

or

This case is common in some ultramafic

rocks. in which small cryst3ls of pyroxene. in a
granoblastic texture. are weathered together to a
smectite-grollp mineral or to iron oxyhydroxides
concentrically arranged around small central
pores. The weathered assemblage is not a septoalteromorph. but rather an assemblage of small
centroporo-alteromorphs, each individual component of which may exhibit its own specific orientation and extinction. The weathering of an
assemblage of small grains of feldspar to gibbsite
would be much more difficult to Idemify because
the orlent3tion of the gibbsite cryst3ls is not
inherited from the orientation of the primary
feldspar: the secondary aggregate is a coalescent
assemblage of crypto-alteromorphs.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

COMPLEX ALTEROMORPHS

PRIMARY MINERAL

WEATHERING TO ISOTROPIC MATERIAL

RETIPORO-ALTEROMORPH

ABSOLUTE ACCUMULATION

EVOLUTION TO GIBBSITE

COMBINED
PATTERNS
META-ALVEO-RETIPOROALTEROMORPH

CUMULO-RETIPOROALTEROMORPH

META-ALVEO-CUMULO-RETJPOROALTEROMORPH

32,
DefinitiDn' of ,Iterornorphs 011 the hasi, 01 microtextilral LTiteria: the c1JssillcaLion
complex alternmorphs.
Sccond cxample: the weathering of nephelinc to gibbsi.tl. l';a
all isotropic intermediate' ph"F (,hl)wn ill yellow). Weather
ing may invoh't' absolutc accumulation or transformation to
gi"bsil~, or both.

fiGURE

or

PART 3 ;

ALTEROMORPH\

245

BOTRYO-. GLOMERO-. SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

30S
HVPERSTHENE-BEARlNG
GRANITIC ROCK

Zangouine. Man,
Western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.75 m
Botryo-alteromorph
developed
after plagioclase
Objective: x 10
XPL

:- 0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

306
BASALTIC ROCK

Parani. southern Brazil

Sampled by CA
C1emente
Depth: 2 m
BotTyo-alteromorph
developed
after c1inopyroxene
Objective:;, 2.5
PPL
1.0

0.0 mm
I
I
I
,in
XPL, show~ the typical texture
of a botryo-alteromorph ill which
smaU crystals of kaolinite are rcs'l.llarly disb'ibuted and randomly oriented. Each individual crystal L'
separated from it, neighbors by
isotropic material which, in this
case, is the artificial material used
for impregnation. Normally, in the
untreated sample. the kaolinitc
crystals are nearly isolated From
each other or stackeu side by side,
leaving between them small interstitial interconnected \'oids mor-

246

phologicall)' \'ery similar to packing

Most pores are interconnected and, as a result, tllC alteromOl'ph is characterized by the
occurrence of a single large pore in
which indi\idual crystals are regularly distributed.
The second photomicrograph,
in PPL, shows a different kind of
botryo-alteromorph in which smal1
balls of l-adiating needles of goethite
arc closely st.acked side by side i.n
the empty por~s uf a septo-alteromorph after p)'Toxcne. The balls arc
now visible only in a few parts of
void~*.

the alteromorph because most of

the botryo-alteromorph has unfortunately been removed during the
preparation of the thin section. The
sp,lCes between the septa arc clused,
",.. hich does not allow good penetration of the impregnating material.
Thus most of the jnfilling material is
not indurated, and is easily lost
when cutting the rock.

A11.AS Of M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

BOTRYO-. GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

307
GRANITIC ROCK

BR 158. Brazil
Depth: 2.5 m
Sampled by F. Soubies
Glomero-alteromorphs
developed
after feldspar
Objective: x I 0
XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

T.

t
' . i I
I
grains of
feldspar have been completely
weathered to gibbs.ite. The origiJ131
contact between them is marked bv
a discontinuous alignment of quartz
of primary origin, and mainly by a
major d.ifference in orientation of
the crystalliplasmas within each of
the altel'omorphs. The gibbsite crystals are arranged paraUeI to the
cleavages of the original grains,
which are oriented more or less
perpendicular to each other. A septomorphic texture is not clearly
obsencd. Large irregular vughs are

PART

3 : A1.JEROMORPHS

distributed between the arf'as of

crystalliplasma, whose comlJoncnts
are tightl), agglomerated in a manner typical of g]omcro-altel'Omorphs. Note that most elongate
crystals of gibbsite are oriented parallel to each otJ1er. The thin section
has been rotated on the microscope
stage in a such a way that most crystallites in the two alteromorphs can
show their maximum illterlcrencecolor in XPL. The absence or nearabsence
of septa
is
rarely
encountered in an alteromorph
after feldspar: transmineral 11'3c-

tures and internal cracks usuallv

form man)' irregular septa of gibbsite, at least in th", first steps of
weathering. Where formed, these
septa generally are preserved during the later steps, leading to glomero-septo-alteromorphs.

247

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

il

308
CHARNOCKITIC ROCK

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain.
Western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.6 m
Partially developed
septo-alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 10
XPL

0.2

0.1

=-

0.0 mm

309
GABBRO

Bondoukou area.
Eastern Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at rock outcrop
Partially developed
septo-alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 10
XPL

I' t
I I
shown in
both photomicrographs are
very similar and characteristic of
the first steps in the felTallitic
weathering of plagioclase. The crystah are broken by irregular lransmineral fi-actures and transverse
cracks, along which weathering of
the primary mineral has started.
The first fissures are stiU recognizable as thin brov\-'nish lineaments
that run in the median planes of the
septa, renecting a slight influx of
iron. The most important septa
originated from the fra(tllres, but

248

graduaJly, as weathering develops,

more and morc septa appear whose
distribution and orientation are
related to the cleanges of the pri.
mary mineral. The gibbsite crystalinvariably
oriented
lites are
pe"pmdicnlar to the median plane
of the septa; their sizes and shapes
are IHuform along the septum,
\\,'hatever its orientation. At the
beginning of the weathet-ing, very
few or very small inter-plasma mineral pores, if an)', are developed,
aod the gibbsite crystab Ih tightly
against the cavernous residues of

feldspar. Later, once weathering has

progressed, irregular pores will
develop at the expense of the
residues, whereas the later-formed
gibbsite produced will agglomerate,
forming mixed glomcro-scptoalteromorphs.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTEItATlON AND WEATHERING

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

3 10, 3 I I
GARNET-BEARING
MICA SCHIST

Yaounde area, Cameroon

Sampled by G. Stoops
Depth: unknown
Partially developed
irregular septoalteromorph (irregular
linear weathering)
after gamet
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL
-

0.3
0.2
0.1

0.0

mm

I. I. 1 1 . '
.
of most
metamorphic rocks are characterized by numerous irregular
cracks whose reticular pattero
diviJt"s the mineral into many cootiguous fragments. These photomicrograpbs .~how a crystal of garnet
that is highly fractured, with
nwnerolls radially distributed fractures, aJong which the weathering
of the mineral has started according
to an irregular linear pattero of
weathering. Oxyhydroxides of iron
fonn irregular septa whose thickness is bierarcbized; thinner and
thinner new septa are formed grael-

PMT 3 : ALTEROMORPHS

uall)' as weathering proceeds, and

the primary mineral is progressively
reduced to smaller and smaller cavernous residues. Tllese garnet
residues are clearly seen as pink-colored remnants in PPL, whereas
their isotropic nature makes them
completely extinct in XPL. The
septa are microcrystalline. and they
are separated from the residues by
irregular, colorless inter-plasma mineral volumes partially filled, as
shoV\-n by t.he picturl'" in XPL, by
crystals of secondary gibbsit.e.
Gibbsite originates from the insoluble alwninum content of the pri-

mary garnet. Note that some thin

septa grow parallel to each other
(D2). This parallelism probably is a
rcOection of a particuJar feature,
like twin planes in the garnet. When
completely weatbered, this alteramorph after garnet will be a typical
irregular sept.o-altcromorph in
which most se-pta are radial1)' dist.ributed. As th(" alteromorph contains at least t\\'o secondary phases,
the oxyhvrlrox.ides
of iron and baibh ,
site, it is considered a polypha.se
alleromorph (see later).

249

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

3 12, 313
CHARNOCKITIC ROCK

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain,
Western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.6 m
Partially developed
septo-alteromorph
after c1inopyroxene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

:-- 0 I

0.0 mm

the feldspar minerals

re weatht'fed to gibbsite
(308), the- ferrol1lagnesian minerals
of the rock are weathered to iron
oxyhydroxides. The distribution of
the secondary products is Ill're also
determined by the irregular network of intramineral fi-actures, but
it is mainly determined by the regular cleavages of the original mineral.
The photomiCTograpbs show the
beginning of tlle weathering of a
clinopyroxene to a regular network
of parallel ferruginous se-pta vvhclse
distribution is closely relatecl to the
III I I1

250

cleavages of the mineral. \Vhcreas

the feldspar minerals give cavernous
residues, the ferromagnesian minerals give denticulate residues. Note
that the denticlllation is invariably
oriented parallel for all the residlles
produced from the same grain.
Note also that irreguJar pores
quickly den"'lop all around the
residues. This difFerence in porosity
resulting from the weathering of
feldspar- and pyroxene-group minerals ref1ects the fact that tile' content
insoluble aluminwn of calcic
plagiodase is much greater than the

content of insoluble iron of the

original cliuopyroxene. During thefirst step of weathel-ing, all residues,
tightly encased in the residual fermginous net,vork, maintain their
silllultaneous extinction in XPL.
However, as soon as weathering is
more adv;:mced, the increased volumes of the pore-s allow this regular
orientation to be partly disturbed.

or

An.AS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINfRAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

ll4
CAlC-AlKALlNE
GRANITE

Blapleu, near Man.

Western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.4 m
Regular
septo-alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 10
XPL

0.2

0.0 mm

liS
CAlC-AlKALlNE
GRANITE

BR 158. Brazil
Sampled by F. Soubles
Depth: 3.4 m
Regular
septo-alteromorph
after hornblende
Objective: x 10
PPL

II~'

ill

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

11,

1'1

shows the last step in the

weatheI"ing of plagioclase, whose
regular parallel cleavages hayc
determined the regular djstribution
and orjentation of the residual septa
of gibbsitc. Traces of the first thin
fissures ge.nerated during tJw Ftrst
step of weathering along the deal'ages are still recognizable in most
septa by their dark colOl', wl-uch is
related to influ.x of iron in the first
open cleavages, before the formation of secondary gibbsite had

started. Note the elongate residual

pores randomly distributl."d within
the septo-alteromorph. Such a case
of regular distribution of septa i.s
not common in alteromorphs after
feldspar-group minerals.
The second photomicrograph
shows a pseudo morph after a euhedral crystal of hornblende. The
original crystal contained many
inclusions of a chlorite-group
mineral, which is now parrially
weathered to iron-stained kaolirule
(ycllow-coJored irregular inclu-

sions). The hornblende crystal,

whose Z axis is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the thin section,
shows (l regular intersection of
oblique iron-rich septa that originated from its weatJ1cring along
cleavages, \\'ruch are reO'1llarl y oriented ~t 56 and 124. '"
'

251

BOTRYO-. GLOMERO-. SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

316,317
AMPHIBOllTE

Bereby.
Southwestern Cote
d'lvoire
Sampled by A. Perraud
Depth: unknown
Regular septoalteromorph after
amphibole (actinolite)
Objective: x 6,3
PPL and XPL

I.

show

the typical pattern of the se pta

generated
by, the weatherino
of J
~
b
crl"stal
of
a('t:inolit\~
convenientlv
.
.
oriented to show dearly the regularly intersecting Ferruginous scpta.
One set of se-pta is oricnterl N-S in
the photograph, whereas the second
set crosses the Ilrst one at angles of
0
124 0 and 56 . Th" 10\\' iron content
of the primary amphihok is responsible fur the thinness of t.he ferruginous residual septa md for the h.igh
ratio of the pore "olumc rel<1lil'c to
the "olume of the residual sec-

252

ondar)' products. The photomic.Tograph taken in XPL shows the

micmcrystallinity of the iron oxyh~'droxides that nJakl~ up the residllal scpta; the photognph has he('n
taken in a specillc orientation C)f the
nucroscopc stage to clearly show
that all the secondarvI crvstallites
are
,
optically oriented in the same din:-clion, theiJ- max.imulll interFerencecolor5 are uniform, md, as a result,
their extinction is simultaneous for
all the o"}'sta]litcs of all tbe septa of
the whole a]terolllorph. A photograph in which all cl-ystallites are at

0.3

0.2

=-

0.1

O.Omm

extinction in XPL is not shown

because tllt' septa would not be
dearly distinguished from the l'(~sid
ual pore-space. A convenient ex.ampie \\'itl1 which to compare the
~irnllltanCOllsl\'
illuminated
or
.'
ext.inct contiguous alteromnrphs is
given by the next illustrations.
Small feldspar gyains arc weathered
to gihbsite crystalliplasmas.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOlOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

318, 119
CHARNOCKITE

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain.
Western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.6 m
Regular septoalteromorph
after amphibole
Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL

::- 0.1

0.0 mm

of an amphibolcgroup mineral are compk-tely

weathered to Tegular scptoalteromorphs whose septa are composed
of microcrystalline iron oxyhydroxides. The two m<Un contiguous crystals shown ill the photomicrograph
arc differentlv orienkcl. The microscope sLagL' has been oriented in
such a way that each crysLal exhibits
its own particulaJ' orientation in
XPL. TIle I<lrge septo-aht'fomorph
in the right part of the photognph
is completely illuminated, whereas
the left septo-,llteromOl'ph is com-

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

pletely at extinction in XPL. The

photograph was taken with the condenser lens to increase the bright.
nE'SS of tJle secondary products and
to better distinguish the extinct
se pta from the residual pore-space.
These pbotogTaphs clearly show the
int1uencc of the crystalJographic
orientation of the primary mineral
on the orientation 01' the microcrvstaJline seconcJary products. VVhere
thin or incomplete septa ofLhe right
alteromorph are cut parallel tu the
plane of the thin section. tht'y
appear, in XPL. <IS bright yellow

septa, which indicates that the main

secondary, constituent is 0ooethitc.
Goethile is always preferentially
formed in the place
hematite in
alteromorphs in which the volume
of the pores is high and in which, as
a result, the cireulaLioll of water is
easy, and the guantity of water <lvailable is great.

or

253

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

320,32.
CHARNOCKITE

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain,
Western C6te d'lvoire
Depth: 0.6 m
Regular
septo-alteromorph
after pyroxene
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

I I1
shows
another example of a mineral
grain that is convenientl)' orjented
to illustrate the regularity of distribution and the pattern of orientation of its residual septa. The scpta
intersect at aJl angle 01' approximately 90, which allows the !Jarcnt
mineral ai' the <lltl'rornorph to he
determined: it is not an amlJhibolc,
as in the pre\ious illustrations, but a
p)TOXene. \Vhicbner the original
ferromagncsian mineral, the main
textural and optical characteristics
of the altcrornorphs formed are

254

vcry similar. In both cases, the

sellta-forming particles of gocthite
are strongly oriented according to a
particular orientation of the primary mineral. -1l1e second photomicrograph, in XPL, clearly shows tlle
regular orientation or these secI.>ndary particles, which allows all
the septa of the aJterornorpb to be
illuminated simultaneously. The pIagioclasc grains or the rock are now
completely weathel-ed to glomerasepw-alteromorphs of mesocrysralJine gibbsite. Note that no
gihhsitc crystals are observed in the

ferruginous alteromorph, and that

the th.in
ferruginous threads
observed in an a1teromorph or
gibbsite (1\ 1,2) are due to continuous transmincral fissures. Few crystals of gibbsite are observed along
onc edge of the ferruginous septoalteromorpb (03,4). Their unusual
occurrence there is probably due to
the oblique orientation of the intermineral boundary in the plane of
the thin section.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTE.RATlON AND WEATHERING

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

311,313,314
GABBRO

Bereby.
Southwestern
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by A. Pen-aud
Depth: unknown
Cumulo-septo-aJteromorph. "acantho-alteromorph" after pyroxene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

=- 0.0 mm

I' \1 I' 1 1
1 Or pyroxene
has been weathered to goethite,
giVing rise to a double septo-;JllerOmorph whose residual pores have.
been later infillcd by erystallaria or
gibbsite of allochthonous origin.
The cleavages, and consequently the
septJ, of the two parts of the
twi.nned crystal are symmetrically
distributed, which gives ,-ise to an
"acanlho-septo-alteromorph" ("flshbone" pattern). The seconrl illustration, in XPL, shows that hoth

PART

3 : ALWl,OMORPH5

goethitc.rich domains are equally

illuminated when symmctriL'ally
disposed relatively tn the cross-hairs
of the microscope. The third illustration shows thal ,.vlth a different
angle of rotation. all the .~epta of
one part tend lo be at extinction,
whereas the other part is at its maximum illumination. As a result,

these exceptional pictures obviously

show that the orientation of the
goethite particles is strongly influenced by the crystaJlographic orientation
the primary mi.neral. The
orientation of the gibbsile crystals is
random, and ob,.-iously independent
of that or both primary and s(:('onda.rv minerals.

or

255

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

325
AMPHIBOLITE

Bereby,
Southwestern
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by A. Perraud
Depth: unknown
Complex septo-alteromorph
(cleavages + twins)
after amphibole
Objective: x 6.3
PPL
~ 0.3

illustrates t1w case of a complex

septo-alteromorph whose orientation and regularity of the septa
depend on the combined effects of
the cleavage pattern of the primary
mineral, together with several twin
planes. The septa that develop from
the t""in planes are nearly parallel to
the short edge of the photograph,
I

256

whereas the septa developed from

the cleavage planes are oriented
ohlique to these edges. The fact that
two sets of septa are reCiprocally
oriented according to angles of
nearly 120 0 anu 60 0 indicates that
the primary mineral was an amlJhibole-group mineral. TIle thinness of
the sellta indicates that the primary
mineral was an iron-poor amphi-

i
_

0_2

0.1
0.0 mm

bole. Minute remnants of primary

amphibole are still distinguishable
within some residual pores (D4).
Rounded and still un weathered
inclusions of quartz arc clearly seen
within and arOlmd the septo-alteromorph.

ATlAS Of MICROHORPHOLrn;v OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

BOTRYO-, GLOMERO-, SEPTO-ALTEROMORPHS

326
CHARNOCKITE

Summit (I 000 m) of
Tonkoui Mountain,
Western Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.6 m
Glomero-septoalteromorph
aher feldspar
Objective: x 10
XPL

0.2

0.0 mm

327
GABBRO

Bondoukou area,
Eastern Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at outcrop
Botryo-septoalteromorph
aher feldspar
Objective: x 10
XPL

IIII

11

"

shows a typical glomero-septoalteromorph, such as is commonly

encountered in most alteromorphs
after Feldspar-group minerals that
have been modihed under conditions of ferrallitic weathering. The
first-formed hssures and fractures
lead to the development of the
sellta, whereas during a later stage
of weathering, the remnants of
feldspar are progressi\'e1y replaced
by gibbsitc, whose crystals are
agglomerated in large port-ions

PART

3:

AlTEROMORPHS

delimited by interconnected \ughs.

The gibb~ite crystals of the septa are
commonly regularly oriented perpendicular tu the ferruginous traces
of the Fissures, whereas the agglomerated crystals of gibhsite are randomly oriented.
The second illustration shows a
much rarer case in which, after a
first step of septa development, as
in the previous case, the 1(,ldspar
residues are replaced by isolated
cl')"sQls or isoL:lted smaJ I groups of
crystals. These arc ranoomly ori-

ented and distributed in large vughs

whose shapes, volumes and position
are related to those of the remnants
of feldspar. AIJ these gibbsitc crystals seL'm isolated in the plane of the
thin section but, in reality, they are
probably linked, in the third dimension, in the same way as skeleton
grains are stacked side by side in a
monic* tcxtwe.

257

CI-IIIPTER

Criteria for a Genetic Classification

IHIlII' "dlHI<lJ\l1 of complexity that can

be added to the complexities presented by

the microstructural organizations previously
described. It results from the simultaneous
occurrence, withi.n a gi\"l.~n altero01orph, of several distinct secondary mineral phases (Fig. 33). Alteromorphs
in whicb several secondary minerals are simultaneously
observed are composjce alreromorphs.

the primary mineral are transformed

to

different

secondary minerals without modification of

either the mineralogical nature or the spatial distribution of the first-formed secondary product.
The distribution of the first-formed mineral phase
may be concentric, radial, parallel. crossing or random. whereas the second-formed mineral phase
occupies the entire volume of the islands of
residue (Fig. 34).

COMP )SJTE A lTER. M RPHS

CompOSite alteromorphs consist of two or more

assodated secondary minerals. of hypogene or
supergene origin (or one of each). The remnants
of the primary minerals. temporarily maintained
within the incompletely deve.loped alteromorphs.
are nOt taken into account in the definition of this
kind of mlcrotexture.

The composite character of these alteromorphs is

independent of their externa'! shape and their internal
morphology. The pattern of orientation of one component relative to the other may be uneven, parallel, concentric or crossing. The pattern of distribution, within
the alteromorph, may be uniform, clustered, peripheral, central, or othen-vise. Composite alteromorphs
may consist of polygenetic or polyphase assemblages.

Polyseneti, aILemmo/"ph -

Po/ygenetic alteromorphs are formed in two or

Some examples serve to illustrate the three most

comnlOnJy encountered cases of composite alteramorphs (Fig. 35).
Case I: twO stages of hypogene alteration
(Fig. 35A). During a first stage. crystals of olivine
may be partly replaced by serpentine or talc. During a later stage, the remnants of olivine are
altered to saponite or to "iddingsite" without
modification of the early-formed serpentine or
talc. The reciprocal and complementary distribution of the twO secondary minerals may be
uneven, parallel or concentric.
Case 2: one stage of hypogene alteration
followed by a second stage of supergene origin.
During the first stage, grains of orthopyroxene
are partly altered [0 talc by a hydrothermal
process. Much later, in terms of geological time,
the remnants of pyroxene are weathered to a
smectite-group mineral without modification of
the mineralogy or distribution of the first-formed
areas of talc. A second example is given by the
formation of "sericite" and zoisite inclusions by
hydrothermal alteration of a crystal of plagioclase
(Fig. 35B). During a later process. the remnants of
feldspar are weathered [0 kaolinite without modification of the less weather-able inclusions.

more successive stages, very commonly according

to different processes of alteration of hypogene
or supergene origin (or one of hypogene and one
of supergene origin), Widely separated in time.
During the first stage. alteration (or weathering)
has not transformed the primary mineral in its
entirety. During the second stage. the remnants of

Case 3: two stages of supergene re-action.

Coarse crystals of onhopyroxene are weathered,
in the lower partS of a profile, to a banded texture
of smectite enclosing unweathered remnants of
pyroxene. These will later, in the upper partS of
the profile, be weathered in a peripheral and centripetal manner to iron oxyhydroxides, whereas

PRIMARY MINERAL

I-----I~---I

SEVERAL SECONDARY

SEVERAL SECONDARY

MINERALS FORMED
SUCCESSIVELY DURING
TWO DIFFERENT EPISODES

MINERAL PHASES FORMED

TOGETHER DURING ONLY
ONE EPISODE OF ALTERATION
OR WEATHERING

I
FIRST STEP: PARTIAL ALTERATION
OR WEATHERING TO SECONDARY
MINERAL, LEAVING RESIDUES OF
THE PRIMARY MINERAL

PARTIAL MONOGENETIC
AlTEROMORPH

I
SECOND STEP: ALTERATION OR
WEATHERING OF THE RESIDUES
TO DIFFERENT SECONDARY
MINERALS

FIGURE 33.

A: TWO DISTINCT SECONDARY

MINERALS OF DIFFERENT
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
FORMED SIMULTANEOUSL Y

SIMULTANEOUS POLYPHASE

FIRST STEP: WEATHERING.

RELATIVE ACCUMULATION
OF SECONDARY MINERALS

POROUS AlTEROMORPH

OR

ONLY ONE SECONDARY MINERAL

DEVELOPED VIA AN INTERMEDIATE
SECONDARY PHASE (GRADUAL
POL YPHASE ALTEROMORPH)

POlYGENETIC AlTEROMORPH

WEATHERING AND INFILLlNG

PROCESSES ARE
INVOLVED IN SUCCESSION

SECOND STEP: INFILLlNG.

ABSOLUTE ACCUMULATION OF
ALLOCHTHONOUS MATERIAL

GRADUAL POLYPHASE
AlTEROMORPH

CUMULO-AlTEROMORPH

Ddlrtirions nC JJt.'ITJIllClrpb: the c;t~blishme.t\t 01

criteri" I'ur;l g,,,wtiL classillc.ltion of complex JJtcrorrlorl'h,.

Such J.lI J.pproJch IS n"-'l"('j..,,.II~ whC're- t\..... o (.II' morl' ~H'c~)nd;)ry

minl'r.:ds iln: ubs(T\'ccl together \\,;thill the:: 'llleromorphs.

260

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEf<Al ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

morphs with less developed ones, in which residual areas of pyroxene are still associated with the
hornblende inclusions, to properly interpret the
process of development of both secondary products (smeetite and amphibole).
PRIMARY MINERAL -+ PRODuCT OF
FlRST PHASE OF ALTEAAT"fON

PO\.YGEN~C AllEAOMOAPH

34.
RclJlI"n.~hip "r 0 p"ll'g"n{'tic olt~rnm{Jrrh to a groin
or a priman mincral afrt:,tl'c1 hy" lir't rha'" or ,Iterati"n.

FIGURE

the smectitic component is temporarily maintained in the composite alteromorph. Another

case of a composite alteromorph is given by the
complete weathering of a pyroxene crystal to a
septo-alteromorph of goethite. whose internal
pores are later infilled by gibbsite crystals by
absolute accumulation of allochthonous material.
In this latter ca~e, the re~ulting composite altenlmorph is more appropriately desrribeu as a ClImu/oalteramorph (sce below).
Inadequate ohservation of some polygenetic
alteromorphs. wherc se\'cral secondary mineral; arc'
.juxtaposed, con in some instilJ1ces lead to erroneous
interpretations (Fig. 35C) concerning their origiu and
the de\-elopment of their alteration.
EXAMPLE OF ERRONEOUS INTERPRETATION

As a result of a deep-seated late-magmatic

process, an originally homogeneous crystal of
c1inopyroxene may be portly transformed to many
small inclusions of hornblende. These inclusions
generally exhibit a common crystallographic orientation, inherited from or influenced by the crystallographic orientation of the host crystal.
During the first stage of subsequent supergene
weathering, the more weatherable pyroxene is
weathered to a secondary smectite-group mineral whose sheets are well oriented parallel to
the Z axis of the pyroxene crystal.The more resistant inclusions of hornblende are not yet weathered. As a result, they are now included in a
secondary product with which they are neither
genetically nor directly connected. These "residual" inclusions of amphibole are not the residues
of the primary mineral from which the smectlte
formed. It is necessary to compare such altero-

PART

3 : ALTffiOMORPHS

In contrast, some po\yg<.>netic alteromorphs provide. either by their mineral content or hy their
microstructure, an additional source of informatiun,
not only about their origin. but also al>out the primary
minerals frum which the <tlteromorphs dc\'C1ol)cd,
Thus, in a mOllZonite or calc-alkaline granite, all grains
of feldspar mOl} have been weathered to kaolinite; UH:re
is no possibi.lity of clearly distingujshing the origin of
the alteromorphs, either by their shape. their color, or
internal microtcxture. All these similar alteromorphs,
with poorly identillabk- boundaries because all have the
same secondary constitucnts, arc assoc..iated in such a
way that they form a group of crypto-altcromoTphs.
Mol',:, det.ailed a.nd accurate observatjons may show t.hat
some alteromorphs contain inclusions of epidote.
mainly in their central parts, whereas other :dteromorphs do not. The first alteromorphs are prohably
dev~I()ped from plagioclase, whereas the inclusion-free
altcromorphs are probably UC\'c!oped from microcli.ne
or orthociJsc,
Another example is given by crypto-alteromorphs
simultaneously developed at the expense of adjacent
crystals of olivine and orthopyroxene (Fig. 18C). Bod\
altCTomorphs have a ;mo.:ctitic composition, but the
occurrence or the lack of a symplccLitic micrOSb'ucture or or"idJingsite" will aIIO\\, one to determine the
primary mineral from which a given alterolllorph has
developed; olivinc ooes not contain symplcctik, but
can shc)\\. !)artial transrurmation to "idc:lingsite",
whereas orthopyroxene may contain symplect.ite, hut
ne\'er contains "iddingsite". In some cases, thc distinction betwee.n the two aJtcromorphs is more difficult
where both types of alterornorpbs. after olivine and
ort!Jopyruxen..:, are weathered to vcr)' similar smcctitc-group minerals (Fig. ISA). Only the diHerence in
orientation allows onc to disti.nguish their' origin.
SmecUte particles after olivinc are \'ery small .md random
oriented, whereas smectite particles after
orthopyroxene arc larger and oriented parallel to the L
axis of the primary mineral.

I:

261

B~~~

0 1 2

FIGURE

A.
0,
I:
2:
3:
4

35.

EVOLUTIOCJ

or

T'OLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPH5.

Two different episodes of alteration of hypogene origin, separated in time

anhcJral cr;'stal of olilin" exhibiting protoclastic inlnmineru fractures;
incipient IIr,1. slage: of alterJtion of olivine to serpentine and magnetite along the fr-.lctures and rim;
ad"anced first stage 01' alteration; banded texture of serpentine and magnetite, with large relict COres of olivin,,;
incipient second stage of al.teration of the relict cores to "idJingsite" without modification of the first-formed scrpe'ntin,';
unal stage ofaJteration: banded texrure of serpentinc and inner parts of "iddingsite": POLYGENETIC ALTERO[v!ORPH.

Note: The I\rstformecl ba.nded textw-e can be considerecl as a pan.!} clevd0ped two phase alteromorph since lWO seconrury minerals (serpentine, m-.lgnetite) are formed togetl"'r at the expense of the olivinc. In this ro1ygenetic alteromorph, the first stage gives a t\l'Ophase alreromorph, and the second stage, a single-phase. one.

B.
0:
I:
2:
3:
4:

One bypogene process of alteration followed by a supergene process

anhedral zon.:J crvstal of plagioclase, "itl! it, d,aracter'istic pattern of polysvnrhetic twinniog;
incipient first stage of alt.:ration a.irecLing the core, leading to minute crvstals of c1inozoisite;
more advanced stage of alteralion and growth of rh.: c1ino7.0isite LT;'stab, still with I'oluminous residues;
incipient weatherlng of the plagioclase to an isotropic material along boundarie~ and twin plan.:s;
Lsolropic material r.:places the feldspar "ithout disturbing the indusions: POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPH.

Not.:: This polyg.:netic alteromorph is .,usccptible to further modillQtion: gibbsite may crystallize at tJ,e expense of the isotropic plcase.
and gibb.,ite anJ goerhite, In porous aBse.mblag.:s, may form at the expense of the epidote inclusions. The polygenetic and polyphas.:
aspects of the complde aJteromorph remain perfectly recognizable.

C.
0:
I:
2:
3:
4:

Example of possible erroneous interpretation oftbe genesis of an alteromorph

crystal of c1inopyroxcne showing paraJleI deavages and transvers~ fractures;
.incipient alteration of the pvroxene LO hornhlende along th.: cleavages and fractures;
the hypogene alteration ceases; denticulate and oriented inclusions of hornblende coeXiSl lIithin the unaltered pyroxen.:;
incipient weathering of' the residual cores of pyrox.:ne to oriented domains of a smectite without disturbance of the inclusions;
c-omplete w.:athering of r],e pyrox.:n.: to smectite and undisLLtrbed inclusions: POLYGEN me ALTEROMORPH.

Note: All the inclusions of hornhl.:nde are optically OrienlNI. and tJleir coarsely d.:nticulate 'hap s can simulate residues of the mineral that
ha.> given riSt' to the oriented ,'n.:ctite. In tJ,is e:xampk, hornhJend~ is not the par<:nt mat.:rial of the secondary smectitc. Without
access to the less advanced stages, the identiJkation of the true' process provides a major challenge.

262

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

328,329
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Polygenedc alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

has first been

partially
and
peripherally
altered, and a thick rim of one or
more serpentine-group minerals
has developed. The transformation
has progressed cent.-ipetally, leaving
a large core of undisturbed olivine.
The serpentine i., colorless in PPL,
and exhibits, in XPL, its usual lmv
interference-colors
(first-order
grey). The internal microtexture
shows that the domains of serpentine are not preferentially orien ted.
During a later stage of alteration, a

PART

"I 1\ 1

1:\

3 ; ALTEROMORPHS

I 11

postmagmatic process has replaced

part of the unaltered olivine core
with "iddingsite" while maintaining
the pattern of its network of protoclastic fractures, vl/hieh had become
obscured in the serpentinized area.
l11e transformation of the olivine
core is not complete, as many small
residual fragments are still recognizable (colorless in PPL and blue
under XPL) within the "iddingsitized" area. This transformation of
the oLvine core to "iddingsite" bas
obviously followed the inner proto-

clastic fractw-es, since all olivine

remnants are vveU centered V\rithin
each ceU of "iddingsite". Note that
the second stage of transformation
has not affected the early-formed
serpentine minera1(s). Formed dw-ing two successive stages of transformation, with crystallizatiolJ of
two different secondary products,
the complex alteromorph is a typical (nearly complete) polygenetic
alteromorph.

263

POLYGENETlC ALTEROMORPHS

llO, III
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

-- 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I .11 '! I
wi lh Ule preceding
illustrations, these photomiLTographs show the result or a very
similar but somewhat more complex process of transformation 01' an
olivine grain according to two successive stages. The additional complexity lies in tht~ fact that the first
stage of alteration gives rise to a
partial polyphase alteromorph with
two d.istinct secondary minerals.
The alteration front penetTates the
oliv'ine crvstal
aJonoCo transmineral
,
fractures, and gives rise to serpentine-group minerals, with concomi-

264

t;lnt crystallization ot magnetite,

which lies along the median plMes
of the serpentinized bancls. Magnetite contains the iron, originally
included in th('" ulivinc crystal, that
ha,s not been accepted. within tbe
nevdy formed scrpentin('"-group
minerals. The olivine l"1olllains that
have "escaped" the serpentinization
process have been lat('"r completely
replaced by "iddingsite" without
affecting the first-formed serpelltine-group minerals. During a later
step of supergene weathering, somt'
new transmincral fractures are

opened, along which manganese

oxides arc deposited (see 048,049,
and 346). Note that the serpentinegrou p minerals aTe preferentially
oriented perpenclicular to the
mecLan plane of the fractures and to
the intermineral boumJary 01' the
alteromorph, as can be seen umler

XPL.

ATlAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

POLYGENETlC ALTEROMORPHS

332,333
OUVINE-BEARlNG
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 6.8 m
Polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.0 mm

I 11 ,

11'

illus-

trate the ca.se of J. '-cry comple:polygenetic

alteromorph
thJ.t
results from the combined effects of
several stages of transformation . .'\
large grJ.in of olivine \-vas partially
,tnd peripheraJ1~' replaced by a thick
externJ.] rim of man ... randoml . . oden.ted crystals of orthopyroxene and
bv an intel'mediJ.te thinner rim
showing a symplectitic texture surrounding the- olivinc core. During a
later step of mild hydrothermal
alterJ.tioIl, the oli\--inc core has heen

PART

3 : ALTEROMORPHS

completely replaced by well-oriented s,lponitc (bright yellow in.

PPL and nearly at e:-,:tinct:ion. in
XPL), without modif~'ing the
peripheral grJ.ins of orthopyroxene.
The n.etwork ()f original protoclastic
fractures is still recogninble in. the
sJ.l)on.itt: core. Durin.g a lJ.ter step of
weathering. the orthopyroxcne of
the cxtcrn.al rim WJ.S partially
weathered to n.ontroni te, bu t there
an' still many denticulate residues.
whose orientations correspond to
the mosaic-like assemblage of the

prima.ry orthop)'Toxcne grams. The

110n.tronite is easily distin.E,ruished
from the -'J.ponite after o[jvine by its
beige-brown. color. The magnetite
of the s:nnplectitic texture is n.ot
modified, and its occurren.ce and
distribution allow tlH.' pcriclotitic
parent or the polygenetic alteromorph to be identilled.

265

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

334,335
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 8.4 m
Polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

06

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

illustrate a C'ase of a pol;.genetic

,1.!terom(wph whose ultimate origin
is very similar to that in the previous
example: the original mineral is also
a grain of olivinc, but it has completelv cllsappeared! and is replaced
by a mosaic-like assemblage of
small, randomly oriented crystals of
orthopp-oxcne (h.vpersthenc). The
grade of lwdrothermal
alteration is
,
somewhat higher than in the former
example. and part of the peripheral
pyroxene has been replaced by ran~

266

dam.!}' oriented and colode5s panicles of c1lc, clearly observed along

the right and bottom edges of the
photographs. During a later step of
weathering, part of the orthopyroxene crystals, whose pink pleochroism is dearly exhibited by some of
the residues, is now replaced by
nontronile. whose greenish yello\\"
calor allows a distinction with the
colorless rim of talc. Some lineaments of magnetite run across the
alteromorph; they an__ the ultimate
traces of t1H-' protoclastic fractures

or

the origiml crystal of olivine.

Note that many small crystals of
orthopyroxenc have been COIDpletely lVeatJ1crc:d, and are replaced
by many small centro-alveoporoalteromorphs. The dark green inclusion (B2) is hornblende, and the
dark grains that sUlTotmd the polygenetic alteromorph are parth'
altered crystals of c1inopyroxene.

ATlAS OF MICI1DMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

336,337
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Boeca, Cote d'lvoire

Polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

1"'11'111.

takcn from the same thin section as the previous ones, are
included to better show the dctails
of the distribution of nontronite and
talc, and to better distinguish the
colorless rim of talc associated with
magnetite lineament.~ (both features
resulting From the intluence of' a
late-magmatic hydrothermal alteration) from the green nontronitc,
formed by more recent weathering
of the hypersthcne grains that had
not pre\iously been replaced by

PART 3:

ALTEROMORPHS

talc. Some minute dentiCl.Jiate remnants of hypersthene are still distinguishable at C't, whereas most of
the other orthopyroxenc grains
have completely disappeared, giving
risc to small centTo-ah'eoporoalteromorphs. Note that the talc
particles of the ,-illl arc randomly
oriented, whereas the smectile par
ticle~, whose denticulations arc
related to the denticulations of the
consumed residues of I)yroxene, are
regularly ol-iented, in each alveoporo-alteromorph, according to th("

orientation of each original grain.

No oli"ine remnants are preserved,
and no areas of the symplectite
textw-e are ,risible in the area photographed_ Only a careful observation of the whole thi.n secrion and of
neighboring samples will allow the
ultimate origin (complex evolution
of an olivine grain) or the polygenetic alteromorph to be identified,

267

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

338,339
PERIDOTITE

Jacuplranga,
SP, Brazil
Depth: 2.2 m
Sampled by
S.M.B. de Oliveira
Polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

-:- 0.2

0.1

of hypogcm'
alteration, most of the olivine
ha.~ been replaced b)' a banded textl.lre involving scr[)cntine-grol1[)
millerals, maintaining large earl'S of
primar'y olivine.Thc banded texture
forms an irregular reticulate and
intcrconnecterJ oetwork whose
thickness is largl'ly hierarchizcd.
The longest bands of serpeJ1tine
exhibit a greater thickn<:,~~ th,1I1 the
shortest ones, whereas the olivinc
residucs all ha\e a comparable volume. The serpentine-group miner-

268

als .:Ire palt yellow in PPL. The ["act

that the thin section i" slightly
thicker than usual makes th.:: maximum interference-color 01' the seconJary mineral first-order yellow
instead 01 gre)' in XPL. The serpentine-group rrJnerals arc generally
oriC'nted pcrpl'ndicular to the walls
or th(" vcinlet~, whose media.n plane
contains panicles 01' magnetite.
Magnetite and serpentine arc
formed
together during the
polyphase alteration or the primary
olivine. During a later stage of

0,0 mm

supergene weathering, the olivine

cores have heen weathered to
saponitc, whose green coloration is
attributed to its relatively high con
knt or Ni. No olivine rcmnant~ are
retained in the alteromorphs, and
the orientation of the par tides
saponitc seem~ to be random. Slight'
inllux of brownish oxyhydroxides or
iron, probably due to partial oxidation or the magnetite, is obscned
'Ni thin the handed texture of the
serpentine veins.

or

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AnH.ATlON AND WEATHERING

POLYGENETlC ALTEROMORPHS

340,341
SERPENTINlZED
PERIDOTITE

Biankouma.. Sipilou,
Western Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by Y. Noack
Polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0.2
0.1

~ 0.0 mm

or serpentine veinlets (yellowish in

PPL), formed during a first step of
hypogene <llteration, dh'icks a large
crystal of olivine into irregular
residual fragments. DW'ing a later
step of supergene weathering, the
oli\'ine remnants were flrst partially
weathered to beige-brown saponite,
which is irregularly cUstributed in
the contact areas (A3) between
olivine and serpentine. During a
second stage, a weathering reaction
afTccten the remnants of oli\'inc 1'01
i

PART

3 : ALTERmlORPH5

lowing a constant orientation,

which is related to the main crystallographic orient.ltion of the original
crystal, and gave rise to dark brown
oxyhyclroxides of iron. No open
pores arc visible between the primary. remnants and tlle scconc!<Jry.
f)roducts, at kast at the scale
observable Witll an optical microSCOIJe.
Some elongate artificial
pores (black holes in XPL) arc
dd"cts of the thin section. Small
patches of oxyhydroxides of iron are
also irre.s'ularly distributed within

the serpentine veins; they reflect an

irregular influx of iron and not a
tTue weathering of the $('rpentincgroup minerals. These ,viii be
weathered much later and at a
higher level in the profile. Formed
under the inlluel1ce of two cU1Terent
prucesses well separateJ in time,
the resulting alteromorph, once the
replacemeot of the oli\'ine remnants
is achieved, will be a typical polygenetic alterol11orpb.

269

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

342,343
WEATHERED BASALTIC
ROCK

Island of Mauritius
Sampled by VTargulian
Polygenetk alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0,2

0,1
0,0 mm

I I\
I '
I has been
partiall)' altered to "iddingsite"
during a late dellteric process, The
"iddingsitc" rim is brownish red in
PPL, and brightl)' colored in shades
01" yellow and orange in XPL During a later step 01" weathering, which
is also responsible for the weathering of the basaltic groundmass, the
o!ivinc corc has been completely
weathered to hydrated oxides of
iron which, in PPL, appear as a dark
brown boxwork with numerous
empty pores. Most of the septa
appear, under XPL, as micro-aggre-

1.

270

gates of well-oriented domains of

goethite, whose or'icntation is
homogcneou.';\y distributed throughOllt the entire wearnered core. The
photomicrograph has been taken
with tile sel)ta ol-icnted at 4-5 to
show the maximum brightness of
the goethite [Jartic1es; when oriented parallel (not shown) to the
cross-hairs of the microscope, both
"icidingsite" and goet.hite minerals
appear completely at extinction
w1der XPL, Both hypogene "iddingsite" and supergene goet.h.ite have
inherited th\:' textural orientation of

the original grain of olivine, The

result of the two-step transformation or t.he olivine grain is a polygenetic (oriented) septo-alteromorph,
The ground mass of the basaltic rock
is completely weathered, The lat.hs
of plagioda'ie are transformed to
nearly isOtTopic halJoysite, and the
interscrtal grains of pyroxene have
been replaced by oxybydroxides of
iron.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

344,345
WEATHERED OLlVINEBEARING PYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I m
Polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
0.2

0.1

~ 0.0 mm

t\
1II
I I"
I, of o)ivinc
,ri.has been replaced by a polygcnctic alteromorph. During a t1rst
stage ofb)'l)ogene alteration, a small
part of the mineral has been
replaced hy yellow saponite (A-BS,
D-E4-), which has penetrated the
mineral over short cLstances along
the proloclastic fractures. During a
later stage of weathering, under

PARr

3 : ALT<ROMORPHI

conditions of resh'icted drainage,

the unaltered part of the olivinc
crystal has been completely wcath
ered to greenish nontronite. The
minute grains 01' magnetite lying
within the protoclastic fractures
remain undisturbed, and the previ.
ously formed saponite is not modi
!'icd, texturally or mineralogicaJJy.
Note that the microparticlcs of non

tronite are randoml\' oriented over

the whole alteromorph, as is usually
observed in nearly all aJtcrolllorphs
after olivine {'ormed w1der condi
tions of restricted drainage in the
Koua Bucca intrusion.
J

271

POLYGENETlC ALTEROMORPHS

:146
OLIVINE-BEARING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 8 m
Polygenetic alteromorph
after olivine
Objectrve: x 4
PPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm
I
of olivine
has been completely "eplaced
by a holo-.llteromol'ph of "iddings
ite" under the intluence of a latemagmatic process. Observations of
the neighbori..l1g affected areas
(beyond the thin section) indicate
that the volumes of the primary
mineral and of its a]teromorph arc
similar, aml that no deformation has
taken place during this first transformation; an iso-alteromorph
results. The position of extinction
and the interference-color, under
XPL (not shown) arc homogeneous
throughout the entire alteromorph,

272

which indicates that the alteramorph is derived from one grain of

olivine. During a later step of
weatllering, the weathered rock was
crossed by many open transmineral
fractures. and some of them have'
been the pathways along ",'hich
absolute accumulations of a11ochthonous material have occurred. In
the fractured alteromorph shown in
tJ1C photomicrograph, tbe transmineraI fracture is rimmed by an irregular halo of black manganese
oxides, which also penetrated the
altcromorph along thin internal fissures. Slight absolute accumulation

of ox)'hyclroxides of iron is also

responsible for th~ higher coloration of the "iddingsite" itself in
sectors adjacent to the mang,mcscenriched areas. Owing to ule influence of two successi ve stages of
tr'\J1sformation (fIrstly, hypogcne
forrn<ttion of "iddingsite", and later
supergene absolute accumulations),
the resulting altcromorph has
become 11 (cumulo)-polygenet-ic
alteromorph (sec also 048, 049).

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHEf\JNG

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

347,348
OLlVlNE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Boeca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 4.8 m
Polygenecic alteromorph
Example of a "signature"
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.2
-0.1
0.0 mm

of hypogene aher1
ation has cOl11lJletcly replaced
an olhine grain to a symplectitic
intergrowth composed of orrhopyroxene (h)lpcrsthene) and irregularlv
distributed
vermicular
magnetite. During a later stage of
low-grade hydrothermal alteration,
the surrounding crystals of phlogopite have been replaced bv rncsoalteromorphs
of
vermiclllitc,
without modification of tbe neigh
boring grains of O!-t1\Opyl'Oxene aml
c1inopyroxene. During a more
11

PART

! I

3: ALTEROMORPHS

recent stage of weathering, the very

susceptible ortholJyroxene has been
tran.sformed to a smectitic clay of
nontronjtc composition, whereas
the magnetite intergrowths were
not modified. The persistence of
such unweatbercd symplectitic
intergrowths pro~-ides a true mineralogical and textural signature lhilL
allows the ultimate origin of the
alt~'romorph to he recognized.
WitllOut the occulTence of these
intergrolVths, the a.lterornorph
could be considered to result from

the weathering of oli\ine (without

pilssing through the orthopyroxene
phase) or t'rom the weathering of
orthopyroxene (withollt recui,.mizing its ultimate peridotitic origin).
Note that contrary to the alteration
of a similar symplectitic texture to
talc (see 385, 386), this aIteramorph exhibits residual alveolar
pores, which renect weathering
with net luss
material.

ur

273

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

349,350
IRON-ENRICHED
DURICRUST
DEVELOPED ON
OLIVINE8EARING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Kaua Bacca. Cote d'lvaire

Depth: 0,8 m
Polygenetic alteromarph
Example of a "signature"
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL
Polarizers not exactly
crossed in XPL
O.3

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

11
I'
1'1
show
another example or a grain or
oLivine that has been replaced by a
symplectitic
intergrowth
of
orthopyroxcne and lamellae of
magnetite. Contrary to the pre\ious
photographs, a large core or oJivine
has been maintained in the central
part of the symplcctitic intergrowth. Later, dming a low-grade
hydrothermal phase, the olivine
core has been completely replaced
by sapooitc (sce 389, 390) without
modification of the syrnplectitic
texture or the chemical composi-

274

tion of the orthopyrnxene rim,

Dming a much later phase or weathering, the saponite core and the
orthopyroxe.ne-bearing rim have
been stl-ongly weathered to an alveolar texture of iron-rich secondarvI
clays, whereas the magnetite intergrowths were oxidized to hematite.
Its dark red coloration is clearly visible iu the lower' llhotograph, taken
with crossed polarizcr's and condenser lens for an enhancement of
the brightness of the nearly opaCJul?
secondary mineral. -nle oxidation or
the magnetite to hema\i\e has not

modined the thin and brittle symplectitic texture which, as a true

signature, remains perfectly recognizable even within the upper part
0(" the iron duriuust. Without the
persistence or t.his particularly characteristic texture, the identification
of the ultimate origin or the complex
polygenetic alteromorph
would not have been possible.

ATlAS Of MICROMOftPHOLOGY OF MINEP,AL ALTERATION AND WEATHEftlNG

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

351,351
THICK SOIL
DEVELOPED ON
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'!voire

Depth: 6.6 m
Polygenetic aJteromorph
Example of a "signature"
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL
Polarizers not exactly
crossed in XPL
.- 0.2

I.
I 'f
1.1
t
show
a residual sj"mplectitic texture,
from which only the shape of the
vermicular intergro\vths has been
preserved. The magnetite of tbe
lamellae has been converted to
hematitC' (dark red coloration in
XPL, with full power), whereas the
onhopyroxene component has been
replaced by reddish alveoporoalteromorphs of coJored residual
k.aolillite, itself a product of degradation of previously formed oontronite (as it can be ascertained in

PART

3 : AlTEROMORPHS

the lower parts of the profile). The

f'mely porous red alteromorphs that
are distributed around the eenlr-al
polygenetic
altcromoqJh
are
crypto-alteromorphs after grains of
c1inopyroxene, whose early-formed
secondary products also have been
replaced by ferruginous red kaolinite, similar in composition to the
weathered orthopyroxene. The
boundary between the orthopyroxene grains of the sympkclitic texture and the surrounding weathered
clinop)'Toxene grains is not clearly

recognized because all the pyroxene

grains ha\c given rise to many irregular erypto-alteromorphs. Without
the occurrence of this clearly recognizable spnplectitic re~iduJ.1 texture, the origin of this complex
poJ)'genetic altcromorph could not
have been identified.

275

POLYGENETIC ALTEROMORPHS

353
GRANITIC ROCK

Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at outcrop
Example of a "signature":
a myrmekite texture
Objective: x 4
XPL

0.6

04
-

0.2

- 0.0 mm

354
GRANITIC ROCK

BR I 63, Brazil
Sampled by F. Soubies
Depth: unknown
Example of a "signature":
residual quartz
in the granophyric
texture
Objective: x 6.3
XPL

0.3

~ 0.2
_

0.1

~ 0.0

shows
t.I1e mynnckile texture, which
('om01onl), develops in the contact
area between plagiocla..: and albli
fCldspar. The mynnekite texture is
composed of "ermicubr inclusions
of qUdrtz within sodic plagioc!dse.
The internal organization of the
myrmekite texture is comparable to
the pre"iously shown s)'ml1lectitic
texture. When subjected lO weathering processes, th~~ highly resistant
inclusions of (Iuartz md)' be maintained unw('.athered , like the maonetitC" intergrowths in IJrevious
~

276

examples, whereas the enclosing

and n,~ighb(lring feldspars arc less
resistant, like orth0p),Toxene, and
md} be compldely weathered to
clay m.inerals or even to gihbsite.
The lower illustration shows
what happen.s in cases where a granophyric iJ\tcrgrowth of a .sodic or a
potassic feldspar with quartz has
been subjected to conditions of efficient weathering. All t.I1c Feldspar
components, either in the granophyric intergrowth or in neighburing
crystals,
have
been
completely replaced by gibbsite.

mm

The resulting altcromorphs archighly porous (mainly glomeroaJtl'nmlOrphsJ, but in spite of this
high IJomsit)'- the original distribution and OIientation of all the vcrmicular inclusions of quar'''' h,}n~
been perkctly maintained, as shown
by t.I1eiJ homogeneous interferencecolors in XPL.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Po{\phase a/ecTOmorphs

POlYPhaSe al!eromorphs are formed during a single stage of hypogene alteration or of supergene
weathering; they are thus monogenetic alteromorphs. On the other hand. the result consists of
an association of two or more secondary minerals owing

to

exsolution (Fig. 36A) or to a gradual

transformation (Fig. 36B). with development of an

ephemeral intermediate phase. Slow rates of
weathering of coarse crystals may also induce the

The replacement of an olivine crystal by a

symplectitic intergrowth of orthopyroxene and
magnetite corresponds quite well to the above
definition. The resulting alteromorph is a twophase iso-alteromorph. as no increase in volume
is observed. In contrast, where a process of phase
separation occurs. as in the replacement of an
onhopyroxene crystal by an association of talc
and magnetite microparticles. the original iron
content of the pyroxene does not enter the
structure of the talc. and magnetite crystallizes as
independenr microcrystals, commonly filling up
the intermineral pores opened around it. A twophase echino-alteromorph is developed (Fig.
37A).

development of two or more successive and distinct secondary phases. which will persist in the
same alteromorph.

QAADUAL POt YPI-!ASE ALTEROMORPH

36.
:\. Relationship of .1 simultan('ousl\' devcloped
polvphasc alteromorl'h, ,l.' Juring (,-,olution. to " grain 01' a
a gr.lduall) dc\'vl0l'cd
primar:, min"Tal. B. Rclaliomlup
polypbax ,uleromorl'h lo a grain of' a prima,)' mineral.

FIGURe

or

The ncoformecl products arc not randomly dislTibuted within the polyphase aJteromorph, bUl they
exh.ibit an organized, hierarchical texture. One of the
two secondary products is im'ariabJy located close to
the remnants of the primary mincra.I, whereas the
other sl'condary pha;;e is morc distant, a.nd separated
from thest' n:mnants b_\' the first one. Both hYlx)gelle
and supergene processes can promote such polyphase
altnnmorphs.
Examples of composite polyphase altcromoq)hs of
hypogcne origin include the association or two neoformed minerals as a result of ,In exsolution process
(Fig. 37).

PMT

3;

AlTEROMORPHS

Thb is Jlso the caSt' in the association of twu

secombr)' minerals, where the first-formed onc is
progressiIT\;' replaced b;' the second through a gradual
process related to slowly modified conclitions ol'
al tcr<1tion.
An orthopyroxene crystal may be replaced
by an alteromorph composed of several secondary products (polyphase alteromorph). whose
proportions and distributions in the alteromorph
are influenced by the local P- T conditions and by
opportunities for ion exchange. Under conditions
of low P and low T. talc (Tic) and magnetite (Mgt)
are preferentially formed at the expense of the
primary pyroxene (two-phase alteromorph). In
conrrast, under conditions of higher P and higher
T, an amphibole (Amp) is formed at the expense
of the talc. which is progressively less abundant.
and finally disappears from the alteromol"ph. Twophase (Tic + Mgt), three-phase (TIc + Amp + Mgt)
and two-phase (Amp + Mgt) alteromorphs are
successively developed at increasing P and T
(Fig. 37B)
T,vo-phase alterolllorphs may also develop under
the irtfluencc of supergene processes. Either simultaneous rormation of "\0\'0 dilTerC'nt stable secondary minerals or the gradual replacement of a Ilrst-formed
unstable secondary mineral hy a later-developed more
stable secondary IJroduct may be observ0d.
An example of a composite polyphase altcromorph oC supergene origin illustrating the de.l"elopment of stahle and separate secondary products
follows.
The weathering of hornblende or of garnet.
both relatively aluminous. can lead to a septoalteromorph whose septa are mainly composed
of goethite or of aluminian goethite, whereas

277

CJ 0
.f... ...,,

",

: ., . " \

e;

"

.'

. . ,IQ
( ....

I."

FIGURE

37.

EI'('IUIIO.'i 01, POIYl'HiI,r ,\IT''I\OMCH\PHS,

A.

Two concomitant but separate minerals developed during a process of gradual alteration

0:

CT)'stal of onhopyro.,ellc with kw cka"ages and fractures;

I:

incipient pellicular ancllincilr ~lt('raLion to tak associated with ",1<111 amOUrlt' or maglletite;

2:

more .d'anccd alteratjnn

3:

talc Ill\,; the major part uf the odginal \'olume, wh"'Ta, magnetite im'adc.s thc surrounding open intermint'ral rrao.:tur~s;

complete "Iteration

ID

CC'

t;lle and rnagneLitc surrounding IJrgt' rcsitluol cor",s;

inne-r dc"min 1)1' tak and mainly' external (kpo~jls l)f magneLite: TWOPHASE ECH1NOALTEROMORPH.

Note: If the original orthop.\TOX.;ne does not cautain iron, no n"gnctilc b formed, but part or the talc can in\"ade Lhc surrounding illkrmin~ral fractures b"callSc the altc'ration is not slTinl)' i;;o\'olumetric, It generates' snull increase in volume as a re-sull or opening
and infllling or inlt:rnlincraJ fractures, A (single'ph"d echinn'alterornorph develops,

B,

Three secondary minerals (one is optional) developed during a process of gradual alteration

0:

crystal "I' orLhop~Toxene completely I'ep)"ced Il\' an assnci,tion of laic aDd magnetite (Fig. 8, .'1.4);

incipit'nt replacement of wlc hy sm,11 o)"t,lls of colori<'s.' magne,ian amphihole;

2:

more advanced stage QC .llteration: prislll' or .llllphibole de,-dop at the I;xpense or the laic;

3:

more and more l)rol rudillg I)risms "I' amphihale ,lre formed, whereos th~ rdaliVt' prol,ortion or talc decrLase:;;

+:

nearly complete alter"dorl to talc. magnetite and amphibok; POLYPI-I.,\SE ECHINO-ALTEROMORPH,

;\iote: The next stage of alteration will nu long"r show talc; oni)' tremoUte or eummingtonite are associatetl with the seconuar\, l11aglleLite,
All these succes;j\,c ,tages do not necessarily appCJr during the alteration or the SJme ori&>iml mineral gr~in, as the relatin: dl~"el
opment of "-lcb of lhese st;]gcs Jepenrls on the local intensity 01' the hydmthernlill proce"s,
condition~ of superficial

C-

Two 5ccond<lTY mine,.,ls ;\ppeariug simultaneollsly under

o:

crystal or hornblende exhibiting ane set or c1ea"'ge plane; and irregular Fractures;

weathering

I,

incipient linear and pellicular weathering to g(>l'thi(,~ along part of the open c1eav'ges and boundaries;

l-

111arr. ,dvaneed weathering along c1"'\,'ge;; 'llld rr.lCl'UreS, and deye!opme.r,l or circum-nodw.ll' residual "oids;

3:

fe\\ minUI e denticulate residue,' isolated \lilhin large residuol voids, and d. vclopment or crl'stals or se.condary gibbsire;

-t:

sept, of gnet],it.; ..:oated \\'itl, isolated cryst"l, or gibbsite: nVO-PHA5E SEPTO-ALTEROi\,IORPH,

Note: Gib!>site cl'ystals de,~lop wht:r~ the aluminum cOllteot or tht' original hornblende is not rull)' .lCtommadated by the early' I'ormarian
nf alumini;]n gaetllit.e; discrete gibbsite rorms from the remJining part of rhe aluminum, Wh,'re tbe ;]Iuminum COnl('nt or the amphi.
bole is lower, "luminian goelhjte i, formed only, and nu cl'yst.I, of gibbsile ,re ,'isibk il' the aJteramorph,

278

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHEI\ING

small crystals of gibbsite are randomly distributed

along the sides of the septa. in the pores of the
septo-alteromorph (Fig. 37C).
An example of

.1

composite polyph.:lse alteru-

or

morph
supergene origin. with Jen']opment of an
unslable (isotrnpic or not) intcrl1lc,djate ph<lse, is provided by th<: graduall)olrpha$c alteron101'1>!t (Fig. 38).
THE COMPLEX PATTERN OF WEATHERING
OF PLAGIOCLASE

A fractured grain of plagiocla.se (PI) is weathered to a Si-AJ-rich. optically isotropic material

(IM), which is later transformed to kaolinite (Kin)
(Fig. 38A). The most easily weathered part of the
feldspar is either its more calcic central pan. if it
is normally zoned. or the parts located along the
irregular network of its fractures. The weathered
pan shows an irregular outline owing to the combined occurrence of fractures. cleavage and twin
planes, which locally accelerate the weathering in
preferred directions. The plagioclase residues are
tightly confined within the isotropic secondary
pha.se. and exhibit cavernous volumes and an
irregular outJine. The isotropic material progressively grows at the expense of these residues.
which finaJly disappear from the alteromorph. The
weathering of the alteromorph formed at the
expense of feldspar proceeds with increa.sing evolution of the chemical composition of the
isotropic material (IM) and with appearance of
the small crystals of kaolinite (Kin) within the
first-formed. and thus within the chemically most
evolved, isotropic area.s. A complex organization
of shapes and minerals results (polyphase olteromorph).At least three solid pha.ses are associated
during a given period of time in the same alteromorph (the feldspar residues. the intermediate
isotropic pha.se, and the microcrystals of kaolinite). Unweathered inclusions of "sericite" or epidote also may occur if such inclusions were
developed during an early stage of hypogene
alteration (polygenetic olteromorph) , and are now
irregularly scattered within the three other
pha.ses. During the final stage of evolution, the
complex organization is progressively simplified
by the disappealance. firstly. of the feldspar
residues. and secondly. of the intermediate
isotropiC phase. Finally. the feldspar crystal is completely replaced by an aggregate of kaolinite
microcryscals in which "sericite" and epidote
inclusions may be maintained. If the inclusions dis-

PMT

3 : ALTEl\OMQRPHS

appear without any discernible trace of secondary produces, or if the original feldspar did not
contain such inclusions. a monophase alteromorph
results, composed of kaolinite only. The alteromorph is successively composed of (PI + IM), (PI
+ IM + Kin), (IM + Kin), and finally (Kin). If the
inclusions of epidote (Ep) are later weathered to
iron oxyhydroxides (oxFe). the successive alteromorphs consist of (PI + Ep), (PI + IM + Ep). (PI +
IM + Kin + Ep), (IM + Kin + Ep). (Kin + Ep). and
(Kin + oxFe).ln this last case. the resulting alteromorph is polypha.se. because it contains two distinct minerals, but it is finally turned into a
monogenetic alteromorph because both secondary minerals (Kin and oxFe) were developed
during the same long and continuous period of
time. under conditions of superficial weathering.
Similar processes occur where grains of plagioclase are weathered to gibbsite through an
intermediate isotropic phase (Fig. 38B). The
weathering develops much more qUickly than in
the previous examples. in such a way that the
first-formed crystals of gibbsite are aligned on
both sides of the fractures, whereas they are separated from the residual cores of feldspar only by
the thin rim of isotropic secondary material. This
first distribution of gibbsite crystals gives rise to a
partly developed septo-alteromorph. Within
more evolved alteromorphs, the isotropic mater
ial extends inward to the center of each residual
core. which finally disappears. The earlier-formed
rims of isotropic materiaj are now converted to
irregular a.ssemblages of gibbsite crystals. Where
the replacements are complete, the polyphase
alteromorph is convel'ted to a monophase complex glomero-septo-alteromorph.
Pol)'j)h<l.Sl: alteromorphs a.lso may ckvclop where
weathering reaninns proceed at J sJO\\ rate on relativelv coarse crvstak A long period or time is neces
sarI'~ 'tu cOIllple~e the lI"eath;rino
or the grain. Durine:
b
~
this time intenal, conditions of weathering can
lx'come f>]'ogressi"ely mollified in such a W.:lY that the
last-formcd secondar)' products are no longer identical
to the flrsl-fornlccI secondary products. A first rJartial
weathering to a srnectite-group mincr.:ll, for example,
Illay be folluwed bv a second stage of weathering of the
residuL'S to iron h)'druxide. Alt10ugh both scZonclary
products are formed from the same mineral gr(ljn, the
resulting aJterumorph ma)' he cunsidered to be a COIllposite alternmorph (Fig. 38C).

279

FIGlIllE

l8.

E\'OI.lITI(lN

(IT

PUL Y1'fii\SI' .\!.TEI\()M( )RI'HS.

A.

Appearance of a mineral after;1n intermediate isolTopic phase (gradual process of weathering)

0:

,1.oh,d1'31 cl'}S!JI of pJagiocla.<c cxh.ibiting fe" 'TguiJr c1e''''ilge, and irl-egular transverse Fr,lclurC's;

\.

",-cond'lC) iStllTOpic material (k"clop; JccnrJing tu a regular - irregular !.ine,1r pan,'rn;

,.

rt:gl.lar - irregular ban,kd pattern and cuntinuous isotropic' pha,c with C.lvernous residual

3:

all l'\',iducs of rh~ primary mineral hav(' di,app('ared when the first hooklet> of kalllinite are formed;

4-:

more' cHstab of kaolinite dcvelop a{ {he ~xpen,(' of the isotropic pha,e: TWOPHASE (GRADUAL) /\LTEROMORPH.

('Oft'S;

Note: Undn condition.< of normal or re,o'icted !e;Jch.ing, reldspar.group miuer,!.' are preferentially \\'<'ather"d te) bolinite after tIll' dc",I
the alteroffiorph hdore the appearance of the !lr$tfoTll1cd
o}lllwnt of an internwdiatl' isotl'f)pic I)hao"" whid, extc,ncLs OWl' most
cry,tals of kaolinite. Kaolinite "J1<.1 r('sidues of kld$p"r are r~rel)' oh"en'cd together in the' alterolllorph'.

ur

B.

Appearance ofa mineral after an intermediate isotropic

0:

anhedr<)1 ('[")"st,,1

or plagioda~e

pha~

(gradual weathering process)

<.:xhihiting few regular ele"'ag,c,' .1I1e! irregular tran,verse fractures:

I:

patch,,, of isorwpic >l'cvndJry m.llerial dcvelop along P3rt of the' deil\'ages '1nd I'ratture$;

2:

coalesc"nl potch", of i~()tn)l'ic matcriJI ,k"'dop, J"3\'ing ca"Nnous kldspar

3:

LTySl.ab of gihhsiL<' d"'Tlop according to linear ond banded partl'm" where minute re~idu"s of plagioclasc still pasisr;

+:

P,1l't "I' uw i,,-,tropic tnateri<t! is replaced hy gihh,ir" and rcsidual void.<: GLOlvlEROSEPTO,ALTEROMORPH,

COI'('S;

the. IIrst cl-y'staI5 of gihhsitl' 'ppear;

Nor,,: Undcr cDnditi"n, of stTDng 1"Jelling, crystlb of gibbsitc qu.iekl; develop at the eXf)"nsc of the most strongly I.::al'hl'd (fintformed)
p"rts of the inkrn",diate isotropic phase, which rna)' still conLain re,ic!ue, or relJ.spar. Thre phdses ,re ob.>er,ed together before the'
'llten)!I1ol'ph i., colllplerdy deve!<.llwd. A lwophase "Iteromorph cvolves into d single'l,h."c alteromorph.

C.

One continuously wL'athering phase tinder conditions of va"ying drainage

U:

suhhedral crvstal of orthOp)TOXC"k WiU1 pMalkl de:"''1gl'$ ,\nd rro1llSVer$e fracturts;

I:

linear trJfl"erse pattern 01' \\Tath'-ring

2:

I'uru",r dl'vdopment into a handed pRtlcrn "long fracrur(.$ and denticulate cores ori,'nled par"lld to

3:

in the llpp"r part of the proJ1lr~, condition,; of I11cient le'iChing prl,mor"

+:

gocthite and ""idual "oids replace the resielues anel.sm,<:titc is ,lowl; de.graded: ALVEOP(JROALTER01\10RPH.

\{l

a ,ml'e-rik und"r condition; of n'SlTicted dr.:ti.nage in th" lower profil'.';

U1C

tJ,,, cleavages;

w"albcring or tJ,,'. rE-Sielue,s to goet.h.itc;

Not,: Within the nearsurla,,, weathering horizons, in which condiljom of drainage promote th" destruct.ion of the Iirslformcd smectitc
and i15 replan'menl hv iron ox\'h)'droxidcs, the nrstformed orU\o.a!teoporo-alt.,'rol11Cirph is slowly com'crred to a para.ahcoporo.
ahcmmorph, in which more collnded pores dre J",vclop"d. rdthcr than the charact,~ristic alvcolar pores.

280

ATLA; OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAnON AND WEATHERING

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

355,356
BASALTIC ROCK

BR 163. Brazil
Sampled by F. Soubies
at rock outcrop
Polyphase pseudo morph
after olivine
Objective: x 10

PPL and XPL

:- 0.2

0.1

O.Omm

Illllll

of

olivine has been altered to

green chlorite associated \-vith many
grains of secondary quartz and
sparser grains of calcite under the
inOucnce of a postmagmatic process
of hypogene origin. The sh.ape. and
probably the volume. of the euhe-

PAR.T

3:

AlHItOMORPfiS

dral crystal of olivine were perICetly

maintained amI are clearly recogrUzable. The a1tcromorph is a true
pseudomorph. The three sCl'onctary
minerals WCfe formed together
during the same process of alteration. The result of the transformation is a polyphase I)Seudomorph.

All quartz grains apparently exhibit

the
sallle
optical
orientation
throughout the pseudomorph, but
this feature is not always observed
in similar translormations or divine
crystals in other rocks or regions.

281

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

357,358
BASALTIC ROCK

Ocean floor
Costa Rica Rift
Leg 70. site 504b
Sampled by C. Laverne
Concentric distribution in
a polyphase alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

=-

0.2

0.1

transfOI-meJ an olivine crystal into a

polyphase alteromorph composed
of grecnish chlorite associated with
quartz grain,~, Most quart:7 graim
arl'
concen tricall ~
djstrihuted
around a central part, which is
mainly composed of ehlorite associ-

282

atcd with yery small grains of magnetite. As can be seen under XPL,
both quart~ and chlorite are randomly oriented, without any spccilk relationship to the orientation
of the original oli,-ine. The Jeep
blue interference-calor of the chlorite is characteristic of the penllinite

0.0 mm

variety of clinochlore. The surrounding matrix has maintai.ned its

usual basaltic composition, and contains plagioclase, c1inopyroxen(' and
magnetite.

ATlAS OF MICR0t10RFHOLOGY OF MINERAL AlTERATION AN.D WEATHERING

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

359,360
HORNBL.ENDE-RICH
CL.lNOPYROXENITE

Koua BOCC3, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at rock outcrop
Concentric distribution in
a polyphase alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

r:

0.0 mm

ill 1\
'I'. '11 I I. \\
alterat.ion or
this subhedral crystal 01 relati\ely caJcic plagioclase (Iabradorite) has given rise to an
association or two distinct secondary minerals. Epidote and cUnozoisite, dearly distinguishable in
XPL by their high interference-colors (common epidote) or by their
abnormal blue and yellow interference-co]ors (dino7..oisite), are concentrically d.istributed as a rim in
contact with the other neighboring
minerals (hornblende, magnetite

PART

3:

ALToRoMORPHS

and greenish chlorite). 111e core or

the plagiocJase crystal has been
mainly replaced by many minute
flakes of lJaragonite. A few small
grains of epidote aJso appear in the
central part or the alteromorph. The
origin.al calcium content of the plagiodase grain has promoted the formation 01' the epidote-group
minerals, whereas its sodiwn content has promote'd the formation or
paragonite. The low original content or potassium is responsible for
the presence of minor Usericite",

which is intimately assodated with

the paragonite.The redistribution of
the main d1emical constituents of
the original mineral into two distinct secondary mineral phases has
led to the formation of a typical
polyphase alteromorph, whose mineral components exhibit a concenrb.stri bu tion.
tric pattern

or

283

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

361,362
ORTHOPYROXENEBEARING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 5.2 m
Parallel distribution in

a polyphase alteromorph
after hypersthene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

:- 0.1

.:..... 0.0

of hype-rsthene has been completely

altered to it regularly distributed
association of talc and tremolite. As
observed in XPL, all the blue-colored acicuhr domains of b'emolite
arc regularly distributed parallel to
each other and irregularly embedded in a gruundmass 01" LUloricnted
microparticles or t,-dc. It is highly
probable that in the third di.rnension, all isolated domains of amphi.
bole are joined by bridges fi:>rming a
skeletal minera.l whuse interstitial

284

volumes are irLfillcd by talc. Several

gemTations of magnetit{~ can be distinl,rWshed. The oldest is expressed
as irregular opaque hneamcnts (C4,
D3) that arc related to the protoclastic fractures of the primary crystal of olivinc before its later
recrystallization into hypersthene.
The second generation of magnetite
is expressed a, a group of irregular
inclusions (AJ, 82), which are relics
of' a symplcctitic texture formed as
a result of the replacement of
olivine by the newly formed

mill

orthopyroxene. The third generation is expressed as interlamellar

parallel lineaments that have
I"ormcd during the later replacement of the pyToxene by talc and
tremolite. Observations of many
thin sections showing Ule successive
mineralogical transforma6ons are
necessary to understand such a
complicated evolution.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAnoN AND WEATHERING

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

363,364
ORTHOPYROXENEBEARING
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at rock outcrop
Parallel distribution in
a polyphase alteromorph
after hypersthene
Objective; x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I
of hydrothermal process is reached, the proportion of taJc in the polypha:;e
altcromorph (see 361, 362) I)rogressi velv decreases and finallv dis~
appear~, to give an altcromorph that
consists only 01" amphibok of the
tremolit.e - actinolite series and
magnetite. The photomicrographs
show thc regular Jistrihution of the
acicular domains of' tremolitic or
actinolitic amplUbule, whose orientat.ion is p.arallel to the Z axis of the
original orthopyroxene cr)~tal.
-

PART

3:

AtTEROMORPHI

Man)' ampbibole crystab are

twinned, but their regular orientation throughout the entire alteromorph is res[Jonsible for a
homogeneous coJoration under
crossed polars. The magnetite
grains, Ivhich contain the orig'nal
iron content of the primary
orthnpyroxcne. are randomly distrihuted. Most magnetite graim an:
euhedral or subhedral (cubic 01hexagonal sections), Transverse
fractures arC' also responsible for
aLigrune.nts of small gr;)ins of mag-

netite and linear infilLings of upaque

mincl-.l!s. Sever;)! elliptical grains of
greenish bro\vn hornblende arc randomly
enclosed
within
the
IJolyph'lsc alterornorph; tJlei r 1'01'rnatinn precede., the alteration of'
the orthop)'Toxenc host crystal, anJ
they do not belong to the mjnerals
that compose the [Jol)'[Jhase alteromorph.
More
resistant
to
hydrothermal processes, the inclusions of' primary hornblende arc not
replaced by t.he secondary tremolite
- actinolite amphibolc.

285

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

365,366
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 14.6 m
Linear distribution in
a polyphase alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

after
olivine has been formed by
hydrothermal alteration along a
transmineral fracture. Owing to the
low grade of hydrothermal alteration, the distributjon of the secondary products is 1\ot uneven; it
strongly depends on the distance
that separates a point from the fracture along which the hydrothermal
fluids penetr<lte the mineral. Most
of the <llteromorph is composed of
talc, associated with minute grains
of magnetite. At short dist.ances

286

or

the fracture
along both sidt~S
plane, where higher-temperature
conditions were reached, the
olivine was replaced by colorless
tremolitic amphiboJe. In the thin
section from which these photomicrographs were taken, all oli\1nc
cryst<lls are altered to talc, and the
amphibolc only appears within the
alteromorphs that are crossed by
the fractures. This case provides a
good example of a polyphase <llteromorph in which the linear distribution of the secondar;' products is

related to the varying intensity of

the alteration process. The iron content of the original olivine does not
enter the structure of the t<lle, nor
that of the tTemoute. It is conce.ntrated into a separate phase, the secondary magnetite. The grains of
c1inopyroxene that are crossed by
the fractun? are partially altered to
greenish actinolite.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTIJ\AnON AND WEATHERING

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

167, 368
OUVlNE-BEARING
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 8.4 m
Random distribution in
a polyphase alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0,6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

'
olivine
A has been completely replaced
III I

1,1 Or

by a polyphase alterolllorph containing tremolitic amphibok and

magnet.ite, Both minerals were
Formed toge-ther under the influence of a hydrothermal pnx:t'ss,
whose intensity is greater than in
the former example.1l1is is the reason for the absence of talc in the
alteromorph, Most of the magnetite
crystals, which cOlltain the iron
content of the origiml o)'stal of
olivinc, arc concentrated in a rim

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPHS

and in interstitial irregular area.'

between the cTvstab of tTemolite.
Magnetite- also is concentrated ill
lineaments thilt arc the protoclastic
fractun:s of the original crystaJ
oli\ine. ll1C:' traces of these fractures, which arc commonly emphasized by resistant deposits of
magnetite, are very charilcteristic
Features ulat allow one to easily distinguish the alteromorphs after
olivinc From the alteromorphs alter
other mi.nerals such as orthop~rox
ene or c!inopyroxLne. The needleJ

or

shaped and prismatic crystals or

trcmo!itc arc randomly oriented
throughout ule entire alkromo'l)h,
which also commonly allows onc to
distingUish the alteromorphs after
olivinc Frol11 the altcromorphs after
orthopyroxene. In the latter case,
prismatic crystals of arnpbibolc arc
generally oriented parallel to ule Z
crystallognpluc axis of the P)TOXene (sec 361, 362, 363, and 364).

287

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

369,370
OUVINE-BEARING
CUNOPYROXENITE

Cote d'!voire
Depth: 10.2 m

Koua Bocca,

Random distribution in

a polyphase alteromorph
after olivine
ObjeCLive: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

O.3

0.2

0.1

has been
replaccJ by a polyphase alteromorph in which bOtJl tremolite and
saporute are randomly distributed
and randomly oriented. The colorless prismatic crystals or tremolite
contain the Si and Mg directly
inhCI'itcd from the original olivine,
whereas the Ca comes from the
neighboring diopside or augite. The
dinopyroxelll: also has been altered
to a secondar)' amphibole, which
determines the disappearance or the
original intermineral margins in this

288

metamorphic rock. In contrast to

the altcromorphs after ortJlOpyroxene, the sheet silicate associated
with tbe secondary amphibole in an
alteromorph arter olivine is not
talc, but a day mineral or the smeetite group. This difference, which is
invariably observeJ in the metamorphic rocks at Koua [3occa,
allows the altcromorphs after
olivine to be easily distinguished
from the alteromorphs after hypersthene. The beige-yellow saponite is
interstitial tu the tremolitc prisms.

0.0 mm

Its distribution is restricted to tJ1('

inner area of the original crystal of
oli\ille. An incomplete I-im of magnetite gra.ins surrolmds the alteromorph, whereas very rew magnetite
grains, if any, are associated with the
saponite. In contrast, the formation
of' talc after orthopyroxene is invariably associated with grains or magnetite, wluch also contribute to the
easy cUstinction between the nvo
al teromorphs.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINE.RAJ. AiTEAAnoN AND WEATHERJNG

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

371,372
BASALTIC ROCK

Ocean floor.
Costa Rica Rift
Leg 70, site S04b
Sampled by C. Laverne
Random distribution In
a polyphase alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I . Ij
I I
Il,
of a postmagmatic process, an olhine
crystal has been completely altered
to a polyphase alterolTIorph of chlo-

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPHS

rite (pale green in PPL, extina in

XPL) in which flbrous crystals of

actinolite (amphibole) are randomly

distributed and randomh,. oriented.

Note that the ncighboring minerah,

such as plagioclase and skeletal crystals of p)Toxcnc, were apparently
not altered during this process.

289

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

373,374
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.4 m
Interseeting linear
distribution in a
polyphase alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

11
ha5 been
completely weathered to nOIltronite associated wit.h hydrated
oxides of iron along its intramineral
protoclastic fractures. As in earlier
photomicrographs, t.he secondary
products RI I the whole volwne of
the original grain of oLivine (holoalteromOl-ph), without appearance
of intramineral residual pores (at
least at the scale observable ,,-ith the
optical microscope). Note that the
network of original protoc!astic
fractures is clearly recoonjzablc
in
b
J

290

the alteromorph, but that the original deposits of magnetite are now
oxidized to brownish secondary
products. The apparently variable
thickness of these products is due to
variations of the orientation of the
fractures \o\ith respeer to the plane
of the thin section. Note also that
along these ferruginous lineaments,
the nontronite partjc!es are strongly
oriented perpendicular to the plane
of the original fractures, whkh
dearly contrasts \...ith the unoriented pattern of the inner parts. The

tllickness of these oriented banded

textures is essentially constant
throughollt the alteromorph. Botb
nontronitic and ferruginous seconda!}' producb originated lmder
the innuence of the same supergene
process of weathering; the transformation consequently results in a
polyphase bolo-alteromorph. The
other components of the rock,
clinop)'Toxene, hornblende and
magnetite, are very slightly weathered, if at all.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

175,176
HORNBLENDEBEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'll/oire

Depth: 0.2 m
Polyphase alteromorph
after hornblende
Objectil/e: x I0
PPL and XPL
Polarizers not exactly
crossed in XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I I'
I I ,'11
whose Z
axis is parallel to the plane of
the thin section is partially weathered into a complex septo-alteromorpb. The observed pattern is
determined by the combination of
the poorly dneloped network of
parallel cJea,'ages with several transverse cracks. Many denticulate remnan ts are stilJ visible in the
alteromorph; they are surrounded
by large residual empty pores
(peripheral voids or inter-plasma mineral voieG). Note that, as usually

PART

3:

ALTIROMORPHS

observed in alteromorphs after ferromagnesian minerals, the denticulanon

is
mainly
developed
accm-dlng to a direction parallel to
the Z axis of the crystal. Weathered
in an environment of efficient leaching in a soil horizon near the sw'face, the hornblende crystal gi"es
two distinct Inlneral phases that
concentrate the more insoluble element,,: the high iron l'ontent of the
primary mineral goes to form most
ol' the septa, whereas its lower content of aluminum is expressed by

individual minute crysta.ls of gibbsite that preferentially grew on

either side of the septa. These crystals are clearly seen in the second
photomicrograph, taken with the
polarizers crossed at 85 to better
distinguish the empty pores lrom
the deep brown septa, A more
detailed observation 01' the- gibbsite
crystals and of the denticulate remnants shows that most of them are
partly covercd by the most recent
generation of iron hydroxide.

291

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

377,378
ORTHOPYROXENEBEARING
ClINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 2 m
Polyphase alteromorph
after hypersthene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

:-- 0.1

0.0 mm

of orthopyroxcne
has been completely weathered
as a result of two successh'c stages
of weathering. The first, under conoitions of resn'icted drainage, has
promoted the formation of thick
bands of a smectitic ~econdary
product developed along two transmineral tl-actures, between which
large residual remnants w('re
retained. These residues are denticulate and tightly enclosed, without
any rcsirlual pores. Partly weathen'd, rdatively coarse grains of
~

292

pyl'oxene can be maintained for a

long time, until a lowering of the
soil surface b)' superficial erosion
tr<tnsfers, in a relative way, the
material to the upper part of the
profile. The conditions of leaching
arc gradually mooifkd in such a way
Ulat they rlo not promote the further formation of a srnectitie seconoar)' product, as in the lower
horizon. Inst('ad, oxyhydroxic.les of
iron and large residual empty pores
form. Thb second stage of weathering start:; peripherally around the

residual remnants and along the

parallel cleange planes of the
pyroxene, which determines the
formation of numerous parallel
browll scpta. The first-formed
Sll1cctitic product is not weathered,
because it ha~ not been destabilized.
These two photognphs can be compared \...-ith 141 and 142, taken 60
cm lower in the same prolllc, in
whjch pyroxene remnmts are just
beginning to weather to oxyhydroxides of iron.

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

379,380
ORTHOPYROXNEBEARING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.4 m
Polyphase alteromorphs
after hypersthene
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

r:

0.0 mm

I ,
erosion rapidly
lowers the soil surface,
resiclues of wcatherabJe minerals
can be brought into the ncw geochemical en\'ironment, such that
incipient weathering to smectitic
secondar;' products is bypassed.
Weathering thus gives rise directly
to oxyh)'clroxides of iron. The photomicrographs show several crystals
of orthop~rroxene that ha\e been
partiaJly weathered, in the lower
level of the profile, to a smectite
according to irregular banded pat-

PART 3; ALTEROMORPHS

terns. Many relatively coarse islands

or the' primary mineral remain, each
with denticulate margins. Once
subjected to the new gcochemicaJ
conditions, the denticulate cores
ha\'c becn quickly dissolved, gi\'ing
rise to nW11erous large empty residual pores, internally rimmed b~' thin
iron oxide deposits of relative accumulation. Tht' denticulate shapes arc
well preserved, and their olientations within the neighboring
alteromorphs still allow the crystallographic directions of the prinlary'

minerals to be clearly deduced. nlC

weathering process resu.lts i.n the
development of very porous alveoporo-alteromorphs. Note that the
early-formed smectile is barely
weathered (or not at all) under
these new geochemicaJ conditions.
The particles of smectite in most
banded textures have maintained
their o\o\'n orientation, which they
acguired during the first stage of
weather.ing.

293

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

381,382
GABBRO

ltapeva. SP, Brazil

Sampled at rock outcrop
Polyphase alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

I
I
in this section the photo m icrographs
have illustrated the formation of
two or more secondar:, products,
which have differentiaUy concent:rated the chemical elements of the
primary mineral. In these illusLTations, two secondar;' products also
occur together, but the development of the second one depends on
the later evolution of the firstformed product; the polyphase
alteromorph is due to a gradual
transformation, with de\'elopment
of an ephemeral intermediate

294

I I

phase. A coarse lath-shaped crystal

of plagiodase is partly encased
\\ithin the un weathered rock (84),
and partly protrudes into the
weathered crust (02). During a
first stage, weathering has given dse
to a wide band of isotropic mat.erial,
whose intermediate composition is
gradualJy modified with aging. This
material then is replaced by coarsegrained gibbsite, whereas the adjacent area now contains the isotropic
intermediate product formed at the
expense of the residual plagioclase.
Gradually, as weathering pro-

gresses, the internaJ porosity of the

rock a.nd t.he local conditions of
leaching are modified; the feldspar
residue is then directlv weathered
to fine-grained gihbsite without
p<1ssing through the ephemeral
isotropic phase. From B4 to 02,
un\\'eathered feldspar, fine-grained
gibbsite (of direct generation),
isotropic intermediate phase, and
coarse-grained gibbsite (earlyformed from t.he isotropic phase)
are sllccessively encountered.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

)8),)84
NEPHELlNE-BEARING
SYENITE (LUJAVRITE)

Poc;os de Caldas.
MG, Brazil

Depth: 0.5 m
Polyphase alteromorph
after nepheline
Objective: x 4

PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

of
J nepheline is first partia 11)'
weathered to an isotropic intCl'mediate phase according to a peripheral, centripetaJ process, This tlrst
stage gives rise to an irregular core
surrounded by a colorless phase
which, with aging, takes on a typical
hierachized retiporo-alteromorphic
pattern (see also 300, 301 and 302).
Further away from the core are the
polyhedral volumes of isoo'opic
material. They are smaller, and the
reticular network of tlssures is more
of

PART

3: AiITROMOI\PHS

closely spaced. Tbe conditjons of

leaching are progressively intensified, and the open reticular network
of the external concentric part is
then invaded by fine lineaments of
microcrystalline gibbsite, whose
distribution is strongly related to
the preViously formed nenvork. The
allochthonous gibbsite first forms
many small linked rings, which isolate small residues of the ison'opic
material. With aging, these isolated
volumes progressively lose their
residual siJjca, and are ultimately

replaced by internal crystallaria of

autochthonous gibbsite. From the
ceoter to the edges of the photograph
in XPL, a residual core of nepheline,
a thick rim of homogeneous
isotropic material, ring-shapecl
allochthonous accumwations of
gibbsite arolUld isotropic residues,
and mixed generations of gibbsite
are successively observed. The small
inclusions of rinkite (mosandl'ite?)
and aegirine are not yet weathered;
they are clearly obsen'ed in both
pbotomicrographs.

295

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

385,386
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'\voire

Depth: 4.2 m
Complex
polygenetic-polyphase
alteromorph
after olivine
and orthopyroxene
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

02

0,0 mm

has be.en
replaced, under late-magmatic
conditions, by a sympkctitic intergrowth of orthopFoxenc and u:regularly
distributed
grains
of
magnetite. No olivine remnants
persist in the alteromOl-ph. This nrst
alteromorph is a normal polyphase
alteromorph. During a later stage of
hydrothermal
alteratjon,
the
orthopyroxene part of the symplectite has been converted to talc,
whereas thl" symplectitic textu.re is
not di.stW'bed and remains dearly
, I',

296

I' I

"

'I

recognizable in many parts of the

alteromorphs. These examples of
the syrnplcctitic texture in which
one component (magnetite) is not
easily weathered are very useful in
the recognition of the ultimate odgin of many transformed rocks;
the)' are equivalent to true mineralogical signatures. The final alteromorph is a polygenetic alteromorph
because it [ormed in two steps well
separated in time. The two mineral
components that now make up the
alteromorph do not belong to the

same stage of alteration. Only the

first stage is responsible for the
polyphase character of the alteromorph.The particles of talc are I'andomly oriented; they are rather
colorless in PPL, and exhibit high
interference-colon in XPL. Small
crystals of apatite are visible in the
sWTounding rock (AS, Cl), which
is, in the area photographed, mainly
composed oHarge crystals of yellow
vermiculite.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

387,388
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 8.2 m
Complex
polygenetic-polyphase
alteromorph
after olivine
and orthopyroxene
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0,6

004

0.2

0.0 mm

11
11 I
11
of the Rrstformed polyphase alteromorph
is similar to that shown in the two
previous photomicrographs: an
olivine crystal has been completely
replaced by a symplectitic intergrowth of orthopyroxene and l1lagnetitl",
but
the
magnetite
intergrowths are preferentially concentrated in tbe central part of the
altcromorph. The second stage of
transformation takes place u.nder
the very late influence of a supergene process that has weathered the

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPHS

orthopyroxene portion of the

alteromorph to a smectitic secondary product. This beige-yellow
product is regularly distributed
around the core, which is composed
of magnetite intergrowths, between
which small areas of the smectite
also a,re visible, The orthop)'Toxene
portion has entirely disappeared.
With progressively more advanced
""eathering, the secondary smectitegroup mineral undergoes an incipient degradation to oxyhydTOxides of
iron, which make the rim of the

alteromorph slightly brownish. Two

main stages of transformation (one
hypogene and the other supergene)
make th.is a polygenetic alteromorph, but each of these stages has
promoted the formation of two secondary minerals (orthopyroxene +
magnetite in the first instance, and
smectite + oxyhydroxides of iron in
the second). This sequence results in
tbe formation of a double polyph.ase-polygenetic alteromorph..

297

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

389,390
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Boeea, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 8.2 m
Very complex
polygenetie polyphase
alteromorph
after olivine
and orthopyroxene
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.0 mm

dan
olhine CTvstal that has been
replaced b) a symplectitic intergrowth of orthopyroxcnc and magnetite. III thb case, a large part of
the original crystal of oli\-ine has
sur\,l\'cd in the centr<J1 part of the
polyphase alteromorph. Sm<J1J areas
of sYl.11p!ectite are easily identified,
and form a partial rim between the
bright yellow core and the thick
beige-coloTcd rim. After this first
stage of transformation, the al teromorph contained a core 01" primary

298

olhinc and a rim or orthop~Toxene

+ magnetite. During a second stage
of 10\-v-gnJe hypogene alteration,
the oli\'ine core is completely
replaced by bright yellow, regularly
oriented saponite; the reaction has
not disturbed the thin intergrowth.s
of magnetite. The thick rim of pr('dousl)' formed orthopyroxene is
still Lmaltered. Dming a much later
.~tep of shallow weathering (the
third stage 01" tran.s-l'ormation), the
orthopyroxene part of the firstformed polypha.se alteromorph is

weathered to a beige-brown smectitic clay, whereas the sapon ite

formed at the expense of olivine, in
closer geochemical equilibrium
with the supergene conditions, is
not affected. Some rcsidues of
orth0pYToxene arc still distinguishable (A4, Cl, CS) in t.he weathered
ri m. These Sllcccssi \'c stages 0 f
lTansformation result in a particularly
complex
polygeneticpolyphase alteromorph.

ATLAS OF MIC~OMO~PHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAnON AND WEATHE~ING

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

391,392
OUVINE-BEARING
CUNOPYROX.ENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 5.8 m
Very complex
polygenetic polyphase
alteromorph
after olivine
and orthopyroxene
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3
-

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I '. ,
of alteranon, under the inOuence of a
late-magmatic process, a crystal of
olivine is partially re!)!aced by a rim
of orthopyroxene that extends aU
around the crystal, and by an intermediate ring of symplectite that
irregularly surrounds U1C olivine
corc. During a later stage ot'
hydrothermal alteration, part of the
ouvine core was first replaced by
yellowish sapnnite, both along its
network of p1'Otoclastic fractures
(C4, El) and as irregular patches

PART

3:

ALTIROMORPHS

(A3) in the contact area between

the oL,rine core and the orthopyroxene rim, Later, the residual
olivine 01' the cOl'e was largely
replaced
by
reddish
brown
"iddingsite",
whose
formation
mainly started along U1e previously
formed bands of saponite, leaving
many renmants of oli"ine, Du.ring
the latest stage of transformation,
under the innucncc of sllaJjow
weathering, these rcsidues of
olivil1e have been weaulered to
orange-colored nontronite (82.

84), whereas most of the orthopyroxene in the previously formed

rim and in a large inclusion a.re no\-\'
weathered to a pale yellow smectitic
product (D2, CS), Some small denticulate rcsidues of orthopyroxenc.
are sri II
distinguishable. The
wHveaulered grains that surround
the complex alteromorph consist of
clinopyroxene, 'which is much less
weatherable.

299

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

191
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 12.6 m
Complex
polygenetic-polyphase
alteromorph
after orthopyroxene
Objective: x 4
PPL
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

of orthopyroxene (hypersthene) h3s been

partially replaced by talc, during a
first stage of hydrothermal alteration. The talc is peJipherally distrihuted arou.nd a large residual
core of orthopyroxene. A thin rim
or magnetite (opaque) is developed,
as USU3IIy observed in similar caSe~,
around the talc alteromorph. wruch
results in the formation of a ftrst
partially
developed
polyphase
alteromorph. The magnetite rim
concentrates most of the iron or the
original pyroxene that cannot be
accommodated in the stTucture of
the neoformed talc. During a later
stage of weathering, the residual
core of hypersthene was weathered
directly to a dark brown. iron-rich
septo-alteromorph whose empty

300

pores, clearly visible in the central

part of the alteromol-ph, are regularly oriented parallel to the Z axis
of the primary mineral. Irregular
halos of oxyhydroxides or iron
appear as a stain on the inner part of
the previously fOl"med talc around
the centra) scpto-alteromorph.
Brown-colored secondary ferriferous products also are \-isible within
the thick rim of talc; they arc either
dirfusion halos from the sWTounding weathered rock (or perhaps
from the incipient weathering of the
trun rim of magnetite), but they are
not derived from the weathering of
the talc, because it does not contain
a significant amount or iron. The
unusual yellow color of the talc is
due to slight permeation by an imnbearing sol ution through tllC'

peripheral part of the alteromorph.

Produced under the inllucncc of
two processes that are well separated in time (the first one of hypogene origin. the second onc of
supergene origin), the two-stage
alteration results in the" formation of
a polygenctic alteromorph. The
occurrence of 1:\\10 secondary lui.nerals (tak and magnetite) within the
t1rst-formed partial alterornorph
makes the final alteromorph a complex polygenetic and partially
polyphase alteromorph.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHElUNG

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

394,395
ORTHOPYROXENEBEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 2,8 m
Complex alteromorph
after hypersthene
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

=-

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

of orthol)Yroxene (h)"pcrsthene) has been

transformed,
under
part1ally
hydrothermal conditions, ta trcmalite (El) and talc (02). Both sccondary minerals are associated with
secondar)'
magnetite,
which
expresses the portion of the original
iron content of the orthop)-Toxcne
crystal that did not enter the structure of tl1e hydrothermal silicate
minerals. The magnetite graim are
relatively coarse in the tTemolitebearing part of the alteromarph,
l

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPHS

and microgranular in tJ-te talc-bearing part. This altered part orthe primary mineral is a polyphase
alteromorph. Most of th" orthopyroxcne crystal has not been modified in this first stage of alteration.
During a later stage of weathering,
it was nearl\, completely weathered
to yellowish saponitc, which surrounds minute denticulate residues.
As the geochemical conditions of
the weathering became progressively modified, empty peripheral
pores (black rims in XPL) were

formed around the residues. These

residues became free to rotate
"ithin the empty [)ores, and conseCJuently lost their simultaneous
extinction under crossed polars.
More recently, pa.rt of ilie smectitic
product was weatllered to a brownish clay along an irreguJar transrnineral fracture. The neigh boring
grains of clinop~f)'oxene also an.'
weatl1(~red,
whereas the less
weatherable hornblende is fractured
onlv.

301

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

396,397
PERIDOTITE

Jacupiranga.
SP. Brazil
Sampled at outcrop by
S.M.B. de Oliveira
Very complex
polygenetic-polyphase
alteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 16
PPL and XPL

['
0.0 mm

I
'I
of hypogene alteration, part of the
olivine in the rock was serpentinizeu, The serpentine is u.islTibuted according to an irregular
cross- banded pattern that surrowlds
many irregular cores of olivinc. The
photomicrographs show the successive transformations occurring in a
Single grain of olivine. During a
later step of low-grade hydrothermal alteration, part of the oli\ine
cores h.,s been peripherally and centripetally a.ltered to saponite. The

302

sawtooth shapes that are rather

characteristic of the saronitc
domains are still clearly distinguished even in tltis complex alteromorph. During a later step of
supergene weathering, all the
saponite rims have been replaced by
deposits of iron oxide, mainly in the
concentric areas in contact ",-ith the
network of serpentine bands,
whereas the olivine cores have been
completely dissolved. The residual
empty pores have- been latcr in611ed
by secondary quartz, which also IJ lis

the open spaces created by the

weathering of the sapon.ite. The serpentine-group minerals have been
little a.n-ccted during all these successive stages of alteration. Tbey
acquired a yellowish color owing to
permeation of iron-bearing solutions. With increasing degree of silicifjcation, tTue silcTetes will be
formed in the upper part of the protile, and even the serpentine-group
m ioerals will be replaced by a
banded network of secondary
quartz.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

398,399
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at rock outcrop
Polygenetic alteromorph
Example of a possible
erroneous interpretation
(introduction)
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0,4

0.2

0.0 mm

HI'
of these two
photomicrographs, taken of an
unaltered rock. is necessary to
explain the development or the
I)olygenetic alteromorphs to be
shown in tht' next photomicrographs. The main crystal shown in
these first two photomicrographs is
a large grain or diopside. It
included, during its growth, some
grains of orthop)'ToxCfit" small remnants of which (irregular pale pink

PART

3:

ALTE~OMO~PHS

gnins at C2,3) are still recognizable

in the central part of the dinop).
roxene crystal. Many irregular
patches of bro,;\,n amphibole and
inclusions of magnetite also are
embcdcbJ in the main crystal. The
groundmass of the rock exhibits the
usual mineraJogical composition of
most samples of c1inopyroxenite
rrom the Koua Bocca intrusion.
Note that the large grain of dinap)"
roxene is comlJoseJ of a single

untV\inned crystal. and that nearly

aU the amphibolc inclusions exhibit
the same crystallographic orientation throughout the host crystal.
The weathering of a very similar
complex crystal will be shown in
the next photomicrographs.

303

COMPLEX POLYGENETlC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

400,401
CONTACT AREA
BETWEEN
CLlNOPYROXENITE
AND SURROUNDING
GRANITES

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at rock outcrop
Polygenetlc alteromorph
Example of a possible
erroneous interpretation
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

I I
I
of c1inopyroxene is partly weathered to
saponite as a secondary product. Its
optical orientation is parallel to the
Z axis of the plimary mineral. Many
small denticulate residues are still
recognizable. Since !be host pyroxene has a monoclinic symmetry. its
extinction angle is very diFferent
from that of the secondary product.
The photograph taken in XPL
dearly shows this difference in orientation when the microscope stage
is rotated in a direction such that
J

304

only the secondary product is visible

and the. clinopyroxene remnants are
all at extinction. Careful observation in PPL shows that inclusions of
green amph.ibole are associated with
the remnants of clinopyroxene, and
that they are DOt weathered nor
denticulate, because this mineral is
much less weatherable than tbe
clinopyroxene. Tbe amphibole
inclusions are not at extinction in
the lower photograph. Once completely weathered, the p}Toxenc
renulants will disappear in [avor of

ATlAS

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

more of the smectitic secondary

product, whereas the amphihole
inclusions will remain unweathered. An inaccurate observation of
such a complex alteromorph can
lead to an erroneous interpretation
about the origin of the alteromorph. The amphibole inclusions
are not the primary material From
which the secondary products have
formed. It is thus necessary to
investigate other alteromorphs in
the sequence in order to find rE'_mnants of the true precursor mineral.

OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATlON AND WEATHERING

COMPLEX POLYGENETIC-POLYPHASE ALTEROMORPHS

402,403,404
WEATHERED
PYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 3.4 m
Polygenetic alteromorph
Example of a possible
erroneous interpretation
Objective: :>( 6.3
PPL and 2 XPL

0.3
0.2
0.1

0.0 mm

11 1
1 I show
the case of a more advanced
stage of weathering which, during
an earlier stage, was very similar to
the cast' sholYn in 400 and 401, The
alteromorph after clinopyroxene is
nearly complete; the saponitic secondary product, which exh.ibirs a
phylloporo-alteromorphic pattern,
is lI'ell rleveloped at the expense of a
clinupyroxene crystal whose remnants have nearly completely disappeared. Most visible inclusions
consist of unweathered amphibole
well enclosed in the phylloporoalterornorph, Only rn'o vcr;' small
remnants of clinop)'Toxene remain.
They are lisible only in the third
photograph. taken at such an angle
or rotation of the microscope stage
that all secondary products arc at
extinction. The~' arc recognizable by

PART

o!,

3:

ALnRoMoRPHS

their higher interference-colors

(very smJU blue-colored domains at
C3. CS), contTasting \\-ith the lower
interference-colors of tbe amphjbole inclusions, vVithout the occurrence of these sparse remnants of
clinopyroxene, the alteromorph
wouJd, as a result of a superlicial
obserl'ation of the flrst photomicro-

graph. pOSSibly have been interpl-eteJ as reslJting from the wcatJ1ering of an amphibolc crystal. SOUl
photomicrographs taken in XPL
shovv the perfect ol-ientation of the
sheet silicates tbroughout the entire
alteromorph, a<.:cording to the Z
axis of the precursor mineral.

305

C I-I .~

PT E R J 0

Alteromorphs and Processes of Accumulation

Cumu/o-alteromorPhs (from the Latin cumulare =

to

accumulate) are polygenetic alteromorphs

developed by the late accumulation of allochthonous material within previously formed porous
alteromorphs. The allochthonous material nlay
result from the crystallization of minerals incorporating elements transported in solution, or
from the deposition of material transported as
small detrital particles (Fig. 39).

For example, the presence of tetrahedraJly

coordinated aluminum in nontronite developed
from the weathering of olivine (a mineral devoid
of aluminum) provides a good example of an
Imported allochthonous element that is incorporated in a secondary mineral of autochthonous
origin. Aluminum also may contribute to the formation of gibbsite crystals in a koilo-alteromorph
at the expense of quartLAlthough the AI is external to the mineral with which it is associated, the
gibbsite infills dissolution-induced pores in the
quartz. In this last case. the accumulation of
allochthonous material is easily distinguished by
optical microscopy. whereas in the case of nontroniLe after olivine, the distinction will be recognizable only in light of results of detailed and
accurate chemical analyses.
As an example of absolute accumulation o\'er
short distances. evidence for which arises by mass-balanet' a.rguments, consider the first step of weathering
of anorth.itc (Merino et <11. 1993):

POROUS ALITFlOMORI'H

39.
Relarionship
alreromorph.

fiGURE

CUMULo-AlTEROMORPH

or"

cumulo-i1hcmmorph to a porous

Koilo-alteromorphs and all varieties of "pow"aJtewmorphs can become later infilled by further crystallization, or deposition, of allochthonous materia.l;
this material is either derived from adjacent weathered
minerals by transmincTaJ displacement of elements, or
from the upper parts of the profile or landscape by
long-distance transport, either of elements in solution
or of detrital particles in suspension (Fig. 40).
The extraneous elements derived from the ,",'eathering of adjacent minerals, and transported in d.issolved form. are either incorporated into the structure
of the secondary minerals. whose original or potential
chemical composition is modifted, or concentrated in a
distillct and independent crystalline or amorpholls
phase that develol)s within the pores of the alteromorph (Fig. 40A).

ALUMINUM MIGRATION DURING

THE WEATHERING OF FELDSPAR GRAINS

The incipient isovolumetric weathering of

feldspar into septa of gibbsite, along the firstformed fractures, generally does not generate
appreciable amounts of pore space, Along the
septa, crystals of gibbsite are closely and tightly
distributed against the feldspar remnants, without
development of visible inter-plasma - mineral
pores, To replace a given volume of anorthite by
apprOXimately the same volume of gibbsite, some
aluminum must be added to the weathering
feldspar. According to the reaction CaAI25i20a +
AI)~ + 5 H2 0 = 3 AI(OHh + Ca 2 + + 2510 2 + H+,
an important part of the aluminum necessary for
the formation of the gibbsite must be imported
from adjacent weathering grains of feldspar,
whose porosity consequently is much increased.
In the case of the weathering of albite to gibbsite,
according to the reaction NaAl5i)Oa + 2 A1 3+ + 7
H 20 = 3 AI(OHh + Na+ + 3 Si0 2 + 5 H+, much
more aluminum must be added at the beginning of

.~
2
--'

L-

ftc.;UI\I:

4-0,

\:'Vl)UI

no" nf

C-UMllI C)-An I\OMOI\I'HS,

A,

Accumu~tion

0:

,mhdlraJ crvstal of augile showing ['aralkl dea'-ag''S and ITdnS\ers~ I't-actures;

and crystallization of allochthonous c1eluen1.5 tTansportcd in solution

incipknl \""('cHhc>ring tt) iron ox~hydroxidl.:~ <Jlljng pan of the clcolvagcs. fractures and houm.bric~;

]:

advanceJ stage IJI weathering, with enlargeci ul'cn frJClure,. minute denticulate. r"siJuP5 and many ["1rolLs "olwne,s;

3:

IlnaJ stage of w('.tnning. ,lInl I'urmalion 01' a r"gubr - i.rr':~lIIJr ,cpto-alteromorph 01' go,:thile;

4:

further en"luti",! \I'ith inlWings

or gihbsill~

i,n ,111 d,e open spa("~s; ClIMULDSEPTOALT[KOMORPH,

Now: Thi, tvpe of intllling is ,'asily distinguished !'r'om the onho'polyph..,c: alt~rornorl)h to goec.hitc +- gihh,ire shown in Figun.. S C+; open
frattur,''< can h, ,".""11 withi" ,md bnween the neighllvrirl); nlil1"-"II" and allochtll<,Hwus gihbsirc alsn J1l~Y in.11I1 all the transminerJI
and inll'rminl'l'31 f'r'~('rure,' and all the neighhoring "pow",alt"romc'rplts.

B.

Accumulation of allochthonous materiallTansporteo as detrital particles

():

anhedral eT)'st"l of f"ld',p'" ,ho",in~ ,,,me ,uhpar.,lkl inlraminc""l fr<Jcttrrc-,;

gibhsit,~ ,K('!)rdin!! to peripheral, linear ,1I1d patchy patterns;

1:

ineipiC'nt. wcathering

2:

Illf)IT

l;

compk'k wcathering to a gll)lnt'r(>,~cf'IO"lterornurph of gihbsilC and incipient inf'lling 1>\ Iamin"t~d material;

-1-:

parl'i"I inlllling b)' nUlerial. which bm.", cmpty ('hann~k CUMULO-Cl OMEROSEPTOALTEROMOHPH,

to

~J,.lnct"'d wi:..lrhL'ring: irregul.tr scpta of gibbsilC and pf'riph\'raJ "oids arc fonned arounn can:rnou., l"C'sidui:s;

or

!\iotc; I~,r cldrital panic-!"" 10 h~ dl'.pnsited, pan

thc rcsidual port's must oel'l,ssJrily be in fn'e communicauon with t.r<lIl>mineral or
intl'rmineral fraclur~t aroLlll,] the altc'T'omnrph without furming dosed mlumes, MicroiJ.min,lt"c1 deposit< or ddrital rnat~rial e,m bc'
,'''peetcd at any ,~e or w"athning, as suun as aco' ~ihlc rC$iJual por~$ art de,'"lopeo,

C.
0:

anhedraJ cTvstal of qu;uT/. ~.xhibil ing irrc'gul.r imramilwral fr.1<:IUreS;

I:

incipient dis.<olution of thv: 'Iuart'l and dev-"Iopment or internal ann pcrirJwr.l! pore, aJong rr,Ktur('S and houndaries;

1:

Accumulation of aUochthonous maleri;li gr<1d.uaLly as weathering progresses

IIr,t crystals of gib!>,ite rl allo('hlhonous o"igin """"lop along 0p"r, 1'1''''-1&''' and peripher,,1 p0,.,."s;
widefleJ n.:sidual

4,:

1""'''' ,u1<i

r('siduaJ ca\'l'rnous cores surrnunocrJ b)' growing nyst,lIaria of a1I0chth0l10US .g.ibhsitC';

g.lomero. anJ bOll'_l'Urnorplric p'ttcrns of the gibhs;re ac('wnuJar.inl)s; CUMULO,KOILOALTEI<OMORPH,

Note: 1I no re,;iJLlal guarl" i, "bsern'c1 within the partial curnulo-.lltt'l'omorph, it will not be possibk to a$c"r1ain the origin of the altv:romorph. wl\ieh can r",ult I'mm th,~ inlilling 01' th" ,,),;t)' lert hy dissolution of ;LilY mineral (["i/" qu"rt;:" ('"lcite. "paDle), The "'(;;lth
er'ing '.d: an alllrnil)umri,'h primary mincral can give rise to :J sjmibrlv trextureJ glomero.borryo.aJlerOJl1orph,

308

AnAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AtTEIlAnON AND WEATHERING

the formation of the gibbsite septa, and consequently much more aluminum must be imported
from the neigh boring grains of albite. This results
in the formation of a residual pore-volume much
greater than in the case of the weathering of
anorthite. In both cases, the number and thickness of the septa are similar, but the proportion
of residual pores is very different. The glomeramorphic part of the alteromorphs formed after
anorthite is important (glomero-septo-alteromorphs), whereas the areas between the septa in
the alteromorphs after albite are practically
empty (true septo-alteromorphs).
Each gr<lln of feldsp,lr successively plays the S.HTlC
roles. In the incipient stage or weathering, when the
septomorphic texture is formed, the feldspar crystal
recei\'es alum.inum from the superjaeent grains or
\Yeathering feldspar. ThereJner, when tbe ~tage of formation of the glomeromorphic texturf' is reached, the
feldspar grain loses a part of its original aluminum,
which flromotes (a) the formatio!) of gibhsite in the
subjac,'nt grains of weathering feldspar, anJ (b) the formation of porous \'olullles in the grain being considered.
Similar processes probably are acb\'C' during the
ferrallitic weathering of fcrromai;Tflesian minerals to
septo-alterolTIorphs of goethik. The crystallization of
tJH~se distinct secondary minerals (gibbsite and
goethite) from neighhoring grains or feldspar 'lIld
pyroxene promote tJle transfer of ,1luminum and iron
only to the alteromorphs after feldspar and pyroXellE',
respectively. No aluminum is added to, and no gibbsite
is observed in, the septo-alteromorphs after pyroxene,
whereas no iron is added io, aTld no gOl'thite is
ohs('ncd in, the Jlteromorphs after Feldspar. Each
sel)to-alteromorph only contains the Jomina.nt insoluble element that is speciflc tu the primary minerJI from
which it de\cloped.
Nevertheless, once the altcromorphs after
feldspar, for example, arc completely developed, equilibrium bet'wcen their chemical balances can rca50nably be assumed by the bct that each altcwmorph has
gained, on average, earl~' in its de\'c!0plllcnt, an
amount of aluminum equal to that it ",iU lose during
the final step of its weathering. All feldspar crystals
ha\"(: reacted ill the same \\ay. In th.is case tl iso\'olumet.ric weathering, the mass of tJ)e gibbsitc crystals in
a given altcromorph probahly corresponds to aJt tJlC
aluminum origillally contained ill the parent fclJsp,lr
grain. In ohscnaLiolls of thin sections, it is notcwortJ1Y
that the weathering of the alkali fel(hpar of granitic
rocks produces very porous septo-.-dteromorphs,
whereas tJ1C L'alcium-rich fddspar of basic rocks gives

PART

3:

AlTEROMORPHS

rise to less porous alteromOl'phs. 111is conclusion C1I1

,dso be reached by simpl~' considering the chemical
formlllJ cl the original feldspars. Anorthitc contains
twice the amount of aluminum as does ,1Ibite. Ne\'erthekss, a comparisoll of the chemical reactions shows
\\'hy botJl lCldspars, altJlOllgh tlwy havc very djlfcrent
aluminum contents, exhibit similar septa, and why
the~' JilTcr only in the glomeromorph.ic part of their
alteromorphs.
The origin of tJ1e intlllings may also invoh'(' tTansfer o\'er much greater distances, The solutions may be
extracted from tJ1e upper parts 01' the prnflk, or fTom
parts nf the landscape further upstream. Crystallization occurs in the porolls aJreromorphs il' tJ1C'Y arc
10l'JteJ in sites or absolute accumulation. Under such
conditions, Ilot only the alteronlOrphs, hut also all
types of opell space (e.iJ., "ughs, open fractures, dissolution,inJuced \'oids) can be filled by allochthonous
trallsfer O\"l~r long distances, The similarit)' of thc products ofinlilling in both alterol1lorph..ic and extra-alt<:'romorphic host textures allo\\'s one easil)' to (listinguish
tJH' allochthollous part from thE' autochthonous pan of
the secondary products, where presellt together \vithin
l'umu 10,aJteJ'()mol'phs.
In trupical countries, alJochthonolls gihhsite and
iron oxvhydroxides are most commoll as inflllings of
porous altcromorphs. Under topographically. environmenta]])' or climatically specific- conditions, crystallizaLion of L'alcir(', guart:z, chalcedony or gypsum also can
develop. These deposits nCCllr as holocr)'stallinc microgeodes (ClyswJ1(Jria*) when:- they fill rhrec-dimensional
pores, or as crystalline handed sl'ruclurc;s (COOli1l8,1'*)
where th,'y till open linear features nr planar frilctllres_
The ill'cumulated minerals arc genetically independent or U1e secondary products tJlat constitute the
host structure, although under certain circumstances,
bl.lth materials may consist 01' the same mi.neral species.
For cxample, in septo-alreromol'phs of gibbsite after
feldspar, residual \'oids may later ht' filled hy a second
generation of gibbsite of allochthonous origi.n.
Authigenic anJ allogenic materials occurring in a
gi\'en cumulo-alt.crolllorph generally exhibit ratJ1er
different miCl'Ostruetlu'cS. Allogenic deposits of t)'aJlSported particle;; rorm complete or (.TcscC'nt,shaped
coatings, whose indi\'jduaJ unit.s arc parallel t.o the
walls of tJ1e former voids. Discordance in opti,'al lll-ientations results between authigcn.ic and allogeniC
materials. Allogeuic crystals formed From solution
grow outward perpendicular to the walls of the voids.
Concordance in optical orientatioll5 between the two
generatiuns of Cl'ysta!s is widely obsC'l"\'ed. In the latter

309

casl", where both generations of crystals consist of the

same mineral species, it may be diHkult to identify the
cumulol1lorphic character of the alteromorph.
More contrasted cumulo-alteromorphs are
observed. for example. where koilo-alteromorphs
after quartz are later filled by gibbsite in a bauxitic
horizon. where septO-alteromorphs of gibbsite
after feldspar are filled by clay coatings in a ferraJliuc soil. and where glomero-alteromorphs of
gibbsite after feldspar are filled by iron oxyhydroxides in a ferruginous duricrusL
Som~ alteromorphs also may have their mineralogical content modit1ed or replaced by transported
elements. The ionic constituents of the solution react
\I'ith the autochthonous minerals of the alteroplasma
and tra.llsJ'orm them into a second generation of secondary minerals. In this way. septo-altcromnrphs of
gibbsite after feldspJr may be transformed into septoaJterornorphs of bolinite by: vertical or lateraltTansfer
of silica. The neoformed kaolinitc progrt'ssively
replaces the gibbsite crystals, and an ephemeral transi
tory' composite alteromorph is dcvc.loped. The regular
shape of the original septa is distlli'bed or obscured,
their \'olumes decrease, and they arc fragmented as
minute remnants in tht' increasing volumes of kaolinite.
Ultimately. the kaolinite totall~ replaces the gibbsite; .1
new mew-sepro-alreromorph (from the Greek f.LE'TCi'.
after) is developed, in ",'hich traces of the first-Formed
septa are in some cases preserved as irregular lineaments or iron oxyhydroxides depOSited in the median
plane of U1e early-formed gibbsitc.bcaring septa.

The infillings can also be of detrital origilJ

(Fig. 4013) and correspond to deposits of particles
transported by circulating waters in the networks of
open fissures. These deposit~ occur as coOtiDgS*, and
they hav'c a varied mineralogical composition. The~' are
mainly clayey cQatings (argillans*) or coatings composed of a mixture of clays and iron oxyhydroxides
(j'erri.araillom*). Deposits of detrital crystals of gibbsite also occur. Microcrystals of detrital gibbsitc are
oriented "ith their Z axis pil.r.1lle1 to the walls of the
pore. whereas gibbsite microcrystals deposited Il'om
solution should be oriented perpendicular to these
walls. The argiJlaceolls deposits al-e commonly fint'ly
mkrostratificd or microlaminated, and consist of alternating deposits of matt'rial of distinct grain-size (clays
and silts) or of distinct mineralogical composition
(kaolinite and oxyh~,droxides of iron).
Cases of o'ansformation of kaoJinitic fcrriargilans
inlo gibbsite and Lrol1 oX~'hydroxide microcrystals can
be found in old lateritic bauxite and fen-uginous duricrust (BouJange er 01. 1975). The ferriargillans are first

310

deposited as allochthonous particles in the pores of the

host material. This material may consist either of' an
alte-rite r~sulting from relative accumulation, or of an
aluminous or fen-uginous duricrust. When the leaching
conditions become more exo'eme, the ferriargillans
are rendered unstable, and they b-ansform i.nto gtbbsite
and iron ox.ide by desilication. The kaolinite a.nd iron
oxyhydroxidcs that were intimately associated within
th~ previously formed coatings are now converted to
distinct microst.ralified cutans of gibhsite (gibbmns*)
and hematite (hemmallS*); several successive distinct
layers of banded textun::s can be formed in replacement of a Single cby cutan. These neoformed complex
cutans resulting from absolute accumulation are superimposed upon pre-existing volumes of gibbsite and
hematite resulting from relative accumulat.ion, developed "rom the weathering of primary minerals. The
secondary concentrations of allochthol1ous gibbsite
may in some instances represent an appreciable
anlOunl of the total aluminulll content of the bauxite
(Bocguier et of. 1983), Tbese secondary products of a
second generation, where developed within pre\iOllsly
formed porous alterornorphs. give rise to mew-cumulooheromorphs.
Koilo-, septo- and glomero-alteromorphs
(Fig. 40C) are the most suitable host structures, owing
tC) an important volume of residual voids (commonly
interconnected with the general pore-space of the
alterite), although botryo-, phyllo- and other porous
alteromorphs may also o(c<lsionall)' be filled. Ewn the
hoJo-alteromorphs, which exhibit a porosity too fine
to be easily observed by optical microscopy, can be the
sites for allogenic accwnu]ations by diffusion and precipitation or mobilized elements circulating in the adjacen t pores.
For example. holo-alteromorphs of
"iddingsite" afrer olivine can be partly darkened
by influx of manganese oxyhydroxides along
transmlneral fractures. and holo-alteromorphs of
a smectite after pyroxene can become irregularly
colored by addition of an iron pigment.
Polygenetic (alteration and weathering) processes
and polyphase (alteration or weathering) products can
give rise to "poro"-alteromorphs that are influenced by
later processes of accumulation. in this marUler, very
complex altcromorphs may develop under the combined effects of all these processes.
Certain kinds of "poro"-aIteromorphs are easil"
infllled by aJlochthonous material. These are the aIteromorphs whose open pores are directly cOTU1ected "ith
the intel'mineral or transmineral pores. Retiporo
alteromorphs (Fig. 41) provide a good example.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

1\ common example includes the weathering 01

nepheline to gibbsite after an intermediate stage or an
isotropic (amorphous) material that readily becomes
divided according to a hierarchical and reticulate n('twork of shrinkage-induced cracks. Nephcline is
observed mainly in relatively aluminum-rich alkaline
rocks. During weathering, large guantities 01' aluminum are mobilized in the ulJIJer saprolite, and can
ultimately cnstalLze as gibbsitc crystals, of allochthonous origin, in all the pore slJact' developed in weathered rocks lower in the profile, in partiClJal' within
rctil)()roalterornol"jJhs after nepheline. Once most of
the nepheline IT:'stal is replaced b)' a retiporo-alteromorph (Fig. 41 A) of isotl'Opic material, accumulations
of' gibbsite may occur within the reticulate network of
cracks (Fig. 4113) before the isotropic material has itselF
been replaced by autochthonous gibbsite (Fig. 41 C).

In these alkaline rocks, an early hydrothermal

process has commonly converted a portion or tbt'
ne-phelille crystals to an assemblage containing
mesocrystalline natrolite (Fig. 42.'\). II' relics or
nepbeline are- spared by this process, they will later be
weatJlcred successively to a retiporo-alteromorph or
isotropic material, wh.ich is subsequently converted to
gibbsitc. The natrolite part 01' the alteromorph is
directly weathered to compact: assemblages of' gibbsite
crystals without passing through the isotropic material.
Since the replacement of the natrolite generally starts
long before the r('placement or the isotropic materia I,
both secondary phases can coexist (gihhsite after natrolite and isotropic material after nepheline).

Lf an allochthonous accumulation or all1minum

occurs at tltis stage or evolution, the gibbsitc will crys-

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPHS

tallize within the reticulate network or open cracks of

the rctiporo-alteromorph without modifying the
isotropic material. Two difFerenr cases can arist' after
the appearance of this first complex alteromorph.
Firstly (Fig. 4-2B), the residual volumes of
isotTopic materi,11 are dissoh-ed WitJlOUt formation of
!'t1ltJll''/' secondary minerals. The compact gihbsite
formed at the expense or natrolite coexisb with tJle
gibbsite of ,l/lochthonou.s origin, whose crystals are
aligned in a retjeulate assemblage or septa. This last
assemblage reproduces, JJI a negative manner, the
reticulate network of cracks. Large polygonal pores are
observed in the part of tJlC alteromorph klrmed at tJle
e-xpensc of nepheuIll'::, ",:hereas no interstitial pores are
apparent in tJle part rormed at tbe expense of natrolite.
Secondly (Fig. 42C), the residual volumes of
isutropic material formed after nepheline are replaced,
e-ither by individual small ccntroporo-alteromorphs (in
thl? largest volumes), or by minute holo-alteromorphs
(in smaller volumes). In this last case, the (Lstinction
bet wcen the thn:e succes~i\'e generations or gibbsik is
not always obvious In thin se-ction. The complex altel'OmOI-IJh Formed after nepheline exhibits coml)act
assemblages or three successive generations of gibbsite.
Autochthonous gibbsite (G I), formed at the- expense
of nalrolitl', is associated with compact reticulate septa
of allochthonous gibbsite (G2), rormed at the expense
of tJle reticulate network that encloses compact or
esse-ntialIy nonporous assemblage., or autochtllOnous
gibbsite (G 3), formed at the expense of the isotTopie
mJterial developed from the residues of oriCTinal
ncphe-line.
"

]11

FIGURl 41.

A.

Normil) wealbering oCa mineraJ without absolule accumulation ofaUocbthonous material

D:

~uh~draJ

I:

incipient weJlhering '.If the crystal 11' isotropic OlatNial accmding to an irlTgular pellicular and speckJeJ pat1.crn;

2:

Lhe n<"phdin" Cl")'st:;.! is reJuc"J to an irrcgulaJ' cavernous cenu',,1 Cl)re $urrounded by the isorropic mal~rial;

C1'yst,1 or Ilephdinc';

3:

rhe f~\\ rcs'iJu~, or nq.1hclinc ar,~ cmh~cldcd in isotropic materiallllicrocli\'iJc:d as a resull of a shrinkage process;

4-:

a hit'ral'chizccl"l'twork of 01"'" fractures ,kwJoIJS in lk iSOlT<lpic Il!"tnial: REnpORO-ALTEROMORPH,

Note: Thi' <'''ample or W<""-lhering \\'ithout accumulation or allochLhl1nou~, maLeriJ! is provided to better visualiz~ what GIn happen if the
altcromorph e\'olves fUflher. Note Ihat the I,r" ,fornl(~J slr.,ight iI","'cs arc widened when further IIssures de\'dop; in this "ay, a
regularl,\' hierarchi;<~rI nelwork or open tl,.,"urcs pmgressi\'('\, de->'elops in Ih~ isotropic malerial.

B.

Absolute accumulation of gibbsitt' wil'hin a Jt'tiporo-<lltcromorph

0:

euhedraJ crystal of ncphdinc;

I:

nepheline cr~,t31 i' r~duccd to a C'd\lTnou-' ccntr,,1 core slllToundecl b)' slightly Ilssurecl isoU'llric mincru!;

1:

few rc'siJucs or t.be primary mine",1 remain in the isotropic' ITldteriaJ, "hmc retiClUatt' network or f1s.,ures develops progressiv~I)';

4:

later accumulation of gibbsite within the rcricularc network or fis,ures: CUlv\ULO-RETIPORO-ALTEROl\,\ORPH,

n~t.ipon'.alterornLHl-'hin which poJ)"hedral \'olum~, of i'otropil' material are i,olaled

by open hierarchical If""r,,s;

Nol<:: '111is s~conJ eXJ.mple norm,lll, repl,c"s Ihe IJre\'iuus un~ wh.;n the ruck undergoing \\'eath~ring is ]ocall'd in a Zl)n~ nrabsolur.e accumulation, eilber in t.bc proille or ill the l;,nd.sQpe, This ~"a.rnple shr,\\-s thal Lhe d"\'e1opmcllt of gibhsite in the network of Ilssures
can occur before Ihe isoo'op;, malnial has evolved to cr~'staJlir1l' 'ccondary products,

or gibbsitc within a more evolvcd

C.

Absolute accumulation

0:

euhcdral cn'slal of n~phdine;

retiporo-altcromorph

!:

rew re,iclll~s or nc'phcline "ithin an i500'opic materi,l, cro'<,'rI hv J retku.lale network of Ilssure,;

2:

rdiplJru,allc'romorph <Oll'isting of polyhedral v.... lumes of ison'opic material isolated Iw open hi"r;,rchic"J fisslIres;

3:

absoluk accullwJ.nlt))) of gibhsite in the nt:tw(,rk

4-:

isotropic materi"l r~pli1<:,'d by .\utochthonoL" gibbsite: CUMULO-RETI

or fis~ure.$,

when>:Js the isotropic loatcriai is not j'ctmocli(,ed;

+ ALVEOPORO,ALTEROMORPH,

;Jrl' not cilsil)! <!.islinguishcd if rh(- ~uc('essi\'e stagc~ or evolution

are nUL c0Ilc~ntric"II\' cli''P0.s~d, "jdl a celltral ran 01' r';liporous isotn.1pic m,Heri,,1 only, ,111 inle.nncdiale 'LOlle of absolut,> accumu,
l"Iiol1 or gihbsile around the i.;utropic dnmains. and an <:xtern,,1 part with c'lllnbilled ac<:umulation.,.

Note: differences hl'twec:n ah."i("l\ute and rel<l{j\,p ,)ccumulations of gihhsitl'

312

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

fIGURE

A.

41.

EVOl..lmo:,/

OF COMPLEX POI.YGE'IETIC .'NI) P()LYPH ..\~I ~IJMUI

0 -..\ LTmOMOK.l'HS.

Partial alLeration of nepheline in natrolite, and lat('r weathering to isou'opic material

0:

cullcdra1tT~'<LaI

I:

nephellne is pllTd\' alrered (flrsr stage) to nalTolitl." according

2:

residual nepheline b partly weathered (second stage) ro i~()tropic secondar) material showing incipi('ntIL~<uring;

3:

dewlopmenr of rhe ",rit-ulal'" texture in rhe secondary mat"'rial, whereas natrolite is nOI )"1 weathered;

+:

nJuolire is ,,",:athered to a compact assemblag.. .,f gibbsit'" ervstals: POLYPHASE - POlYGENETIC i\LTEKOMORPH.

of nephelin,':
[I)

disconrinul'us pdli<.:uhr and linear parterns;

Nore: The weathering of the nalroLite to gibbsit~ genc:rall\" 'tans, rk,clops, and is achi,"wl before the lal,'r evolution of 111<' isotropic mat';rial formed al the expens... of the oephcline residue.). Both .~ec ndar) pha" ,-.111 COf'xist for a long time if ahsolur~ aCL1Jmulation <)F
aluminum does nOl OCcur. The pol~gt~nelk aspect is due In th oe("urrc:nc:", of t:1m distinct <tag~'.

Inlilling of th(' reticulate pores by gibbsite, and dissolution

or th(' isotropic material

B.
0:

eulledral crystal of nephdine p.lrtly alcc:r"d to nalrolit,:;

I:

aJreraljon 01" thl' nepheline t(, isotropic mac.. rial. which leave, ,'oars.. residual cores of I1H~ primar~- mineral;

2:

we.athe.ring of natrolicc ro auto~hthonolls gibbsile, and of nepheline to reticulate isotropic marerial (rig. 42 1\4-);

3:

inftlling of the 0p"'J1 reticulate fissures by allochthonous gibbsite, wben'a~ isotropic material ,till persists;

4:

dissolution of the i."'!Topic material: the (OmpaC:l gibhsik afll'r natrolite co",xj,rs with th,' reticulac", gibhsile.

Note.: Both generations \)1' gibb'ice art' generallv dearly riisringuishcd ill lhin se<.:tion by the ,'N:mblagc' in Ih,' crysl.lllillc units: compaC1.
assemblage of gihbsite after Ilatmlile and reticulate porous 'lSs<.'mblage of gibb;ite after ncphe'line (POlYGENETIC ALTERO,
MORPH); this ca,e seems to he U,... most common in \\'\'ather"d alkaline rocks.
C,

[nfiUing of the reticulate pores and later evolution of the isotropic material to gibbsite

0:

eulledra} cr)stal of n,'phelinc partly altcred lO notrolilC;

I:

weathering of the ncpheline lO isotropic Illaterial, with large n'-<idual eon:.s of the primaf\' mineml:

2:

weaulcriog of nau-olice 10 pore-tree gibhsite, and of nepheline to the r",tkulat... isotropic malerial (f'ig. 42 A+);

3:

inftiliJlg of the reticuldte IIssure.s hl" allochthonou.s gjbbsit( before weathering of the isotropic nHl,-riaJ (Fig_ +2 133);

+:

gibbsile crystallizes al tl1e expense of the isotropic marerial: HOlO

+ CUMULO-RETI + }\LVEOI'ORO-.'\LTEROMORPH.

Note: Th~ three generations of gibbsit<: are not always ckarly distinguished in 111in section: th~ irn:gular mri rJ./lriornh' Jisnibuled pOrt'S,
appearing onl" in the porous (,I-eoporo,) pa.rt of rhe alt:cromorph .fter neph~line, dre ge.oerallv mu smaJlw he clearly distinguishL'd
Irom t1,e COmp,lCl (hulo-) p,lrt, arter natrulitc (POLYGF.:NETIC AlTEROMORPH).

PART ): ALTEROMORPHS

313

C H,~ P TE R I 1

"Poro"-alteromorphs and Further Evolution

i I

\'

'I

"I'. >I

'11 f" .1' 11"1. can (kvelop

by

late partial an. d irregular alteration or degradation of the unstable secondary products, which
were first developed in a nonporous or only
slightly porous alteromorph. They are not tTue al\'\,:oporo-alteromorphs (onho-aheoporo-alteromorphs) , but
rather polygenetic structures (para-alveoparo-alteromorphs) whose origin is in some cases recognized only
with difilcu It~,. Here, the accumulated material has an
autochthonous origin; it is genetically associuted with
the first-formed secondary product, and it consists of
elements sno\\lng relative accumulation with.in a preexisting alteromorph (Fig. 43).
For example, an orthopyroxene crystal can
be completely weathered, in the lower part of a
profile, to a compact holo.alteromorph of a
smectite-group mineral. During a further stage of
weathering. in the upper part of the profile, the
secondary smectite becomes unstable under the
new geochemical conditions. and is degraded in
irregular patches, which are efficiently replaced by
residual irregular alveolar pores. All these pores
are internally rimmed with iron oxyhydroxides.
which contrast. by their dark brown color. with
the paler yellow-green color of the surrounding
smeetite.The iron oxyhydroxides host the immobile elements of the previously formed smectite;
the deposit consists of autochthonous material of
relative accumulation.
In this case, a para-all'coporo-alrcromorph is devel,
oped. It must be emphasized thut the distinction
between ortho- and para-alveoporo-alteromnrphs is
not always as easy as in the above example. Tile late
weathering of the first-formed alteroplasma does not
necessariJy promote the development nf a different
sccnnd plasma. It can only promote the de"elopment,
b~' dissolution, of empty ah-eolar pores whose morphology may' be identical to the morphology of the
pores that form directly. at the expense of residues nf
the primary mineral, during the development of the
first-formed alteroplasma. DepOSits of iron oxyhydroxide not only appear as an internal rim around alveolar pores, but also as an Q\'eraIJ rim de,.-c)oped around
the alteromorph by peripheral degradation of its con-

tent of smectitc-group minerals . .'\ wide iron-rich rim

delineates a peripheral en\'(~lope, ,-vhich consequently
encloses several small rims randomly distributed
within the [Jilrtly degraded green-colored smectite.
)

It is obviolls that aU these subtle distinctions

among various ah'eoporo-alterolUorphs are useful onJy
where chronological e"olution of clle weathering prome and minerals is to be established. Otherwise, they
can be disregarded.

An ortho-alveoporo-alteromorph (from the Greek

op8o~

= straight. upright. direct) is a monogenetic

alteromorph whose alveolar pores develop at the

same time as the alteroplasma that contains them.
The proportion of alveolar pores is related to the
extent of leaching of the elements not incorporated in the alteroplasma.
A para-alveoporo--alteromorph (from the Greek
1TO:pO:

:=

near, beside) is a polygenetic altero-

morph whose alveolar

pores develop (or

increase) by irregular degradation of the alteroplasma itself and by the leaching of a part of its
constituents. A second generation of distinct
alteroplasma may well be genetically associated
with this newly formed pore-space.

The development of monogenetic but two-phase

ah-eoporo-alteromorpbs Illay occur in the case of uninterrupted but slow weathering of coarse-grained
weatherable primary m incrals. These crystals are panl y
weacllered in the 10w('I' parts of clle profile. HO\\'evcr,
because tlle" are coarse, cllcir weathering is not complete once they are brought into the upper parb of the
profile, by superficial erosion and relative subsidence
of the weathering front. There, they arc subjected to
conditions of more extreme weathering. The residues
of primal")' mineral are then weathered to a distinct
altcroplasma of different mineraJogic<l1 composition
and textural appearance. The alveoporo-alteromorph
that results after the complete disappearance of clle last
primary residues is vel")' similar to the alteromorph of

PRIMARY MINERAL

PARTLV VV;ATHERED

SMECTITE + PORES

SMECTITE ONLY

SMECTITE + GOETHITE

~
~I

PARTIAL
ALVEOPORO-ALTEROMORPH

1.-

PARTIAL
MONO-HOLO-ALTEROMORPH

COMPLETEL

v;

VVEATHERED

MONOPHASE HOLOALTEROMORPH

ORTHO-ALVEOPOROALTEROMORPH

PARTIAL
TWO-PHASE ALTEROMORPH

TWO-PHASE ORTHOALVEOPORO-ALTEOROMORPH

FURTHER EVOLUTION

PARA-ALVEOPORO-ALTEROMORPH
FIGUJU: 43,
llluslt'atiom 'JI' aIICrnml)rl,l" In ill",trate their fllrUh.:r 1.~Vollllion. Distinctit)1l bctv.'t:E'n an ortho.;:d\'coporo.
,1Itrl"-'111orph "",cl a par.,-"Inup'ort> ~1~ruJ11orph.

316

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION ANO WEATHERING

the pre\'iou~ example. Although hoth alteromorrhs arc

,;tructurall)' vcr) similar, their development i.s genetical" very different.
For example. a macrocryscal of pyroxene is
first partly weathered along its transmineral fractures to smectite-bearing banded alteroplasmas
that surround several residues of unweathered
material. This first stage of partial weathering
develops in the lower part of the profile; the normal evolution of such a partial alteromorph promotes, for example, the development of a purely
smectite-bearing holo-alteromorph if the weathering conditions are not modified. Later (higher in
the profile), when the conditions of weathering
are modified, the pyroxene residues are weathered directly to iron oxyhydroxides organized
around empty alveolar pores without passing
through the stage of smectite development. The
weathering process is more drastic, and the volume of exported elements is greatly incn~ased.AII
primary residues are replaced by irregular alveolar pores. which are all coated by a rim of iron
oxyhydroxides. This rim. along its external side, is
molded against the smectite-bearing alteroplasma
previously formed in the lower part of the profile.
and which is not affected because it is more stable than the pyroxene residues. The completely
developed alveoporo-alteromorph then consists
of a subcontinuous web of a smectite-group mineral that surrounds several alveolar pores. all
coated by an internal rim of iron hydroxide.
The detailed study 01' such polyphase a"'C0I)oroalteromoq)hs allows lht' iclentification 01' their complex history and their distinction from other
alveoporo-alteromorphs. Crystal lites of gocthite that
de\'cJoped directly at the expense of the pyroxenc
residue.> have parLly maintained the optical orientation
of the origin.:ll crystal of PFoxene. whereas erystallites

PART

3:

AlTIROMOR?HS

of goelhite I~Jrmcd at the expense of the slllcctite do

not exh.ibit such a specific orientation.
The presentation of Illorc detailed examplc:s or
complex weathering is not deemed necessary, but it is
olwious that many other spec.ific cases can !-le encountered in weathered prollles. No m.icromorphologist
C,lI1 claim to ]ld\'e obscrvecl, described and c-!a.ssiflcd all
the possihle complex pattern.s of alteration and \\'eatherin<T.
b
The classillcation of compuund altt:romorphs i.'
made .:\l'cording to the following genetic criteria, on
the basis or identification of the mineralogiL'al compositions and recognition of the textural patterns in
whkh tJ1CSC minerolls are associated.

A monogenetic polyphase alteromorph results from

the alteration or weathering. during only one
stage of hypogene or supergene origin, of a primary mineral to an association of two or more
distinct secondary minerals. One of these secondary minerals may be ephemeral and transitory
to the second one. or the relative abundance of
the two minerals may be dependent on the equilibrium conditions at the time of formation.

A polygene!;( polyphase aheromorph results from

the alteration, in two or more successive stages
(independent and well separated in time), of
hypogene or supergene origin (or both), of a
primary mineral to an association of two or more
distinct. generally stable secondary minerals.
successively formed under gradually modified
conditions.

317

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

405,406
HYPERSTHENE
GABBRO

Cataguases, MG. Brazil

Depth: 8 m
Sampled by L.M, Lopez
Cumulo-septoalteromorph
after orthopyroxene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

02

whose Z a..\(i~ lies in the plane of

the thin section, has been weathered
to a very porolL~ septo-alterol11orph
of oxyhydroxides of iron, The transverse fraCtllres that havc lucalized
the first stagc of weathel'ing are
clearlv v-isible across the alteramorph, The weathering front,
under conrutions of elflcient leaching, bas progre~siveJy encroached
upon the pyroxene cores by following the rcgulJr and very fine deal-ages of the primary mineral, which

318

results in the fonnation of very thin

and regularly parallel septa enclosing many elongate empty residual
pores. The first photomicrograph,
in PPL, sho\\'s the appearance of the
alteromorph after the final phase of
its deYclopment. During a later step
of absolute accumulation of aJuminum, the empt), pores were
infilled by secondary crystals 01'
gibbsite. \\-hich appear clearly only'
in the second photomicrograph,
taken in XPL. The late crystalliza.
tion of the gibbsite seems to have

0,0 mm

leFt lmdisturbed the thin and delicate texture of the previously

fOl-med septo-alteromorph. The
high aluminum content of tbe final
alteromorph can only be attributed
to an accumulation of allochthonous
origin, because
the original
orthopyroxcne contains practicall~'
no aluminum.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAl ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

407
DIABASE

Serra do CUbatao.
Curucutu, SP, Brazil
Sampled by M.C. Groke
Cumulo-septoalteromorph after a
ferromagnesian mineral
Objective: x 6.3
XPL

~
~

0.3
0,2

0,1

0,0 mm

I ,.
shows an
example of a cumulo-septoalteromorph, whose formation and
further development are rather similar to those in the two previous
i1lustrat.ions, The rock is completely
weathered, and no remnants of the
primary mineral are \isible in the
entire thin section. For this reason,
it is impossible to defIne tht' exact
origin of this alteromorph, which is
deflnitdyattributable to Lbe weathering of a ferromagnesian mineral,

PART

Ill

3;

A1.nROMOI\PHS

The section of t.he mineral is

wH::\'en; bOtll cleavages and irregular frachlres are responsible for the
irregularly crossing septa. No specific tex ture is \isiblc that can ~ro
vide further insight. The observed
alteromorph is JJl irregular (comple.:\() septo-alteromorph. During a
later step of absolute accumulat.ion,
crystallaria of gibbsite are formed in
each cell delimited by the septa.
This step results in the development
of a cumu!osepro-aJteromorph

whost' ma.in characteristics arc simto those of the previous photomicrographs. An illustntio!1 taken
in PPL does not accompany this
XPL photograph because it would
show only the network of dark
brown septa, without any further
information.
i
ar

]19

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

408,409
OUVINE-BEARING
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 7.2 m
Cumulo-para-alveoporo{two-phase)-alteromorph
after olivine + talc
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

has been
altered to a two-phase alteromorph consisting of ma!:,'llctite and
well-oriented talc. The rim of Sl'Conoary magnetite continuously surrounds the altl~romorl)h, as is
usually the case In such alteration,
whereas primary magnetitc is still
\isible along the tTaces of the original protoclastic fractures. Th!':' rock
IS
extensively weathered: the
c1inopyroxene crystals, which surround the talc alteromorph after
olidnc, arc strongly weathered to a

320

yellowish saponitic secondary product, which encloses many small

denticu late remnants of primary
pyroxene (0-[1, E2, E3). The
proximity of' an important nehvork
of t1ssures of supergene origin has
promoted the partial alveolization
of the talc area. The large pore was
not generated during the alteration
of' the olivine into talc, which led to
the formation uf' a 11010-alteromorph, but much later, under the
influence of a pcdogelll"tic process.
The al\Tolized original holo-altero-

0.3
0,2

0.1
0,0 mm

morph has become a I)a..ra-alveoporo-alteromorph. The central

pore, connected with the general
pore-space of the weathered rock,
ha~ been largely infillcd by deposits
of reddish brown clayey coatings_
This absolute accumuJation of particulate material within the alteromorph results in the formation of a
cu m u 10- pa ra- a I vc opa ro- a 1te romorph. Note that the sheets of talc
have acquired a yello\\ coloration
owing to centripetal transfer oC an
oxide of iron.

ATLAS OF MIC~OMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

410
BIOTITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.8 m
Absolute accumulation
within fractured
prismatic crystals
of c1inopyroxene
Objective: x 6.3

PPL
0.3
-

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I
\I
of gTJins of the
micaceous mineral, locally
abundant, into large meso-alteromorphs of vcrmiculitc has produced
an important increase in the original \'o]ume of the rock. This
increase is expressed by the extensive Fracturing of the grain,~
included in the micaceous minera],
ma.inly Ulose minerals that exhibit
an elongate habit, Ii.ke the prisms of
clinopyroxene, and those that
exhibit a perpendicular orientation,
or ncarJ-v so, relative to the cleavage
of the enclosing micaceous mineral.
Fractures are perpendicular, or
nearly so, to the long axis of the
pyroxene prisms and parallel to the
layers of the sWToUIlding \'ermi
culite. These large inter- or
intramineral
\'oids,
dcYeloped
either between the E'xtremities of
the prisms and the sunounding
mineral, or within the included

PART

3:

ALTEJlOMORPHS

mineral, remain empty as long as

these voids, in the lower levels of
the profile, remain she!t(:Ted From
any inlllling of allochthonous material. But in the case illuso'ated here.
that of a fractured rock sampled in
the upper part of the prolllc, the
illuviation process enhances the
capacity of even the smaJJest ossure
to sen'e as a conduit, allowing the
empty voids opened in the lower
horiLons to be Illled. The photograph shows thin coatings 01- dark
reddish brown material (B J, C4),
\"hose complex composition, determined by X-,ay diffraction or by
other physical ilnd chemical methods, shows an irregular association
of a smectite with iron-oxidestained kaolinite. These open cracks
are easy pathways not only for the
illmiated materials, but also for
water that will I)!'omote the weathering of the fractured miner.lls.

Each fragmcllt of dinopyroxene

exhibits, in the areas around the
open fractures, an incipient weathering to yellowish smectitc and a
delicate dcntinalation of its extremities (AI, D3). In areas that are subjecr to ea.';y circuJation of water and
to cumulative processes. the
autochthonous srnectitc formed at
the expense of pyroxene is partially
degraded or invadcd by iron-rich
solutions, which transform th.:: initial yellow-colored smectite to a
more reddish brown product. This
photomicrograph should be compared with illustrations 061, 062
amf 143. J 4-4 .

321

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

411,411
PHLOGOPITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I m
Cumulo-phylloporoalteromorph
after phlogopite
Objective: x 6,3
PPL and XPL

f"

0.0 mm

in the rock ha~

bccn replaced b)' mesu-altcromorphs or \'ermiculite during J flrst
step of' hydrothermal alteration in
the contact aureole associated with
the emplacement or a surrounJing
younger granite. The development
or the~e meso-altuomorphs, \\ith a
large increase in \-olume, hJ.':' promoted the formation of nJan\' transmin('ral ancl intcrmillcral fractllrcs
\\jthin or between the neighhoring
grains of pyroxcne, ami the opening
or many intcrlayer porc< in the \'er-

322

m iClIl ite -dol11 i nJnt a1 tcrol1lorphs,

which arc as a result turned into
phylloporo-alteromorphs. In the
upper pan of the landscape, weathering causes a d.issollltion of inlportJnt quantities of silica, not
lll'rcssarih' recombined to form
secondary silicate minerals. Most of
the silica released from thick fcn'aiutic proJlk, is transferred imo the
lower parts or the landse-ape, whe.re
it can be Ihed as inmling material
within the early-formed open
pores. These photographs show

intcrlaycr infilJings of secondary

quartz in a phylloporo-alteromorph
of \'t:rmiculite. The quartz cT~'stals
ha\'c a tendency to crystallize pcrpend.icuJar to tJ)e walls of the pores,
as can be obsened iD the lower photograph, taken in XPL. Some phyllopores aTe not infl!lcd, possibly
because they were not yet open at
the> time of the infilling, 01' because
they were not connected with the
large pores along which the transfer
of silica occmred.

ATlAS Of MICJ\OMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAl. AlTERATION AND WEATHERING

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

413,414
PHLOGOPITE-RICH
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 2 m
Cumulo-phylloporoalteromor'ph
after phlogopite
Objec[ive: x 6.]
PPL and XPL

r::

tL

01
0.0 mm

T '

e"ents in
the histor)' of this ph:lIoporoalteromurph resemble thost' in the
case of the previous alteromurph.
The difference lies in the fact that
this thin section is ClIt almost parallel to the (luartz deposit, and not
perpendicular to it as in the former
example. Such a fortuitous orientation allows the internal texture of
the deposit to be better ohser ved.

PART 3: ALTF.~OMO~PHS

Most quartt. intercalations arc circular or elliptical, and tJ1ey exhibit a

concentric distribution uf domain
size and a r.lt.lial orientation nf their
component crystals. Some large
unori<;:nted cryst.lls of indetermj,
nate origin also arc found. Thetlakes of mica that surround the
quartz intercalations are rarely rut
parallel to their layer stTlIcturc
because, along the contact "\'ith the

quartz infillings, they are generally

obl iqucly oriented or even completely distorted. These circular
intercalations of quartz. where
obsenee! perpcndicular to the layers of the host mica, exJ,jbit a thin
lenticular shape.

323

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

Cl

415
WEATHERED GRANITE

Mogi das Cruzes.

SP. Brazil
Sampled by M,C. Groke
Depth: 3,6 m
Absolute accumulation

of kaolinite in biotite
Objective: x 16
XLP

l"
-

\\"eathercd rock is a
biotitc-bearing granite in \\'hich
most of hiotite L1;'sta Is are replaced
b;' a meso-alteromorph of kaolinitc,
This replacement is accompanied by
a substantial increase in volume.
This volume increase of onc compo!le!lt of the priman' rock i. responsible I'or the opening of maDY traDSand intermineral fractures, This network of fractures provides the pathway for the absolute accumulation
of material deriv\~c1 ['rom the upper
soil and \\'eathered horizons, either
as deposits of detritalminer:1ls or as

324

crystallaria of miuerals formed

directly from percolating solutions.
This photomicrograph iUustrates
t.he G1Se of an unweathered but
exJoliaterl grain of biotitc whose
opened lenticular phvlloporcs are
inlllled bv. neoformed kaolinite,
Where th<:" kaolinite is importd as
detrital particles, it usually forms
true coatings in which particles are
oriented par<lllel to the walls of the
p()rl~, In the case shown here, the
kaolinite particles are all oriented
I)erpendicul<lr to the biotite layers
against \-vhich they have crystallized,

0.0 mm

This general rule or the perpendicularit;, of the minerals formed by

crystaJJjzation from a percol<lting
solution is "alid not only for kaolinite, but also For many secondary
minerals, such a.'i sheet silicates,
gibbsite, goethite, quartz (411,
4-12), or even secondary apati te (see
424,425),

ATLAS OF MICROMOR.PHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

416,417

ALUMINUM-RICH
IRON DURICRUST
DEVELOPED
ON CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d')voire

Sampled at soil surface
Cumulo-(koilo)alteromorph after mica

Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

, 1
I I
of a micaceous minel'a], probably phlogopitc. has been completely
dissolved, IJerhal)S after its n::vJacement by an ephemeral intermediale
secondary m.ineral. This dissolution
without an\" residual material has
l)roll1oted the formation of a koilo-

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPH5

alterofllorph (koilo- pseudofllorph),

whose externaJ boundaries contra.st
strongly with the iron-rich malTix
in \yh.ich it is embedded. The koilocUterofllorph has been later inJlrled,
as the interstitial empty pores of the
duricrust. by crystal.s of gibbsite
whose large size contrasts strongly

with the size of the commonl"

observed crystals of gibbsitc. Note
the cuhedral shape of tbe gibbsite
crystals and their twinned domains.

325

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

418,419
BAUXITIC PROFILE
DEVELOPED ON
GRANITE

Siagozohoin, Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.4 m
Sampled by B. Boulange
Cumulo-septo-alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

-- 0.2

'- 0.1

:.. 0.0 mm

is completely weathered to a sq)toalteromorph of gibhsitc; tll(, septa

arc regularly oriented para.lkl to the
cka"age of the OI-iginal grain, and
some noss irn:gularly the par'11lcl
s('pta along nearly perpendicular
tr;)nsl))jnera-I fractures. Most s('pta
exhibit;) median plane emphasizecl
hI' deposits of oxyhydroxides of
iron. which a.re related to the pattern of the first-opened frJctl.ucs
ilnd L'ka,'age planes. During the
later ('volution of the- scplnaltero-

326

morph. in the upper p<lrt of the

isalterite, the serJta have been partiallv dcstToyed, to givc large "ughs
interconnected with smaller intersepta voids. The large pore and most
of the srnalJer ones have later heen
inllllcd bv allochthonous deposits of
amorphous AI-Si products associated with appreciable but variable
quantities of hydrated oxides of
iron. Most deposits are mjcrolaminated o,ving to the variable content
of the ferruginous compounds. The
largest-sized \''Ugh~ are not com-

pldel) inlllled, and residual empty

pores are maintained whose smoot.h
margins are coated with <I last thin
layer of microcrystalline gibbsite,
"Ol-ll1ed hy In situ crystallizati\J1l in
the most strongly ir-on-depleted
parts of the' deposits. Gradually, as
the iron content of tht' deposit is
removed by dissolution, micTocrystalJi1le gibbsite can develop. The
rcsult'ing alteromorph is a typical
cumulo-sl?pto-alteromorl)h.

Arw Of MICROl10RPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CUMULQ-ALTEROMORPHS

420,421
GRANITIC ROCK

BR 158. Brazil
Sampled by F. Soubies
Depth: 1 In
Cumulo
glomero-septoalteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL
-

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

T'

"

and
next two show the rarely
obsen'c.d case of the late ITIJlacemen{ of gibbsite crystals of a gJomero-septo-alteromorph
after
plagioclase by ncwl~ lTystallizl'd
kaolinite, owing to the ahsolute
accumulation of silica transferred in
solution from the upper horizons.
in PPL, thl' kaolinite nE'oformalions
appear as yellowish material
because of concom.it,mt in11ux of all
iron-bearing solution, where.'!s the
gibbsite substrate remains colorless.
I

th~

PART 3: ALTEllOMORPHS

Some vughs of the first-formed

alteromorph are <;till closed, poorl~'
accessible to solutions, and not
coated by the newly formed kaolinite. whereas other \'ughs, probahl~'
connected with the general porespace 01" the \\"Cathcn~d ro,:k, are
coated by kaolinitc in layers of variahle thickness. Note that the \'ughs,
whose usual shape is angular in a
gibbsite alterol11orph after plagioelase, now has a smooth and curvilinear
shape.
In
XPL,
the
crystaJlinity of the gibbsitic lTMterial

is clearl.' observ'ed, whereas the

coatings of the much !css hi.refringent kaolinite are not clearly distinguished from Ule empt~' parts of the
alteromorph. A detailed study of the
kaolinit.e cO;Jtings shows that the
p,1rticles are oriented perpendicular
tu thl' gibbsite cr)'stab on which
they arc flxcd,
that the ineglllarit) of the slIbstrate promotes the
sinuous and convex (mamiJlated*)
habit of tbe deposits of neoformed
kaolinitc.

ann

327

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

422,423
GRANITIC ROCK

BR 158, Brazil
Sampled by F. Soubies
Depth: 2 m
Cumulo-meta-alveoporoglomero-septo-alteromorph
after plagioclase
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

- 0.2

-- 0.0 mm

T, U1C

'I

'I

,hO\v'

spectacular cas(" 01' a glamero-septo-alteromorph after plagioda.~e, in which most Dj' the gibbsitc
has been dissolved, giving rise to
many large interconnected vughs
(meta -a Iveo poro- g Iom era-se ptoaltcromorph). The relics of th.:
septa and of agglon'1eratcd volumes
have been coated by kaolinite,
which crystallized in siw (cwnuJom eta -a IVTOp oro- g Iomcro- septoalteromorph), The ferruginous
coating along the IIssures that con-

]28

stitut.: the median plane of U1C septa

is still perfectly distinguishable
(C-03), e\'Cn if the gibbsite content
01' the septum has nearly (lisappeared. The kaolinitc is slightly colored in the shades or pale yellow
owing to a slight permeation of an
jmn-bcaring solution. The kaolinite
does not correspond to a tTUC coating of detrital material depOSited on
the skeletal septa, but rather to a
neoformation of secondary kaolinite derivTd rrom the later siJiciflcation of the gibbsite. The convex

shape or the kaolinizcd yolumes

doe'S not corresponrl geon1ctricaJ ly
to that of a detrital deposit, but to in
siru crvstallizaUon or materiaL
vVherc the re.>idual pores are more
open. the overgrowth of kaolini re is
thicker. As the yolume of gibbsite
progressively (Jjminisbes, the inJlerited iron content or the alteromorph. which was prev'iously
disseminated among the gibbsite
crystab, is now concentrated into
darker irregular patches.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERAnON AND WEATHERING

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

424,425
APATITE-RICH
CARBONATITE

Juquia, SP. Brazil

Sampled in a quarry
by R. Flicoteaux
Cumulo-koiloalteromorph
after caJdte
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

~ ::

t
~

0.1
0.0 mm

I I
\ I
,Ill
dissolution 01"
ferrom calcite of the primary
rock has given rise to many contiguous koilo-alteromorphs. Their volume and shape are maintained more
or less undisturbed, owing first! y to
the formation of residual iron- and
manganese-rich deposits in the rim
of each a1teromorph (see photographs 126, 127 and 285, 286,
\\hieh are taken from the same profile, and which illustrate the first
and the last steps of weathering of
the primary mineral). Secondly,

PART 3: ALTEROMOiU>HS

ur

important in situ crystaUization

secondary apatite has strengthened
the Fragi le koi lo-al teromnrphs.
These sccondary crystals of apatite
arc need le-shaped, and gro\\- as
radiating bundles on the substrate
offered by the iron-rich rims. The
high content of secondary apatite in
all these cumulo-alteromorphs is
due to the high content 01" primary
apatite in the unweathered rock.
The primary apatite is progl-essivel)
dissolved in the upper horizons, the
phosphate-rich solutions pt'rcolatc

through the profile and, when they

reach the level of absolute aCcumulation, these solutions give rise to
crystallization of secondary apatite.
The
phosphate
accumu lation
reaches such an extent that these
levels of absolute accumulation are
actively sought in min.ing operation~.

329

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

416,427
AMPHIBOllTE

Southwestern
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2.7 m
Cumulo-retiporoalteromorph
after feldspar
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

f
~

0.3

::- 0.2

:-- 0.1

I or I"cldspar, presumahly
plagioclase, has been completely weathered to colorles, and
homogeneous isotropic material.
\\lith aging, this materi'll has
become mierodivided bv a network
or open fissun~s, forming a typical
retiporo-aJteromorph. The associated amphibole and magnetite
undergo weathering later. in the
upper horiwns. Sampled Ileal' the
weathering front, the Feldspargroup minerals are the first ones to
be weathered, and Uleir altero-

330

morphs may be subjected to all

kinds of illuviations of material
coming from the upper levels. The
photomicrographs sbow the inlilling
of some retipores and or some of
tlleir branchings by introduced yellowish smectitic material del-ivcd
from the- upper parts of the profile,
mainl~ from the alteromorphs after
hornblende. I-Iornhlende is the only
pl'imary mineral to r('l('as(' solutions
whose composition is comlJatible
vvith the formation of a smecritic
secondary clay. Note that the

0.0 mm

isotropic material after feklspar has

not yet undergone Fwther evolution
to c':'stalUne secondary producL~.
Obsen-alions made of thin sections
from weathered rocks sampled
higher in the pmllle indicate that
retiporo-alteromorph
of
this
isotTopic material will be progressively replaced by irregular meta
al\'eoporo-(retiporo) -.11 teromorph.s
of gibGsite.

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHffiJNG

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

428,429
NEPHELlNE SYENITE
(LUJAVRITE)

Poc;os de Caldas.
MG. Brazil
Depth: 1.2 m
Incipient evolution of a
retiporo-aJteromorph
after nepheline
Objective:x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

"
I'. of nephellne is
partly weathered to a colorless
isotropic material whose internal
reticulation is marC' and more
densely deycloped as areas more
and more distant tram the core arc
considered. The weatbering J(,\'C'l
aped according to a classical peripheral and centripet.1J pattern. The
residual ('ore, clearly ,-isible in XPL,
is lnknscly fissured. Minute crystals

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPHS

of pale brown rinkite (mllsandrite;)

amJ of pale green acgirinc, a sodic
pyrnxene, arc randomly distributed
in both nepbelil1c con~ and secomlarv material. These inclusions
.11'1:: less weatberahle tbim is the
nephclinc, and they will be weathered onl." much later, Incipient
inlll!ings of alJochthonous gihbsitC'
arc ohservcn in the marginal rctl
pores of the secondary product and
)

in the interstitial areas between the

neighburing grains of aegirine (AS).
These photographs illustrate the
~ad)' ewlution of the i,otropic
material; they can be compared
with the next phutogr'lph" representing a. rnor~ ad'-ancen stage of
weatherinu.
~

331

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

430
NEPHELlNE SYENITE
(LUJAVRITE)
Po~os de CaJdas,
MG, Brazil
Depth: 0.8 m

Retiporo-alteromorph
after nepheline
Incipient cumulative
process
Objective: x 6.]
XPL

0.3

l
0-

0.2

=-

0.1

0.0 m

431
NEPHELlNE SYENITE
(LUJAVRITE)

Poc;:os de Caldas.
MG. Brazil
Depth: 0.6 m
Detailed view
of gibbsite infillings
Objective:
XPL

>~

10

0,2

0.1

sho\\s a
mon; adyanced stage of the
inllJling oC the retipores ,mJ of the
rt:placeme.nt of the isotropic mater
ial after ncphclinc by crystals of
gibbsite, whereas a largc' residual
core of primary nepheJine is still
maintained in the centrill part of the
rctiporo-alteromorph. The reticular
texture of the depusits of allochthonous gihbsite is not cd-sily distinguished from the smaller crystals of
gibbsite of autochthonous origin,

332

de\t:loped from the isotropic material itself. The- inclusions of rinkite

(mosanclrite?) are not weatJlered.
The lower I)hotograph gives a
detailed view of a part (lf the retiporoaltcromorph in which the retiof
,
!Jorcs are i.nfilleJ bv, crvstals
allochthonous gibbsitc, whereas the
internal polyhedral volumes of
isotr0r>k matcTial are not yet cUsturbed (or less so) by their own evolution to autochthonous gibbsitc.
The reticular texture of the gibbsitc

0.0 mm

depOSits is strongly related to the

open IIssures of theretiporo-alteromorph, Note that some inclusions
of prismatic acgirine (E 3, E5) are
partly weathered to iron-rich secondary products.

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AtT~RATION AND WEATHERING

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

432,433
NEPHELlNE 5YENITE
(LUJAVRITE)

Poc;os de Caldas.
MG. Brazil
Depth: 0.6 m
Cumuhrretiporoalteromorph
after nepheline

Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

0.2

0.1

-- 0.0 mm

I
I I'
"'\
illustrate a
complex case In which the
residual corl" of nepheline (A I, B2)
has heen directly weathered to rinegrained gibbsite; during .In early
~tage of weathering (comparablt' to
that in the pre\'ious cases), the
peripheral pal-t of the primary nuncral hao been weathered into a reriporo.aJteromorph ul' isotropic
materiaJ. The retipores of the marginal part of the alteromorph are
in.lll\ed by coarse crystals of gibbs-

PART

3:

ALTIRoMORPHS

ire, whereas the rClipores of its

inner part arc inlllled by finegrained crystaJs of gibbsite whose
textural pattern is strongly rc:lated
to the reticular network of open fissures. The fact that a nephcline crystal may be weathered either to
isotropic material or directly to
gibbsite makes the resulting alteromorph a polyphase a1teromorph;
the pulyphase character is also
enhanced by the fact that th-:
isotropic materi,11 itself will later be

replaced by autochthonous gibbsitt'.

Note. that in this mOlT advanced
stage: of weathering, the inclusions
uf rinkite (mosandrite?) are slightly
weath,:red, and surroundco by a
thin pellicular rim of iron oxyhydroxirlc.

333

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

434,435
NEPHELlNE SYENITE
(LUJAVRITE)

Poc;os de Caldas. MG. Brazil

Depth: 0.6 m
Very complex
cumulo-retiporopolygenetic-polyphase
aJteromorph
after nepheline
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL
-

1.0

0.0 mm

or J

we.ath-

ered cr:y~tal of ncphl'hn(' allow

all its conscclIti"e mineralogical
transfurmations tu be ~c1early" distinguished.
Firstly. during a
hydrothermal phase. part 01' the
ncphclinc nystal was replaced by
narl'olite (as Gin be ubsened in thin
sections of neighboring sa.mples; see
086, 087). Irregular patchl'~ of the
first-fonnl'd l1atrolite \\-ere later
weathered to relativelv coarse
gibbsitc (i\ I, A 2), \vhcreas the
nepheline residues were wcatJlered

334

to a retiporo-alterolllo1"[)h of
isotropic material. The later steps in
the isotropic matethe evolution
rial arc: (I) opening of a network or
retipures, (2) inlilling of the retipores by allochthonous gibbsite,
who~(' I'etindar textural pattern is
dearly di~tinguished. (3) replacement of the iwtTopic Illaterial by
crystals or autochthonous gibbsite,
\\hose- \'cry I1n(' grain-size contrasts
sha.rply with that of dlC n:tieular
glbbsite. Three baenerations of baihhs......
ite are thus associared bu t c1earl)'

or

distinguished in this alteromo'-ph:

autochthonous, relatively coal-se
gibh_~ite <lfter natTolite, allochthonOlls medium-grained gibbsitc
infilling
the
retipores,
aud
autochthonous
microcrystalline
gibhsite derived from the evolution
of' the isotropic material. Small
inclusions of rinkite (mosandrite?)
are completely \veathered to residual empty pores thinly rimmed by
brownish secondary products.

Afu\S OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTEAATION AND WEATKEIUNG

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

436
NEPHELlNE SYENITE
(LUJAVRITE)
Po~os de Caldas.
Minas Gerais. Brazil
Depth: 1.4 m

Absolute accumulations
of gibbsite in fractured
primary minerals
Objective: x 4
XPL
-

0.6

OA

0.0 mm

,11 I
was collected in the
contact area with the unweathcred rock, containing as main rockforming
minerals
orthoclase,
nephelllle and aegirine, with subSidiary eudiaJytc and arfvedsonite.
The photomicrograph shows an area
rich i.n ul1l'l'eathered but fractured
onhoclase, with most grains intentionally placed at extinction in XPL
I"or better contrast \\' ith allochthonous accumulations of gibbsitE'
(CS). The orthoclase is partially surrounded by nephelim> gr.JiIlS, whose
complete weathering has developed
t~'pical
glomero-septo-alteromorphs (AS). Careful examination

PART

3:

ALTEROMORPHS

of the orthoclase crystals shows that

the feldsf)ar is not weathered. and
that all the observed alignments of
gibbsite are deposits that inflll previously formed open transmineral
fractwes. Some rectilinear fractures
(A3-C5) an: obviously oriented
along opened cleavages of the host
grJ.in of feldspar. The origin of the
gibbsite is to be found in the large
amowlt of aluminum leached From
the completely weathered uPIJcr
le"cb or this ncpheline syenite, an
especiall~' aluminum-rich rock, The
downward migl'ation or aluminumbearing solutions is natUl-ally
stopped, and an alurninum-rich

phase is deposited and accuDlu.lated

against the unfractured and nonporous un weathered rock. According to the isovolume concept, this
cortex
partially weathered rock
shows an appreciable increase of
aluminum compared with the quantitv 01" aluminum that this rock
should have conta.i.ned under cunditions of better drainage. This photograph should he compared with
047.

or

335

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

437
OUVINE-8EARING
ClINOPYROXENITE

Koua Boeea. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 7.2 m
Meca-para-alveoporoalteromorph
after olivine
Objective: x 10
PPL

0.0 mm

process has
replaced a crystal of olivine
three secwith an association
ondary lJ1iJlerals: talc, tremolitc and
magnetite. Tbe photoruicrograph in
PPL shows that the talc, the pale
bcigc-colored material (C-D2), is
the main product, \vhereas lremolite, appearing a.s colorlcss needlesha[led crystals (82, Cl), IS
resDictcd to the marginal part of
the alteromorph, which is in contact with cl inopyroxene crystals.
The magnetite grains ;)re mainJ)'
distributed ill the peripheral part of
the alteromorph. The)' accommodate the iron content. of the original
olivine, which does not enter the
structure of talc nor that of trerno-

or

336

lite to a significant extent. This

complex transformation results in a
typical polyphase alteromorph.
Normally, the talc is homogeneously distributed within the
alteromorph, ",-ithout formation of
alveolar pores. The alteromorph is a
holo-a\teromorph, as can be seen by
obsening the entire thin section.
During a later step 01" supergene
weathering, part of the talc was
weathered, with the formation of a
large irregular pore now surrounded by a thin rim of oxyhydroxides of iron, which makc~ the
horder of the pore brown-colored;
this coJorcd rim strongl), contnsts
with the unwc-ath<.'recl talc. The
holo-alteromorph \Vas thus con-

verted to an alveoporo-alteromOJ-ph. Since this pore was not

formed by the alteration of the
olivine crystal, but rather by the
weathering of the taJc, the .lltero
morph ha.~ become a para-ah-eoporo-alteromorph. The introduction of allochthonous il'on-bearing
compounds via the supergene system of fissures colors the margins of
the talc (and also of saponitc after
clinopyroxenc grains, A 1-2), and
leaus to the formation of a meta
para-alveoporo.alteromorph.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEI\AL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

438,439
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 14.2 m
Meta-alveoporoalteromorph
after c1inopyroxene
Objective: x I 0

PPL and XPL

0.2

::... 0.1

0.0 mm

I I of dinopyroxene
has been panly weathered. The
phylloporo-altcromorph is composed of ...vell-oriented Hakes of
saponite, and sC\'eral remnants of
the primary mineral persist. The
regular orientation of the secondary
product is clearly seen in x.PL. This
firSt step of \veathering, under conditions of restricted leaching, began
by the fOl'mation of a Hnt banded
texture along several intramineral
fractures, whose traces arc still recweathognizable. In a later stage

or

PART): ALTEROMOIl.PHS

ering, under conditions of iJKTCased

leaching, the residual cores of
pyroxene were- directly and completely weathered to oxyhydroxides
of iron surrounding irregular residual pores. Tbe secondary iron compounds do not form individual
crystals around the residual alveolar
pores, but rather they seem to have
permeated into the previously
formed clay minerals, forming
hypocoatings that take on an
unusual deep brown color all
amund the residual pores. The

resulting alteromorph is a metaalwoporo-aheromorph. Note that

the flakes of saponite are only
stained by these oxyhyJroxid<,:s of
iron; they are not deeply weathered, as is mad c cl ca r hy the fact
that they maintain their uniform
orientation and extinction angle in
continuity with the unstained parts
of the alteromorph.

337

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

440,44.
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 3.8 m
Meta-alveoporoalteromorph
after c1inopyroxene

Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

",

sho\\- a rather similar example

of a polygenetic alteromorph after
clinopyroxene. This example correspomls to a basal section of the primary mineral, as can be deduced
from the internal microtexture of
the domains of secondary pmduc.ts.
These domains show the typical
douhle oril"ntation according to the
orthogonal cleavages of the primary

338

mineral (C3). With conditions of

increasing leaching, part: of the secondary product has been stained by
oxyhydroxides of iron which, on
ODC hand, possibly originate from
the late \-\'cathcring of remnants of
pyroxenc. On the other hand, they
may have been b-ansported Fia the
interconnected network of intermineral pores, the proportion of
which strongly increased during the

last step of weathering. As iD the

former photographs, the two-step
weathering of this clioopyroxene
results in the formation of a metaal \'Coporo-altemmorph
which,
from a genetic point of view, can
also be considered as a polygenetic
alteromorph.

ATlAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERJNG

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

442,443
OLlVINE-BEARING
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depd1: 2.8 m
Meta-alveoporoalteromorph
after olivine
ObjeCtive: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

0.3

~ 0.2

~ 0.1

0.0 mm

I !,
of hypogene alteration, an olivine
crystal has been completely
replaced by a holo-alteromorph of
talc. -n1e talc particles are microcrystalline and randomly oriented,
whereas the traces of the original
protocIastic fractures, coated by
particles of magnetite, are well preserved. When subjected to late
processes of weathering, in the
upper levels of the alterite, the talc
component of the alterornorph is
partially degraded and dissolved,

PART 3: ALTEOMORPHS

\-"hieh leaves irregular residual

pores variably coated by iron-rich
secondary products. The shape and
the distribution of the residual
pores obviously do not correspond
to the shape and distribution of
ortho-aheoJar pores that could have
formed by late dissolution of the
residues of primary oli\lne. The
slow degradation of the alteromorph, its gradual replacement by
secondary residual pores, and the
irregularly distributed inRllings of
allochthonous oxyhyJroxirles of

iron make this aJteromorph a typical

para-alveoporo-alteromorph. By
definition, its pores are derived
from the later degradation of the
secondary products, and not from
the primary mineral itself. To better
visualize the rnol-pllOlogical differences between the two types of
alteromorph, the two nO."1 photographs iJlustrate the case of a typical ortho-alveoporo-alterornorph
after orthopyroxene.

339

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

444,445
ORTHOPYROXENEBEA.RING
CLINOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.4 m
Ortho-alveoporoalteromorph
after orthopyroxene
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0,2

of orthopy/- roxene has first heen p<lrtially

weathered to a yellowish srnectitic
secondary product, whose Jistribution is related to the occurrence of
several transmineral rractun:" and
whose optical orientation is related
to the Z axis of the primary mineral.
Gradually, as the intensity of \caching and the conditions of weatherbecame
modilJed.
the
ing
Jcnticulate residual cures are no
longer weathered to a ~mectite, but
directly to oxyhydroxides of iron,

340

which results in the de\-c!opmcnt of

many residual pores regularly
rimmed by thin brownish deposits.
The iron-poor composition of the
ortbopyroxene is responsible for
this high mlume of pores compared
to the lawn yolunw of oxyhydroxides of iron. Both mineral phases,
the smectite-group mineral and the
irun-rich secondary products,
together with the residual empty
pores, arc directly derived from the
weatherillg of' the primary mineral;
the altr:romorl)h is an ortho-alveo-

=-

0.1

=-

O.Omm

poro-altcromurph. Since two different mineraJ phases are successively formed from the same
primary mineral, the alteromorph is
a two-phase alteromorph. Note thatthe' characteristic dcnticulation of
the p)TOXene residucs was cle.arly
maintained Juring the second step
of vveathC'I'ina.
Several tr,lnsminc-raI
b
fractures ha\'e been more recently
widened, and coat<:d with depOSits
of [eTTuginolls clays of allochthonons origin.

AnAl OF MICROt10RPHOlOGY OF MINEllAl AlTH\ATlON AND WEATHERING

CUMULO-ALTEROMORPHS

446
GRANlnC ROCK

Siagozohoin, Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 2.4 m
Meta-alteromorph
after biotite - kaolinite
Objective: x 16
XPL

r'
-

0.0

447
GRANITIC ROCK

Cataguases, MG, Brazil

Sampled by L.M. Lopez
Depth: 5 m
Meta-alteromorph
after biotite - l<aolinite
Objective: x 16
XPL

T'

" ,

illustrate a relatively common

case of meta-alterol11orphs: a primary mineral is completely weathercd to a first secondary product,
wruch is later replaced by J. second
onc, tJle slIccessi'"e minerah
exruhiting a progressively simpler
chemical composition by progressive loss 01" meir less soluble constituents. in both cases, a crystal of
biotit'" W.:IS first weathered to
kaolinite, \\'ith complete leaching of
the very mobile potassium. The

PART): ALTffiOMORPHS

replacement results in an important

increase in "olume in ,1 direction
perpendicular to the LW(TS of the
primary mineral; a meso-alteromorph results. L.ater, in the upper
horizons of the bauxitic profile, in
which the alteromorphs are subjected to conditions of efficient
leaching,
tlw
kaolinite
itself
becomes unstable, loses its siJ ica,
and is converted to gibbsite. In both
photographs, taken in XPL, the
kaolirute-rich parts of the alteramorphs exhibit thei r first-order

grey interference-colors, where.:ls

the lenticular domains of gibbsite
arc First-order white. 111(' irregular
dark patches U1at appear in tJ1e
upper photograph ;11'<" residue~ of
the conductive coating of carbon
deposited on the ulin section in
preparation for electron-microprobe anaJyses.

341

Cf-{;I P TE R 1 2

Discussion

'11'
I
I
11
11 processes or
supergene weathering have produced
variably shaped and textured alteromorphs from practically all weathtTable minerals present in the parent rock. I.n many
L<lSeS, the resulting altcromorphs maintain some characteristic features of the prima,y minerals From which
they have developed. This finding allows the identification of their origin, especially if thin sections of' less
weathered rocks also arc available. Some o[ these characteristics are microtextural, others arc geochemical
or mineralogical, and yet others are linked to the relative ~patiaJ distribution of the minerals or to specific
associations of minerals. On a larger scale of observation, most of the alterites have inherited the
macrostructural and macrotextmal features of the parent rock, such as speCific stTatigraphic, petrograph.ic or
tectom,: features.

Among the features that arc directly inherited

fl'Om the primary mineral are the shape of crystals
(automorphic or xenomorphic habit), ule geometrical
shalJC of their outlines (c.g., linear, curved, denticulate,
irregular), the size and distribution of grains (e.g.,
phenocryst, porphJToblast, mclusion), the traces of
cleavage and of intTamineral fractures, in some cases
enhanced by deposits of mjneral particles, the optical
orientation of the secondary product cont1'01Ied b)'
that of the IJrimary mineral, and the occurrence of
inclusions (c.g., u1eir nature, distribution, and weatherability) .
The distribution and spatial relationship of the
lIlinel-als as they existed in u1e parent rock are also preserved within the alterite: major or accessory, isolated
or agglomerated minerals, patterns 0[' polymineraljc
associations, di.stinctive associations (s)'rnplectitic textures, myrJllekite, coronas), casual but characteristic
associations (spine! + magnetite, epidote + hornblende, chlorite + titanite), included minerals (zoisite
within plagioclase, hornblende \ovithin PFoxene) or
minerals in interstitial positions (serpentine between
oli\'inl" crysta.ls, talc between nrU1npyrOXene arain.s).
All u1ese -features are clearly recog~able :; completely weau1ered rocks.

At a higher level, the characteristic features of the

parent rock, such as its texture (e.g., porphyritic, granolJlastic, ophitic, poikiloblastic, lepidoblastiC) and its
grai.n size typically also arc preserved. However, the
origi.nal grain-size Call1iot be clearly identified where
the parent rock was very fIne-grained, where the
alte.romorphs are IJolymineralic, or where the rock
gives rise to man.y areas of crypto-alteromoll)hs. It
must be kept in mind that the grai.n size of the parent
rock, and e\'en its mineralogical composition, may have
been irregular, and may ha\'e exhibited important variations over the thickness of a weathered profile.
The chemical and mineralogical compositions of
the altel'omorphs, at least in the ('ase of isalterites, are
largely dependent on ule composition or the primal)'
minerals [rom wbich they devdop. The autochthonous
secondary minerals that form in an environment of relative accumulation inherit part of the chemical composition of the parent minerals according to
phYSicochemical conditions prevailing in U1<: lower part
of the proAIe. The geochemical aHinjty between primary and secondary minerals necessarily defines
potentially significant incompatibiJities: an olivine
crystal, which does not conta.in aluminum, is never
weathered to gibhsite, and a nepheline crystal, which
normaUy does not contain iron, is ne\'cr weathered to
goethite. U' sucb incompatiblities are nevertheless
encountered, a case of absolute accumulaLion of
allochthonous material must bt~ suspected.
The original structures inherited from the primary minerals arc generally well preserved in alteromorphs of Ule first generation. The later degradation of
the secondary minerals aod uleir replacement by secondary rninerah of a second generation tend. in cootrast, to completely destroy these i.nherited structures
in U1e mudified al teromof[)hs. Where the proc<:sses of
degradation and replacement have destroyed the
large$t part of UH" original altcl'Omorphs in a given
le\'e1 or a profile, the isalterite is converted to an alloterite.
Logical infere.nces based on likely and unlikely
gcochemical arfinities, the tracing of particular characteristics, and of persistent signatures wiulin the altera-

Illorphs, ,md repeated comparison with the reFerence

matelia! (the parent rock) aO lead to, in most cases, the
identillcation
Ule origin of the altl-romorphs, the
study of their development in lime and space, and even
a prediction of Ule pattern of' their Further alteration.

or

Th,' classification of alterom()rplt~, such as it ha~

been described above, has been established with the
aim of Simplifying the descriptive work of the
observer. Some new lerms coined from Greek and
Latin roots commonlv used in Earth Sciences have
been Prol)oscd. The use of this new tuminology does
not introduce unexpected difFi,ulty, because the new
terms art' simple ancl generally sclf-explanatory. The
clas.sification is not exhaustive; more kinds of specific
a.lteromorphs will be discovered in the Future, and new
term, will lw required to describe them.
Depending upon the aim of the observer, and the
need for condensed descriptions, in order to avoid
repeliti\"(~, long descriptions, completely developed
alteJ-omorl)hs can be classiFied and succinctly described
by using the following different criter-ia.

Geometrical criteria are purely descriptive, and

based on the extent of conservation of the
shapes and volumes of the primary minerals being
replaced. These criteria give rise to a Simple classification into iso-, meso- and kata-alteromorphs.
to

which can be added some specific cases, such

as pseudomorphs. echino-. phanto- and cryptoalteromorphs.

Microtextural criteria, which concern the internal

distribution of the secondary products within the
alteromorphs, are based on the lack of residual

characteristically textured. Complex poro-alteromorphs can be described by the combination of

two or more prefixes or by the introduction of
new additional roots, as in the case of acanthosepto-alteromorphs.
Genetic criteria, which concern the internal distribution of distiner secondary minerals and the
history of their development before. during and
after the formation of alteromorphs. are mainly
used to describe and classify composite a1teromorphs. These are polygenetic and polyphase
alteromorphs. Most common alteromorphs are
monophase and monogenetic. Alteromorphs
whose pore volumes are modified, after their
development, by invading allogenic materials are
cumulo-alteromorphs, whereas alteromorphs
whose unstable alteroplasmas are modified by later
degradation or weathering are meta-alteromorphs.

[n tJw isalteritic part of the profile, all weatherable

primary minerals have been replaced by complete
alteromorpm whose inrernal textw-aJ pattents and
mineralogic<ll compositiom are commonly characteristic and closely related to the composition and texture
of tJ1e parent rock and to the geochemicaJ conditions
w1der which these minerals have been weathered. [n
U1e alloteritic part of the profile, these alteromorphs
may become transformed or replaced by other aIteramorphs (or other textural entities) whose size, sbape,
internal texture and mim~ral contents are progressively
destroyed as the physical and geochemical conditions
become modified. Contrasted cases of modified altero
morphs are observed, particularly within the levels in
which processes of accumulation prevaLI.

pores or of the secondary solid phase. The "end

members" are holo- and koilo-alteromorphs,
respeerively. Between these two extreme cases is
the very widespread and diversified group of the
"poro"-alteromorphs. The complementary distribution of the solid and porous residual volumes is
used as the basis for a more accurate classification. On the one hand, alveoporo-, centroporo-,
phylloporo- and retiporo-aJteromorphs result
where the pore volume is characteristically distributed and completely embedded within the
solid phase. On the other hand. botryo-, glomeroand septo-alteromorphs result where the pore
volume is important, and where the solid phase is

344

Fragments of the original rock, primal')' minerals

and alteromorphs in soils, colluviums, duricrusts and
other nea,-surfacc horizons may reach such upper le'el5 as unclisturbcd tmir.s. Their fate ,,ill depend on their
weatherabili t)' and on the physical (erosion, transport,
sedimentation) and geochemica! (dissolution, replacement, cortifkation, induration) conditions to which
theBe litho- 0]" altera-relics are subjected. These nearsurface processes generally cUffer strongly from the
rroccs,ses prevaHing during U1e earLer hi,tOl} of <llteration and weathering of the materia], at lower lel'els in
the pnJI'ile. These superlml)osed modifications and
transformations vvill be described and illustrated in the
nex t part of this book.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

'

11 J

n,-

'1\llll

after cUnopyroxenite, who~e main con-

. tituents are cJinopyfOxene and magnetite, has been

progressively replaced by ycllowish goethite (\\'ith sc\'cral

small patches of hematite), The neoformed minerals havl'
almost completely obliterated the alteromorphic textw-es of
the weathered grains of cllnopyroxene. The porous alteromorph5 have been rt,:placed by a compact and uniform
matrix of goethite containing only minor pore-space. In contrast., the grains

or

magnetite Jre maintained within the

alterorelic. Their dislribution corresponds to the original

mstribution in tbe parent rock.

nIl'

replaced alteroreIic

has been later transported and incorporated into a red soil

S-man'ix*. An empty circum-nodular pore completely

Sill-

rounds the aJrerorelic. For additional explanation, see photomicrograph 491.

CHAPTER

13

Definitions

lITHOREUC

LirhoreliCs are residual fragments of unweathered rock, a few millimeters to a few centimeters

The "ery weathcrable heavy minerals are rarely

observed in superficial loose materials. However.
where tbe)' are observed, they are parlieul;!rl)' valuahle
for the identificJ.tion of the parent rock. In contrast,
the ubiquitous minerals, commonly very resistant to
weathering, generally are less useful.

across. identifiable petrographically by their mineralogical

composition

and

their

texture.

Lithorelics are embedded in a more evolved

ground mass, which can be an alterite, a soil, a colluvial or alluvial deposit. a ferruginous crust. ere.
Lithorelics are. by definition, composed of several
mineral grains, of identical or distinct species.
Most lithorelics have been displaced. and thus do
not occur in their original environment.

A'terore/;CS are residual fragments of weathered

rocks. or relict assemblages of weathered minerals. isolated in a more evolved matrix. They are
recogniUlble by their original petrographiC textures and by the compOSition of their alteromorphs. These can. in many cases. be associated

Where the mineral grains are isolated in the

ground mass, separated frum t'hcir original enl'ironment, the~! arc no longer considered as lithorelics, but
rather as skeleton units: they are "\'esidual minerals" or
"skeletun grains". If they have a density greater than
2,89 g/on 3 (density of hea"~' liquids, bromoform or
tctrabromn-ethane. used for their separation), they arc
also c'llled "heav), minerals" (pyroxenc-, amphibolc-,
olivine-group minerals and man." other generally darkcolored minerals); otherwise, the)' are considered
"light minerals" (mainl)' cob'less minerals, such as
quartz and the feldspars).
The associations of residual heavy minerals
obscf\'ed i.n alterites and soils, may, as with the
Jithorelies. be diagnostic of the original rock-t;rpe; the
identification of their paragencsis may be useful in mineral prospection and in cartography. They are also useful in determining the degree of autuchthonous or
allochthonous character of a weathering profile for
pedological purposes, and in estimating the content of
mineral nutrients in near--sw'face horizons for agricul,
tunl pUl'poses_

with less weatherable primary minerals. The

alterorelics correspond either

to

previously

formed lithorelics whose content, and eventually

texture, have been modified by weathering
processes, or to relics of alterites (or of alteroplasmas) now isolated within a matrix that results
from the progressive replacement of the alterite
by a newly formed plasma of pedological origin
(pedoplasma). Note that grains of weathered minerals, now isolated within a more recently developed matrix. must be considered as relict
alteromorphs and not as alterorelics.

In the first category, two main types of alterorelics

must he cJjstinguished: thuse that have been weathered
before their cJjsplacernellt, rleposition and incorporation, and t.hose that have heen displaced as lithorelies
and weathered ,ife-er t.heir deposition. If unweatherable,
or not yet weathereel, the remnants of primary minerals are disregarded; u1e alterorelies arc composed of
variollsly textured alteromorphs as they were defined
and described in the previous chapters.

PEUOR1UC

PedoreliCS are. according to the definition in the

glossary, "either features formed by erosion,
transport and deposition of nodules of an older
soil material, or pedological features from it. or by
preservation of some part of a previously existing
soli horizon within a newly formed horizon"
(Brewer 1976). Especially if they have been transported, these pedorelics commonly consist of
more-or-Iess indurated solid material, such as
papules*, concretions or fragments of crust.

In the termjnolog)' use.cl in surficial geology and

geomorphology, all these relics are vcr)' commonly
c1as~lIed as "gravels", owing to their gnin size, their
hardncss and their obyiom transport and deposition.
Thcse gra\'eb are generally hard and resistant, multimillimetric residual features that have been displaced
and redepositcd within a horizon that is not their original environment. Their mineralogical nature can var),;
thc)" include litho-, altero- and pedorelics, large-size
(]uartz grains, miscell.meous concretions, fragments of
bauxite and iron-nust, charcoal residues, eec. The concept of tlleir ilisp!acement and deposition is implicitly
included iu the definition of gravels; they are detrital
materials. In many lateritk near-surrace mantles, all
these deo'ital units can later be surrounded by regular
curtices (see below), which give them a more rOWlded
and smooth shape,

The mineralogic-al compositIOn and the internal

textures of these concretions ~-ary according to the
geochemical properties of the hOl-izon in wruch they
formed, or of the horizon in which they \vere
depOSited after their displacement. They can be erysti~llillc or o'yptocrystalline features. They can he homogeneous features from the stimdpoint of both their
internal texture and composition. They may be composed of an assemblage of newly formed particles of
plasma that cement the pre-existing skeleton elements.
They may show a central part (nucleus) devoid
any
tl:xtUH: or cor tifl cation , surrounded by a banded, or
mio-olaminated, continuous and concentric texture
(correx) ,

or

Dnhic and anonhic concretions are usually distinguished. In the former, the base material of t.he concretion is identical to that of the surrounding man-ix in
wwch they are embedded. In the case of anorthic concretions, the base material of the concretion and that of
the matrix differ, The frequency of occurrence of anorthic concretions is generally much higher t1l<Ul would
normally be expected. Indeed, the concn:tion-formjng
process exh.ibits a I'ea] tendcnc): to operate in areas or
matrix that ha\'e a different composition, or v.ithin or
around allochthonous featurc~ that have been introduced within this matrix (lithorelics and alterorelics,
for example).

he term pisolith (from the Latin pisum = pea

and from che Greek

I\d30~

= stone)

designates a

concentrically textured, generally spherically

shaped nodule, some millimeters in diameter,

edologists generally use the term concretion co

describe the volumes formed by local concentrations of compounds that cement the pre-existing

composed of an untexrured nucleus surrounded

by a microlaminated cortex, Both nucleus and
cortex commonly are indurated or. at least, are
rather harder than the surrounding matrix in
which they are embedded,

mineral grains. Most cementing materials have an

iron-rich composition, but manganiferous, calcareous, siliceous and. less commonly, gibbsite-rich
concretions also occur, They commonly are
rounded, mammillate, palmate or botryoidal, with

This term will be used to designate the spherical

nodules that characterize a particular facies of hauxite,
caUed pisolitic bauxite,

a sharp boundary and properties that contrast

with their matrix.

348

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CHAPTER

14

Composition, Origin and Morphology

LITHOR'1.

C mpn, ition
Litlwrelics are, hy definjtion. undisnlrbed assemblage" of wlaItercd primary minerals. Nevertheless, for
pedologicaJ purposes, this definition must be extended
to include the fragment.s of relict rock whose mineral
constituents have heen, at least part.ially, replaceJ by
secondary minerals as a result of h)vogene alteration.
They arc, for examples. relics composed of tremolitt:.
actinolite, cpidote, serpentine. chlorite and other nunerals of hydrothermal or metamorphic origin. These
minerals are much more resistant. to processes of
supergene weathering t.han the primary minerals. As a
result, they typically persist for a long time in the
weathered or soil horizons. These relic's must. be considereJ, From a pedogenetic standpoint, as Iithorelics
and not as alterorclics.

Point ifori17in
Lithorelic' can be formed at different levels of the
profile. At outcrop level, they can I'orm directly by
removal of rock Fragments from outcmps exposed at
the soil surlace. In this case, the lithorelics commonly
do not ex.hibit traces of weathering. In n-opical regions,
ho"vever, the lithorelics of malic or ultramallc origin
generally ex.hibit e\idence of near-surface ferruginous
weathering, or irnpregnatiuns that would not occur if
they had a different point of origin, within tl1E' lower
parL<; of the profile, for example. Where isolated from
tile outcrop. the lithorelics arc scattered down dl\:'
slopes and arc progressively incorporated into tIle
near-surface ho,-izon of soil, in which they Illa) represent a Sih'llificant ri'action of the coarse skeleton grain~.
This first kind of Lithorclics commonly exJlibits an
irregular and angular outline.
At the wCQlherin8Ironc, Iithorelics also can form by
the fragmentation and removal of unweat.hered or
irregularly weathered rock. This occurs at the base of
shallow profiles, in which the soil horizons are sub-

jected to sluw creep c1o""n the slopes under the inlluence of the gra\Cir:'. The rock fragments that are i.sobted
at thjs level are preferential I~' concentrateJ at the base
of tJle pedological hOI-izons. in which they can form a
coarse-grained deposit very similar to a stone l:i.ne*.
The lithorl'lics are commonly associated with coarse
fragments of quartz rele.lsed by tJle dismantling of
quartz veins that run across the parent rock.
A Iterorelics may be associated with IithoreJics of sirnilar origin. but they are soon Jc,tro)'ed by creep-related
movement, and their mineral content is incorporated
into the $Oil material; their identification then is nu
longer possible. Such Iithorclics commonl), ex.hibit a
more rounded shape than tile Iithorelics of the first category.
Lithorclic.' can still be formed within the alterires
themsel\'es, mainly where the parent rock is heterogeneous. The most weatherable part of the rock forms
alt.erites ancl soil materiab, whereas its most resistant
parts (e'9" veins, metamorphosed layers) remain
ullweathered aml suspended within the alterites or
even within the soil horizons. There, the} arc progressively reduced to small fragments, ancl quickJy incorporated ill the groundrnass of the alloterites and soil,.
In this case, thE" mineralogical composition and t.he textures of the lithorelics differ from those of the main
rock from which tllC' isalterites ancl soils were developed.
Rock fragments that are. temporarily maintained
within isalteritic horizons of identical origin cannot be
consided as true lithorelics because they wjJl "soon" be
weathered, in a normal manner, and rendered unrecognizable as separate entities once integrated into their
surrowHliTlg isalteromorphic matrix. In contrast,
where the weathered layen are perturbed a.nd transfonnC'd intu alluteritic horizons, the unweathercd
relics can be considered as true lithorelics, since they
are now observed within a modi tied matrix that is not
their O\o\1l original matrix. Tlus third kind of alterordic
exhibits ill some cases a katamorphous texture, \~ith
cracks, irregular outlines, protruding parts <\Ild embaymenh.

III u r r iw JOil}
The boundaries of the Uthorelics generaUy follow
inter mineral contact planes and transmineral Hssures
and cracks. Th.is explains their sinuous and angular
habit. which can persist as long as these relics have not
suffered appreciable displacemcnt or weathering. The
Iithorelics, where they occur in a near-surface horizon
with whic'h they have not necessarily a direct affinity,
are generally of' allochthonous origin. Their outlines
arc then more or less abrupt or rounded, according to
the processes of transport (colluvial or alluvial) to
which the lithorelics wert' subjected, and according to
the extent of their displacement.
The sharpness of their outlines depends also Oil
the gr,lin size of th(' original rock, on the hardness of
iLs mineral constituents, and on their physicaJ properties. Fine-grained rocks usually give, at a macroscale,
more rounded liulordics hav'ing a smoother outline
than the coarse-grained ones. The general shJpe of the
lithorelic also depends on the texture of the rock and
on the orient.ation of its mineral grJin~. Uthorelics
from mica schists and gneisscs tend to be elJipticoll,
whereas basalt.>, granites and oUier lUloriented igneous
rocks give uneven lithorelics, without any particular
shapes. The smoothness of u]eir outline depends on the
size of the mineral grains in the parent rock,
Among the most common rocks, basic and ultrabasic rocks, owing to their intermediate grain-size and
to their equant textw-e, and gncisses and amp!liboJites,
owing to their layered and oriented textures, arc the
rocks that most easily gi,'e rise to lithorelics. GrJnites,
in contrast, do not easily give rise to Jithorelics for
tllree main reasons: (i) the relatively coarse grain-size
of most granites does not allow smaU polymineralic
relics to be formed (boulders and pebbles an" more
usually eneow1tered), (ij) the slow and progressi"e
weathering of the feldspar-group minerals does not
allow the formation of a sharp \oveathering fronl and of
polymineralic relics with sharp margins, and (iii) ule
mineralogical composition of products of their w\"athering does not allow the eve.ntuaJly formed alterorelics
to be maintained for a long time as distinct and identifiable uniL~.
ALTEROREUCS AFTER GRANITIC ROCKS

The identification in thin section of

alterorelics after granitic rocks is not always easy
because they are essentially composed of quara
grains cemented by loose and poorly resistant
argilliplasmas (alteroplasmas), whose composition
and textures may be confused with the composition and textures of the sUITounding pedoplas-

350

mas. Moreover, these brittle or unstable argilllplasmas promote the rapid disaggregation of the
granitic relic. The alteroplasmas are easily integrated with, or confused with, the surrounding
pedoplasma.s; the residual quartz grains, commonly isolated in the original granitic rock.. are
then considered as skeleton grains and not as
fragments of alterorelics.
Gneisses, with their wcll-imbricated and linked
quartz grains, readjly give lithorelics whose elliptical
shape is promoted by the oriented texture of the original rock. Schists and other fine-grained rocks, such as
volcanic tuffs derived from a volcano-sedimentJl\'
basement, arc easily impregnated and induratcd by
iron oxyhydroxides derived from the weathering of the
sWTounding rocks; the)' commonJy givc sufflcientl),
resistant lithordics, or even alterorelics, to be maUltained w;thin the near-surface horizons.
According to the horizon in wbich they Jre uriginally embedded (autochthonous relics) or in which
they were depOSited (aUochthonous relics), the
lithorelics (which, by definition, are lU1weathered fragments of rock) may undergo rather different evolu
tionary sequences.
Where the lithorelic~ are observed rI"irhin PQIl~f

Jel'e.!oped isalrerir,es, the normal evolution of the necessarily autochtllOnous lithorelics leads to their complete
weathering aocl to their textural integration in the
alterite, In tllis way, if the prevailing conditions of
weathering are not modified, uley will no longer be
distinguishable from the ptedously formed surrounding alteromorphs.
These hthorelics, which merely represent a locaUy
delayed stage of weJthering owing to a slightly different mineralogical composition or to Jvoidance by the
weathering front, generally do not exhibit a sharp and
distinct margin, because the grains located at their
periphery have undergone incipient weathering.
Observed at tht' level of the isalterite, these ephemeral
lithorelic.s have evidently not been displaced, and they
are embedded in their original matrix.
Where tllC' lithorelics an:~. obser vcd al the level cif
allol-erires, the)' are only temporarily "avoided" units
that llave been slightly displaced by gravity or by colluviation along the slopes. They undergo the same fate as
the relics that were maintained in the lower isalteritic
leveJ on the short term, but witll some delay.
Subjected in Uie upper levels to weathering
processes different From those prevailing in the lower
levels, these relics react differentially, in such a way
that different secondary minerals may appear as <l

ATlAS Of MICRor10RPHoLOGl OF MINEf\Al ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

result of weathering of tbe primary residues they contain. Tbe primary minerals of such alterorelics can in
this way produce two or more seconcLal-y minerals, and
they give rise to polyphase alteromorphs.
Whatever the isalteritic or alloteritic level in
which they are encountered, these particular types of
lithorelics will not be considered further in the
remainder of this chapter.
Vlhere soiJs and weathered hOl-izons are locally
cleared away by erosion, outcrops of unweathered rock
Illay become exposed at the surface. Under these ne\v
conditions, nwnerous lithoTelics are released (ram the
rocks by physical disaggregation, and are mixed
together, vvithin the upper-slope colluvium or within
the lower-slope alluvium, witb gravels, sands, alteroplasmas and pedoplasmas. New pedogenetic processes
operate, and produce. new soil horizons in the upper
part of these colluvial or allm-ial materials.
This process of lithorelic formation is certainly the
most emcient and the most vvidespread. All lithorelics
have been displaced, and the distinctness of their
shapes largely depends on the distances travelled from
their Sl.>urce to the final site of deposition. The
recorded variations in the petrographic nature of the
Iithorelics are rather representatiyc of the petrographic
diversity in the watershed, but the)' do not corTespond
necessarily to the rock type obseryed at tbe base of theproflle studied_
In petrographically heterogeneous protlles, the
lowering of the weathering front can also avoid, well
above the weathering front and up to the pedological
horizons, at least on the short tenn, rock fragments or
rock layers that are mor(' resistant to the weathering
processes. These are generally rocks of ditJercnt mineralogical composition or of dJllcrent grain-size, such
as, for example, mineral veins, metamorphosed wallrocks, and microgranular beds. These more resistant
rocks, if tbey survive to become incorporated into the
near-surface horizons, are subjected to processes of
physical disaggregation. Small volumes of rocks are
progressively isolated from therr mab'ix by the devel-

PART

4:

LITl-lORELlCS.ALTEROREUcs. NODULES AND PISOLITHS

opment of an irregular but interconnected network of

tlssw-es, often coated by illuviatJon clItans, which
finally completely surround them.
Under the influence of (i) surficial movements
along the slopes, (ii) biological processes (roots, soil
rnacro- and microfauna), and (iii) processes of erosion,
these fragments are released from their original matrLx
and are mixed ,vith the sandy or clayey matrices of the
upper hod-lOns, from which they differ in their texture
and in their mineralogical composition.
Lithorelic$ are common not onlv in thick latcritic
co\'ers developed under humid conditions, but also in
regions characterized by a rehltively dry climate. in
which alterites and soils are rather thin, and where
olltcrops of unwcathered rock are common.
Where they occur near the surface, Iithordics
yery commonly give c\cidence or either a lateral or H'rtic.al transport, because their mtnel-alogical composition may be distillct from that of the ~urrounding
matlix. Also, there may be important variations in
dIeir original mineralogical composition.
Lateral transport is the result of a mechanical
process under whose influence lithoreLics of miscellaneous origins arc laterally transported, mt:xed
together, and deposited in the lower le\'c!s of the Landscape. Such lithorelics gCllcraUy exhibit rounded
shapes and a smooth outline.
Vertical transport results from differential erosion, which concentrates the lithorelics. in relative
terms, in some levcls of the profile, by selective
removal of the small particles from the alteroplasma.~
or pedopla.~mas that were cementing them. In this last
case, the mineralogical composition of the lithorelics is
commonly much more homogeneous, and the variations recorded are strictly local, within the thickness of
the profile, in tbe parent rocks and the mineral veins
that cut them. The lithorelics generally correspond to a
less weatherable petrogr'lph.ic facies that is, to some
ex"tent, different from the overall petrographiC lacies of
the enclosing rock. Their shapes are uneven, with a.n
ilTegular and angular outline.

351

liTHORELICS

448,449
llTHOREL/C
FORMATION
ON ULTRABASIC ROCK

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Deprh: 2.8 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

illustrate' the formation 01 several

lithorelics at the expense 01' a highly
resistant rock. The original rock,
composed or c1inup)'l"oxene grains,
is now com'erted to a \-ery compacr
assemblage of tremnlitc and actinolire under th" influence 01'
Iwdrothc:rmal alteration. The chemically resistant rock can be presen-ed until it reaches the shallow
len,ls of the alterite, where it is subjected to fracruring. An irreguJar
network of curved a.nd intercon-

352

nected Fractures dhides tJ1e rock

into irregular but undisturbed fragments. Most Fractures are open and
coated 1)\ thin deposits of clay minerals, deeply colored by oxyhydroxides of iron. Thin ilJtramineral
nacb, which also are colored by
compounds of iron, cross all fragments of rock; they promote fw'ther di\lsions of tJ1e lithorelic.
vVben subjected to erosional or to
colluvial processes, these rock fragments become "eparated From each
other and, mixed within tbe pedo-

logical S-m~ltrix, they form isolated

lithorelics, which lose their original
orientation. They are then subjected
to t.he weathering processes pn~\a.il
ing within the upper horizons. In
most cases, these are very ditTcrcnr
from the conditions of weathering
within the lower horizons. Fractures and cracks do not necessadJy
rollow the intcrmineraJ boundaries:
mineral grains may he cut in two or
more parts (B4), when~as groups of
grains may be maintained together
without cracks (D4).

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

LITHORELlCS

450
lITHORELlC
FORMATION ON
ULTRABAS1C ROCK

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1,0

0.0 mm

451
lITHORELlC
FORMATION ON
ULTRABASIC ROCK

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: x 2,5

PPL

'I
I 1
taken
from the same upper level of t.he
profile, show tvvo steps of formation
of isolated altero-lithoreJic~ formed
from an ultrabasic rock, mainly
composed of clinopyroxene, magnetite and mjJl0r amowHs of hornblende and mica. Most p)TOXene
grains are partly weathered to a
smecritic clay mineral. The rock is
li'actun~d by many cW'ved and anastomosing cracks, which mainly 1'01-

low the contact between grains. The

first photograph shows a slightly
disturbed rock whose cracks are
mostly coated by dark red clayey
deposits. The second one shows mat
the separated altero-lithorelics
begin to move differentially relative
to one another and to be mixed
with the pcdological S-matrix of the
upper horizons. Biotite-vcrmiculite
crystals are visible in both illustrations <It Cl. The relative propor-

PART 4: Lrn-lORalcs.ALTERORfUCS. NODULES AND PISOUTHS

tions of the rem.nant~ of primary

mineral and of me secondary minerals within the rock fragments are
practically eqillvaJent. For this reason, such relics are better described
as altero-lithorelics.

353

liTHO RELICS

452,453
FORMATION
OF L1THORELlC
OF GRANITIC ROCK

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 4.6 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

"
of microcline
includes ,cv'eral small cuhe-dral
crystals of pJagiodase and anhedral
crystals
of biotitc. ll\t' microclim>
;
host is chemically unv\'eathcred,
whereas t.he grains of plagioclasc
were largely replaced by very Hnc
particles of "sericite" (appearing
pale grey in PPL); the "sericitc"
formed during an early stage of
hydrothermal alteration. The grains
of biQtitc were partly converted to
vermiculite
meso-altcromorpbs
e.xb.ibiting intramineral depOSits of'
iron oxyhydroxidcs along some of
~

354

their phyllopores. These photomicrographs show the break-up of tbe

roek along a c1osel)' spaced net,\'ork
or interconnected fractures, which
gives rise to many small lithorelics.
It is obvious that such a intCI-connected network, visible in the two
dimensions of the thin section, is
also interconnected in the third
dimension, and that all fragments of
the rock are actually separated from
each other. Most of the fractures
were initially accordant fractures;
however. the slovv internal movements of the fractured '-ock result in

the relative displacements of the

fragments and in the obliteration or
their reguJar and accordant boundaries. Most fractures are open 'and
regularly coated by vcr)' well-oriented coatings of clay. Each rock
fragment is composed of only one
or two mineral grains. TIlls explains
the difficulty, in the case of such
granites, to form true and durable
lithorelics wh.ich, by definition, are
polymineralic
assemblages
or
minerals.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEML ALTERATlON AND WEATHERING

LITHORELICS

454,455
FORMATION
OF L1THOREUC
OF GRANITIC ROCK

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.8 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

ro
0.0 mm

I I

I.

'"

I I"

,,,,

illus-

trate another kind of lithorelic

of a calc-alkaline granite that was
previously subjected to hydrothermal alteration. Part of the plagiocJase has been transformed 10
epidote, which exhibits the cJlaracteristic- high in terrerencc-colors
under XP L (B2, C3). The more
resistant quartz and microcline have
not undergone any tra.nsformation.
The rock contains an appreciable

PART

4:

amount of hornblende and biotite;

both minerals exhibit good cleavages, which allow the easy development of Fractures and the isolatioo
of the less breakable components. In
these photographs, an important
part or the peripheral Fracture follows an alignment of the easily
cleavable grains of- biotite, whereas
the other parts are largel)' infilled by
clay deposits eroded from upper
alteromorpbs developed at the

lITHOREUCS, ALTCRORElIC5. NODULES AND P1S0UTHS

expense of mica and amphibolc.

Quartz, microcline and epidote,
three very resistant minerals, form
most of a polymineralic lithorelic,
which may persist wlweathered for
a long t.ime in the upper horiwns of
the soil profIle.

355

lITHORELlCS

456,457
Lithorelic temporarily
preserved within
isaJteritic material
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.6 m
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

ha~ been
weathered into a srnectitic
secondilT)' material near the base uf
the weathered profile, at more than
10 meters depth. Only a few islands
of partly weathered material are
stiU recognizable in the upper parr
of the prollle because, in slightly
metamorphosed parts of th.e rock,
large prismatic CTySW]S of clinop)'roxene commonly ilTe surrounded
by plagioclase grains, v.".hich have
undergone replacement by a high.ly

356

resistant eridote-group mineral.

The epidote appears, lUldcr PPL, as
grey-colored are.1S, exhibiting a Hne
sieve texture; it partially surrounds
the prismatic crystals and protC'(:ts
them from further weathering.
Within the upper horizons, the conclitions of weathering differ from
those pTeYaili..ng in the lowel- parts
of the profile; th.e cLinopyroxene
crystals, although still protected,
begin to w(:'ather into iron oxyhydrox.ides. Many clenticulate rem-

naIlts of c1inop)'Toxene are identifiable within the dark brown material. The alterorelic is distinguished
from the normal a.lteromorphs of
the "'e'athered rock only by the fan
that the secondary products are not
similar in the lo\'\'er and in the upper
parts of the pr06le.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

LITHORELlCS

458,459
Lithorelic temporarily
preserved within
isalteritic material
CUNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 4

PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

.I

illll~

trate in greater detail the

weatbering of prismatic grains of
c1inopyroxcne. During a first stage
of weathering, the c1inopvroxene
has undergone incipient weathering.
It has belm paltially replaced by a
yellowish smeetitic argUliplasma
invading the crystal along th<:> main
transverSe fractures. At a later stage,
under conditions of weatheling pre\'aiung in the upper part of the proIlle, the pyroxe.ne remnants become
partialJy weathered to brown-col-

PART

-1:

ored iron-rich compounds, with

formation of straight pl'ripheral
pores between the cJenticulate remnants and the newlv formed material (inter-plasma - mineral pore.s).
The iron oxyhydroxides produced
by the weathering of the pyroxcne
also calor the inner part of the
domail\S or the smcctitic secondaq'
mineral. The general conditions or
metamorphism are similar to those
in the previous example. Note that
the incipient metamorphism of the
rock is also responsible for the 1'01'-

lITHORELlCS. AlTERORUlCS. NODULES AND PISOllTHS

mation of small inclusions of green

hornblende within the prismatic
crystals of clinopyroxene. These
inclusions are much more resistant
to weathering than are the p)Toxene
residues. Once the pyroxenc remnant.s are completely weathered, the
residues or hornblende would suggest (erroneously) tbe replacement
of a prismatic crystal of hornblende
by both smectitic and ferruginous
materials.

357

LITHO RELICS

460
SOIL ON
CUNOPYROXENITE

Middle part of the slope

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.6 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

461
SOIL ON
CUNOPYROXENITE

Middle part of the slope

Koua Bocca, Cote d'fvoire
Depth: 0.3 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

I I
shows a
lithorelic exhibiting a poikilitic*
texture. A large oikocr)'st* of
greenish
brown
hornblende
encloses many chadacr)'sts* of
c1inopJToxene and some grains of
magnetite. All minerals of the
Iithorelic are unweathercd, and its
shape is ilTegular. not rounded. its
margins following tbe previous
inter mineral boundaries of the
rock-forming
minerals.
The
lithoTelic is partly surrounded by a
dark brown clayey coating. -Illree
well-rounded iTon oxyhydroxide
nodules are visible (/\2-3, E 4) in

358

the surrounding S-marrix. The second photograph shows another

lithorelic that contains all the characteristic primary minerals of the
ulLnbasic rock. Many small crystals
of well-cleaved c1inopyToxene,
some
coarser-grained,
poorly
cleaved crystals of orthop)TOXene
(BS). a few Cl"ysta Is of olivine
replaced by brownish "iddingsite",
and a few grains of magnetite, all
arc included in a poikiloblastic* pale
brown hornblende. The UthoreUc,
whose external boundary I'ollows
the sinuous edge of tlle mineral
grains, is emhedded in a soil mater-

ial tJlat contains dark-coloreJ clay

material (D I), rounded nodules
(A2). and delTital grains of quartz
(E 1). The S-matrix is separated
from the lithorelic by a thick,
empty, peripheral fissure. Grains of
the three primary minerals were
recently
separated
from
tlle
]ithorelic (02), whe]"(~as two more
grains are already incorporated
within the sunounding matrix
(C2); they aTC now considered as
isolated grain:; of the sand fraction
of the soil.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTeRATION AND WEATHERING

LITHORELlCS

461,463

:::r'~""'''=''':lI1:'' . . . . .~.~r--T~

-r-------.------"

...

LITHO RELIC OF
ULTRABASIC ROCK

Alluvial deposit
Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.2 m
Objective: x 4

PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

, , I 11 l
weathered
lithorelic is mainly composed 01'
a large oikocryst* of hornblende in
which pyroxcne and magnetite are
randomly distributed. The high
resist,1l1Cl? of both hornblende and
magnetite to weathering explains

ill

the persistence of such a lithorclic

within the allmial depOSits of the
Tare River, which drail1S the ultramark inousion. fncludeJ grains of
pyroxene are [Jartly weathered to
iron oxyhydroxidcs, which penetrate also thl' parallel clea\'ages of

PART 4: lITHOREUC5.ALTEROREUCS. NODULES AND PiSOUTHS

the hornblende host-crystal. A granostriated b-fabric is largely developed in the surrowlding S-miltrix.

359

LITHORELlCS

464,465
LITHORElIC OF
GRANITIC ROCK

buried in soil
Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.\ m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

r
-

"I'
of granitic origin containing many mineral grains:
guartz, plagiodase converted to
fine--grained wILite mica. microcline

360

and hornblende. The Iithorelic is

embeddeo in a soli material; there,
it is associated with many grains of
delTitaJ guartz 'lnd nodules of iron

0.0 mm

oxide. Note the peripheraJ open fissure, which continuously surrounds

bot.h alterorelic and nodule.

ATLAS Of MICI\OMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

A
Among dll the types of alterordics that can be
observed in the soil horizons, ;:l1terorelics of aJ10chtbonous origin, which have been displaced either as
lithorelics, or as mechanically, resistant altemrelic; '
must be distinguished frorn the alterorebcs of
autochthonous origin, which are isolated residual fraoments of' an in 5ill~ alterite that has progressively be~
invaded and replaced by a newly formed plasma of
pedological origin.

AJlaeh thonou . alceroTeJics

Alterorelics that were displaced after their development as weathen:d units generally exhibit a rounded
shape and a sharp border if they have survi "cd the
tTansport process. In contrast, aheroreHcs can still
exhibit a sharply defined border and an angular outline
if they arc weathered after their o'ansport and deposition as unweathered UthareHes. The alteroreUcs of the
first type are relatively uncommon, whereas those of'
the second tvpe can be very abundant within the nearsurface covers located downslope of rock outcrops.
This rather subtle distinction, \vhich could seem rather
pointless and academic, is commonly useful for
chronological reconstruction of regional geomorphological events.
Alterorclics now observed as weathered entities
within the upper horizons, after displacement and concentration as Iithorelics, do not necessarily exhibit the
same mineralogic-<I1 composition nor the same microtextures as the in situ alterites within the lower levels
of the profile. AJtcrorelic; rich in iron hydroxide are
predominant within the upper levels, whereas the normaJ weathering of the rock within the lower levels generally favors alteJ'Omorphs containing smectitic clays.
The partly weathered alterorelics after coarse-grained
minerals may exhibit both types of aJteroplasmas
(polyphase alteromorphs) if the primal)' residues, associated with the first-formed secondary mineral (e ..q.,
smectite-group phase), have been subsequently weathered within the upper levels to other secondary products (e.g., oxides and hydroxides).
Litho relics , which by definition consist onlv of
unweathered fragments of rock, are mechanicallYI ~"cry
resistant to transport processes. Once redeposited,
they may evolve in turn into brittle alterorelics that
could quickly be destroyed, by dispersion of their clay
content, if they were subsequently transported.
~

Lithorelics may become buried in tllick covers of

collU\-iuffi, ,vhere their further weatherinob may~ be very~

PART 4: LITHOREUCS. ALTEROREUCi. NODULES AND f'lSOUTHS

similar to that normally developed in the deep-seated

alterites. Once completely weathered, their mineral
content is c.ommonly composed of smectite-I-jch and
mechanically brittle argilli-alteroplasmas. This fact
allows the soil scientist to determine that these
alterorelics were originaJly displaced as unweathered
solid lithorelics and not as brittle alterorelics. The
slightest transport would necessarily destroy the latter
by dispersing the clay content before deposition in a
new environmenr. This assertion is all the more
peremptory where the alterorelic is irre~larJv shaped
and exhibi;s important angular or protr~ding'parts. '
Not all alterorehcs are so brittle. Some of them,
by their mineral compositions or by their internal textures, may resist for long time despite late raj transport
or vertical displacement. /\mong these resistant
altcrorelics, one can distinguish: (i) the relics altered
under hypogene processes, which can be justly considered as lithorelics since their mineral constituents and
their textures are already observed in the parent material of the pedologicaJ materials, (ii) the alterorelics
that are protected by an epigenetic or accretion cortex,
and (iii) those composed of ferruginous or gibbsitcrich crystalliplasmas, which are chemically stable,
mechanically resistant, and disposed in septo-alteromorphs, such as can develop in alterites under ferrallitic condition.s.

Autoel1tllOoOU altcrorc1ics
AJteroreLics observed in soils do not always have
an a.\lochthonous origin. Most of them are mai~tained
in siw, and without anv displacement. This occurs by
insulation of relict vol~mes of aJterites within a ped;logic-al maO-ix formed relatively recently. The pc-dogenetic processes at work completely modify the
inherited structures and textures of the alteroplasmas,
replacing them by pedoplasmas whose mineral contents can differ quite significantly from those of tile
lower alterites.
The alterite. is then replaced, along a network of
fissures, by a neoplasma, generaJly more argillaceous,
"ith which it contrasts strongly in color, porosity and
microtexture. Digitate textures are progressively
extended, widened, and interconnected; variously
shaped and sized alterorelics are progressively individ-~
uaJized within this neoplasma, whose \'olume becomes
more and more sit,rniucant. The replacement seems to
take place at a constant volume, and the alterorelics so
created mai11tain, within the neoplasma, the position
aDd orientation that they originally exhibited witllln
the continuous alterite. The alterorelics are irregularly
shaped or cavernOus, with lllany embayments and

361

internal islands of pedoplilsm~. In addition, the)' are

commonly strikingly fissured, ilnd consequently arc
quickly reduced to JJ1 assemblage of smaller and
smaller alterorelics.

original orientations is especially eloquent in the

case of alterorelics formed at the expense of
schisrs and other strongly foliated and lineated
rocks.

Part of the iron content, which was originally

homogeneously distributed \\ithin ule isaltcrite, may
be mobilized during contraction of tbe a1terorelic~.
J.ron is more and more concentrated in the residual
parts of the a.lterite, and tlnall)' forms indurated cor
tices according to a process of peripheral and centripetal cortincation (see beklw). Once a certain
threshold is reached, the alteroreUc is su.lTicicut.ly
enriched in iron to be indurated, wh.ich slows and ultimately stops it, perloplasmation. It forms a solid and
resistant nodule, against whicb internal pressures operate. These pressures are progressive.!), developed within
a more and more abundant pla.sma. The pressures
arowld the indurated nodules arc ultimately expressed
by the anisotropic reorientation of clay particles parallel to the walls of tht resistant hard nodule (granostriated b-Fabrics*). The reorientation of Ule plasma
around the nodule mar be responsible for further
thickening of its indurated cortex.

Once these textures and compositions arc

acquired, both types of alteroreiics, whatever t.I1eir origin, autochthonous or aUochthonous, exh.ibit similar
patterns of behavior and further evolution.

Such horizons, composed of a continuous network

of argillaceous neoplasma surrounding more or less
indurated and dispbced alterorelics, may be maintained ({)r a long time in tht' upper levels of the old ferruginous or FerraJUtic protiles. J.n such cases, the
further cortillcation of the aherorelics aDd the further
indw'ation of" the neoplasma, with the usual mineralogical and textttral modifications, lead to the development of "pseudo-conglomeratic", "pseudo-gravel. " " pseu d o-pu dd'"
. . d"
I)carlllg,
Illg
or pseu cl 0- b
recClate
iron crusts. In these, the visible Features, in essence the
previously formed alteroreJics, usually strongly cont.rast, in calor, s.hape and hardness, Vlith the continuous
and more homogeneous matrLx that now cements
them.
U

The autochthonous nature of such Iron

crusts can in some cases be proven by the continuity and uniformity of the structural features
that appear in all alterorelics. The maintenance of

362

Weathered grains of a mineral (alteromorphs) or

polymineralic assemblages of weat.llered minerah
lalterorelks) may persist for a long time in soiJ hori
zons or in surncial mantles. Persistence is la.l"ored
where their te"..t ure is sufficiently resistant to internal
movement such as creep, or where their chc-mical
composit.ion is closel); in equ.ilibriwll with the geochemical conditions prevailing in t.hese near-surface
horizons. Ironrich phanto-aJteromorphs after biotite
may persist in iwn-rich ousts, whereas Ule less resis
tant quartz grains may be progreSSively alveolized and
finally dissolved in such environments. In ferrallitic
soils 'or even in vertisolic soils, alteromorphs may also
persist without perceptible modification of their shape,
texture or mineral composition.

Pedorelics generall)' consist of compact, more-orless indurated materials, sucb as papules*, miscellaneous concretions and fragments of ousts, especially if
they have been transported. The state of their preservation depends, 011 the one hand, on their compactness
and on their mechanical resistance tl) the processes that
have promoted their release and displacement. On the
other, it depends on their chemical and mineralogical
compositions relati\c to Ull" geochemical equilibrium
prevai.ling i.n the environment of their deposition. The
pedorelics form an important chapter of the micromorphology of soils sensu stricto. More information
about them is very well presented in books on Pedology. The topic is not discussed further in this chapter,
which focusses on the miLTomorphology of weathered
minerals and alterorel;cs.

Arw OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHI'RING

CHAPTER

15

Evolution

on the properties of the horizon

in wllien they are observed, lithorelics, and
especially alteroreLics, will face a miscellaneous array: of fates. These include mechanical disaggregation resulting from physicaJ processes,
complete tl-ansformation of the wcatJlerable minerals
under the iniluence of chemkaJ weathering, replacement of the previous compositions and textures by
neoplasma under the influence of centripetal processes
of replacement, and miscellaneous cortifications under
the influence of geocheroical processes of centrifugal
accumulations.

Pro e'

11'1. I d I:

)f di.wourenotioll

The internal movements of the pedoplasmas, the

cyclic constraints of pressure, which varies according
to the rhythm of the seasons, the internal process of
erosion along pedorubules and other cracks, all these
processes promote the gradual release of the mineraJ
grains that are located at the periphery of the
lithorelics, as weil as those of the unweatherecl minerals of the aJterorel.ics. by selective remm'aJ of the finest
particles of the alteroplasmas. TIlese mineral grains,
released and isolated from their original assemblages.
are gradually integrated into the pedoplasmas, in
which they henceforth form a part of the skeleton
units. These scattered minerals may be weatherable or
unweatherable.

Weath

~rabj/it.Y

Not all primary mineraJs a.re easily reduced to isolated residual grains capable of persistence until the
surficial horizon is attained. Very weatherable minerals.
such as olivine- and pjToxene-group minerals, are
commonly completel)' \veatJlered in the lower part of
the profiles. Thus they ha\T little likelihood of persisting in an unweatJlered state in the upper horizons of
soil. Only very active processes of erosion, acting on

tJlin alterites, will promote a local inLTease in t11e proportion of such minerals in the soil horizons. Nevertheless, these minerals may occur if, at an early stage of
hypogcne alteration, they were surrounded by a protective layer of a resistant secondary mineral (e'8"
amphibole, serpentine, "iddingsite''), which protected
tJlem from further weatJlering. They are in tius case
"armored" gTains. These very weatherable minerals
may also be observed in the special case of andosoils
and aJterites developed from deposits of recent volcanic ash. There, euhedral crystals of oLivine and augite
may be deposited together with particles of volcanic
glass, and they Illay thus persist in ao unweathered state
for somt' time after their deposition.
The most commonly observed minerals to occur
as isolated grains within the pedoplasmas are minerals
of intermediate weatherability, sucb as members of the
amphibole and epidote groups (of metamorphic or
hydrothermal origins, usuaJly), and the h.igbl}
unweatherablt' minerals, of miscelJaneous origin, such
as quartz, tourmaline, rutile, zircon, staurolite, kyanite
and, for some compositions, spine! and garnet.
Directly derivecl from the disaggregation or the
lithorelics, these minerals exhibit sizes, shapes and outlines comparable or very si.milar to those that they
exhibited in the original rock.
In contrast, the weatherable minerals derived
from the disaggregation of alterites and alteroreLics are
genera.lly finer grained and exhibit shapes and outlines
that they did not exhibit in the original rock. Their outlines are generally cavernous (feld.spars) or denticulate
(pjTOXene, ampllibole), their cleavages are emphasized
(micas), their mechanical resistance has strongly
decreased. and they disintegrate, contributing to the
finer grain-sizes. Thei.r particular sbape, tJleir habit, and
the presence of traces of iron oxyhydrox.ides, and or
alteroplasma~ in the fissures, pores and cleavages.
clearly distinguish them from the residual minerals
directly derived by disaggregation of lithorel.ics or of
unweathered parent rock (denticulate or cavernous
residues rersus cleaved or angular fragments).

CH I:M H.':

AlTERORElICS AFTER PYROXENITE

L WEATHER]

In most cases, the lithorelics are completely

weathered bdore being disaggregated. -nle conditions
ot" weathering being what they are in the upper horizons, the lithoreJics arc generally transformed into
H'r)' porous and relatively iron-Jich alterorelic.s (septaalteromorphs), wh.ich constnst by their mineralogical
composition and their texture with the smeetite-ridl
alteromorphs (holo-alteromorphs) that can be enCOWltereel in the lower levels of the weathering profile.
ln the alterorelics that still contain large rcsidues
of weatheTabJe minerals, the respective influences of
the. successive episodes of weathering arc expressed by
the jlLxtaposition, in these residue-s, or two or more
secondary products that normally do not coex..ist
within alteromorphs.

364

Composite "aJtero-Uthorelics" after pyroxenebearing rocks, origina.lly composed of pyroxenerich residues surrounded by their smectitic
secondary producLS (formed in the lower levels
of the profile). have their content of secondary
minerals modified by the development of iron
oxyhydroxides (formed by weathering of the
remnants of pyroxene). These producLS rim the
internal fringe of the banded network of smectite.
This smectite finally disappears to give neoformed
iron oxyhydroxides.The composite origin (pyroxene. smectite) of the two types of iron-rich secondary products is generally distingUished only
with difficulty if no intermediate stages of weathering are available. In some cases, iron compounds
directly derived from the pyroxene remnants, for
example. exhibit a regular orientation of their
optical features, which does not appear in the iron
compounds derived from the later degradation of
the smectite-bearing producLS.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOlOGY OF MlNERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALTERORELlCS

c
:--'_I:Il""lI_

466,467
AlTEROREUC OF
UlTRABA.5IC ROCK

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.4 m
Objective: x 2,5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

I
11' of clinopyroxenite,
. with most of the primary grains
of c!inopyroxene partially weathered to a smectitic clay in a phylloporo-alteromorph. All the particles
of clay, which are formed from the.
same pyroxene grain, exhibit the
same' crystaJlographic direction.
oriented parallel to the Z axis of the
c1inopyroxe.ne. Small denticulate
fra.gments of c1inopyroxene arc still
emhedded and visible in the clayrich alteromorph (see the more
detailed pbotomicrograph on the

next page). During a later step of

near-surface weathering, almost all
remnants of clinopyToxene \,y-ere
weathered to iron oxyhydroxides,
which now giw the brownish col or
to the inner boundary of the smectitic secondary product. A fC'w large
crystals of c!inopyroxene are very
slightly weathered, and they appear
as bright \-vhite patches under XPL.
The thickness of the thin section is
well below normal, which is ""hy
thes(' highly bi,efjingent minerals
exhibit such low interrerence-

PARr 4: UTHORfUcs,Am:RoREUcS, NODULES AND PISOLITHS

colors here. The alterorelic is

now embedded in a dark broV\'l1
S-matrix, which shows important
porosity and appreciable amounts of
sand- and silt-sized grains of quartz
and other resistant primary minerals. A peripheral IIssure irregularly
follows the outer limit of the
alteroreLic.

365

ALTERORELlCS

468
ALTERORElIC OF
ULTRABASIC ROCK

Koua Boeea, Cote d'!voire

Depth: 1.4 m
Objective: x 6.3

PPL

0.3
0.2
0.1

0.0 mm

ill' lill\' I'll"!' ,l!II.'oo 11 I'll of

the same altcrorelic shows, at
higher magnification, some textural
and mineralogical details of the late
stage of weathering of the alterorclic. During a first step of weathering, when the primary mineral~
were reached by the weathering
front, the chnopyroxene grains
werc partially replaced by oriented
argilUpJasmas of srnectitic character. Many denticulate remnants 01'
c1inopyroxene were preserved
within these argilliplasmas. As lISUally observed in similar cases, the.re
is a strong relation in orientation

366

between the denticulation of the

remnants and the orientation of the
secondary
argilliplasma.
The
aherorelic, after having been isolated from the parent material and
incorporated into the upper soil
materials, has continued its weathering, but by a diffcrent process,
which leads to the development of
iron oxyhydroxides from the remnants of pyroxene. A thin brownish
rim is formed around each denticulate remnant. Most original chemical elements are leached away,
which determines the formation of
an inter-plasma - mineral pore.

Part of the previously formed

argilliplasmas are also colored by
iron oxyhydroxides, derived from
the weathering of pyroxene remnants. The brownish part of the
argilliplasma is thus always contiguous to the denticulate remnants; it is
not related, or very seldom so, to
the original intennincral boundaries.

ATLAS Of MICl\OMOf\PHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALTERORELlCS

469,470
SOIL ON
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Lower part of the slope

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

02

0.0 mm

I
containing several
grains of quartz surrounding a
grain of feldspar (C2-3) that is partiall~' weathered and replaced by
deep brown i!"On oxyhyJroxides.
The blTains, several of wbich exhibit
the
characteristic
unduJatorv.
extinction of' deformed quartz, arc
not chen:lically weathered, but sevcI'al of them are fractured. The
intnmineral fissures and the
intramineral cracks are Filled by

PART

4:

iron oxybydroxides exhibiting a

similar aspect and composition to
those incl ucled in the fe Jdspar grain.
This pattern is due to an earlier
episode of weathering, operating
"vhen the lithorelic was still embedded in soils of' the upper part of the
slope, The lithorelic, originating
fTom granitic veins, has been transported along the slo[Jc, and it is now
sUIToundcrt by smcctitic material
and detrital minerals that form the

UTHOREUCS. ALTffiOR.B.ICS. NODULES AND f'lSOlfTHS

usual matrix of soils developed in

the lower parts of the slope. In these
lower parts, the original material is
composed of detrital material origi
nating from a mixture of weathered
uJtrabasic rocks and granitic rocks.
The granitic rocks occur as vein~ or
surround the ultrabasic intrusion.

367

ALTERORELlCS

471,472
IRON CRUST
DEVELOPED ON
TREMOLlTE-RICH ROCK

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled on soil surface
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

' .

I t ) 11
contains large
alterorelics of partly weathered
ultrabasic rock, now mainly composed of crystals of tremohte
formed at the expense of pyroxene,
and ver), small interstitial grains of
magnetite. The original texture is
perfectly recognizable in most of
the nucleus. All needles of tremolite
are surrounded by a thin rim of iron
oxyhydroxides forming a boxwork
texture (septo-alterol1lorphs), in
the cells of which denticuJate remfunts of tremoJite are recognizable

368

under XPL. Part of the n.ucleus is

Fringed by an irregular, more or less
continuous area of compact iron
oxyhydroKides (02-4). This j-im
corresponds to the inner centripetal
cortex formed by epigenetic
replacement. The external part of
the cortex, which is composed of
alternating, conceno'ic bands of
goethite and hematite, arises hy
centriFugal accretion of material
formed after the alteromorph has
been deposited in the near-surface
day-I'ich matrix. A second similar

0.0 mm

nucleus, rimmed by another cortex,

is just visible in the lower right corner of the photomicrograph. Small
bridges connect the external parL<;
of both rims, isolating small areas of
dark S-mab-ix. The colorless areas in
PPL (black areas under XPL) are
pores originating from the erosion
()F the S-matrix in the interstitial
parrs of the iron crust that are nDt
perfectly closed. Open concentric
fissures are still visible in the part of
the S- matrix that is trapped
between the two adjacent cortices.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY 0; MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALTERORELlCS

Cl

473,474
ALTERORELlCS OF AN
ULTRABASIC ROCK

Old ferrallitic soil

Koua Bocca, C6te d'lvoire
Depth: 2 m
Objective: x 2.5
and x 1.6

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

' ",

11
I of iron-enriched
kaolinite-rich isalterite, di\ided
into numerous smaLler alterorelics,
isolated within a reddish brown
pedopJasma. The pcdoplasma irregularly invades and replaces the
isalterite along numerous ret.icular
Gssurcs. Several fissw-es are more
recently formed, a.nd not yet surrounded by the reddish brown
pedoplasma. The alterorelics are
progressively replaced along more
and more numerous fissures, and
their size decreases regularly from

PART

4:

right to left. In the leFt part of the

upper photomicrograph, the texture 01' the isaJtcrite has completely
disappeared. A detailed snldy, at a
h.igher magnilication, show, t.hat
most. of the open Ilssures arc coated
by a day-rich material whose grain
size is much smaller t.han t.hat of U1C
First-formed pedoplasma. The lower
photomicrograph, taken from the
same sample, shows that the
alteroreUc is progressivd~r replaced,
in siw, hy t.he pedoplasma withont
disturbing the original orientation

LiTl-lORELlCS. ALTEROREJJCS. NODUlES AND I'lSOLlTHS

or t.he isalterite. All I'raf.,rments of t.he

isalterite have maintained their
original orientation, and Lbe distance between the center of all
the,e fragments has not been modifled during the replacement of the
dark brown isa]terite by the sccondary red pedoplasma. The replacement takes place in sicu by an
iso\'olumctric process.

369

ALTERO RELI CS

475,476
ALTERORElIC OF
ULTRABASIC ROCK

Old ferrallitic soil

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

l'"
-

, I I,!
II \'iew of l.he contact
ar,'a
alllong
lour
altfrnrc!ics ,Hld their surroundin(1
::,
rerldish hrown Ilcdopl.brna, at a
le"el in thc I)rulilc in which slight
inuur.1tion has o,'curred, The Ilrofik
is the same as that 01' tlw cJrlier
[)hotograph", A, goethitl'-riC'il concx
is ubscrved arouml the upper
altcrnrelic: that ,'ortex i, dC\'t'lu[lcd
h~ epigenetic rt'plaCl'mcnt at the
eXI)cnse of l.he altcrorclic itself. This
I-irst-formed indurated l:Jart acb as a
resistant body against which the

370

internal stn~'ss-relalc(1 1ll0\'t'lllenls

within the surrounding plasma and
regular peripheral opcn fissures
around ('.)Ch of the,"e hard nodules
arc dcvclopeo, The l:ontrJction 01'
the pla~'rna is also expressed hy tilt:
furmation of intercollnected, more
or less racliJ.1 fissures, along which
tlcin cla~'-rich oeposits are observed,
At tJlis higher Icvcl of the profile,
tilt' alkrorelics bcoin
to be slowl\'.
b
oisplacerl by intemal crecp, ano the
pcclop[a"nlas llOW contain some
oetrital gl-ilin.s of qU<lrtz (which do

0,0 mm

not a[)pear within the alterorelics),

At a more advanc"d stagc, the inoi\'idual cortex will hecome thicker
and thicker, not only by tJle devel
opment of the inner cor'tice's, but
also by the Formation of (external
microlaminatecl cortices. Finally,
the recl plasma itself will be
replaced by in ,iiw deposits of
hemaLil.c and gocthite, and a hard
iron crust \"ill be formed (not
.shown) if eXl.ernal processes of crosirm allow its d,'\'elo[)ment,

ATLAS OF MIC~OMORPHOl.OGY OF MINERAl. Al.TERATION AND WEATHERING

ALTERORELlCS

477
ALTERORELlCS OF
VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Akouekouadiokro,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Depths: 1.8 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL

r"OO~
:

478
ALTEROREUC OF
VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Akouekouadiokro,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.1 m
Objective; x 1.6
PPL

11

1~

.l~

\",-ere

taken in the same profile, developed

on
volcano-sedimentary
rocks, but at difTerent depths along
the profile. The first one, whieh corresponds to the deeper ~ample,
sho""5 the formation and the lowyidualization of aIterorclics after the
development
a pedological Smatrix formed at the expense of the
isalterite. in the deepc,- horizons
(not shown), the isalterite is continuous, aoct exhihits, in all its parts,
the:: constant orientation of the sedimentary rock; a few meters above,
the alteritc is Fragmented by

or

increasingly numerous and thicker

fissures, along which the [)cdoplasma dC\lelops at the expense of
the margins of the fragmented
residues ol alterite. These residues
progressively dew lop a more and
more rounded shape, a.nd they are
separated from each other b~: \lickr
and wider \'olumes
pedoplasma.
This n.'suJts in the formation or
islands or isalterite which, ultimately,
undergo dislJ]acemcnt
under the inHuencc of their creep
down the slol)e. Se\'(~ral alteron:lics
of different sizes, shapes and orientations are shown in this first photo-

PAIIT 4: LITHORELlCs.ALTEoRORElICS. NODULES AND PrSOLfTHS

or

graph. In tbe second one, the

alterorelics have taken on a more
and more rounded shape, whereas
incipient induratioll affects their
external part. The partial induration
of the margins results in tJ)eir partial opacil:)' and in the formatlon or
a cont.inuous peripheral fissure. The
pedoplasrna of the first sample is
soft, whereas the pedoplasma that
surrounds the altcrorelic in the
second photograph is slightly
indurated. A hard iron CTUS! (not
shO\\ll) is formed at the top of the
proHle.

371

ALTERORELlCS

479
ALTERORELlCS OF
CLlNOPYROXENITE

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 2 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

show~

the different][I1 behavior of the

physical arid pedogenetic processes
operating: in argiJlaccou~ and unin'
dllrated materials that surround
diversely indurated relict nodules.
In the (,Gntral area of' the photograph, a reddish brown argillaccous
material represents the general
mab'ix 01" the colluvial horizon ~itu
ated on the upper part of a deeply
wt:athered pl'ofile. To the right, an
indurated compact nodule, formed
at the expense of an a1teroreLic of
ultrabasic rock, IS completely
indurakd and \'ery resistant to the
evolutionary processes. A peripheral fissure is formed in the contact
area between the hard and the sort
materiaL<, a.nd no internal fissures
or cracks appear within the nodule.

372

Tllis nodule has been inllerited from

an old and indurated FerralUtic horizon that caps the top of the slope.
This nodule is similar to that shown
in photographs 493 and 494, for
example. To the left, an unindurated
alterorelic, similar to the alterorelics sho",,-n in l)hotographs 473
and 474, is directly inherited from
the deeply weathered, isaltcritic or
alloteritic horizons 01' the profiles at
the upper part of the slope. The
alterorelic is largely impregnated by
dark red hematite-ricb material, but
it is not indurated. The internal
movemenb of the horizons along
the slope and the pedogenetic
processes that arc operating in this
material al'e responsihle for tht'
important development of fissures
in the soft alterorelic and For the

replacement 01' its inherited material by secondary plasmG.s of sUTular

mineralogical composition and textural appearance as i.n the surrounding matrix. The alterorelic is di\ided
into numerous fTagments, whose
volumc~ progressively decrease. The
textural inJleritance 01' the altcrorelic, more or less presened during the first (isalteritic) and the
second (alloteritic) processes of
weathering, is now definitively lost.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINH\AL ALTERATION AND WE.A.THERING

ALTERORELlCS

480
ALTERORELlC
OF GNEISSIC
CALC-ALKALlNE
GRANITE

Akuvikro, Dimbokro,
Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.8 m
Objective: x 6.3

PPL

OJ
;

0.2

~ 0.1

~ 0.0 mm

I..
r

interconnected fissures, coated by yellowish clay-rich material, cut a large

alterorclic originating From the
weathering of a mica- rich layer of a
gneissie cale-alkaline granite_ The
clay minerals originating from the
weathering of the Feldspars are !lOW
reeogni7.able only with difficulty
because they have become preferentially iron-stained and, more
recently, cut by the network of
irregular fissures. In contrast, the
large crystab of kaolinite, originating From the weathedng of the original crystaJs of biotite via an
intermediate step of vermiculite

PART

4:

f()rmation, are much better presened. Traces of the pre\-ious

expansions Juring the t\vO stages of
weathering are quite visibJe in a1l
maeroLTystals of iron-stained bolinite, whose shape, cleavage and paraJkl intramineral fissurl:s are
characteristic of the mcso-alteromorphs formed by weathering of
the mica. A quartz grain is just visihie in the le!'t lower p.1rt of the photograph (B5). The replacement
process, which here promotes the
disaggregJtion of this alterite, is
similar to the process which, in the
prC\riOllS illustrations, progressively
destroys the continuously textured

LrTHOREucS, ALTERORELlCS, NODULES AND PrSOUTHS

isalterites. The difTerence lies in tJle

fact that her"" the r1ivision of the
alterite operates preferentially by
tJle opening of interconnected fissures within the fine clay material.
whereas the relatively coarse alteromorphs of kJolinite are avoided on
clle short term.

373

ALTERORELlCS

A.

481,482
IRON CRUST
ON GLlMMERITE

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

- 0.0 mm

is developed at
the cxpense of gJimmeritc, a
fJiotite-rich rock rhat is localh'
developed, in the Kaua Bocca ultramark intrusion, in the contact areas
with the sw-rounding ~;ounger granite. NIt)Sl of tile original texture of
this mctaSOn1atic rock was obscured
duri ng the successive stages of
weat.hering and during the stage of
induration by imn OX)'lJydroxides as
a result of replacement. Ne\'crthe-

374

less, some phanto-altcromorplls

after biotitc: and \'cTmiculite are still
identifIable in this iron crust owing
to the persistence of their original
layered structure, which was well
preserved during the formation of
secondary goethite. Internal, irregular, dark red areas arc composed of
old hematite-rich, ferrallitic alteropedoplasmas, who.se precursor,
pyroxene or feldspar, or whose allogenic origin, cannot be clearly iden-

tified. Ma.ny large empty pan",; are

rillldomly distributed in the iron
crust, but most of them seem to be
preferentially associated with the
red-colored areas of pedoplasma.
Note the- good crystlUjnity of the
micropartides of goethite, mainly at
the mal-gins of each kaolinite mcsoalteromorph.

ATlAS Of MICROMORfHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALTERORELlCS

483,484
QUARTZ GRAIN
IN OLD IRON CRUST

Akouekouadiokro,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: I m
Objective: x 1.5
PPL and XPL

10

0.0 mm

'

I
'I, I .
illustrate a monomineralic grain of
quartz embedded in hard iron crust.
The mineral seems "cry strongly
corroded by slow dissolubon. lts
originally smooth and dliptical

shape is now converted to d n~rl'

dissected one, \-\-ith numcrous irregular or dibTitatl' emba)'mcnts (beller
,'i,ible under XPL), [>anlv inllllcd
b)' iron oxyhydroxidcs. Inner i,l.:lI1cls
of dissulvl'd material, which Sl' 'm

PART 4: LITHORELlCS. AlTEROR8.ICS. NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

iso!akd in thl' plane of the thin section, ,m:: l:l.'1'tainlv [inked in the tllinl
dimension to other Cmbilynll'I1t>.

375

ALTERORELlCS

485,486
RESIDUAL MINERAL
GRAIN

Old ferrallitic soil on

upper part of the slope
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.1

0.2

O.Omm

emhedded in the
J
upper part of an old fcrrallitic
soil that capped the uPI)Cr parts of
the slope. This alterorelic contaim a
large grain of a partially "icldingsitized" olivinc. Most of the grain ha,
been replaced hy compact and
homogeneous ~iddingsit~" (Cl,
D3), whereas a residual part of the
olivine nystal \\'.,s cut by an irregular network 01' banded "iddingsite"
running along some of the orig1Jal
protoclastic Ij'actures (01-2, 05).
Some isolated ,llld unaltered rem-

376

nants of olivine were maintained on

the short term \yithin llle banded
network 01' "iddingsitc". During a
later stage of weathering, these
remnants were transformed to a
thin rim of iron oxyhydroxides,
which coat the hands of''iddingsite''
and which surround residual empty
pores, simulating a huxwork structure. During this stage of weathering,
the
prniousl)'
formed
"iddingsite" component has had all
hut its iron oxide content leached
awa:; as a result, the "iddingsite"

alteromorph was replaced by a ferruginous altcromorph, which maintains all the previously inherited
textural features. This altcrorclic is
now associated \\-ith many other
pcdo-, altero- and lithore1ics (not
shown in tllC photograph).

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY

or

MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

ALTERORELlCS

487,488
RESIDUAL MINERAL
GRAIN

Intermediate slope
Colluvial soil
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: I m
Objective.; x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

I
,I I, '.
of weathered biutite - vermiculitc kaolinite was further replaced by
dark brown iron oxvhvdroxides.
The phylloporo-altcroTI1orpb aspect
of the me.so-alteromorph has been
well pre~cn'ed during the successive' stages of weathering. Its partial
incluration by the ferruginous components has allowed the aiteromorph to survive its transport and
deposition. The characteristic internal phyl!o-pores of the alteramorphs after micaceous minerals,

whicb invariably expand greatly

perpendicular to their sheet stJ"\ICture, is clearly visible in the photomicrograph taken under PPL.
Under XPL, two other features arc
rccof,rnizable. Firstly, some of the
phyllo-pores have been inflllcd with
cluartz, individual crystals of wh.ich
grow peq)cndil'u larly to the layers
of the sheets. Secondly, the two
opposite margim of the alteramorph, which arc oriented pel'penrlicularly to the sheets, are partly
replaced by a new generation of

PART": UTHORElJG, ALTERORELlCS, NODULES AND f'l,OLlTHS

iron oxvhvclroxides tbat obliterate

the previously preserved traces of
the sheet structure of the micaceolls
minerals. The margins tbat art' parallel to the sheet structure arc not
rimmed b:' tlle new generation of
deposits, and seem to be more resistant to the replacement,
..

377

upper horizons, can resist tltis cenbipetal process of

cortific:.atioll; the inherited te.xtures are thus partly
maintained. These resistant primal-) minerals form
protruding parts or isolated islands within the areas
enbrcly transformed by the. process of cortification.

CENTRIPETAL CORnrlC TI

Praces oJ induration
and cc.\tural em/ution
AFter the First stage of weathering, or concurrently with it, a cortification of the alterorelie may
develop jn a centripetal manner. Compounds of iron,
generally gocthite, completely replace the entire
.1lterorelic, pores included. Tne alterorclie is gradually
rendered more and more compact and hard as the boxworks and porous textures formed by weathering are
ohscured and destroyed. first along its periphery, then
throughout the alterordie.
Thi~ l'irst centripctal proc<::'~ of internal cortiFication result~ in a compact, homoge-neous and generally
untextured hard material. The textw-es inherited From
the primary minerals, which have heen more or less
maintained in the altcromorphs, are delinitively lost. In
this way, the texhlred and recognizable altemyelics are
replaced by indurated and untextured nodules, whose
origin becomes less and less identillablc. Alteromorphs
of- different petrological origin can. as a result, be
re-placed by very similar nodules without any unique
distinguishing criterion. Only tbe ephemeral occurrence of (juartz grains or of ot.her resistant minel-als
allows the most important groups of rock to he distinguished frOJll onc another.

his first cortification is internal with respect

to the border of the alterorelic, and it progresses

in a centripetal manner. No volume increase is
expected

to

be perceptible at the scale of the

optical microscope. The

progre~ive

replacement

In ultramaflc rocks. for example. residual

areas of "iddingsite" previously formed by hypogene alteration of the olivine-group mineral. or
residual grains of hematite formed by replace
ment of the original crystals of magnetite, are
common within alterorelics that are completely
replaced by iron oxyhydroxides.
Polymineralic or isolated grains of quartz
also can resist the processes of weathering bur.
now included within the iron-rich environments
of the newly fOt-med cortices. they progressively
disappear by breakage, alveolization and dissolution. They leave. within the ferruginous nodules,
only irregular pores whose size and shape corre
spond to those of the original grains. It is noteworthy that the dissolutJon of the quartz grains
begins much later than cortification. Once
formed. the late pores. which are well isolated
within the nodule or within its cortex, are not
infilled by further accumulations of iron oxyhydroxldes. and remain empty.
Some secondary silicates can also, at least tempOl-ariJy, r-esist complete transformation to ferruginous
prodUCl5. Such is the case of some peJorelics and
alterorelics that are composed nf macrncrystalline
kaolinite after mic:.a.s or after \-crmiculite. Although
only partly replaced by goethite, they are perfectly recognii'..able as phanto-alteromorphs. )[. these chemically
resistant grain.s are located near the border of the
alterorclic, they form outward-protrucl.ing parts
within the pl'Tipheral cortex. In thin secrjon, the cortex appears as a discontinuous concentric banded area.

of the weathered minerals and residual voids by a

compact and undifferentiated matrix promotes
the disappearance of the inherited textures,
which are completely obliterated and definitively
lost. The apparent density of the alterorellc has
greatly increased.

Per. j tcnt mineral,

within area. (>J wrt~fi arlon
Only specitlc primary or secondary minerals,
whose cum position is more closely in equilibrium with
the new geochemical conditions prevailing in the

378

Relics of materials of organic origin, such as Cragments of charcoal, also can experience at least pdTtial
internal cortitlcation. The unaffected nucleus then
clearly maintains the cellular texture of the original
organic material.
Iron-rich sec0nJary minerals and aJteromorphs
also can resist subse(juent alteration, either because of
their original composition (as in the case of
"iddlngsitc'), or because of their late replacement in a
new environment (as for example iron-rich alternmorphs of kaolinite after biotite). AltllOugh they arc
isolated as residual minerals, they behave as polymineralie altcrorelics.

An..AS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Whether entirely or partly replaced. the

alterorelic has its size preserved by this first
process of cortification. No perceptible modifIcations in volume are observed at the optical scale.
The process of intemal cortification invades the
aJterorelic in an essentially centripetal way and
produces iron-rich indurated nodules. The internal cortification destroys the detail of the preeXisting texture of the alteromorph.

P dopla mation

f:!I rhe resiJual te,\'tures

In env'ironments in which absolute accwnulation

of iron is reduced or nonexistent, or where ferrugi.
nous alterorelics are in geochemical disequilibrium, an
inverse phenomenon may be observed. There is no

PART 4: LfTHORlliCS. ALTERORElJCS. NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

longer peripheral cenb-ipetal cortification, but rather

progressive and !,rradual replacement of the residual
textures by silicate-based pedoplasmas. The alterordic
tJlen becomes abundantly fissured, domains are
divided, and their volumes progressively dec.Tea-~e. A
pedopJasma appears that is similar to the surrounding
pedoplasma, except that it may temporarily maintain,
within the original perimeter of the alterorelic, some
portion of its more resistant minerab. Tbe nuclei and
conices that were developed during a previous step, or
\\ithin another en\ironment. may be in disequilibrium
with the surrounding matrix. Under tJlese conditions,
they are gradually exfoliated and divided into many
fragments lhat are soon integrated into the sw-rounding pla~mas. Concentric fissw-es may also develop
witlUn the cortices, and also within the nucleus itself.
Combined with radiall)' arranged fissures, the)' gi\c
wa)' to isolation of polyhedral fragments, whidl are
guickJy displaced or integrated.

379

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

489
AlTERORELlC AFTER
TREMOLITE-RICH
META-UlTRABASIC
ROCK

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvolre

Iron crust sampled
at soil surface
Objective: x 2.5
PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

490
AlTERORELlC AFTER
TREMOLlTE-RICH
META-UlTRABASIC
ROCK

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Iron crust sampled
at soil surface
Objective: x 2,5
PPL

photomicrographs focus on the intermediate <lrcas, whjch cLstinctlv show the

three main steps in d1E' formation
the actual alterorclic. The central
part of the nucleus, whose original
texture is preserved, is composed of
a cryptomorphic assemblage of
al terorclics after clinopyroxene, in
which all primary grains were
weathered to a \'1'1)"' porous box\vork of goethite. Small grains of
magnetite arc still visible. The
nucleus of the alternmorph is irreg-

or

380

ularlv rimmed bv it first internal

/
cortex, formed b~' a replacement
process that prOlnoted the retT)'Stalhzation of the gocthite-rich septa
of the altcromorphs and the rhsappearance of their secondary pores
by infilling by goethite. TIlis epigenetic replacement process gave rise
to compact, nonporous areas in
wmch some small relics of alteromorphs are maintained. This first
internal cortex is then surrounded
hy a further external complex cortc:x formed by accretion of a sec-

ondary coating of gocthite ()'<:IIO\,undubting bnds) alternating with

discontinuous and irregular red-colorcd ~cales originating from the
incorporation of pcdop1.1sma material. Remnants of the original pedoplasma, with large pores, are visibk
in a corner of each photomicrograph.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

491
ALTERORELlC AFTER
ULTRABASIC IGNEOUS
ROCK

Old ferralliric red soil

Koua Bocca. Core d'lvoire
Depth: 2 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL

[0
0.0 mm

491
ALTERORELlC AFTER
ULTRABASIC ROCK

Old ferrallitic red soil

Koua Bocca. Core d'lvoire
Depth: 2 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

,r

1 I 'I 'I
I I
shows a
very advanced stag'" in the
replacement of the nucleus of an
alteromorph by a very compact
inner cortex formed by a centripcral replacement process tbat
promoted the formation of homogeneously textured areas r<?placing
most of the nucleus. Some grains of
magnetite and some vcry porous
islands or the original septoalteromorphs are tempOl'ari I)" preserved
in this an,a. Irregular patches of
dark brown material, con.trasting

\vith the general yellowish calor of

the nodule, are traces of completely
resorhed alteromorphs; they arc
phanto-altcromorphs. The pl'rsistence of such internal textural features shows that this nodule is a
replaced alterorclic. The hardness of
the nodule. compa.red to the soft
ness of the surrounding redoplasma, is such tbat a regular
peripheral fissure completeh- surrounds the alterorelic.
The lower photograph, taken at
higher magnification, shows part of

PART 4: LITHORUICS. ALTtRORUlCS, NODULES AND f'lSOUTHS

a somewhat similar alterorelic in

which most or the components
were replaced by a secondary accumuJatiOri of goethitc. Only somc
small grains or magnetite and some
islands of aJterordics are still \'isible
in this compact nodule, nut these
,mall remnants are suffJcicntly characteristic features to prove the
uJtramafic origin 01' the alterorelic.

381

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

491,494
POROUS NODULE

Superficial soil
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

r
-

I I
of compact
iron oxyhydroxides containing
many small irregular empty pores.
In contrast to the primary or secOndJTj; iron oxide (magnetite) that
is in cquilibriwn with the ncvvly
formed internal cortex, the quartz
grains al-e slolVl~' dissolved in such a

382

mater"ia]. Residual pores are formed

whose shape corresponds to the
shape of the grains removed.
Although no residual quartz. is visible in this concretion, it seems
highly probablc that these pores
correspond to \"oids formed by the
dissolution of quartz grains. Note,

0.0 mm

in the photograph taken in XPL, the

similarity, of the induratcd booethiterich material to the corresponding
material of the two previous photognphs.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERlNG

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

495
ALTERORElIC AFTER
OllVINE-BEARING
ROCK

included in an iron crust

Koua Bocca. Core d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 4
PPL

0.6

0.4

02

O.Omm
1
11.\ of the internal
centripetal cortex formed by
an epigenetic process at the expense
of a part of a nucleus composed of
many weathered minerals. The original texture is easiJy recognizable in
the loweJ' part of the nucleus,
whereas in its upper part, all septoalteromorphs after pyroxene have
be("n obscured by the replacement
procese-, giving risc to a homoge.
neous compact goethite-rich area.
Only resistant primary (magnetite)
and secondary C'iddingsite") minerals, which are in closer geochemical
e<juilibrium with the ferruginous
portion, an~ well preserved and
appear as isolated remnaJJts \\ithin
the more homogeneous goethitt"
rich matrix. Thl" external dark red
plasma is indurated by hernatite,
which leads to a hard iron crust. The
large grain of "iddingsite" after
olivinf', \~~lich is now converted to
goethite b)' the leaching of its sili
cate components, still exhibits the
inherited, homogeneously welloriented pattern of the original
"iddingsite", a~ well as the network
of protoclastic fractures that is very
characteristic of the original o;stal
of olivinc. The Ujddingsite" grain

strongly protrudes into the cortex.

This latter feature shows that the
goethite cortex was formed at the
ex.pense of the alterorelic, avoiding
the "iddingsite" and magnetite
grains, and not at the expense of the
surrounding matrix in which the
alterorelic is now (mbeddcd. It
shows also that this cortex was
formed at an earLer stage. before
the deposition of the alterorelic in
the matTix. Were it not so, the protruding very brittle grain of
"iddingsitc" certainly would have
been eroded during the transport of
the alterore\ic. This chronology is
also strengthened by the t:Kt that
tlle goethite-rich cortex .~cem5 to
have been partly eroded during its
displacement, as well as the
included grain of "iddingsite". In its
external part, it ex.hibits a curved
smooth outline, ill continuit), with
the similar habit of the external
shape of the cortex. In conclusion,
the chronological evolution of the
Iithorelic, as can be deducd from
careful micromorphological observations and From t.he logical deductions
that
they in\'()lve,
I'
reconstituted as follo\\'s~ a) formation of an alterorelic exhibiting a

PAAT 4: UTHORHICS.ALTEROREUCS. NODULES AND PISOUTHS

larger size tllan t.hat now exhibited,

b) formation of the epigenetic cortex. preserving an important part of
the nucleus and also some isolated
grains of magnetite and a large
"iddingsite" pseudomorph, c) displacement of the alteromorph, \\ith
partial peripheral erosion, which
promotes the format.ion of a
smoothly rounded shape along both
goethitc-rich cortex and protruding
"iddingsite", amI d) deposition or
the complex nodule in as-matrix,
later indw'atcd to an iron crust. The
gocthite-rich centripetal cortex
probably forrn"d cont.inuously at
the expense or the alterorelic dw'ing the last steps aJld even after the
last one.

383

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

496,497
IRON CRUST ON
UlTRABASIC ROCK

Koua Bocca, C6te d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

02

0.0 mm

, I
I ,
composed
mainly or a grain of goethitC'
originating From the late evolution
or a grain or "iddingsite" arter
olivinC'. The "iddingsitc" grain is
accompanied by a Few remnants of
alteromorphs after c.linopyroxene
and by small grailJS or magnetite.
The alterorelic is now surrounded
by a complex accreted cortex
whose color and mineralogical
composition \'ary and alternate
from the center to the external
boundary. Most of the surrounding
perJoplasma is also indurated,
mainly by hematite-dominant micro-,

384

crystalline materiaL In the upper

left corner or the photograph, the
more external cortex or the main
nodule forms a bridge with the corresponding external cortex of a
neighboring nodule. Both nodules
are now linked and, in the central
part of the bridge area, a residual
pore is rormed foJlowing the later
dissolution of a grain of detrital
quartz. In the upper right comer, an
elliptical area of gocthitc, com[)letely embedded within a triangular area of hematite, corresponds to
a "polar" cut ill the extemal part or
the cortex of another nodule tlut is

not included in the thickness of the

thi n section. A still undistu rbed and
porous area of pcdoplasma is visible
in the lower right part of the photograph. It is noteworthy that the
main micromorphological features
of the "iddingsite" grain were perfectly maintained during all stages
of evolution of the nodule: homogeneous crysta1Jographic orientation
(a.s seen in XPL) and the network of
the protoclastic fractures that is a
characteristic fe4ture or all the precursor crystals of olivine observed
in the Koua. Bocca ul tram afic
intrusion.

ATLAS Of MlcRoMORPHOLOG'l' Of MINERAL ALTElIATION AND WEATHffiJNG

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

498
ALTERORELlC AFTER
UlTRABASIC ROCK

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: x 6.3
PPL

~ ::
lOI
0.0 mm

I r,
offers a
detaikd ,ciew or an a\tcrorelic
after an ultrabasic rock in which the
opaque grains of primary magnetite
and the crypto-alteromorphs after
grains of pyroxene arc easilv recognizable. Parts of' the altcromOI"phs,
in the external part of the
alterorelic, wwe replaced by yellowish orange goethitc. The original
secondary pores have disappeared in
this first cortex, whereas in the central area of the alterorelic. this pore
space is stiJl preserved. This first
step of replacement by goethite was
thcn rolluwed bv the formation of
an w1duJating nlicrolaminated cortex, formed by accretion at tbe
expeml~ of the surrouncljng pedoplasma; such accumulation cortices
gi"c to thc alterorelic a progressively smoother t-xternal shape as
the thickening of the external cortex continues. This first microlami-

nated cortex is then followecl bv the

more irregular accretion or external
scales of plasma. which appear as
recl hematite-dominant bancls alternating ,.vith tbe ),ellow goethitedominant
ones. The
proccss
responsible for the alternation of
yellow and red bands arises as follows. Where the peripheral t1ssure
closely surrounds the previousl)
I"ormed lJmina of the ("ortex, the
precipitation or cr)'slallite~ of
goethite occurs on top 01" this last
lamina. The thickening of the cOI-tex
appears to be continuous, and the
microlaminJtion of the cortex of
goethite is only due to the sllccessi"e deposits of pure goethite. But it
may happen that the peripheral Fissure dot'S not eXJctly follow the
last-formccl lamina of goethite. The
fissure then produces a cresccn[jc Or
a more or less thick shell of the surruunding pbsma material, strong I):

PART 4: lITHOAELlCs.ALTHIORELlCS, NODULES AND PlSOLlTH5

buund tu the cortex. The next

deposit of goethite will coat these
crescents and shells, and the now
isolated part of the plasma ",;11 later
be replaced by hematite. The microporosity of these shells of plasma is
much smaller than the open porosit)' or the peripheral nssure; anhydrou~ iron oxide (hematite) is then
preferentially formed in the plasmarich shells, whereas the hydroxjde
(goethite) is formed along the fissure.

385

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

499
IRON CRUST ON
ULTRABASIC ROCK

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 2.5
PPL

10

0.0 mm

soo
GRAIN OF DETRITAl
QUARTZ

Old ferrallitic soil

Koua Bocca.. Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 2 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL

shows an
altcrorelic, most of
which is composed of a \;lrgc grain
of magnetite including, in its externJ] border, some phanto-alteromorphs at'ter pyroxcne and, in its
c.entral part, some small inclusions
of nuw wcathered green pJeonastc
lspinel). These magnetite and
plconaste cumulates ha\'<:.: I'ormed in
the lower part of the ultrabasic
intrusion, and thcy are consequently \"Cry Widespread in all
weathering prollks and iron crusts
uf' the Koua Bocca.

in'~'gular

386

The lower photograph shows a

highly fractured grain 01' den'ital

Cluartz originating !'t'orn a quartz
vein. In the old I'crralitic soils and
iron crusts, quart7.- grains are
weathl'rablc min~'raJs. After a first
stage of breaking, they are slowly
c1issoh'ed along their lTacks, leaVing
O"pf'n intTaminer;d fissures that .1re
cluickly
iniilled
by
brownish
deposits of iron ox yhydroxides. The
quartz grain shown here is slightly
weatbered along its internal microcracks. It is regularly SUITOtmclecl by
a thin continuous PCril)hcralllssure,

as is typical of all rigid bodies iu this

clay-rich material; the peripheral
llssure is interconnected with a net
work of raclially ordered fissures.
The quartz grain was obviously subjected to lTaDSport over J long clbtance, as is proved by it~ rounded
shape and by the: preservation,
within a deep cmbayment, of a
small part or a pre\'1ously formed
concentric cortex (B2).

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

SO I, 502
PEDORELJC

Porous iron crust

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: X 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

'I'
11
1<
red papule
(C3) ""hose internal fabric is
formed by microlaminated clay
inftllings of a now -obli terated pre\1ou, void. Before its i.ncorporation
into the iron crust, the microlaminated clay coatings were concentricall y fissured, par tiall}' dissolved
and subsequently replaced by yellow gocdrite and black manganese
depOSits (C2, C4). This complex
pedorelic is stjll embedded in its
original isalteritic matrix, which is

still recognizable in spite of the fact

that most of it has been replaced by
a gocrhitc-dominant matrix. The
papllle and its sllrrou.nding replaced
matrix \verc later transported,
wruch resuJts in the well-rounded
shape of the nodule. Trus first cortex ha.s later been surrolUlded bv a
more recent concentric cortex,
whose .Jlternating rcd- and yellowcolored lami.nae are clearly seen.
The more external larninae of the
last cortex are bri.dged to the corre-

PART 4: LrrnoRELlcs. ALITRORElICS. NODULES AND PISOUTHS

sponding laminae of the ncighboring nodules. A very porous iron

crust results in which residual,
urundurated and porous volumes of
plasma (D I, E3) are isolated in the
dosed spaces, entirely surrounded
by the interconnected cortices.

387

CENTRIPETAL CORTIFICATION

S01,S04
FRAGMENT
OF CHARCOAL

Upper soil horizon

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.5 m
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0,6

0,4

- 0,2

0,0 mm

'

I'"

are fre-

. CJuently observed in the upper

horizons o[ tropical soils, mainly in
the savannah regions, where the
vegetal cover is regularly burned.
Burned veget:d fragments are regularly incorporated into the soil
material, in which they can comti
tute an appreciable part of the
coarse and sand v fractions. These
organic structures can resist pedogenetic and geomorphological
processes for a long time. They can
survive transport processes and be

388

rounded just like grains of detrital

minerals. The photographs ~how a
well-rounded elUptical fragment of
charcoal which, after a stage of
transport responsible for its round
ness, has been buried to a depth of
half a meter. The organic texturt' is
"ery well presened, and the origin
of the fragment could certain I}' be
identified by a soil scientist special.
i7jng in the determination of plant
residues. Note that <1..' ill the case uf
the hardeT grains of detrital minerals, the plant residue is well

rounded, is rimmed by all internal

halo of impregnated iron oxyhy.
droxides (dark brown in XPL), and
is sUrJ'ollllded bv an external cortex
of goethite formed by accretion at
the expense of the surrounding
matrLx. The internal fabric is perfectly maintain.:-d, although the
original organic material ha~ been
partly replaced by iron bydroxides
(yel.low cellular structure undn
XPL).

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Pro e..'\ ~r de,"elopmcnt (?I the peripheral

culans

stre~.

Alterorelics completely replaced b~' ferruginous

material according to the process described abonc, and
alterorelics that maintain internal textures, gi\'e way to
indurated nodules that arc subjected to pressure COI1straints O\o\-ing to the s\yelling of the: internodlllar
plasma and [l) the higher quantitie.~ of circulating water
around each impermeable nodule. The pressure is not
isotTopicalJy distributed, and is not the same as the
hydrostatic pressure. It is largely direct"d and highest
nearest the rnargins of the hard and incompressible
nodules. Such pressure is responsible for the tangential
ol'ieotation of the particles of plasma with respect to
the periphery of these nodules. These pressurized areas
are ex.pressed in thin section and under crossed polarizers .1S a strongly birefringent halo, which contrasts.
by the preferred orientation of its constinlents, with
the unoriented plasma of the surrounding matrL"X. Such
halos form areas of granostriated b-fabric* (or sO'ess
clltan5*), \\+uch arc only recognizable under crossed
polari7.ers. Thes areas of gr,ll1ostriated b-fabric are
particuladl' well dneloped witf-tin the areas caught
bt:t"wecn two closely spaced nodules.
It is obvious that thjs process can be effecti\-c only
within the ;)rgiJliplasmas, mainly the smeetite-bearing
plasmas, and that it becomes ineffective within the virtl.lalJy inert sandy horizons. There, a!t('rnating variation; of humid.i~- and dryness do not prod~ce any
variations in pressure and volume. As a result of shrink
ae.e, as Juring the dn- season, a circum-nodular fissure
is~ developed al-ouno 'the nodu.le. along. which it is<eparated from the surrounding maoix.
In nodule-rich horizons, the internodular plasrnas
become completely oriented. The circum-nodular fissure is no longer so regular; instead, it veers away from
the nodules, and te_nds to develup preferentially in the
central parts or areas of plasma. \.vhich are torn to
pieces a~d whose frJgments are attached to neighhoring nodules, simulating in this manner a "Lhironic Jiscribution pauern "* (StoOI)S & Jongerius 197)).
If th ... \'olume of the plasma decreases to such an
extent that the nodules are \'er)" closely spaced, the volumes of plasma are reduced to bridges or intertextic*
braces, which link ncighboring nodules. ;\ threshold
.1lso is reached when the nudules become nwnerous
and joined, and when the \'olume of the interstitial
argillaceous matrix is consequently rendered insuffi-

PART 4: LITHORELlCS, ALTERORElICS. NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

cient for cliffen:ntial changes in volume to be recorded

within it.

De e/(Ipmenr
"

11 an accretion COrll'~

In contrast, during periods or dryness, desiccation

promotes tJ1e de\'c.Iopment of open, peripheral, circum-nodular fissures, which faithfully 1'0110\\- the margins (If the alterorelics or nodules and rheir cortices.
Some irregularities may appear fortuitously during.
repeated alternation or swelling and shrinkage. The
peripheral II~sllre, instead of regularly foJlowing the
cortex, may penetrate into it and isolate fragments,
which are soon incOI-poratcd into the surrounding
maD'ix. In contrast, rhe fissure may progress away from
the cortex and incorporate into the nodule .small portions of the surrounding matrix. These isolated volumes of plasma, \vhich are furt.her incorporared into
the cortex by later superposition of new laminae of
goethitc, are expressed as hcmatite-rich intercalation.'>
\\'hich, by their red color, contrast slTongly ,,ith the
homogeneous bright yellow calor of the goethite-rich
replacement ami accretion cortices,

These

pressure-induced

cutans

(stress

cutans*). developed around each nodule, account

for a second ferruginous cortex, which forms, this
time, by a centrifugal process. The microlayer of
reoriented plasma that surrounds the nodule and
that adheres strongly to it is replaced by goethite.
This hard and geochemically st.,ble neoformed
microlayer is, in this way. incorporated into the
nodule. Each newly formed lamina of the cortex
attaches itself to the previous one; as a result, the
total volume

of the

nodule progressively

increases.

The nexr period of desiccation promotes the

opening of a ne\\" peripheral fissure, or contraction
crack, which completely envelops the outermost (t.he
most recent) lamina of the conex and promotes the
opening of radial and interconnected intraplasma
pores. This opening allows, by rl,e continuity or it, network, circulation of water and the deposition of iIluviated materi.11 derived from thl' upper hurizons. A~ soon
as the rains resume, but befc)j-e the pores become
closed by the general .o;welling of the pt:doplasmas, this
peripheral contraction-induced pore-space is inJllled
with new illuviatioi1S or more precipirations of iron
oxyhydrox..ides. These cont.ribute, by their presence, to

389

an jncfeast> in internal pressure on the neoplasma once

the humid period resumes. The illuviation cutans in the
peripheral pore,< rest against the last-formed microlamina of the cortex, become impregnated with iron
oxyhyclroxides, are indurated, and so contribute to the
progressive dlickening of the cortex, whid1 is, at least
in part, developed at the expense of the surrounding
peclophsma. Without these extt>rnal transfers, it is
highly likely that the cortilleation would stop qUickly,
because the quantity of internodular plasma would not
be suHlcient to respond to dle "ariations in internal
pressure and to support further stress cutans*.
These areas of higher pressure are not uniformly
or continuously rustributed around the lithorelics.
They are expected to be thicker in embayments and
thinner against the prorruding parts of the alterorehc.
In this "vay, the successive micro laminae of the cortex
tcnu to progressively subdue the irregularities of the
nodule margins. This tendenc~' explains the increasingly regular and smoother cortices, whose external
maxgi.n becomes more Jnd more circular or elliptical.
After J. sulTicierrtly long period of time, alterorelics
with a subcircular, sguare or triangular section can thus
acquire <1 quasi-perfect circular shape.

Mineral contenc of the accrerion cortex

Grains of resistant minerals, such as magnetite and
"iddingsite", which may have sunived in the IIr5tformed epigenetic* repJacemen t cortex, are not
observed in the accretion cortex. Thb observation
prm-es that the aCLTetion is developed at the expense of
t.he surrounding plasmas, and not at the expense of the
alterorelic itself. The accretion cortex is generally
composed of very thin concentric layers of yellow
goethitc, in which continuous or discontinuous (crescent-shaped) layers of red hematite-rich plasma arc in
some cases intercalated. These intercalations originate
Crom the local integration of parts of the internoclular
pedoplasma.
In conb'ast, the accretion cortices can incorporate
skeleton ltnits, mainly quartz grains, that belong to the
surrounding marrix, and that Ilave an ultimate origin
"cl-y dHTerent from that of U1C indurated alteroUlorphs.
Tht'sL; grains are progressively tl'apperJ and incorporated into the successive microlaminae of the cortex,
In disequilibrium with the iron-rich environment of
the surrounding cortex, these quartz grains commonly
are later completely dissoh-ed; this leaves empty pores
whose shapes arc the only cvidcllce of their former

390

presence. Their di,o-ibution in the cortex, and the fact

that the elongate residual pores commonly arc oriented tangentially to the cortex lineation, prove the
existence of confining pressures around the alterorelics
and, consequently, the formation of the cortex at the
expense of the pedoplasma.
The distinction between the nucleus, which
results from the epigenetic replacement of the
alterorclic, and the accretion cortex, which results
from the incorporation or peripheral pedoplasma, is
relativety easy in the case of nodules derh'ed fTom
alterorelics developed at the expense of basic or ultrabasic rocks. The fcn-uginous nucleus is compact and
homogeneous, ,,-hereas the surroundlng cortex can
contain skeleton grains of guartz originating from the
surrouncLllg pedoplasma<;, \vhose origin is generaUy
more heterogeneous.
In contrast. in landscapes developed O\-er ,1
granitic basement, this distinction becomes difficult,
because the skeleton grains, mainly quartz, are much
more abundant, and present within both alteroreJics
and pedoplasIllas. These skeleton grains are thus
observed in comparable quantities in both nuL"lei and
cortices. O\'ing to the abundance of the skeleton ele.ments and the relative in1poverishment of available ferruginous argilliplasmas, these nuclei exhibit poorly
developed concentric microtextures of cortification,
which are indisti.nct and identifiable only v... ith difficulty. In soils developed at the expense of granitiC
rocks, U1e abunda.nce of the ubiquitous quartz grains
wiulin both lluclei and poorly developed cortices does
not always allow the clear and unegwvocal distinction
between allochthonous cortiHed alterorelics and orulic
concretions formed in situ,

he external shape of the alterorelic. whether

or not completely replaced by a first centripetal
cortex, is somewhat modified by the progressive
increase of the thickness of the accretion cortex,
whereas its volume increases considerably. The
external cortex that surrounds the alterorelic is
developed in a centrifugal manner. and its texture
is generally microlaminated. The external cortification destroys most of the textures of the
internodular pedoplasma from which the cortex
developed, and only skeleton residues are generally preserved.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

SOS,S06
NODULES AND
S-MATRIX

in a soil developed at
an intermediate level
of a slope
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.8 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.00101

T '

nodules
are .embedded in a smectiterich argiUaceous S-matrix of a soil
developl:d on ultTabasic rock at an
intermediate le,-d of a slope. The
matrix contains few grains of detrital guartz 'lnd rare remlla.nts of
heavy mincrak This hori:wlI COIItains numerou~ noduiC's of variom
origin, but the nuclei formed at the
expense of ultrabasie rocks are
more numerous thall those formed
at the expense of gnnite.

Lithorelics of guartz and microgranite \'ein~, with or without ,Surrounding

l'ortcx,
are
very
ablUldant. All the nOlJules (and all
the largest lithorelics, not shown)
arc regularly surrounded b~' a \,,('11dc"elored granostriated bireh-ingence- rahric*, as shown in the
lower IJhotolllicrograph (XPL). nle
granostriation of the S-matTix is
much more wield} developed in the
volumes that are located betvveen
two adjacent nodules, ami mainl"

PART 4: lITHORELlCS. ALTEROREUCS. NODUlS AND PlSOUTHS

where the distance hetween them is

the shortest (13 3-4). II develops
only "ery slightly, or not at all,
around the sDUIJ grains of detrital
minerals. Peripheral flsSU]'l"S ,lre not
"er)" visible, and they exhibit, where
present, an irregular pattern 01' distribution (B-C I - 2).

391

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

507,508
NODULES AND
SMATRIX

in a soil developed at an
intermediate level of a
slope
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvolre
Depth: 0.5 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

['0

I I

I'

,!

of the horizon in

which the nodules are ver)' abundant and the \"01 ume of thl" Smatrix is as a result much less
important, the granostriatC'd hirefringence.fabric may extend to all
parts of the mao-i.x, as shown i.n
thl~sc photomicrographs. In this
Case, the peripheral tlssures usually
observcd, which normally follow
the external margin of the nodules, .

392

arc repla:d by irregular interstitial

fissw'cs and elongate pores located
within the matrix itself, al somewhat equal distances between
neighboring nodules, \"vhere the
rnalTix is less compact. llle volume
of the interstitial matrix is then
c!juaIJy divided betwe["l1 the adjacent nodules. The related distribution of' coarse and line constituents
is somewhat similar, al a larger

0.0 mm

scale, to the chiwnic* distribution

usually observed in sous in \\'hich
the COarSel" un.its are surrounded by
a rind of smaller wuts (Stoops &
Jongerius 197 5).

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOlOGY OF MINEJ\Al AlTEflATlON AND WEATHEJ\ING

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

S09,SIO
NODULES AND
S-MATRIX

in a soil developed at an
intermediate level of a
slope
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: I m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

T'

fI
'I
of
the interstitia.l IIssures and
pores, whose early stages of formation is illustrated in the previous
photomicrographs, results in the
appearance of large irregular pores,
principally distributed in the widest
volumes or matrix. This preferentially distributed internal erosion
results in the preservation of' the
compacted parts of the matrix
located in the narrow spaces

between adjacent nodules. The nodules are finally joined together b)'
braces or relict S-matrix, with simulation of' J arjuric* cJistribution
(Stoops & Jongnius \ 975). The
resulting texture also <.;xhihits some
similarity to the textures observed
in some or the iwn crusb to be
descrihed later (sce photomicrugraphs 548 and 549, for example).
If one inlagines a replacement of the
irregular interstitial pores by more

PART 4: LrrHOREl.ICS. ALTEWREUCS. NODum AND PISOLlTH5

rowlded and smoother ones, and a

hardening of the braces by ferruginous impregnations, the similarit)'
between the two textures wjll
become very apparent.

393

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

il

511,512
CORTIFIED NODULES

at an intermediate level.
in soil
Koua Bocca. Cote d'!voire

Depth: 1.1 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

nodules
contain a well-developed cortoeX around their nucleus. These
nodules are embedded in a sur
rO\lnding argil1aceous S-matrix.
with many graim of detrital guarV:.
These photomicrograf)hs are meant
to illustT,ltl' the regular peripheral

394

fissures that are dearly seen arO\md

each noduJe:nlese J)ssUJ"cs, without
apr)reciable sinuosity, exactly separate the nodule from its surrounding matylx. The nodules are of
allochthunous origin, and have been
triinsl)orted, partially eroded or
even broken, as shown bv the dis-

cordant cortex in the nodule at B2,

and by the isolated Fragment of cortex at E2. Appareotly, peripheral llsSlIlTS are not developed around the
smaller grains of detrital minerals.

ATlAS Of MICJ\OMOJ\PHOLOGY Of MINEJ\AL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

S 13, S 14
CORTIFIED NODULES

in a soil developed at an
intermediate level of a
slope
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1,1 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0,0 mm

"
corrified nodules are embedded in rJ1C
argillaceous S-matrix of a soil developed at an intermediate part of a
slope, The outside of the nucleus
and rJle irreguJarities of the cortex
of ilie central nodule show that
these nodules were formed higher
on
slope before being t-ransported and deposi tecl at a lower
level. All the nodules pho-

uw

tographed, as observed under PPL,

show a well-developed peripheral
fissure. which isolates mem from
the surroundino matrix, Careful
obsen'ation of the nodule-man'ix
contact shows that. in contrast to
ilie noduJes shown in both previous
photomicrographs. the peripheral
fissure is less regular. Furthermore,
thin scales of the mOIT cxt('rnal
laminae of the cortex mal' become

PART 4: UTHOREUCS. ALTEROREUC5. NODULES I,ND PtSOLiTHS

'"

separated and isolated from the

nodule by irregularities of the
pcripheralllssure. The granostrialcd
birefringence-fabric, as observed
under XPL, i,~ only slightly developed around the nodult's.

395

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

515,516
POLAR SECTION
OF A CORTIFIED
NODULE

Lowest colluvial material

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 3.2 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

. show
the "deformed" texture of a
wdJ-formed cortex as it can appear
if it is cut, according to a polar section, by lhe plane of' the thin section. The regular and constant
thickness of the successin~ laminae
of thl: cortex, such as they normaJly
appear ill an equatorial section, are
apparently deformed in a more
excentric seL1:l0n: the mOre internal
the observed lamina, the thicker it
appear;; in the s('ction. Theoretically, only an equatorial section will
be able to show cortex laminae with
their true thickness, and the nucleus

396

should be ,'isible in the c('ntraJ part

of the section. The central circuJar
portion of this concl-etion, as shown
by this photograph, doe.s not correspond to a section across its
nucleus, but to a tangential section
at the level of an internal lamina of
the cortex. This may he proved by
the homogeneity ,111(1 absence of
texture in that central part. The
concentric distribution of the
bernatite-rich scales, which originate (r0111 the incorporation of
plasma material, is clearly seen. The
SL-ales form thin crescents of darkcolot-ed material alternating with

yellowish brown goethite-rich

materiaJ. The successively formed
crescents are randomly rl.i.stributed,
and they appear in any angular position. The thick cortices are commonly fractured by very thin radial
fissures, which cut them into irregltlar pyramidal volumes. The network of these thin fissures is dearly
seen in most of the section. The
lower photomicrogJ-aph shows the
regubr orientation of the goethite
crvstalJites, as expressed by their
birefringence and their extinction ill
a crossed pattern.

ATLAS OF MICRO~loRrHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

517
ACCRETION CORTEX
DEVELOPED ON
ALTERORElIC

Buried iron crust

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.8 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

518
ACCRETION CORTEX
DEVELOPED ON
ALTERORElIC

Buried iron crust

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

'

I1
show
ho\-v alterol-elics, exhibiting
either a rcgu lar or an irregular
shape, can be surrounded by successive laminae of the cortex, which
are progressively more and more
circular in section. The first photomicrograph shows a subequant
nucleus consisting of an ultrabasic
alterorelic surrounded by the regularly concentric laminae of a thick
accretion (centrifugal) cortex. Only

PART

4:

the few first laminae closely folio,,"

the small external irregularities of
the nucleus; additional laminae arc
more and more regular and circular
(as seen in the plane uf the thin section). The laminae of most of the
external cortex are regularly concentric, and do not modify the generaJ shape of the nodule. The second
photomicrograph, 111 contrast,
shows a triangular altcroreJic. AFter
the formation of the inner part of

LJTHORELlCS. At TERORfllCS, NODULES AND PISOllTHS

the cortex, the laminae become as

rounded as is the corte..x of the lirst
example. 'vVhatever the shape of the
nucleus, the external shape of the
composite noduJe seems to be circular, or ver)' nearl): so, in the phne
of the section.

397

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

519,520
ACCRETION CORTEX
DEVELOPED ON
ALTERORELlC

Indurated iron crust

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil sUlface
Objective: x 2.5

PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

that exhibit an oriented petrographic texture and

fabric, as well as alterorelics that are
den::loped From elongate lithorelics,
have a tendency to be surrounded
by a regularly elliptical cortex, as
shown here. The ellipsoidal ;:lIterorelic, as tn the first 01' the previous
two IJhotomicrographs, exhibits a
good sphericity, but with a somewhat irregular and rough external
bonkr. The detail of the sinuosity of
tlle border is followed by the firstformed laminae of the cortex but,
quickly, these irregularities become

398

subdued, and the laminae tend to be

progressively less and less undulating and to sbow an increasingly
smooth and elliptical shape outwanL The alteron:lic, deri\Td from
an ullnbasic rock, is composed of
many crypto-alteromorphs after
clinopyroxcne (appearing brownish
under PPL, reddish under X[JL) ,
and sewral mcso-alteromorphs of
kaolinite after biotite - verrniculite
(pale in PPL, bright white under
XPL), with some interstitial grains
of residual magnetite. The accretion
cortex i~ composed mainJy
lami-

nae of goethite, but tl1e most exter

naJ part of the cortex is abruptly
composed 01' IDany laminae of
hematite, the result of incorpor.1lion of scale.s
plasma within the
cortex dw-ing its accretion phase. As
in the otl1er examples of iron crusts
descTibed in this chapter, the nodules are tangentially linked by
bridges of indurated material, and
relics of original plasma are isolated
in the textural gaps maintained
between the nodules.

or

or

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL At.HRATION AND WEATHERING

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

521
ACCRETION CORTEX
OF GOETHITE

Iron crust
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 10
PPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

522
COMPOUND CORTEX
OF GOETHITE AND
HEMATITE

Iron crust
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 10

PPL

Pili

'1

tl'

shO\r\"

the m.icrolam inated texture of

the accretion cortex formed aruund

alterorelic nodules in an old
indurated iron crust. The first one,
at high magn.ification and wlder
PPL, clearly shows t.he microlaminated t",,,lure of a goethit.e-rich cortex developed around a rdict
nucleus, partly visible in the upper
leh c"rner. In t'he km'-cr right corner, th.ick laminae of hematite arc
due to the incorporation of shells of
plaslll;) near the matrix. The

detailed view shows that the m.ierolaminations, some micrometers in

truckness, arc regularly paralld,
without any incorporation of grains
of detrita.l mineraJ. The gre~' parts,
which appear as slightly shaded
areas in the right part and to the
lower left. are due to the diffCrence
of orientation of the microJam.inac,
wh.ich makes t.I1C hircfringence of
the goetllite more pronounced in
those parts that arc more closely
parallel to the optic planes of the
microscope. These areas should

PART 4: urnoREuCS,ALTEROREUCS. NODULES AND PISOllTHS

appear nearly at extinction under

XPL.
The second photnmicrograpl1
shuws the thin and undulating
microlaminations 01" goethite that
are irregularly interstratiFieo between thick macro laminations 01"
hematite, wluch origin;)tc From the
incorporation of shcUs of plasma
from th", sur1-ounding matrix.

399

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

523
ACCRETION CORTEX
DEVELOPED ON
ALTEROREUC

Indurated iron crust

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 4

PPL

0.6

0.4

.- 0.2

0.0 mm

II'
1 11 shows d
grain of guartz that was trapped
by and partially incorporated,
simultaneously, into the cortex. of
two nearly tangential adjacent nod-

400

ules. The existence of such a brittle.

bridge, which joins together two
large nodules, also proves that these
two nodules have not been displaced after tht' fonnation of their

cortex., ,md that their cortex was

f"rmed in siru by the progressive
replacement of the surrounding
S-rlJJtrix.

ATlAS OF MICRO~IORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATl-<ERING

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

524
ACCRETION CORTEX
DEVELOPED ON
ALTERORELlC

Indurated iron crust

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 1.6

PPL

10

0.0 mm

,.,'" I'
,;
shows a
\'ery thick cortex which, during
its development, incorporated
many grains of quartz originally
included in rhe surrounding Smatrix. Tht' quartz grains seem to
be more numerous at certain levels
of the growing cortex, and the
morc elongate grains seem to have
been rotated in a such a way that
they are now preferentially OJ'iented
parallel to the general Luninatjon of
tbe cortex. That rotation is due to
the directed pressures that develop
in the contact areas between the
hard resistant nodule and the soft

II'III

compressibk matrix. The quartz

grains were incorporated in situ
within the cortex, without any
appreciable displacement; they
were maintained where they were
embedded in the S-matrix, whereas
the fmnt of cnrti!lcation progressively im'adt'd the matrix by an
accretion pmcess. The qUilrtz grains
an: no longer chemically stable in
this olrl iron-rich crust. Se\TraJ
them have been completely dissolved, '-111<1 have given risc to residual pores whose shape exactly
corresponds to the shape of' the disthe
solved grains. The late timing

PART 4: UTHOREUC>. ALTEROREUCS, NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

dissolution of the lluartz. grains,

with respect to the time of cortex
formation, is pro\'cd by the fact that
no gQethite laminae enter the residual pores or coat the;l' internal
walls. Some air bubbles were artifIcially trapped in some pores during
the preparation of the u1in section.

or

or

401

CENTRIFUGAL CORTIFICATION

S2S
ALTERORELlCS IN
COLLUVIAL MATERIAL

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 2.4 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

T .'

I I
of different
origin Jre \'i~ble in this photomicrograph. The right-hand one is
comlJosed of a nucleus formed at
the expense of an ultrabJsic rock,
whereas the one on the left formed
at the expense of a granitic rock.
'vVithin tbe first one. the alteromorphic texture is still evident, with it.'i
opaque grains of magnet;te and its
phylloporo-alteromorpbs
after
oh \'ine and c1inopyroxene now
replaced hy iron oxyh.vdroxides.
The original textwT of th.is first
alterorelic is not modified by the
weathering process, \\'hich has
replaced the secondary silicate minerals by iron oxyb~'droxides. The

402

second alternrelic is composed of

many grains of quartz embedded in
an iron-rich matrix in which the
original texture is no longer idenl;liable. Both altcrorclics arc now
completely surrounded by a microlaminated cortex, hut the cortex
around the ultrabasic nucleus is
much thicker than the cortex on the
oranitic
nucleus. Both cortices are
b
joined by a common bridge that
probably formed more recently,
after the depOSition of the
alterorelics. Indeed, it is highly
prohahle that the first nucleus, originating from the upper paT!: of the
slope (de\'e1oped on u ltl'ahasic
rock), was deposited with its own

\\"eU-formed cortex, whereas the

external pJrt of th~ cortex, which
formed more recently at a lower
part or the slope (developed on
granitic rocb) and which is common to both alterorclics, formed in
situ after the meeting of the
altel-ordics in their colluvial
deposit.

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY Of MINE1\.AL ALTE1\.AnON AND WEATHElUNG

InterwnneClec.l ond bridged nodule

Textu1'O/ modifi otion

in transported nodll/'
Where surrounded by their double COI-tex (internal epigenetic- cortex and external accretion cortex),
these resistant nodules can be exhumed by erosion,
transported along slopes, and deposited lower, in an
environment whose physicochemical characteristics
will determine Uleir future behavior. The conified
nodlJes may becl)mc subjected to possible remcn'al of
iron, disaggregation, and progressive destruction of the
cortices and of the residual nuclei. Note, however, that
additional accretion of material may occur, to increase
the thickness of the external cortex.

DUring their transport along the slopes.

cortex-covered nodules may have been eroded,
fractured or weathered; in this case, the new cortices developed on these fragments are discordant with respect to the accretion cortex of the
first generation.

At the same time, different lithorelics, altcrorcJics

;lIld ('\'en pedorcJics, derinod from slopes of the watershed and with possible different ultimate origins, may
become mixed and concentrated in the lower parts of
the landscape. These can include cortex-covaed
quartz-li'ce nodules derived from ultTabasic rocks,
quartz-bearing nodules derived from granitic rocks,
H:ry finely textured and iron-rich nodu.les derivcd
from ,dusts, and nodules constituted of rnis 'cllaneoLls
papules* cO\'ered by a later cortex. The occurrence of
nodules of mixed origin, of fragmented nodules, uf
cortex-covered resistant ol-ganic residue>, charcoal for
example, and an abundance of skekton* grains and of
graycls of a similar size as the nodules, all may be
encou.ntered in the lower parts of the landscapes.

These mixtures offer clear evidence of the

allochthonous character and of the reworking of
these materials and, in many cases, of their
particle-size distribution owing [0 sedimentary
processes. according to the steepness of the
slope and the distances travelled.

PART": UTHOREUCS, ALTEROREUCS, NODULES AND PISOUTHS

The thickness of the cortices is related to the claymineral content (mainly the content of smectitic clay)
of the surrou.nding internoduJar matTix. [I) the soils of
the upper part of the toposequences*, where kaolinite
predominates, or in the yer)' porous or very sandy
near-surface horizons, pressure constraints are minor
around the nodules, and the cortices are rdatively thin,
or ilTegular, or even nonexiste.nt. [n the more compact
lower horizons, with h.igher proportions of swelling
clays, the constraint cutans and the derived cortices arc
uhiquitous and l11uch trucker.
The thickn",s of these stress cutans* and cortices
is also inversely proportional to the distJ.nce bet>veen
two neighboring nodules. The oriented plasmas, \yb.ich
UJ)iformly sWTound the nodules (granostTiatcd b-fabric*), arc cxtensi\'ely thickened in the .ueas where th.::
nodules are close together. In this way, both cutam
acqujre ovoid shapes whose apicl:'s are ultimately joined
togethc:.:r. A continuous envelope common to both nodules de\c1ops. The induratioD starts preferentially in
these areas of high stTess; as a result, both adjacent noc1ules may bt' surroUJlded, after developmcnt of a certain
thickness of discrete indi\idu.al cortex, b}' a single,
common cortex, which is 8-shaped where observed in
Ulin section. The stress is gradually higher, and the cortex thicker, as boul nodules involved are doser one to
the other.

n this way. two or more nodules can be joined

together by indurated bridges. The local coexistence of several bridges can promote the complete isolation of volumes of Intemodular plasma.

Cvni./1wtion anJ lheIormativn

of concretions
[n additiun to nodules of allochthonous origin,
whose nucleus consists of a more-or-Iess replaced
alterorclic, autochUlOnous nodules also can develop in
siw. Their constituents are derived directly rrom the
pedoplasma and as a result of its incorpOl-ation in the
concretion. This process of concretion formation is
very ditTerent from the prou:ss of cortification
described abo\'c. Concretions do not result from the
deveJo[Hnent of successive microlaycrs around a
nucleus. Rather, thev develop by irregular enlargement
of a tiny concretion, whose volume imTcases by incor-

403

pnrat..iol1 of \'olum~s of pedoplasma and skeleton

grains. The distribution of the.'ic skdetoIJ grains ,dthin
the concretionary nodule is similar to that observed in
the pedoplasma. They are onhic concretions. Differences
i.n extent of iron enrichment, which are expressed by
(ljlTercnces in opacit\", are common. Such concretions
sec m to be surrounded b.y a diHuse halo showing a
decreasing cootcnt of iron oxyhydroxides (depletion
halos). The concretions are more irregularly shaped
than are the cortex-covered altCn)relics described
above, although they abo have a tendency to be ciITUlar in cross-section. If tJle nodules are abuudant, the
true nature of the origi.nal malrix may be difficult to
idcntil"y. since most 01' the rnatrl.\ has been modified by
loss a.ml gain 01' iron oxide.
Where stt'ongly indurated, these nodules m,ly also
be surrounded eitller hy stress cutans showing a welloriented texture and birefringent fabric, or by illuviation cutans. The concretion may also develop around a

404

formerly den,]operl nodule of any composition and

origin. The newly formed concretion forms an external rim a.round the older nucleus or nodulc.llw rlistribution of the skeleton grains \,-ithin the concretion's
rim is similar to tllat of tlle internodular plasma, but it
may be different from Ulat of the central nucleus. Thes('
concretions of pedological origin are also possibly subjected to processes of degradation, involving tlle dcvelopment of rarually or concentrically arranged Assures
and cracks. Loss or iron around the rim and along the
inncl' network of fissure.'i may occur at an advanced stage.
In envirorunents rich in smectitc-group minerals
along the lower slopes, small, spherical, millimetric
concretions of' manganese oxides and hydroxides also
may develop. These Mn-rich concretions may eventually be sunow1ded by a cortex showing accTetion of
ferruginous material. Witllin t.hese lower pranks, they
may be associated with variously sized and shaped nodules and concretions of calcite.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTtRATION AND WEATHERING

FURTHER EVOLUTION

526
NODULE
DESTRUCTION IN AN
INTERMEDIATE SOIL

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0

mm

527
NODULE
DESTRUCTION IN AN
INTERMEDIATE SOIL

Koua Bocca, COte d'lvoire

Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

taken
of the same sample, show the
beginning of the destruction of the
noduJes. The process begins by the
formation and th(, opening of concentric curved internal fissul'es.
which divide the nodule into successive shells and sepJratt' the
nucleus from its external cortex,
The cortex itself commonl)'
becomes broken up into sC\'eral
relics by the opening of radially dis, I

b'jbuted fissures (upper photogTaph). Thin scales and shells of the

cortex may also be progrc-ssi\'cly
incorporated within the Smarrix by
the irregular penetration uf the
r)eripheral fissures inside of the
noduk (I0Wl:], photograph). The
separated parts are progressively
assimilated in the man-ix by dissolution of their iron content and bv
softening or their indurated mater
ial. DiHuse fl'rruginous halos may

PART 4: lrrHORELlCS. ALTEROREl.ICS, NODULES AND f'JSOlITHS

be encountered arow1d such

residues. The largest nodule in each
photograph has already lost pan of
its cortex during a previous step of
degraJation, when displaced a.long
the slope,

405

FURTHER EVOLUTION

518
DISCORDANT CORTEX
ON DISPLACED
NODULE

Fragment of iron crust

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvolre
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 2.5
PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

519
DISCORDANT CORTEX
ON DISPLACED
NODULE

Colluvial lower slopes

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.3 m
Objective: x 2.5
XPL

to the pre,-ious case,

these two nodules underwent an
important displacement after their
cortex hold formed. They were broken, and their surfaces were eroded
before being again incorporated in a
lower calluvial matrix. In the first
photogrJ.ph, the broken nodule is
incorporated into the coIJu\'ial
matrix of thl:' middle part of the
lower slope, where the geocbemical
conditions promoted the formJ.tion
of a ne\v cortex, which is now dis-

406

corda.nt with respect to the earlier

cortt:x on the nodule. Residual
pores after quartz are similar to the
pores previously described.
In the second photograph, the
second cortex, cJiscordant un the
first-formed one, also has been
eroded during a further step of displacement to the lowest parts of the
slopes. During the translocJ.tion of
the nodule, both generJ.tions of cortex, as well as the included quartz
grJ.ins, 'vere eruded in a such a way

t.hat the final shape of the complex

nodule has become smooth and
elliptical. The very sandy smroundinomatrix does not J.llow J. third
D
cortex to form, and the nudule
maintains the volume that it had J.t
the time of its deposition.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAl. ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

FURTHER EVOLUTION

530,531
BROKEN NODULES
IN A LOWER
COLLUVIAL SOIL

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: I m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

11
I1
and broken nodules were deposited in the colIU\'ial material of the lo\\'cr slope,
on which recent soils developed.
The surrounding matrix contains
many uru;orted detrital grains at'
CJuartz. A granosrriated birefringence-fabric is clearly seen around
the spherical nodules (02), around
the broken nodules (A-B2), and

around the fragment.,; of cortex

(0 I, C3). The presence of these
broken nodules and fragments of
cortex and, to a lesser extent, of the
unsorted CJuartz grains, proves that
the complete spht'riLal nodules are
also displaced allochthonous nodules. and thus not autochthonous
pedologiC'al features, formed in situ.
More careful observation on the

PART 4: UTHORELICS,ALTERORElIC5. NODULES AND P150LiTHS

cortex developed around the largest

nodule sho"'.', some discordances
bet\vc-cn its i.nternal microJarninae
(05), wh.ich alsu prol"t~s its
,1!1ochthonous origin.

407

FURTHER EVOLUTION

532, 533
QUARTZ-BEARING
L1THORELIC

Superficial soil
Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depch:O.3 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

/,0

0.0 mm

of
quartz grJins in which some
grains exhibit the undulatory
extinction Ch<lr<lcterist ic of guartz
graiJ1s originating from veins or
from metamurphic intercalations.
The ,:xtemal shape of the quartz
part is very irregular, and exhibits
large embayments, which arc filled
hy a discontinuous cortex. Thi5 cortex probahly' formed, at lea.st in
part, at the expense of altero-

408

morph:> after feJdspars, whose

external shape appears as a very
smooth and regularly rounded sur1:1ce. During the prey-ious displacement of this complex nodule, part
of the cortex was erodeo, wltich
resulted in the slight protrusion of
the hard guartz graillS beyond the
generJl rounded envelope of the
nodule, 'lIld in the subseguent
roundness of the pronudillg guartz
grains. The pedulogical S-matrix is

very porous. The P<lrt <ldjacent to

the nodule exhibits the usuallY
observed gTaDostriated birefringence-fabric. Detrital graim of
bornblende, PFoxcnc and guartz
are widespread in the sw-rounding
Sm<ltrix.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

FURTHER EVOLUTION

S14,SlS
SANDY COLLUVlUM

Lowest part of the slope

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.7 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPl

["
0.0 mm

l 11. \1
11' ofa soil developed
on sandy colluvial-alluvial
material on the lowest part of the
slope, in the vicinil')' of the Tare
River. The coarse fi-action of the
area photographed contains an
alterorehc after clinopyroxen..ittC
(C3), reeognizabl(" by its porous,
brown septo-aJt("rbmorphs after
clinop)TOXene, with a few opaque
grains of magnetite. se\'er-aI morcor-less rounded cortit-led nodules

(E4). and several coarse grain:> of

quartz (E I). The fine sandy material
is mainly composed of irregular or
rounded grains 01 quartz mixed
vvitll some detrital heav\' minerals:
clinopyroxene (A3, and to the right
or the central alterorelic), hornblende (yello\\rish or brownish
grains at 03 and BI) and a curved
crystal of vermiculite (yellow elongate en'stal to the lower right of the
central alteromorph). All these

PART 4: lITHOREUCS,ALTEROREllCS. NODULES AND PISOUTHS

coa.rse grains are uniformly SlU'rounded by a thin cover of well-oriented argilJaceous material. This
particular feature of the soil mater,
ial corresponds to a c:-pical chitonic*
distrihution (Stoops & Jongerius

1975).

409

FURTHER EVOLUTION

536
ACCRETION CORTEX
DEVELOPED ON
ALTERORELlC

Buried iron crust

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 1.6

PPL

["

- "mm

537
ACCRETION CORTEX
DEVELOPED ON
ALTERORELlC

Buried iron crust

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m

Objective: X 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

1 I. 'I
11' I
11
show
several alterorelics whose accretion cortex has become sufflciently
thick to be linked by bridges. These
are formed, firstly, by the jWKtion
at points of contact bet\n~eD two
adjacent nodules, and later, by se\"eral junctions with mon~ distant
nodules while the first-formed

410

bridges arc progressively widened.

On the short term, the curved gaps
between tJ1e bridged nodules are
occupied b)1 the original S-matrix
,"vhieh, step by step, un.dergoes
simultaneolls induration by epigenetic process'5 and formation of
residual pores by material loss. The
second illustration shows, in some-

what more detai I, the contact area

between two adjacent cortices and
the eur\'(~d shape of the more external laminae of the common cortex
(B3).

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAl ALTERAnON AND WEATHERING

FURTHER EVOLUTION

538,539
AUTHIGENIC
CONCRETION

Lowest part of the slope

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.5 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

- 0.0 mm

T'

n
J JI iI' <111 1 pedological feature shown in these illustrations
is an autochthonous orrhic* concretion formed by progressi\'e concentntion of .iron oxyh)'drox.idt;"s in a
part of a qUJ.rt2-rich S-matrix
deposited in the lowest parts of the
landscape. In these colluv:ial sandy
soils, subrounded autochthonous
concretions art' commonly associated with well-rounded allochthonous nodules CA2, AS), which
originate from the upper parts 01"
the slopes. The border- or the con-

cretion is irregular and sinuous, and

the general shape is largely ckpendent on the abundance :lI1d size of
the sand grains, which are only partially trapped in its external part.
The smaller the quarr-J: grains. the
smoother the external envelope of
the conc.retion. Once loo.'cned
from their matrix, such concretions
exhibit a very rough shape owing to
the great nwnber or partially protruding quartz grains. The level of
the ind ur<ltion is Wlewn, because
ferruginous components are not

PART 4: UTHOREUCS,AlTl'ROREUCS. NODULES AND f'JSOLlTHS

equally distributed in all parts of the

concretion. The upper left sector of
the concretion photographed is
much less indurated than its lower
rigbt part. A granostriated bireh'ingence-Fabric and hypocoatings are
observed in the matrix that surrounds the concretion or along the
peripheral llssures. The indurated
parts of the concretion exhibit,
lmacr XPL, the birdringencl> usually observed in well-Clptallized
materials.

411

FURTHER EVOLUTION

540,541
MIXED CONCRETIONS

Lowest part of the slope

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0,3 m
Objective:

x 1.6

PPL

['
0.0 mm

ill lIStr<lte concentric rims of newly

indl.lralcJ u(thi(* material around
early-k1rmed al1ochdlOll0US 17no(cI1ir;* nodules. TIle nucleus, which is

clearly rbtingui,hpd in the cClltrul

part of the mixed concretions, is, in
the noduil' on the leh. composed of
an irregularly cortitkd alt 'n,rclic
conraining large quart.z grains. The
nudcu, of the l1lJdule on the right is

412

l'omposed or a very opaque m'lterial

l'l.Jlltaining few \'eT" small grains of
quarlZ. The'se more-or-less wellrounded nuclei ,1I'e SlIlTOllnded by a
corona 01' more recentl" inrluraterl

external limit of the iron-enriched

areas. III contrast tu the prelrious

(see 538 and 539), sharp

houndaries are observed all around

CJst:

t.hl'

t I\'(I

concretions.

material in which the distribution of

\Jl(' quartz grains is obviously very
similar to thci r rlistribution in the
slLrrounding S-lllJtrix. Many quartz

grains, panially trapped by the concretions, protrude hevolld the

Arw Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MIN'R.~l AlTERATlON AND WEATHERING

FURTHER EVOLUTION

542,543
DESTRUCTION OF
INDURATED
FERRUGINOUS
CONCRETION

in old upper soils

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.2 m
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

T '

illustrate a ferruginous concretion

that t'ormed in ancient soils, now
eroded in the upper part of the
landscape. The luosened concretion
WilS
recenthr embeJJed in the
upper mantle uf colluviurn, which
covers the soils and alteritcs formed
at U1C expense of ultrabasic rocks, at
a somewhat lower Inel of the

toposcquence.The limits of the concretion arc irregular ;lnd poh'gonal.

A peripheral fissure completely surrounds the main part of thl' concretion. whneas some relics of
partially' iron-depleted material
(DE), CS) Jre [)rogrC'ssively incorporated into tl1(' surroundinc:
matrix. Quartz grains now protruding beyond the cuncrdiun werl'

PAR, 4: L1THO!\ELlCS,AlTERORElICS, NODUliS AND P,SOUTHS

prub;lbly entirely within the concretion when its \'olume was more
extensivc. Enlbrionic internal concentric ,1nd radial fissures run
aruund the center of the concre
tion; they ccrtainly will contribute
to it.s further disaggregation.

413

FURTHER EVOLUTION

544
MANGANESE
CONCRETION

Smeetite-rich soil on
lower part of the slope
Koua Boeea, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.5 m
Objective: x 4

PPL

0.6

0,4

0.2

illustrates
a spherical manganese.rich
concretion, regularly surroundeu by
a thin l'elTuginnus cortex. The optically opaque part of the nodule.
which can be likeneu to a nucleus,
exhibits the characteristic rounded
shape of most manganese-rich con
actions formed ",irhjn the smectite-rich soils clen:loped on ba~;jc
and ultrabasie rocks, in the lower
p.lrts of the landscapes. Usua'lly,
basic and ultrabasic rocks have man

4/4

ganese contents higher than do sedimentary or granitic rocks. The

alterites and derived soi Is may show
relatively high contents of manganese oxicles, commonly expressed
as smal.l spherical concretions. The
concretions at a given level are all of
equal size, and usually cia not
exceed a few millimeters, as in this
illustration. These concretions are
usually completely opaque, and they
clo not sho\v ally internal texture. In
most cases, these concretions are

0,0 mm

surrow1ded by a smooth iron-rich

cortex. whose orange calor sharply
contrasts witJ1 the black centrall)art
of the nodule. These nodules may he
"cry abundant and regularly distrib
uted at some !cl'els of the IOpO'
sequences, a.nd they arc cOlllmonly
a.~sociated "",ith or within nodules of
micritic or sparinc calcite.

ATlAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERJNG

C H.I

P T R

16

Bridged Nodules and the Development of Iron Crust

FTHE BHIDGF.D T -XnlRES

The phenomena that promote the development of
between neighboring cortex-covered nodules
can extend to most of the nodules of the horizon; by
the extension of such an intertextic* texture, a tru~
iron crust is progressively developed. All indurated
alterorelics and pedorelics, surrounded by their own
cortices, are linked together by indurated bridges that
exhibit a more-or,le~s banded interoal texhlrc. Interconnected I)ridges and nodules dhide the origina.lly
continuous pedoplasma or matrix into small isobted
Volwlles,
brjdge~

Before the induration of the nodules is complete,

the development of stress cutans is observed in tbe
pedoplasma areas located between two closely spaced
nodules. The..se cutans not only completely surround
the periphery' of the contiguous nodules, but they
become thicker and enlarged, by increased pressure,
within the narrow gap between them. These stress
cutans are expressed, in optical microscopy with
lTosse.d polarizers, as stTongly birefringent an'as. These
areas are the most suitable for further induration. As a
result, indur<lted bridges will form to weld the closest
relics. Mon: and morc relics are progressively linked
together owing to indurated bridges. In this way, volumes of plasma arc ultimately isolated each from other.
Their further evolution can thus be arrested or
delayed. The cortification that devell)ps at their
expense locally b arrested, and can I)roceed on 1;-'
"vi thin the volumes of matrix Ulat <Ire still interconnected, in wh.ich the quantities of argillac:eous pedopbsmas and illuviations are sufficient to promote
pressure constraints.

MI

ROMORPHOLO ,Y

Ln a detailed study <It <I seak- available by optical

microscop)', the c:ortification of bridges seems to be
still more complex. At the contact between two small,
sized nodules, the common cortex exhibits, in the area
of the joining bridge, a sufficiently reduced \-vidtll to

allow its complete, regular and uniform induration.

The bridge is induratcd throughout all its thickness, In
contrast, at the contact between two coarse-sized nod,
ules, the bridge Ulat contains the compres~ed plasma is
rather longer and larger. Consequently, its induration
caD proceed only at the rims of the bridge, which isolates in it.s central area ~mall volumes of interstitial
plasma. These volumes are completely isolated, and
they normally cannot evolve fw,ther. Reconstructed iJl
three dimensions, these large bridges appe<lr as h:1)erboloid volumes, or as double cones opposed at their
apices, with indurated peripherall-ims, but whose ccnn'al part maintains an unindurated \'olume of plasma.
These volumes of plasm<l belong to the first generation. i.e., that plasma whidl, until this st<lge, sWTounds
the entire nodule.
Vv'ith aging, most volumes of plasma th<lt are isolated within the bridges will become eru'iched in
hematitc.. will be indw'ated and will strenothen
the
0
pre\1ously formed and partly consolidated bridge.
Under some circumstances, in contrast, these volurncs
of plasma ",-ill disappear and will be replaced by pores.
The intertextic bridge is then reduced, if observed iD
thin section, to a kind of a "double tombolo*". Within
the external parts of these bridges, the intcrnodubr
areas of plasma, until now interconnected, continue
their evolution, on one lland, by progressive tJlickening
of the bridges and cortices that sU1Towld them and 1 on
the other, by dissolution and slow clearing of the constituent clay miner<lls. A relative concentration of the
skeleton grains, which were originally included in
tJlcse volumes of plasma, is progressively developed.
These gradually indurated horizons may be shallowly buried, near the soil surface; <IS long as most
areas of pl<t>ma remain soft and interconnected, root
sections, charcoal fragments and coprolites may be
observed within them. \,yherc subjected to processes
of superfici<ll weathering, these volumes of plasma may
become exc<lvated and completely emptied. A lowdensity iron-rich crust is then formed in which interconn(cte<.l. alveolar, amoeboid elllpt y pores are
observed. Under conditions of normal burial, how-

ever, these \'ollm1es of plasmJ are !lot removed. \\fith

aging, these residual \'olumes of plasmJ of the first
generation are replaced by skell'tal, sandy and porous
mJteri.us that form a second generation of' pedopla"ma. This latter pedoplJsma exhibits a comp03ition
and a texture \'Cry cliilerent from those in pedoplasma
of the first generation, such as it can still be observed
in the Ct:ntnl part of the bridges.
Around these evoh-ing areas of pedoplasma, the
[Jrocess of cortincation continues. The nodular concentric cortices and the lnnded cortices of the intertextjc
bridges are gradually thickened. The volumes of the
internodular plasma progreSSively decrease wltil they
become ultinutcly isolated and disconnected by the
thickening of the banded cortices and by the obstruction of the connections; they stop their evolution, and
become fossilized at \-arious st,lges of thcir degradation. Tbe last elementary microlayers of the banded
cortices form by accretion upon the previous ones.
The)' are thus microlayers of cennifugal cortiikation
(with respect to the nodules), although the progressive
decrease of the central \Tllwne of plasma, at the
expense of which the thickening of' the cortex takes
place, rJther sugg<:,sts a centripetal process of cortification (\vith respect to the \'olume of plasma).
111e \'olumes of plasma mJy also be indurated
without any obseJ'\'able cortification. They then
become distinguishable from indurJted alterorelics,
from which they are separated by regularly concentric
or distorted handed cortices, on]v by their cliJTerent
colors, hardne;;s, porosity or mic.Totextun:.

The nuclei of all nodules are indurated altcrorelics

of lruscellaneous original rocks, especially in the case
of a Imver-slope deposit, whose internal fabric is generally obscured or desnoyed. Most relics have been
disl.llaced before their weathering and before their
induration. They ,lre commonly goethitc-, hematiteor, in some instances, mmganese-rich nodules. They'
may contain grains of qUJ.rtz and other n:sicluJ] minerals if their origin allows it. These nuclei also contain the
internal part of the cortex, which results from partial,
[.leripheral and centripetal qJigenetic replacement. In
many cases, this internal cortex is composed only of
goethitc, ill which the SJme residual minerals as those
obsen'ed in the nucleus CJn perhaps be included.

The con enlric and interconnected cortice.'i

The ,'oncentric cortices t.hat surround the al terordics
Jnd the handed cortices thJt join them do not exhibit any
signi6cant differences of composition or mic:rotexture.
Both have evolved directly from cllt' internodular pedoplasmas. The concentric cortices commonly c0nsist of
goethite without hematite, whereas the banded cortices commonly. consist of discontinuous lavers
of
.
hematite alternJting with continuous layers of
goecl1ite. The residual minerals that may occur within
these cortices are essentiaLly clHJSe that are observed in
the intcrnodular plasma. After their incorporation
within the accretion cortex, minerals such as quartz, in
geochemical disequilibrium with tl1eir iron-rich en\"ironment, may be completely dissolved, yielding empty
pores.
)

first generation of iron crust is formed

which, later, will evolve, according to its own rules

under the repeated and alternating conditions of
dissolution, of internal displacements and transfers of material, and of recrystalliution, to produce indurated iron crusts such as they are
observed today.

Ultimately, the protonoclular iron crust, at the end

of its evolution, contains four mineralocrlcallv
'='
Jnd texturally distinct parts.

416

The nu ]'i

fhe 1ClraC

I'

lumc? ofpla -ma

The laraE l'Olumcs ~rplasma, in man)' cases, rich in

skeleton grains oC quartz, correspond to more-or-Iess
isolated relics of the pedoplasmas, in which the
alterorelics were embedded before- their cortiflcJtion
began. The composition of the internodular pl<L~mas is
highly variable. it depends on the petrographic and
mineralogkalnature of the parent rocks, on the pedological processes, and on miscellaneous processes of
near-surface origin. They may be argillaccoLls or rich in
skeleton grains; the clay minerals may consist of kaolinite or a member of the smectite group; their content of
iron and of organic matter strongly depends on their
location at the proI1le and landscape scales. These pbsmas may lose their clay-mineral content, either by

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

dissolution or by mechanical tr.msfer. Very porous volumes are the only result, and residual skeleton grains
arc freely distriouted in them.

The mall ,"olumes

vI plasma

The small l'olllmC.I ~r plasma, of U1C same origin as

the larger \'olurncs out isolated in tl1e bridges and cut
ofT from an)' external transfer, "re not involved in tlle
general evolution of the progressively indurated horizon. At the beginning, their composition is similar to
the slllTounding pedoplasma. Subsequently,
that
within the cortified bridges, their composition evoh-es
very 510\" I)', either by alveolization and by formation of
practically closed empty pores, or by addition or iron
and enrichment in hematite. Both types of plasmas, the
~Jrst one fossilized wiUlin the bridges, We second more
or less c\'olved \\ithin the large internodular volumes,
can be observed together in the same sample at the
scale of a thin section.

or

DlSClI, SI
The \'arious textures of the plasmas commonly
observed in the most widespread iron crusts do not
necessarily result from successive steps of replacement
of the ground mass by v.1rious generations of plasmas
(due to pedoturbation, epigenetic replacement.';, dissolution, displacements of materi"l, intern<ll erosion and
infilling). These processes, although often invoked, do
not account for the variations in color, induration,
porosity, microtextures, geocnemical content and mineral assemblages of the different parts of the Iron
crusts, as observed in U1in sections, Instead, U1C appar-

PART 4: LlTHORB.ICS, ALTIRORElICS. NODULES AND PISOUTHS

cnt successive step~ of formatioo or replacement of the

plasmas may simply be due to differential evolution of
the original plasma. Domains of plasma may still be
interconnected (and thus subject to Further evolutioo),
or they may be' isolated by surrounding cortices and
bridges, in which case they are temporarily fossilized,
without fwthef evolution.

he observation of a given area of iron crust

in thin section corresponds only to the "instantaneous" observation of a domain of a complex

material whose various parts are each evolving at

very different rates.

The intermediate steps of e\'olution are only rarely

obscrvable in a single thin section. as it is representative of a very small vol'ume of the material. The
chronology of these intermediate steps can be deduced
only' by careful and o'itical obsenation of large-sized
thin sections, prepared from a series of samples regularly and closely spaced iJl tbe profile. Such observations, at a microscale, usually cannot be performed by
c\i.'eel: observations in the field. Patterns of spatial distribution and genetic relationships cannot be easily
deduced from observations of the profile at the
macroscale. Furthermore, the charactcr of a given
area, either interconnected or isolated, is not obviously
detectable in thin sections, even in the largest-sized
sections. because the interconnections or the separations are vcry complicated, intricate and, in most
cases, perceptible ollly ill the third dimension.

417

CORTICES AND BRIDGES

S4S
EVOLUTION OF THE
RESIDUAL VOLUMES OF
PLASMA IN INDURATED
IRON CRUSTS

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 1.6

PPL

ro
0.0 mm

I
phowmicrograph shows a fragment
of iron crust transporteu dnJ now
bllried in colluyial material. The
fr'lgmcnt of crust i~ slightly
inuuratlxl, and it~ cohesion is due
only to the num",rol1S indl1rat",d
bridges to the aUjaccnt cortilleJ
nodules. These arc spherical, and
they exh..ibit a cortex whose thickness is related to the period of time
during which the lithorelics were
embeddeJ wiUlin a matri.x finorable
to their cortifiCJtion. That cortification has continued at the expense of
the S-matrix, and the last-formed
laminae have bridged. one after the
other, nearly all the nodules
obsC'rved here; the first-formed
bridges (A 1-2) arc slightly wider
than are the more recent bridges
(( I, (4), and several nodu les do
not seem bonded together (E4). In
th..is last case, the contact may be
beyond the plane of the th..in sce

418

tion l but the neighboring volumes

or interstitiul plusma arc stjll interconnected. The- residual i.nterstitial
volumes of plasma are Widely interconnected during the first steps of
the cartiIlcatian. Gradually, as the
cortices grow, the residual volumes
uf pla.sma become smaller and
smaller, and uJtimatel~' more and
more isolate-d . .As long as they are
connected and as long as free circulation llf water allows the cortex tll
grow ut the expense of the plasma,
its evolution is supported, and the
\'olume of plasma progressi\'t'\Y and
proportionally decreJses. The guantitics of \vater percolating among
the nodules bccome proportionally
more and more important, and
many volumes or plasma lose their
clay content and leave a very porous
n:,~iduc composed of sand pJrticles.
As soon as these residual volumes
are completely iSlllated, their evolu
tion fol!m\, a different path, which

consists of their slllw replacement

by hematite. The H,r)' small resirlual
volumes, which appear in the central area of dle briJges, are guick\y
and completely isolated from the
general cI'olution of the residual S
matrix. As soon as they arc isolated,
they are repbcC'd by hematite without passing through a step of ICuching. This photograph cxhihits many
residual \'olumes of Smatrix, most
of ",hich are probably interconnected in the third dimension. Most
exhibit the initial aspect of the
ulltTafL~rormerl matrix.

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WfATHERING

CORTICES AND BRIDGES

546
EVOLUTION OF THE
RESIDUAL VOLUMES OF
PLASMAININDURATED
IRON CRUSTS

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

10

0.0 mm

and th("
next one, show, in sOllle detail,
the mi<::romorphology of the
bridges that bind adjacent nodules.
In particular, they illustrate the
morphology of the residual volumes
of plasma trapped with.in them.
This photograph shows \vide
bridges interconnecting at least four
nodules (1\1, B3, El and E4). The
largc'st nodule, on the left, appears
(in the plane of the thin section) as a
polar section of a still ,vider nodule;
only the external hematitc- and
goethite-rich laminae of its cortex
are. \isible, whereas its nucleus lies
beyond the thin section. The brgest

one on the right is an eguatorial section of a nodule, in which both

nucleus and cortex are distinctly
\isible. The external part of the
main bridge, which binds together
the nodules at B3 and E4, consists of
a continuous thick lamina of
goethite-rich material, which is in
textural continuity with the e.xternal part of both adjacent cortices.
This lamina alternately follows nodules and bridges, and it probably b
continuous o\'er long distances. The
inner part ot the main bridge COI1sists of a volume of interstitial S
matrix, which was quickly trapped,
and which was later rCI)laced by

PART 4: UTHORELlCS. ALrE.~ORWCS. NODULES AND P'SOUTHS

hematite. Traces of the former granostriated birefringcncc-fabric are

still distinguishable where hematiterich and goetJlitc-rich bands alternate. Scales of red plasma were aJ~o
irregularly incorporated into the
nodule during the' formation of its
yellow cortex. Umnodilied residual
voltmH~s of interstitial S-matrL.x are
visible as dark aDd porous amoeboid
island~, at C2 and CS.

419

CORTICES AND BRIDGES

547
EVOLUTION OF THE
RESIDUAL VOLUMES OF
PLASMA IN INDURATED
IRON CRUSTS

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil suriace
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

T .

I
I
I I
shows a
complex bridge that binds two
main nodules (BI and ABCOES) to
a third ant" (02), which is just dsiblc- as a polar section in its external
cortex. The large triarlsJUlar bridge
shows the diJferent steps in the
incorpOl'ation and induration of the
interstitial matrix. At B3, scales of

420

red plasma malTix are incorporated

within the goethite-rich laminae of
the cortex. At C2, indurated yellowish and reJdjsh plasma contains
some quartz, grains. At 03, in an
incipiently replaceJ, reddish brown
\'o[wne, the original textural fabric
is maintained. At B I and E2, vol,
wncs of S-matrix plasma are main-

tajne.d beyond the nodules and the

bridges. The partial leaching of their
cIa: content pl"Omotes the formation of sandy and very porous
residues.

ATlAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATlON AND WEATHER.ING

CORTICES AND BRIDGES

548
EVOLUTION OF THE
RESIDUAL VOLUMES OF
PLASMAININDURATED
IRON CRUSTS

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 1.6

PPL

["
O,Omm

I I III
" I
"I I I
and the
next one, show the marromorphology of a \'ery porous iron crust
formed at the expense of an Smatrix that originally contained
many small allochthonous alterorelics. Parts of the concentric laminae of the cortex that denloped
arOlmd the altcrorclics may have
formed before deposition of the
nodules in the S-matrix. The small
size of the noduJes allows the photographs to show proportionally
wider parts of the iron crust, to
understand the dl/'onology of it5
formation, and to better \isualize
the succes,;ve inheritances and the
evolutionary steps or its components. At the begirming, the S
matrix occupied all the a~'ailablc
volume among the alteTorclics. The
Jocation or the geometric center of
all these alterorelics has probably
not heen modified during all the

further steps in the transformation.

It is an isovolumctric transFormation ~\ithin an Ulldi.sturbed material.
The photomicrograph clearl.v
shows tJle chrono)ogy of the evolution of the indurated iron crust. In
the Il.rst step, all tJle alterordics are
progressively surrounded by a further cortex, which dc\'Clops either
at the expense of the volume of the
surrounding matrix or by cOllcentric juxtaposition or thin laminae
formed
by crystallization
of
goethit( in th(' peripheral fissures.
In tJle second step, as th", size of the
nodules gradually increases, some
of them hecome sufficiently close to
ealh other to allow bridges to form.
Small volumes of S-Djao'ix that ar",
trapped within the bridges (B4. E2)
are slowly indurated by replacement by hel11atite. In the th.ird step,
the first-formed bridges are progrC"ssively widened, and some of

PART 4: LITHOREUCI, ALTIROREUC5. NODULES AND P150UTHI

them may Link several nodules (C3).

Concomitantly, the tota'l volume of
the residual S-mat:rix progressi vel)'
decreases. In the fourth step, as
soon as large bridges that join many
adjacent nodules are formed, the
residues of plasma, which up to this
point were interconnected, suddenjy a.Te isolated (D3), and their
further evolution is suppressed. The
volumes thilt arc still interconnected are suhjected to a leaching
process, b:, proportional increase in
the \'otume of percolating water,
and dley lose most of their day content (CDEl, D5).

421

CORTICES AND BRIDGES

549
EVOLUTION OF THE
RESIDUAL VOLUMES OF
PLASMA IN INDURATED
IRON CRUSTS

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

of the: same sample of iron crust

as in photomicrograph 548 shows
better t.be \'ery porous sandy
residucs after the S-tnatrix has lost
its clay component~. It seems obvi-

422

that these volumes really originate from the original S-matrix, and
not from the jnfjl ling of <l.lIochthonous material into previously
lormed empty coonected pores. In
this latter case, indeed, the inflllings

Oill

certainly would exhibit a conccnO-ic

or a crescentic texture:, similar to
that usually observed in clay
deposits, either in open pores and
Cissures or in biopedotubules.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEI\AL ALTEI\ATION AND WEATHERING

CORTICES AND BRIDGES

sso

EVOLUTION OF THE
RESIDUAL VOLUMES OF
PLASMA IN A NODULEPOOR, BURIED IRON
CRUST

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 1.6

PPL

['
0.0 mm

ss.
EVOLUTION OF THE
RESIDUAL VOLUMES OF
PLASMA IN A NODULEPOOR, BURIED IRON
CRUST

Koua Bocca. Cote d'lvoire

Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 1.6

PPL

show
the evolution of remnants of the
S-matrix where nodules and mab'ix
exhjbit an open porphyric* distribution. The matrix can evolve over
long periods of time before being
d.ivided into isolated volumes hy the
growth of cortices and bridges,
formed around the included nodules. A cortex lint cle\'elops around
each nodule, and grows until the
distance between adjacent nodules
becomes sufficiently small to promote the (ormation of a bridge. A

common and continuous cortex is

then formed around the bridged
noc:Jules. Such a cortex is formed at
the expense of remnants of the
mabix. Each contorted or sinuous
cortex progressi\Tly becomes more
and morc circular in shape as the
thickness of the cortex gradually
increases, and as the volumc of
rcsic:Jual matrix decreases. The
matrix is progressively repJaced in a
centripetal process of cortification.
All the concentric microlaminae
result from a progressive cortillca-

PART 4: UTHORELICS. AUERORELlCS. NODULES AND PISOLrTHS

tion of the surrounding nodu les

v"'hich, previously isolated from
each other, now form a complex
macronodule. From a genetic point
of view, all cortices arise by true
centrifugal accretion arowHJ nodules, and not hy centripetal replacemenLThe pattern of evolution of
the remnants of matrix, once completely isolated, is developed as pre\'iollsl} describeu.

423

CH.UTE R

17

Pisoli ths in Ba uxi te

Beneath laterilic plateaus, whose bau;<itk cover

cmibits isalteritic or alloteritic textures, a different
type of bauxitic crust is commonly observed. It
exhibits a very dlaracteristic pisolitic tex.ture, and a
practic<lll~ constant habit. This kind of bauxitic material is mainly characterized by the abunda.uce of
pisoliths, which are spherical nodules, typicaUy lour to
eight millimeters in diameter, composed of an untexrured and homogeneous nucleus uniformly surrounded by a more-or-Iess regular cortex. The
interstitial \"olume between the pisoliths consists of a
very fme-sized, indurated and generally featureless
matrix. The pisolitic bauxite,;, where they have not
underg0l1e further degradation, are compact, and vary
from red to re<ldish browo, the nuclei of the pisoliths
generally showing a slighuy darker color ulan the inkrstitial matrix. In a given sample of induratecl bauxitic
crust, most of the pisoliths arc equally sized, exhibit a
cortex of constant thickness, and are homogeneously
djstributed.
~
"
Most examples of pisolitic bauxite are strongly
indurated. Their mineralogical composition is relatively uniform; they consist of an intimatc mixture of
bohmite and hematite. Gibb:iite and goetrute are rarely
encountered in undegracled pisolitic bauxites, and
residual OlLnerals (kaolirute and quartz) are practically
never encountered. Pisoliu\S can be so abundant that
where observed on a cut sample of rock or in thin sections, the hau;xitc seems to be composed of closely
spaced, practically joined pisoliulS separated from each
other hya minor amow1t of interstitial matrix. Nevertheless, even in the case of very closely spaced pisolihs,
polygonal sections of pisoliths and common cortices
joining neighboTing pisoliths are never observed. These
textmes and compOSitions are typical facies of the
pisohtic bauxjtes.

Detailed field and labor(ltory studies have produced pertinent data about ule mechanisms involved in

the formation of pisolitic bauxhe (Boulange J 970,

1984, 130cquier el af 1983). These mechanisms of
formation are determined by the reciprocal and ,)\'erlapping intlue_nces of micrornorphologica.\, mineralogical and geochemical processes. In subsccluent
discussions, the geochemical processes responsible will
be only alluded to brieHy, (lncl the description of the
mechanisms involvcd ,,,ill be reduced to the minimum
necessary for an easy understanding of the micromorphology of both undisturbed or degraded pisolitic
bauxites and of their lateral distribution in the landscapes.
Residual latel"itic bauxite, which caps the highest
plateaus, is characterized by relatively uniform and
macroporous crystalliplasmas of gibbsite and hemalite,
in some cases associated with minor amowlts of
goethite. In the opinion of the abO\e-menlioned
autl10rs, tbe formation of pisolitic bauxite results from
the late in siw transformation of isalteritic or alloteritic
ferruginous bauxite by geochernical processes, variable
in terms of time and space, and which ilre responsible
for alternations of LnCI'Casc and decrease of ule iron
content of the residual bauxjte.
In a first step, relict nodules of lateritic bauxite are
formed by Ule progressi\"C replacement of the macroporous gibbsitc"rich crystalUplasma* by an internodular
blihmite- and hematite-bearing plasma wbose microPorosity" has favored the destabilization of the b9ibbsite
and its replacement by ule relatively less hydrated
bOhmite. In u1is way, residual nodules are formed from
a residual aluminous and ferruginous bauxitic crust, by
centripetal concentntion of iron. These reJiC1 nodules
thus become completely surrounded by a bohmitebearing and iron-rich internodular pla~ma. Note that
this progressi\e transformation is performed in situ
without any crumbling or decrease in the hardness and
compactness of the bauxitic O"ust. AIJ parts of the rdict
nodules m.1Y finally disappear in favor of the inter"
nodular plasma, which progressively extenJs throughout the' entire volume of the original bauxite.
During a second step, wruch can be synchronous
with the first one, new nodules if plasma are formed by

internal diff"Tentiation within this bohmite- and

hematite-I-ich internoduJar plasma. -nlese nodules are
roundish and ex.hibit the habit and ~ize of we nuclei of
the later-formed pisoliths. They are slightly more ironrich than the internodular plasma.
During a third step, a new pr()ces~ of nodule formation leads to the redistribution of the iron and to all
In(mnodular d!fJerwrimion by centrifugal concentration
of iron. If the centnJ part 01' the nodule is completely
iron-depleted, the bohmitc itself ca.n be destabiJized
and replaced by new crystallipJasmas of gibbsite. mtel
nally zoned nodules an:: formed, around which a peri.
nodular void is progressively den~l()ped. This void may
be responsible for Jater destabilizalion of the internodular plasma aDu later transf'ormation of its bolmlite
content into new generatiom of gibbsite. Iron-rich
perinodular c()rtices are progressively formed around
the nuclei of the nodules of plasma, and true characteristic pisoliths are flnally formed.

FORMATION OF PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

(AFTER BOULANGE

1984)

PisOlitiC bauxfte may form at the expense of

either isalteritic or alloteritk baUXite. In either

01."'1 RlBLJTTO

IN THI;

NDSCAPE

The mode 01' formation of the corti fled pisoliths

shows some analogies with the themes developed in
previous chapters concerning the formation of the cortifled nodules and their evolution in the pedoplasmas.
In light of the discussion that came before, explanations
can novv be given abollt the formation of pisolitic
bauxjte.
The chronological development of the successive
steps involved in the formation of pisoliths and pisolitic
bauxites, and of their specific distribution in the landscapes, is given below to aliow the reader to get a better understanding of the geomorphological and
mio'omorphological processes involved, both at the
scale of the landscape and of the thin section.
Geomorphological and sedimentary processes are
described here as being the dominant controls on the
chronology of the events involved in the formation of
pisolitic bauxite, even though geochemical processes
also are J'esponsible for details of the formation and
developme.nt of the observed microtext1.lres.
This short section will be \Hitten with fewer'
details than the former ones. Geomllrphological observations !ieem sufl-lcic-nt to provide the general basis of
the origin of these pisolitic bauxites.

case, the transformation involves the degradation

of bauxite in a fluctuating geochemical environment, in which iron is in some instances added,
whereas in others, it is lost. The transformation
influences, at the same time, geochemical, mineralogical and structural aspects of the assemblage.

Remark The proposed explanations result

from careful observations of thin sections of the
author's own collection, and of many additional
thin sections of pisolicic bauxices from Coce
d'lvoire, kindly placed at his disposal by B.
Boulange.

In parallel, there are adjustments concerning the

nature of the hydroxide of aluminum.A transformation of gibbsite to bohmite accompanies the
net addition of iron, whereas the converse transformation accompanies the net loss of iron. Inasmuch as migration of iron and modifications of
minerals are important, the formation of pisolitic
bauxite also has a structural dimension. Nodules
and concretions are degraded in a centripetal
fashion in an environment of iron loss, whereas
nodules form and accretion on the cortex occurs,
with centrifugal migration of iron, in an environment in which iron is added. The formation of
pisolitic baUXite, therefore, is the result of a
degradation, accompanied by the formacion and
evolution of glaebules*, at the expense of either
isalteritic or alloteritic baUXite.

426

n ion oj th..: bau.\ir-ic prujiles

Beneath the lateritic bauxitic crusts that cover the
tops of the plateaus, developed in some cases Over a
thickness of ten to fifteen meters or more, a very thick
and poorly indurated alloteritic or isalteritic weathered
mantle is generally observed. It developed by the
weathering of' schists and various metabasic rocks that
constitute the volcano-sedimentary basement of most
bauxitic plateaus of the Cote d'lvoire. Diabase also was
observed, for example. in the complex basement of the
Ol'Umbo Bocca (Boulangc J 984-). Subjected since the
early Tertiary to strong weathering and p1"Ocesscs of
erosion, such areas of bauxite have been progressively
reduced to the stlte of residual plateaus. On their
slopes, and under a more recent cover of colluvium,
trunc<lted isaltelitic horizons are observed. whereas
near the top of the slopes, the very thick bauxitic crust

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MfNEI\AL ALTEI\ATlON AND WEATHERING

forms a subvertical and subcontinuous cJiff, some tcn

meters high.

Deposition C?I" clayey material

Oll the: slope.
Processes of erosion are responsible For the
removal of enormous volumes of subjacent loose alloteritic and isalteritic mateliaJ.s, originally protected by
the indurated baLLxitic cOIer. These materials were
spread out on the slopes of the residual plateaus. Several successive pedogenetic processes have acted upon
these materials. The resulting kaol.i.n.ite-rich colluvium
has the dark red coloration characteristic of soils anel
near-surface materials developed under humid tropical
conrntions.
Si.milar processes of progressive and continuous
erosion have led to similar results over very long perioels of time. Red materials, more recently cleared off
from the level just below the indurated bauxite (and
thus not indurated), are now visible in proximity to
some cliff of bauxite near the summit. Tbese reworked
materials are actively used either as pottery material
for their high clay content, or as support for cacao
plantations owing to their fertility and favorable texture. These red kaolinite-rich materials are generally
very homogeneous and well sorted. Tbey only contain
very small red papules* and small bauxitic or ferruginous relics. The sand fraction of this material, derived
from the weathering of schistose volcano-sedimentary
rocks, is very minor or nonexistent. Some horizons, at
a depth of one to two meters, although not indurated,
are not used for pottery because they contain abundant
pisohtic nodules.
These spherical nodules have formed in variable
quantities depending upon the local conditions of
drainage, the composition or texture of the colluvial
material, and the depth of the Don-eroded subjacent
autochthonous material. It is likely that similar clayey
deposits, \vith similar pisolitic nodules, have formed
during the Tertiary along all the slopes around the progressively diminishing near-summit bauxite. Over this
long period of time. these deposits have progressively
disappeared by erosion either before or after their
induratiou. Only residual indurated blocks are noW
scattered on these old surfaces.
Within a given volunle of the slope cover, the
argillaceous red material is uniformly textured, and its
composition and properties are very constant. This is
the reason why, upon appearance of nodules in the
material, the distribution, the size and the shape of the
nodules are similar. Nodule formation starts w'ith a

PAFO" 4 ; LITHOREUCS. ALTEAORELIC-S, NODULES AND P1S0LlTl-tS

small centripetal increase of the iron content at the

expense of the iron contained in the internodular
malJ'ix \vhich, as a result. becomes slightly irondepleted. Since the average iron content of the original
material is relatively high, the threshold of induration
is quickly rea.ched. All newly formed nodules are small
and equal in size, and the difference in calor is small
between the slightly Fe-enriched nodules and the
slightly Fe-depleted internoduJar material.
As soon as tillS induration threshold is reached,
regular cortices fonll all around the previously formed
nodules. As is the case with the residual nodules
described earlier, accretion cortices have developed
around these indurated noduJes at the expense of the
red and unindurated interstitial matrix. As the material
and the process involved are similar, the thickncss of
the cortices developed around all the indurated nodules is similar. A first type of indurated pisoliul, each
one containing a distinct nucleus and a cortex, has been
formed during this first step of formation of the future
pisolitic baLLxite. Tbe indurated pisoliths are regularly
disb'ibuted vvitllin an unindurated clayey malJ-ix.
THE CLAYEY PARENT MATERIAL

Thin sections of such a clayey matriX, from

the author's own collection. were recemly swdied by R. Boulet. a pedologist with ORSTOM, who
has given the follOWing micromorphological
descriptions.

Arrangement: The arrangement varies

from agglomeroplasmic, or micro-aggregated. to
porphyroskelic\ with all possible intermediates.
The micro-aggregated domains consist of roundish
elementary aggregates (50 ~m across) commonly
grouped in larger and more angular aggregates
(250 ~m across). The porphyroskelic domains are
crisscrossed by numerous thin polyconcave
fissures.
Skeleton; It is a very componem minor and
composed of a few quarcz grains (10 to 500 ~m
across). part of which is commonly corroded.
Plasma: The red-colored plasma is very
finely granular in PPL, with ortho-bimasepic* oriemations in XPL. Plasma separations (oriented
striations) are Widespread within the plasma and
also (they are the most distinctly observed) around
the micro-aggregates. Within the porphyroskelic
domains. the plasma separations delimit circular
domains whose diameters vary from 50 to
150 ~m.
PedoJosicaJ featuJ'es; (a) Orange-colored
argillans. well oriemed in XPL, with a rolling extinction. are mainly concemrated in few domains.

427

some of which have a biological origin. (b) Rare

gibbsite-rich pedorelics appear with opaque
plasma in PPL. which appears dark red in XPL
(with condenser lens). Some opaque grains (magnetite) are observed. (c) Ferruginous concentrations occur. locally with diffuse margins in the
vicinity of voids (quasiferrans*). Hydromorphic
characters are weakly and locally developed.
Voids: An interaggregate porosity is well
developed in the micro-aggregated domains.
whereas in the porphyroskelic domains. the
porosity is much less developed and reduced to
fissural polyconcave voids.

b' IUfion o(the clayey material

Both pisoliths and matrix in these old, soft, nodule-conta..i.n.ing, near-sw-facc materials can later bc
completely Lndurated (to give piwlitic ba\L'Xite of the
first generation); in contrast, they may have been
newly eroded, transported downward and deposited
on thl" lo\",,-c'l' part~ of the slopes, After having been
indurated, they fm'm pisolitic bauxite of a secund gencrJtion. During this later process of erosion, pisolitk
nodules arc "cleaned" and separated from thei.r soft
matrix, the-y are transported, eroded, they may be broken into pieces. and mixed together with other
pedol-eHcs or other fragments of baux..i.te. Many
pisoliths, when denuded and exposed to surncial
processes, arl" cut by radjally or conceotrically
arranged fissures tbJt facilitate their later fragmentation. All bave lost their surroundi.ng soft matri x. The
mJteriJI that is deposited down-slope may be enriched
or depleted in pisoliths reldtive to the original material. The pisolitic hauxites of the second generation
seem to be much more widespread in the landscapes
than the pisoliLic materials of the nrst generation,
whose occurrence is restricted to small areas irregularly distributed around the bauxitic cliffs of the summital plateaus.

closcl)1 spaced and uniformly distributed i.n ba\Lxite of

the first generation, the pisolitb observed in bauxite of
the second generation are heterometric, and most of
them exhihit broken cortices and even broken nuclei.
These fragments are sUI-rounded by a new aggradatiol1
cortex, which is now discordant on the relics of the
cortices of first generation that were spared during the
b-ansport of the individual pisolith. The pisoliths may
also be mixed \vith indurated relics of different matedais. In some cases, large munded fragments of
pisolitic ha\Lxite of the- nrst generation have been
observed within pisolitic bauxite of the second generation. In pisolilic bauxite of the first generation, the
pisoliths ma), be more nwnerOllS, as the)' are closely
spaced or even touching each other, whereas t11eir distribution is generally more dispersed and irreguLu i.n
pisolitic bauxjte of till" second generation. Regularly
shaped pisoliths newly formed in .lieu may develop
\vith:i.n t.he secondary material before its latel- i.nduration. These are mixed with previously formed pisoliths
and pedorelics. Two similar familie.~ of pisoliths thus cm
be encountered in bauxite of the second generation.
Regardless of their nature, thl: pisoljths of the flrst
generation, once they are embedded in bauxite of the
second generation, never exhibit n"aces or relics of the
original interstitial matrix attached to their cortex.
This observation shows that at the lime of their erosion
from the l'irst-pisolith-bearing horizon, the interstitial
matrix was soft and unindurated. This propert),
allowed the cleaning of the external surfaces of the
transported pisoljths. It is only much later that the
pisolitic horizons of the fi.rst generation (th0se not
removed by erosion), and those of the second generation (which were formed at the expense of tbe firstgeneration piso[iths), become well induraterI by
replacement of the kaolinite content of' the interstitial
matrix by a b6hmite-rich material a.ssociated with uniformly distributed hematite. This hematite gi.ves the
bauxite its characteristic red coloration.

Pnifile of the pisoJitic bauxite

Pro e, s '?f induration and development

<?lpisoJitic ballxit(
The fw"ther induration of the internodular matrix,
i.n the pisolitic material of either first or second generation, gi\'es way to piSOUlic bauxite by weathering of
the kaoli.nitc content of tbl" material and its replacement by bi:ihmite, in these finely porous and practically
anhydrous media. The iron hydroxides are converted to
hematite. The i.l1durated pisolitic bauxite of the first
generation and that ot' the second generation are not
identical. Whereas all the pisoLths are of equal size,

428

All OCCUITences of pisolitic bauxite, which a.re

essentially dc\'eloped from collu\'ial materials, are now
observed as d..i.scordant bodies re$ting upon subjacent
alterites and rocks. A gap generally exists between
these lower in siw materials and the allochthonous
pisoUtic bauxit.e. at the top of the profile. Transitional
borizons between the $aprolite and the pisoLitic bauxite are never observed. The gap corresponds to a phase
of erosion that has notched the basement headward and
that preceded the deposition of materials derived
upstream.

A1l.AS

OF MIC~OMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTffiAnON AND WEATHERING

Most of these occurrences of pisolitic balLxite are

now dismantled. Blocks and boulders of more or less
degraded pisolitic bauxite arc scattered on the upper
parts of the slopes developed around the remaining
plateaus of latcritic bauxite. The pisolitic bauxite,
which is also a very old near-surface formation, has
been actively eroded since the Tertiary. New erosional
glacis* have been formed beneath and downs lope of
the pisolitic horizons, whose relics are now scattencd
either on the slopes of the main baUXite-bearing
plateaus or on the top of the surrounding residual small
hills that tbe pisoljtic bauxite has protected from erosion on tbe short term. A gap always exists benveen
residual lateritic bau,"-.ite and pisolitic bauxite, either
laterally in the landscape or verticaUy in the profile.
The author has never observed tralIsitional bauxite
whose texture, composition and mineralogy could be
directly understood without the external and successive interventions of geomorphologicaJ processes.

hematite content is high. Most nuclei arc compact and

unRssured. N e\'ertheless, in the case of pisn!itic bauxite of the second generation, many nuclej are cut by an
irregular netvvork of radialllssures, in some cases combined with incomplete concentric fissures, in which
thin crystalliplasm<l.s of gibbsite may be observed. The
minerals present, as determined by X-ray-diffraction
analyst'S. are bi.ihrrute and hematite. No residual minerals or alteromorphic textures are observed.
Thin sections of pisolitic bauxite are commonly incompletely impregnated by synthetic
products because (a) the nuclei are protected by
the practically impermeable cortex, and (b) the
interstitial volumes of matrix are protected by the
numerous closely spaced pisoliths. A second
impregnation is always necessary before grinding
the surface of the slices_

The corr-ex
Ml'RQMORPH
The microtextures of undegraded pisolitic bauxite, of either the first or the second generation. are relatively simple and constant. The hematite content of
the pisoliths and of the interstitial matrix is commonJy
so high, about 20% Fe10j for the whole bauxite
(Boulangc 1984), that the bauxite appears practically
opaguc in thin secrion. It is necessary to greatly reduce
their thickness to enable the obsen'ation of the textural
details of both pisoliths and internocltdar matrix.
In contrast. these tex.tures are clearly observed in
iron-depleted bauxite (sce below), in which the F('10j
content decreases to about 4%.The Al 1 0 3 contents arc
50 and 65% in original and iron- depleted baLL'Lites.
respectively. The rotal SiOl contents, which arc related
to the amounts of primary and secondary minerals that
have survived the formation of b6hmite and the degradation of gibbsite, are less than 4 and I %, respectively
(BouJangc 1984).

icromorphological observations indicate

that the pisolith normally consists of an untextured spherical nucleus surrounded by a continuous. regular. microlaminated cortex.

Th nucleus
The nucleus is generally opague and apparently
homogeneous at the scale of observation a\'a.ilable in
optical microscopy. It is strongly inclurated, ancl its

PART 4: l..JTHO~ElICS. ALTE~ORElICS. NODULES AND P,SOllTHS

The (orte.\ t.hat surrounds the nucleus is regular,

and very finely laminated. All pisoliths of a given bed of
pisolitic bauxite of the first generation generally
exhibit a cortex of comparable thickness, \yhereas the
pisoliths of bauxite of the second generation can
exhibit a COl11lJound cortex of variable thickness. The
cortex also is composed of !J6hmite and hematite, but
with a small proportion of goethite, which gives the
cortex a more brownish or yellowish brown hue than
either the nucleus or the matrix. Gibbsite is onJy
observed as an ilJllling of radiall)' or concentrically
arranged fIssures, which develop by degTadation of the
originally compact pisoJiths. In contrast to the cortices
developt'd around the nodules dt'scribed in a previous
chapter, the cortices of pisoliths do not contain any distin.guishabJe feature originating from the internodular
matrices. The cortices that surround a radiall)' fissured
nucleus are not necessarilv Il.ssured themst'1ves unless
they arc surrounded by a more recellt cortex of the
seconu generation. In this case, the fissuring is concordant and continuous through the nucleus and the residual internal cortex. Fissures Seem to have dey-e1oped
before the formation of the aggradation cortex of the
second generat.ion.

The inlernoclular matr;.

The internoJular matrix commonly exhibits a
microtexturc ver} similar (coJor and degree of induration excepted) [Q that of the nuclei of pisoliths. It is
bomogeneously colored ill shades of reddish brown; it
has a lov,- porosity, and is not fissured, [t does Ilot contain other features than pisoliths. Only the matrix of
pisolitic bauxite of tbe second generation possibly

429

contains some different features, such as relics of ironrich or baux.itic crust.~ and ferruginous or gibbsitebearing phaotomorpbic residues. There is no trace of a
gl'anoso'iated b-fabric*, The matrix also is bohmiterich, hut the hematite content is generally lower than
in the nucleus.
The detail of the microtextures of both pisoliths
and internodular matrix can only be clearly observed,
by optical microscopy and with thin sections of usual

430

thickness, in the samples that have begun degrading by

selective leaching of their opaque components (i,e"
iron-bearing minerals such as goethjte and hernatite).
The colorless and o'ansparent bohmite-rich fabric
allows the details of the Ilucrotextmes, fissures, infilliugs and micro laminated textures to be clearly
observed. All these textures are not affected or modified during the general bleaching of the bauxite, at least
during the first steps of it.~ evolution.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTThATlON AND WEATHE1\ING

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

552,553
RED ARGILLACEOUS
MATERIAL

sampled near the hill top

Diedka Bocca, Cote
d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x I 0

PPL and XPL

0,2

0,1

0.0 mm

ill' ",r
"I
material was
sampled near the summit of the
plateau, downstream from the
autochthonous bauxite at the summit, and upstream with respect to
the (lrst observed outcrops of
allochthonous pisoLtic bauxite,
which occurs on tJle slopes. Its
topographic location, grain size,
mineralogical composition and
color arc such that this material can
be reasonably considered, before its
later induration, as the parent material of the pisolitic bauxite of the

PART 4 : UTHORELlCS,

AiTEJlORElICS,

first generation. The thin section is

shown to demonstrate the similarity
of this material \vith the material of
the next illustration of pisolitic
bauxite. In the lower part of this
profile, at a depth near 1.5 m, a
nodular horizon appears in which
many
autochthonous
rounded
pisoliths al'l;' developed. At the
beginning of their formation. these
pisoliths do not contain a cortex,
and they exhibit only the inner part
(nucleus) of the later-formed
pisoliths, Once better developed,

NODULES AND P'SOUTHS

they get a progressively thicker

microlaminated cortex. Samples of
that nodular horizon were taken,
but unfortw13tely, o\\iog to their
lack of consistency, they crumbled
during their transport, and no thin
section could be made. More
detailed explanations of this argillaceou~ material are given in the main
text.

431

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

SS4
PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

Lakota, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface

by B. Boulange
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

11 Illr I
.Ilr
I
and the
next onc, show a typical
pisolitb, of tbe type commonly
encowltcred in the bauxitic crusts
that cov<'r the lower part of the
slopes around isalteritic or alloteritic bauxite near the summit. In
t.he same way as a cortex may
develop around hard indurated nodules in hol'izons of loose clay-lich
soil (sec t.he previous photographs),
a cortex may also develop aroW1d
nuclei in the fe!Tallitic and soft red
material, at the e""pense of which
pisolitic bauxite is fOTmed. A typical
pisoJith is composed of a rowld
nucleus that is reguJarly surrounded
by a microlaminated cortex. The
pisoliths are included in a continuous and homogeneous mab-ix. In
undisturbed pisolitic bauxite, all
components, fluclei, cortices and
matrix are densely colored by
hematite impregnations, and very
thin sections must hl" prepared to

432

make them sufficiently transpal-ent

for opticaJ examination. The aluminous support is generally b6lunite.
The cliameter of the pisolith.s usually
observed is around 5 mm, but
larger ones may occur.
The inner nucleus, whose
internal fabric is generally obscured
hy the opacity of the dark rcd mat... rial that composes it, is generally
dilrided into polygonal vo]ume~ by a
radial network of interconnected
open fissures. The densit), of this
network is commonly greater in the
peripheral area of the nucleus than
in its centnl area. 1n undisturbed
pisoliths, concentric fissures generally are flOt developed. The radial
fissures may have become infilled by
microc,ystalline gibbsite_ The cortex is generally thick, and its thickness is generany slightly less than
tile radius of the nucleus. The cortex. is not fractured, either by radial
or bl' concentric fissures. It is

micro laminated
and generally
homogeneously textured all across
its thickness. Double or tripk cortices of slightly different coJor are
obsened in some instances, as in
the present case. In the typical
pisoliric bauxite, the nonporous
interstitiaJ matrix is homogeneous,
does not contain grains of den'ital
minerals, and is not separated from
the pisoliths by a peripheral fissure.
The matrix also is indurated, as are
the pisoliths. A1I these general
descriptions may have a number of
loca! exceptions.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

sss

PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

Lower slopes of the

Diedka Bocca.
Toumodi. Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 1.6

PPL

l"
::

0.0 mm

11
'11 I
I shows the first
steps of the slow degradation of
a sample of pisolltic bauxite. Tbe
degradation may follow one of three
different pathways but, in most
cases, all three operate together: (I)
(Lscoloration by removal of the iron
content of the bohmite-bearina
material, (2) alveollzation of the'"
matrix by removal of loosened solid
material, and (3) crystallization of
gibbsite at the expense of the bohmire. The degradation is generally
more advanced in the interstitial
matrix than in the inner part of the
pisoLths. At the right edge of the
photograph, part of the dark red

PART

4:

bohmite-rich matrix has been discolored and replaced by very

porous iron-free b6hmite. That
transformation does not affect the
pisolith. The nucleus of the pisolith
has not undergone any tr<msfonna
tion, and its opacity <md its network
of Ilssures are not (ljsturbed. 1111"
rnicrolaminateci cortex is only I)artially disjointed by a discontinuous
concentric open fissure, which
divides it in irregular scales. In most
cases, the development of the discoloration process is strongly inllueneed bv textural distributions.
Matrix material is preferentially discoloreo; consequently, dark red

LrrHOREUCS, ALTEl\OREUCS. NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

pisoJiths may be maintained within a

whitish cliscolored matrix. Samples
of bJuxite in which pisoliths are
preferentially ciiscolored arc much
rarer. The cortex that surroLmds
them probably offers resistance and
an effective protection against the
internal discoloration of the
nucleus.

433

PISOUTHS IN BAUXITE

556
PARTIALLY
DISCOLORED
PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

L.ower slopes of
Kokumbo,
South-central Cote
d'lvolre
Sampled at soil surface
by B. Boulange
Width of the label: 2 cm

557
PARTIALLY
DISCOLORED
PlSOLlTIC BAUXITE

Lower slopes of the

Dietka Bocca,
Toumodi, C6te d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 1.6

PPL

["
0.0 mm

is a
macrophoto of a polished slice
of a sample of partially discolored
pisolitic bauxite. It shows theirregular distribution of the discolored
areas. The original bauxite was uniformly dark red in col or, and the
slightly darker pisoliths were- barely
distinguishable from their surrounding matrix (C3, D5). Most of
the bauxite has been discolored; in
these areas, both pisoliths and
matrix are equally discolored. In the
transitional areas, the mabix may

434

become completely discolored,

whereas the pisoliths sti 1I exhihit
either their original coloration,
with hoth nucleus and cortex dark
red in color or with dark red nuclei
surrow1decJ by a discolon:d cortex.
A study of the slice shows that the
mab-ix is the most un.stable material, \vhereas the nucle.i arc the most
stable components of the bauxite.
The lower illustration shows
the detail of tJ1e discoloration in a
transitional area: the nudeus of the
pisolith (C3) maintains its dark red

coloration, whereas part of its cortex is discolored. The second

pisolith (A J) is not discolored. The
matrix is iron-free in most of the
field of view. In the lower right part
(E5). however, it has maintained its
original aspect. Note that the
nucleus of the partially discolored
pisolith has many newly formed
concenlTic and radial fissures.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION ANO WEATl-IERING

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

SS8,SS9
PARTIALLY
DISCOLORED
PISOLlTH
PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

Dagolilie. Lakota
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 0.8 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

["~

0.0

mm

I
""..
of piso]itic
bamite does not ahvavs follow
the boundary between the. pisolith
and the man"ix. Here, the discoloration front is abrupt and without
ally tnnsition. Both nucleus and
cortex are cut, but the convex shape
of the colared part of the nucleus
seems to indicate that the nuckus is
somewhat more resistant than the
cortex. The general macrotextures
are wcll preserved, a.nd the external
margin of the whole pisolith can be
easily visuali7.cd, both in it~ colOt"ed

and in ib discolored parts. Even the

microtextures by which the nucleus
is easily distinguished from the cortex are clearly maintained in both
parts of the pisolith. The thinly laminated texture of the cortex and the
irregular network of flssures in the
nucleus are perfectly maintained.
The bohmitc' content of the pisolith
is maintained w1disturbed in both
colored and discolored parts,
whereas in the matrix. the bohmite
is partly replaced by coarse crystals
of gibbsite. Small particles of gibbs-

PART 4: tlTHORllIC5, ALTEROREUCS, NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

ite and a concentric fissure filled

with gibbsite arc seen, under XPL,
within the pisolith. The section is
tllinner than usual, mahng it possible to sce the distribution of
hematitc in the undiscolorcd part of
the nucleus. The conex, with its
yellOWish hues, seems to be richer
in goethite.

435

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

560,56.
COMPLETELY
DISCOlORED
PISOUTIC BAUXITE

Lakota, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
by B. Boulange
Objective: x 1.6
PPl and XPL

T'

shows a
I
spherical pisolith that has been
completely discolorecl, yet maintains its original textw-e. The surrounding matr"ix has been largely
replaced by a crystalliplasma of
gibbsite associated with residual
pores. The nucleus is small, and surrounded by a vcry thick composite
cortex COInIJosed of several successive layers in wh.ich the radial fissures are unequally distributed. The
outermost laminat~ are much less
fissured than the internal ones. The

436

discoloration of the pisolith allows

the textural details of the internal
laminae to be clearly distinguishable. In contrast, in the original dark
red pisoliths, such details are completely masked by the opaLity of
both nucleus and cortex. The
unequal distribution of tJ1e tlssured
layers of the cortex suggests that
during its former history, the
pisolilh undenvent phase., of erosion, transport and depOsition in
several successive matrixes. Possibly
only the last, unfissw-ed pan of the

cortex formed .,vithin the matrix in

which the pisolith is now found.
Tht~se successive steps of erosion trans[Jort - deposition are corroborated by an examination of severa.l
of the foUowing photomicrographs.
Note that under XPL, some radial
fissw-es, and parts of the concentric
fIssures, arc filled by a newly
formed crystalliplasma of gibbsite.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MIN~RAL ALTERATION AND WEATHE1\ING

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

562
ALLOGENIC PISOLITHS
IN BAUXITE

Lower slopes of the

Dietka Bocca,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Magnification: x 2

563
ALLOGENIC PISOllTHS
IN PISOllTIC BAUXITE

Lakota, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
by B. Boulange
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

is a
macropboto of a polished slice
of a sample of bauxite containing
allogenic pisoliths. The heterogeneity of the included nodules (1\3, 85,
E5), and the presence of a complex
residual rounded fragment of a true
and typical pisolitic bauxite (C3).
show that all the nodular components have been transported before
being deposited in a soft matrix,
which Was later inclurated. The
dark-colored nodules are all well
rOlll1ded. Some of them are true
pisoliths with nucleus and cortex,

others are rounded fragments of

iron-enriched
nodules
and
alterorelics without a well-formed
cortex, which seems to prove that
the cortex around each true pisolith
also was formed before its transport
and deposition. A more careful
examination of the isolated pisoJiths
shows that in most cases, their cortex has lost its round shalK by erosion.
The lower photomicrograph,
and the following ones, show discolon~d pboUths that obviously have
been broken before being sur-

PART 4: UTHOI\.EUCS, ALTEROREUCS, NODULES AND PISOLfrnS

rounded by a later cortex, which is

discordant both on the broken
nucleus and on its eroded previous
cortex. Even the last-formed cortex
has been partly eroded. The t:lCt that
the tlm~e broken pisllliths shown arc
in contact shows that they result
from the deposition of detrital
allochthonous pisoliu1s, and not
from the in siru degradation of the
balL'!:i te.

437

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

564
DISCOLORED PISOLlTH
PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

DagoJiJie. Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: I m

Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

I I
and the next
one shoV',- a subrounded pisolith
m which most or the external cortex is obviouslv di~cordant with
respect to a previously formed complex nodule, which is itself COl11posed of a broken nucleus
surrowlded by its own flnt cortex.
The external matrix is largely
degraded. The complexity of the
internal texture of the whole
pisolith corresponds to the complexity of its e\'(Jlution during the
successive steps of the erosion transport - deposition processes.
The chronological history can be
reasonably reconstituted by careful
examination of the successive
shapes and of the unegual distribution of its micromorphological
feahJres.

438

( I) A Arst homogeneous and

unfractured nucleus is formed
within a soft matrix, now eroded.
Both nucleus and matrix are dark
red, as is lISualJy observed in such
parental material for pisolitic
bauxite.
(2) This first well-rounded
nucleus is surrounded by a first cortex according to an accretion
process. During this first step of
cortiAcation, the nucleus, but not
(J1e cortex, is cut by a first network
of radially arranged fissures.
(3) The well-rounded IJiso!ith
is released from its erodable matrix
and transported, during which
period it is broken into several fragments, each of them containing a
part of the nucleus and a part or the
cortex that surrounded it.

0.0 mm

(4) One ol' these fragments,

which is now in the central part of
the photograph, is embedded in a
sf'cond soft matrix and sLIrrOlmded
by a second cortex. During the cortifiGltion, the nucleus and tJle Arstformed cortex are abundantly
fractured by numerous radial and
concentric fissures.
(to be continued on the next page)

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

565
DISCOLOR.ED PISOLlTH
PISOLlTlC BAUXITE

Dagolilie, Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: I m
Objective: x 2.5

XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

(continued from the previous page)

(5) This complex pisolith i~
again released ['rom its matrix, is
displaced and broken, is eroded and
then redeposited in a third matrix,
in which a third cortex is formed.
During this last cor tilk.a tion , the
entire cOilllJJex composite "nucleus"
is microfractured by a Dew generation of radial fractUI-CS, which are
clearly \'isible, but less abwldant, in
the second-formed cortex.
(6) The last-formed cortex,
the third one, is continuous, surrounds the entire broken pisolith,
and does not show an)' traces of erosion and ITilnsport. The matri.x that
is now observed around it is the last
soFt matrix in which the pisolitb was
deposited.

PART

4 : LITHORELlCS,

(7) A long period of time,

without erosion or displacement, is
then necessary to promote the progressive induration of the interstitial
matrix, which loses its silicate components to newly formed bohmite.
The pisoJitic bauxite is formed, and
it will remain untransfonTIecl for
millions of years.
(8) Aher that long period of
geochemicaJ and geomorphological
stability, the matrix and the
included pisoliths ha",,' more
recently become discolored, which
allows one to interpret the details of
the previously formed microtextures.
matrix
is
now
(9) The
degraded, its content of bobmite b
replaced by peripheral crystallaria
or gibbsite (dearly ~isible under

ALTERORElICS, NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

XPL). and deposits of bohmite

micropartides that coat the internal
dissolutioninduced pOt-cs. The
bohmite constituent of the firstformed nucleus ,md uf its successive
cortices seems tu be more resistant
to that last degradation, and no
gi bbsi te crystallaria are formed
within the~e domains.
(10) More recently, this sample
of bauxite was cut; cl thin section
allows the chronological events of
its histoT)' to be reconstituted, at
least partially.

439

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

566
ALLOGENIC PISOLlTHS
IN PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

Lakota, C6te d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
by B. Boulange

Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

- 0.0 mm

567
ALLOGENIC PISOLITHS
IN PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

Lakota, C6te d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
by B. Boulange

Objective: x 1.6
PPL

r~

OOmm

sho\\
fragmented cumplex nuclei
later surrounded by a cuntinuous,
unfissured cortex. The main characteristics of their internal textures
are comparable to those that have
been previollsJ~ dcscribeo. The
internal composite nucleus, which
consists of a fragmented true
nucleus surruunded bv its own cortex, is highJy fractured by an irregl.l-

440

Iar network of fissures, whereas the

more recently formed cortex is not
fractured. A First layer 01" the complete rounded cortex, which
appears, in the second photomicrograph, as a slightly frKturcd one,
may indicate that this pisolith has
had a somewhal more complicated
history than the pisolith of the first
photom..icrograph. Both samples are
completely discoloreJ, and the

interstitial matrix is more or less

degraded, with formation of residual pores and various deposiLs of
bohm..ite and gibbsite. The gibbsitc
coating is clearly visible in the upper
right corner uf the first photograph.

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOlOGY OF MIN.RAL ALTERATION AND W8\THERING

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

568,569
ALLOGENIC PISOLlTHS
IN PfSOLlTIC BAUXITE

Lakot<l, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
by B. Boulange
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

[10
0.0 mm

allogenic bauxite,

thick cortex, ",-hose early lamina-

wdlrounued pisoliths may be

formed by succes~iv(' cortiflcations
around an irregularly shaped

tions gradually give way to more

and more circular ext<>rnal laminations. The inner network of Fissures

nucleus. The shape 01 the nucleus

and that of its surrounding cortex

is restricted to the ilUler part of the

nucleus and to the first-formed
laver of the cortex _The interstitial

01'

are very similar to those obsened in

a pre\'iously described example (cj.
564). A triangular li-agment of a cUsplaced nucleus was surrounded by a

matrix. Mechanical deposits of

eroded material are not vlsible in
the pon"s, as is the case for other
samples (~r 576,577, 578, 579,580
and 581, for example).

mao-ix is highl)' degraded, and large

pores are formed by dissulution or
by erosion of the bohmite of the

PART 4: LiTl-lORELlCS, ALTERORELlCS. NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

441

PISOLlTHS IN BAUXITE

570,57.
ALLOGENIC PISOLlTHS
IN PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

Lakota, Cote d'Jvoire

Sampled at soil surface
by B. Boulange
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

r
~

the
first one in PPL and the second
one under XPL, show tl1c perfect
geometrical shape of a fragment of
pisolith. Its shape and the fact that it
fits tightly among other risoliths
obviously show that this feature has
not been formed in sieu, and that the
pisolitic bauxik is an allogenic
material, in which most pisoliths
were prev iously formed in a difFerent environment. The bohmite-rich
character of the fragmented pisolith
is well expressed by its cryptocrys

442

ta Iline aspect, practically isotropic

LlI1der XPL. The very small specks
witllin the cortex and within the
nucleus of the fragmented pisolith,
al)pearing as greenish white dots
under XPL, are minute crystals of
bohmite. Thin lineaments of secondarv, bohmite also are observed as
infillings of discontinuous concentric fissures, whereas small areas of
micro-ag,gregatcd crystals of bohmite appear mainly concentrated Ln
the fragment of tbe first-formed
nucleus and randomly scattered

0.0 mm

vvithin the interstitial matrix. The

bohmite-rich matrix has been
largely replaced by secondary
gibbsite, whose coarse crystals are
!'amlomly distributed and intimately
associated with the microcrystalline
a~gregates of bohmite,

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHmlNG

I:GRADATlO.

Fir

CD8c: iron depletion in the hau\;te

The first stage of degradation of pisolith-bearing

bauxite invoh'cs a process of iron depletion that mainrains in Iicu the aluminous miner,lls such as b6hmile,
which may be associated with small ,lmounts of
gibbsitc. This mineral is rare in the pisolitic bauxite,; of
the hrst and second generation, bUl is more abwld,ml
in degraded bauxite, in which porosity dc\'e1ops and
much more watcr is available. The increa.st'd porosity
promotes the formation of gibbsite al the t:xpensc of
the less hydrated bohmite.
The internodular matrix is generaUy the (lrst part
of the bauxite to be discolorcd. Red pisoliths arc commonly observed in pisolitic bauxite whose imernodular mJtrix
has been completely
bit-ached.
Nevertheless, and as ,1 general rule. even though the
matrix is really the most easily bleached matel-ial, the
discoloration of the nuclei and cortices follows after
onl), a shon delay. In a decimetric sample, [or example,
all shades of discoloration can be observed together. As
is clearly sho'v\'Tl in photomaCTograph 556, red pisllliths
occur commonly Iyitb.in a bleached matrix, wherca,~
the converse phenomenon is new;,r observed, In contrast, the goethite-t-ich cortices seem more susceptible
to discoloration than !be nuJei that they envelop.
The discoloration can either preferentially follow
the cortex, temporariJy avoiding the nucleus, or cut
the whole pisouth with sharp and conlrasted boundJries between the colored and cl.iscolored areas of the
pisolith, Where the removal of iron is advanced, tbe
inner textures of the pisolith become particularly clear
and identifiable. Comparison with unbkached pisoliths
shows that the textures have not been modified b)' th~
process of removal of iron. Tbe intemal textures or the
pisoliths and their external shapes, whose details Jre
clearly seen in the bleached areas, show the obvious
allochthonolls origin of these pisoliths in. the baLLxitc uf
the second generation.

c ond ~tQge: aheoJi/ation

the incern dulur matri \

.f

The second stcp in the degradation is progressive

alvcolization of the intC'rnoduJar matrix, destabilization of the pre-existjng microcrystalline bi)rnnite, its
replacement by mJcrocrystalline gihbsite and amorphous material and, in some cases, relalive accumulations of small amounts of iron originally linked to th\.'
bolm1.ite-rich area,. The interstitial malTix becomes

PART 4: LlrnoRELlcs, ALTEROREl/CS, NODULES AND PISOllTHS

markedly porous. That new porosity results from the

combinatiLln of two competing processes, on one hand,
dissolution and leaching of part or the aluminum content and, on the other, mechanical transfer of
'Hicroparticles of b6hmite releJsed by the removal of
(heir ferruginous cement. These micropanicles of
bohmite Jnd amorphous malerials may be deposited in
alveolar pores in the subjaceot bauxirc, The macrocrystaJline gibbsite is concentrated in compact handed texturC's that are mJinly distributed concentricaBy around
the pisoliths or as a Iim or coating around the newly
formed alvenlJr pores, MaCTocrystJlline (>500 pm)
anclmesocr;'stalline (50-500 )..I m) gihbsite also appears
within the concentric fissures formed in the thickness
of the cortex or ,It the comaet surface hetween it and
the central nucleus.

Third S!Ofle: de_ lruLtion of the pisoJjth,

Thereafter, the replacemc.nt of the original
bohmite by gibbsitc invades the inner pan of the
pisolith. A curvd and erescentic pore, with
arl>orcsccnt margin,s, c1el"l~lop~ within the cortex, Tl1.is
pore is coate-d b; a rim 01' gibhsite lTysta]s ancl by a
difTusion halo of iron that wa.s excluded h-om the
"gibbsiti<:ed" volumes,

uUn

\Vhile alveolization of tlle internodular matrix. is

proccecl.ing, the mure and more isolated and vulnerable pisoLiths also hegin to be degrilded; they experience
loss of' mJterial, formation of interns)1 pores interconnected by an inoicate network or channels, which follow the pre-cx:isting radial and concentric I1ssures, Jnd
developmcnt 0(' 6cibbsitc as a coating arounrt the newly
formed pores. The internal lextures, which lUltiJ now
allowed the cortex and the nucleus to he clearly (UstUlguished from each oth(-r, are finally repbced by simplified tC'xtures Ul which only the spherical shape or some
volumes allows the presence o[ pisoliths to be identified as isolJted features \dlhin a highly porous and
com!)!ctcly rlisrul)ted and disfigurC'd matrix.

Fourth \108e: infiJJina <.'.1 rhe pore \'oJumes

The pores and alvcoles, which de,e10I)ed firstly in
lhe matrix and sl'condly in the pisoliths, are inflUed by
a fUle detrital materiJ I whose microstratified hahit and
strongly orienteJ distribution are obviously related to
graVilJtional processes, The o,ientation of the in/Wings
01' adjaccnt degraded pisoliths is constant, and the
influence of a gradty-conlTolled process is confirmed,
These infilJings .1[(: eSSenLiJlly composed of micro- and
crrptocrvstallin.e bolunitc a.nd amorphous malerial, to
which is associated yariable but minor amuunts of iron

443

ox}hydroxides, responsible for their beige or orange

yellow col or.
These deposits are subjected to frequent reworkings, bj' internJI ero~-ion followed by new phases of
deposition, simulating, in this manner, a fitted organization similar to that of a cut through rive.r te.rraces
(photo 580). The internal textures of the pisoliths Me
quickly obliterated, and the capricious cow-se of the.
channels and of their infilling materials soon makes
them unrecognizable. Some pisoliths, aYOided by the
internal erosion and by the further infiJlings, may havoc
been completely replaced by gibbsite crystaJJaria*,
vvith conservation of U1C former microtextures and
radiJI fissures, which locJlized the first steps of the
gibbsite formation. The pisolith exhibits a septarian
intemal texture that is very comparable to the septoJltcromorphic texture displJ)'cd by weathered grains

444

of feldspar. In this pMticular case, the term "pseudoalteromorph" can be used, since it is not an alteramorph but a particular textural feature that exhibits an
appearance very similar to that of a true alteromorph.
The downward transfer of bohmite and amorphous materials as detrital particles, in the profile or
along the slopes, may be sufficiently important to reach
the alveolar pores of the lower isalteritic or altoteritic
lateritic covers. These detrital accumulations of microor cryptocrystalline bohmite may later be dcstabiJized
and replaced by macrocrystalUne gibbsite. These accumulations may be obseFecl as infillings of pores even in
the horizons of unbleached pisol.itic bauxite, whose alveolar degradation has only reached the interstitial red
matri:x.. Accumulation:; of detrital crystals of gibbsite
are in some cases observed in pedotubuJes excav'atecl
bv/ soil microJ:auna within near-surface bauxite.

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTIRATION AND WEATHER.lNG

DEGRADATION

571,573
COMPLETELY
DISCOlORED
PISOllTIC BAUXITE

Lakota, Cote d'!voire

Sampled at soil surface

by B. Boulange
Objective: x 1.6

PPL and XPL

['

- '.'mm

,I,
I 11,
and evoJutionary features shown in these
photomio'ographs are wry similar
to those of the previous illustrations. The additional feature consists
in a crescent-shaped area of the cortex of the main pisolith, whose
bohmitL' content has been repJaced
by a residual pore surrounded by an
irregular and dendritic network of
gibbsite crystalliplasma. This crystalliplasma is in contact with the
surrounding matrix and with a
neighboring pisolith (A4---5), which
has been completely replaced by a

I'

large porc in wruch aggregates of

secondary products arc irreguJarly
scattered. A continuous peri pheral
fissure is formed in which a gibbsite
crystalliplasma is well developed.
Each pisolith is sllTTounded by J
similar peripheral crystaJliplasma
and, in the contact areas behveen
two neighboring pisoliths, bridges
are formed. Continuous complex
gibbsite-rich cortices are formed;
these can isolate pyramidal volumes
of the surrounding matrix (A2, B5)
according to a process very similar
to that pre\riously described con-

PART 4: LITHORELlCS, ALTEROREUCS. NODULES AND PISOUTHS

cerrung the evolution of the iron

crusts (~r 536, 537, 545, 548 and
549). The surrounding matrix has
been partially dissolved, and its
bohmite content has been replaced
either by a gibbsite crystalliplasma
or by imported fClTuginous materia:!. It is probable that the iron of the
in-egular ferruginous halo, which
surrounds the dendritic cryslaJlaria,
has been imported via solutions and
has diffused in the surrounding
parts of the bohmite-rich mab-ix.

445

DEGRADATION

S74,S75
DEGRADED PISOLlTH
BAUXITIC PROFILE

Dagolilie, Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 0.6 m
Objective: x 1.6

PPL and XPL

['
0.0 mm

show an
St,lgc in the textural
trans~ormation of a piso\ith. The
original textures of the nucleus and
of ib cortex are well presen-cd in a
large part of the pisolith, in ,,hieh
th<: network of lhsures and t1w laminated microtexture. of the cortex.
~d\'anced

446

are clearly recognjzablc. The mineralogic~1 composition is not yet

modit1cd in the pristine part of the
pisolith. In its lowc.r part, the
pisolith has had its original textures
partly modified by akeoli7.ation and
b), the progressive replacement of
its h6hmite content by deposits of

gibhsite that regularly coat the waJIs

of the pores, of the channels and of
the fissures. -nle degradation of the
interstitial matrix is much moreadvanced than that nr' the pisolith.

ATlAS OF MJCROMOl\PHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTI'RATION AND WEATHERING

DEGRADATION

576,577
DEGRADED PISOLlTH
BAUXJTIC PROFILE

Dagolilie, Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

show
Id
the highly complex microtextures that progressively develop
within a degraded, discoJor('d
pisolith. In this last step of degradation, the textures of both pisoliths
and interstitial matrix are modified
in such a way that (I) large pores
dc,'t'!op by dissolution or hy interual erosion, (2) part of the bohmite
content of the original bauxite is
replaced by gibbsite, either as a
coating around the pisoliths or as a
thin interconnected network of

gibbsite within the pisnlith~, Jnd (3)

fine-grained materials arc deposited
by internal circulation of water in
the predously formed pores. A \'er~'
complex texture results. A,~ long as
the thick l'ramework of gibbsite is
maintained, the meso- and macrotextures of thc' hauxite are well presaved. It can be seen, in PPL, that
the microlal1'linated deposits of fine(Trained
materials are all oriented
b
parallel to each other, whatever may
be their location. either within the
matrix or within the pisoliths. The

PART 4: LJTHOF,EUCS, ALTERORElICS. NODULES AND P!SOLlTHS

pores are generally of suHlcient size

for Cil.ling to occur b~' gravity. The
rotation of the microscope stage has
been chosen in a such a wav that all
depOSits appear with a niltmally
horizontal orientation. Under XPL,
the thick pel'ipheral depOSits of
gibh.'ite al'Ound the pisoliths are
clearly distinguished from the thiJl
networb formed within
irreO'ular
b
them.

447

DEGRADATION

578,579
DEGRADED PISOllTH
BAUXITIC PROFILE

Dagolilie. Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: x 1.6
PPL and XPL

f'"
-

of tl)(> interstitial matrix has promoted the

formation of gibbsitc-rich banded
cnslalliplasl11J.s. main I} rle\e1oped
at tllc c0l1tac1 with the pisoliths.
These peripheral crystalliplasmas
.lrc composed of coar;;e-graincd
gibbsitt' crystals, which form a COI1tinuou,s banded texture aroullc1 each
pisolith.lllc pisoliths are very commonly closely spaced in the matrL"X,
and they may be welded together by
bridges of coarse gibbsitc crystals.
All these banded structures arc progressi\"(:I~,' interconnl"cted to each

448

other, as matrix is degraded, and as

more and more numerous crystalline bridges arc formed. All these
interconnected banded textures
progressively form a mech.micaHy
and <Jt:ochcmic,jlly. resislant framework. in the cells of which only the
pisoliths and some residual parts of
the matrix ha\l~ a sufficiently soft
internal texture for easy erosion by
mechanical processes. The relict
b6hmitc-rich p.lrts arc progressively either rt~l)laced by new generations or gil>b~ite cry~tal.~. or
I11cchanicallv eroded. In the first
~

0.0 mm

case, vcry contorted and sinuously

banded deposits of fine-grained
crystals are formed gradually as dissolution-induceci pOTes are formed.
In the second case, very Hnely texturerl materials are tTaJl.sporred and
deposited as coatings ond infillings
in the previously formed cavities.
Within th.ese coatings, depOSited oy
gravity, the bohmite-rich character
of the material is not changed; it is
slight1;, mixed with iron oxyhydroxides, wlllcD cause the characteristic
coloration and emphasize their reguJ<lr micwsrratifications.

ATL>.S OF MICROMORFHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

DEGRADATION

580
DEGRADED PISOllTH
BAUXITIC PROFILE

Dagolilie, Lakota.
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0,0 mm

581
DEGRADED PISOllTH
BAUXITIC PROFILE

Dagolilie. Lakota,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

"

il"
'\"
11
show
two examples of aver\'
advanced stage of the degradation of
a pisolith. Photomicrographs prepared with XPL are not shown
bccause the textural relics of the
b6hmite-l;ch parts are not informarivc (these areas arc nearly
isotropic), and because the gibbsiterich peripheral coatings, \Vitll tlleir
characterisric texture and distriburion, were previously illustrated.
The upper photomiCTograph shows
a rdati\'c!)' simple case of the

replacement of a pisolith by a large

internJI pore partially fIlled by
gravitational deposits of bi.ihmite.
The internal laminations of these
deposits are organized as alluvial
deposits in l1u\iatile terraces; part
of the previoLlsly deposited materials are evacuated, b)' the flow of
water in circularion, before ne\v!y
formed detrital materials are
deposited. Some irrcgular but characterisric remnants of the original
material have been temporarily
maintainf'd (02. 04).

PART 4; L,THORELlCI, AiTEROREUCI. NODULES AND F'lSOUTHS

The lower photomicrograph

sho\-\'-s a more complicated case of
the replacement of a pisolith in
which the original network of fissures has been infilled by resistanr
deposits of gibbsite. This septa-like
texture has a behavior comparable
to a resistant boxwork, in tl1e pores
of which laminated depOSits of
bohlllitc may occur.

449

DEGRADATION

582,583
DEGRADED PISOLlTH
BAUXJTIC PROFILE

Dagolilie, Lakot3,
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 0.2 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

sho",-

the final stage of degradation of

a pisolith _The earlier stage was certainly very cumparable to the case
in pbotornicrogr.lph 581. Most uf
the scpta of gibhsite are ma.intained,
whereas all internal volumes, previously Filled by b6hmitc (either
dire~tly inherit~d or of detrital origin), have been replaced by gibbsite
crystalliplasmas. This newly formed

450

intenlal texture is likely comparable

to the texture of the glomerosepto-alteromorphs, which are
developed, under conditions of ferrallitic weathering, as a result
the
degradation of feldspar-group minerals. This special case illustTates
what C.l.ll be termed a "pseudoaJteromorph"i it is not an altcromorph, bUI a textural W1it that
seems to be an aJteromorph. The

or

0.0 mm

prefix "pseudo" usecl here is entirely

justilied to allow a distinction from
the n'ue alteromorphs (pseudomorphs and nol pseudo-alteromorphs) developed at the expense
euhedral crystals.

or

ATlAS OF MICRDMORPHOLOGY OF MINfAAL ALTERATION AND WEATHER.ING

DEGRADATION

584,585
DEGRADED PISOllTH
BAUXITIC PROFilE

Dagolilie, Lakota

Cote d'lvoire
Sampled by B. Boulange
Depth: 0.2 m
Objective: x 2.5
PPL and XPL

1.0

0.0 mm

photomicrographs of discolored pisolitic

baLLxite show an advanced stage of
the degradation of the interstitial
matrix. Each volume of the matrix
is surrounded by the thkk pc')"iph-

eral crystallaria of coarse-grained

gibbsite that coat the neighboring
pisoliths. The original inherited
b61U11ite has been replaced by
deposits of bohmite exhibiting
cross-laminated textures. Parts of

PART 4 : LJTHORElICS. ALTEROREUCS. NODUlES A~JD PISOLfTHS

these deposits are Ilnall)' destroyer!

b: dissolution. Irregular residual
pores are formed; they are coated
by thin crystallaria of fine-grained
gibbsite.

451

DEGRADATION

586,587
DETRITAL DEPOSITS
OF BOHMITE
IN A LOWER BAUXITIC
HORIZON

Lakota. C6te d'lvoire

Sampled by B. Boulaoge
Depth: 0.8 m
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

- 0.0 mm

show
that the finely crystaJlized
bohmite, which was eroded and
transported from the degraded
upper pisolith-bearing horizons, can
be redeposited \\irJlin the pores and
cadties in the lower horizons of
isalteritic or alloteritic bauxite. The
aurJligenic matri:x, which is mainly
composed of well-crystallized
gibbsite associated with small
patches of more ferruginous composition, exhihits many large and
irregular pores, wbose \'olume is
"",11

452

now occupied by miLTolami.nated

deposits of b6hmite. The bCihmite,
whose end-member composition is
)'-AIO(OJ-l), is naturally colorless.
However. in these deposits, it is
commonly colored by iron oxyhydroxides, whose relati\c concentr,}tion determines the variable coloration of the successh'ely deposited
layers of bohmite-rich material.
More recently formed fissures and
pores, both \\ithin areas of bi)hmitc
(D4) and matri.."X volumes (AS), arc
coated by thin layers of gibbsite

microcrvstals. The bohmite-rich

main central area is partiaJl)' surrounded by a thicker layer of gibbsite macrocrystals, Formed at the
expense of the rnao-ix during a
period of time when the main pore
was empty and free of the bi)hmite
deposit.s. These coarse-grained eryst'llla.ria have the same origin a-' the
peripheral coating~
coarse-sized
gibhsite in the upper pisolith-bcaring horizons.

or

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

DEGRADATION

588
MICROLAMINATED
DEPOSIT OF BOHMITERICH MATERIAL

Old bauxitic crust

Diedka Bocca, Toumodi.
Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 6.3
PPL

0.3
0.2

0.1
0.0 mm

T " 'I.

shows a
detailed but very partial view of
a large pore in a sample of bauxite.
The pore has been infilled by microlaminated deposits of bohmite. The
llrst-deposited microlamil1ae show
a repeatedly decreasing coloration,
simila.r to a graded bedding. The
Last-formed laminae are much
enriched in iron and denclritic manganese oxides. Large crystals of
bobmite are never seen in unmeta-

morphosed aluntinum-rich rocks;

in bauxite originating from the
superficial weathering of aluminous
rocks, the bi:ihmite o'),stals are so
fme grained that the mineral is not
identifiable b), optical methods only.
X-ray powder-diffraction patterns
a.re necessary for a positive identiJlcation when the mineral is observed
for the nrst time by an unexperienced soil scientist. The typical association of bohmite witll gibbsite and

PART 4; LITHORELICS. ALITRORELlCS. NODULES AND PISOLITHS

hematite, as well as tlle emironmental conditions tmderwhich the

baux.ite samples were collected,
gencraily pro\ride valuable aids in
the identification of bohmite.

453

DEGRADATION

589,590
MICROLAMINATED
DEPOSIT OF BOHMITERICH MATERIAL

Old bauxitic crust

DiedkA Bocca, Toumodi,
C6te d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 4
PPL and XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

show
the later evolution of a microlaminated rleposit of bohmite-rich
material in an outcrop of balDute
expo~ed to conditions of superficial
weathering. The
bohmiterich
deposits are irregularly destroyed
by tJ1e formation of irregular pores,
channels and embajlnents, which
are soon ftiled by mesocrystaJline
gibbsite. These crystals of gibbsite
are formed at the ex-pcme of bohmite, which they replace by a hydration process. The areas of gibbsite
are perfectly colodess, and tJ1e iron,

454

previously al>sociated with the

bohmite-rich material, does not
enter tJ1C gibbsite structure.. It is
locally concentrated, and forms
irregular, dark -colored impregnation halos around the colorless crvstallarias of gibhsite. Gradually, as
the bohmi.tc-rich material is
replaced by newly formed crystals
of gibbsitc, the original or inherited
textures are obscured, and become
Less and Less recognizable. All ty-pes
of bCihmite -beariug secondary
materials undergo such textural
transformations, being progres-

sivel)" replaced by a new generation

of gibbsite; tJ1e pisolitic bauxites,
whicn are usnally bohmite-rich and
wllich exhibit particularly recogniz
able textures, can be gradually
transformed
into gibbsite-rich
material hy the replacement ot" both
textural components, the pisoliths
and the inlel-sotia! bi.inmite matrix
(see earlier illustrations). Such
replacement promotes the disappe.arance of the. pre\.ioliSly acquired
pisoLitic texture.

ATLAS OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTffiATION AND WEATHERING

DEGRADATION

591
ALVEOLlZED TYPICAL
PISOLlTIC BAUXITE

Lakota, Cote d'lvoire

Sampled at soil surface
by B. Boulange
Objective: x 2.5

PPL

1.0

0.0 mm

l I1

I
red material
of the interstitial matrix of typical pisoLitic bauxites can be partially eroded; the residual pores can
be lattcr inIilled by aJ lochthonous
bohmite-rich materials that have
lost an appreciable part of their ferruginous componcnts, which leads
to a particularly sharp contrast

E
I

PART

4 : LfTHORElICS,

between the discolorecl detrital

deposit and the dark red pisoljth$
and undisturbed residual matrix.
The pisoUth at the right of the
photomjcrograpb clearly shows the
characteristic textural patterns of
most original IJisoJiths: a weJlrow1ded nucleus is criss-crossed bv
radiall)' and concentrically orga-

ALTERORElICS. NODULES AND PISOllTHS

nized hss-urcs, whereas the thick

cortex is slightly fractured by radial
microfissures. In the contact area
with the bohmite-rich deposit, the
cortex of the pisolith has been partially erodcd.

455

DEGRADATION

S92,S93
DETRITAL DEPOSIT OF
GIBBSITE CRYSTALS

Old bauxltic crust

Orumbo Bocca.
Toumodi. Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: x I 0
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

I ' I I :' show a

relatively ra1"L" feature, a detrital
deposit of gibbsite crystab in a
tubular pore, possibly created by
microfauna activity. The photos
were taken in an orientation swtable to better sbow the regularity of
the curved successive deposits of
elongate crystals of gibbsite, which
all are oriented parallel to the natural orientation of the laminated
detrital deposit. The small interstitiaJ volumes benveen the crystals
are infilled by reddish brown
deposits of fine material, originating

456

from the matrix of ule bauxite.

Elongate crystals, where mechanically deposited in a pore, are invariably oriented parallel to the bottom
of Ule pore; where elongate crystals
are chemically deposited, uley are
invariably preferentially oriented
perpendicular to the walls of the
pore, as has been shown in the earlier photomicrographs. These elongate crystals of gibbsite probably
originate from the dislocation of a
chemically formed layer of gibbsite
crystals, as previowdy shown, by
dissolution of their ferruginous

Arw

cement. The photomicrograph

lU1der XPL is necessary to show that
the colorless element.s, under PPL,
are not elongate empty pores, but
really are fragments of gibbsite crystals. The now infilled tubule is itself
partially Formed within a larger volume of coarse crystals of gibbsite.
Some euhedral cryst.als of gibbsite
are partiaUy separated horn uleir
original matrix, and they seem to be
falling from the upper part of the
chamber (B2), in the way rock Frag.
ments naturaJJy fall from the roof of
a cavern.

Of MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTffiATlON AND WEATHERING

DEGRADATION

594,595

DETRITAL DEPOSIT OF
GIBBSITE CRYSTALS

Old bauxitic crust

Orumbo Bocca,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 0.4 m
Objective: X 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

ill'

Ill' '11

show~

another biopedotubuJe that cuts

a ferruginous matrix in bauxite and
that is irregularly infilled by welloriented elongate crystals of gibbsite mLxed with irregular volumes of
dark ferruginous deposits. The surrounding matrix has the usually

PART

4: LITHORELICS.

obsened makeup of such aJloteritic

bauxite: irregular polymincralic
patches of randomly oriented
autochthonous crystals of gibbsite
(A3), round areas infilled by
allochthonous chemicallvJ formed
and regularly orit'nted crystals of
gihbsite surrounding inner inlJlliJlgs

ALTERORELICS. NOOULES AND P,SOLlTHS

of red-colorcd material (85) and,

HnaJly, a microcrystalline hematiterich matrix (A4, C5) that contains
the- pre\ioll.'dy mentioned features.

457

C tU

PTE R J

Secondary Oxides and Hydroxides

1'1""1' 11, 11'11.1(\111- are collected

together in this last part of the book in order
to exhibit characteristic secondary minerals,
.namely the hydroxides and oxides 01 aluluinum, iron and titan i urn . These minerals are commonly observed in thin sectious of bauxite and iron
crust, less commonly in alterites and soils. These photomicrographs were selected to give particularly illustJ'ative examples of' crystallized material coarse enough
so that their habit and main morphological properties
(e'8" extinction, cleavages, array' of twinned domains,
shapes, arrangements) are clearly visible. The main
micromorphological characteristics of these minerals
are given in the captions.

most alterites, soils and ferruginous or bauxiric ClUStS.

In general. this oxide is either intimately roi-xed with
iron oxide or hvdroxide, or it OCC\lr~ as microparticles
whose size does not allow' recognition 01" their mineralogical or chemical nature. It rna." also form cryptocrystalline a~semblages with other oxides of titanium
(brookite and rutile), possibly as a ps\'udomorph after
titanium-rich minerals. These cryptocrystalline assemblages arc common as areas 01" "leucoxenc" in the
alteromOl-phs after ilmenite, titanite or pero\skite.
Only in studies of titanium-rich rocks, such as some
nepheline syenites, pyroxenites or carbonatites, could
anatase mesocrystals easily be observed, as alteromorphs after perovskite, For example.

Well-cb'c!oped crystals of gibbsite, concent,-ic

associations of hematite - gibbsite - goethite, of
hematite - goethitc and or coarse crystals of goethite
only are commonly observed within bauxitic and iron
crusts subjected to late processes of absohlte aCcumulation. These minerals develop either as crystallaria*
(mainly gibbsite) or as Simple or complex coatings*
that partially or completely inllll the pores, cavities and
chalUlels de\'e1oped by various geochC'mical and biological pmcesses. These include dissolution, alveolization, recrystal1ization, and excavation by the
microraw1a.

Few soil scientists, when studying their thin sections of soils, have the opportunity to observe such
well formed secondary materials. Comparison with
these photomicTogTaphs will possibl~' aid them in the
determination of their poorly developed or fin\,grained secondar)' minerals_

III\

Coarse-sized crystalliplasmas or secondary titaIlium oxide, mainly anatase, are rarely observed in

Moreover. the entire collection of photomicrographs in this book is nflercd with the same didactic
purposes in mind. The author hopes to have been able
to imite soil sdentists and other en''ironmentallv conscious geoscientists, and to stimulate them, to examine
with accuracy and delight, the parent rocks a.nd weathered materials that are concealed. and commonly left
unsampled, at the base of their soil profilc5.

SECONDARY OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES

596
GIBBSITE
CRYSTAlLARIA

Bauxite on Birrimian
sedimentary rocks
Western Cote d'lvolre
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 4
XPL

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 mm

597
GIBBSITE
CRYSTAlLARIA

Bauxite on Birrimian
sedimentary rocks
Western Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x 6.3
XPL

F
0.0 mm

,hO\I
well-developed
crystals of
gibhsite, \I'hich form continuous
crystallaria aruund a dissolution
pore. The undisturbed bauxite is
lisiblein the upper left corner of
the first illustration, ami along the
J-ight sick
the",~cond one. The
gibl)site cT",tal:; are randomlY orientcd anu intimately associated Ivith
ferruginous material directlY inheritccl frum the parent rock. All
around the residual I)ore, very typical coarse CT;'stals 01 gibbsite

or

460

exhibit a strong tendency to be oriented roughly j)lTI)cndicuJar to the

walls
tll<: I'oid. Most
them are
euhedral crysta.ls, at lcast in the
parts that protrude into the empty
port.', and they exhibit the eommonl; observec1 twinning, The second photomicrograph shows the
repeated twins of the gibbsi.tc crystals, leading to pseudohexagonal
groups of c.T\'stals (B3, D2, D4).
Thcir external shape is somewhat
reminiscc:nt of twiJult'cl c-rystals of
arJgonite, The gibbsite i!' colorless

or

or

in thin section and first-order grey

in XPL. Its birefringcnce (0.0150.030) is somey,hat higher than that
exhibited
by quartz crystals
(0.009), Where the thin section is
slightly thicker than usual (sce also
278), the gihbsite crystals may
appear as ydlo\\ish grains, whereas
the quartz grains are first-order
grey, The crystals arc monocliniC.
biaxi:ll positive, length-slow, and
their ex.'tinction angle may attain 25.

ATlAS OF MICRO.10RPHOlOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

SECONDARY OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES

598,599
COMPOSITE CUTANIC
DEPOSIT

Old bauxitic crust

Orumbo Bocca,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
by L Zanone
Objective: x 6.3
PPL and XPL

03

==--- 0.2

f
-

0.1

0.0 mm

I!

III

I I

'

Fcrruoino\ls
~

bauxite, which caps the top of

me hill (alt. 520 m), is developed at
me expense of Binimian metabasic
and diabasic rocks. It con:rs an
ilrgillaceous isalteritic lel'el more
than 10 m thick; the parent rock is
rarely obsCl'I'ed at the base of the
weathered profiles. The balL'(ite is
composed of randomly oriented
microcrystals of gibbsite, intimatel~'
associated with inherited ferruginous components. It is I'isible along
me lower part or th.... photomicTo-

PAAT

4:

graphs. The pmes, which arc raJ!domh: distributed withi.J! the

matTix, are due to local dissolution
of the matrix minerals. Microlaminated deposits regularly coat the
walls of the pore. Sen>ral slIcccssil'f"
Jnd interstratilled deposits of redcolored hematite and culorless
gibbsite may altemate. The residual
central pore is generally occupied
by an inlllling of well-formed eTI'Stals of gocthite. All these deposits
seem to originate from allochthonous alurninum and iron, leached

UTHORELlCS, ALTtROREUCS, NODULES AND PJ50LlTHS

from the upper FJrt~ of the pro6le,

and transported in solution by percolating water. Nevertheless, a dif'fercllt
hypothesis
has
been
suggested by Boul;mgc et o/. (1975).
They attribute the composite thick
lay'er of alternating hematitc and
g,ibbsitc to a desilication process uf a
prCl'iously introduced coating comrosecl of' ferruginous kao!inite.
Under these conditions, unly Lhe
central gocthite-rich part is considered to be of truly allochthonous
origin.

46/

SECONDARY OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES

600
COMPOSITE CUTANIC
DEPOSIT

Old bauxitic crust

Orumbo Bocca,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
by L. Zanone
Objective: x 10
XPL

-- 0.2

601
COMPOSITE CUTANIC
DEPOSIT

Old bauxitic crust

Orumbo Bocca,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
by L. Zanone
Objective: x 10
XPL

at higher
magnification, shows that the
previously suggestecl hypothesis of
the desilic.1tion 01" a prc-existing
kaolinitic coating does not seem to
be CJuite satisfactory to explain the
detailed morphology of the contact
areas between the successive interId layers. in reality, at the bottom
of' each hematite-rich layer', the contact 'vvith the bllowiJ1g layer 01'
gibbsite (T)'stals exactly molds the
the cr~'stal tercuhcclral shapes
minations, as if the succc,'sivc
~

or

462

deposits alternated with a period Of

quiescence, during which a crystallaria of uncovered crystals was
formed. The deposit of the
hematite-rich layer penetrates
somewhat between the indentations
of the previously f'onned layer
euhedral crystals of gibbsitc, and
this phenomenon is repeated in tbe
most ct'ntTal, and most recent,
gibbsite - hcmatite double- layer. [n
contrast, the contact between
hematite and gibbsitc ex,hibits the
usually smooth and regularly cuned

or

shape typical of a tJ"UC mechanical

depOSit of Fine-grained particles. A
ver-y thin concentric layer 01' wellformed c:rystals 01' gibbsite is even
clearly visible: within the thick
hematite-rich deposit. In contrast,
the
second
photomicrograph
exhibits a morphology that seems to
better correspond to a clesilication
process. The hcmarite)'ich layers
arc discontinuous a.nd cn:scentshaped, and the central part of the
tubule is infilled by illuviated matcrial, as yet untransl'ormed.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

SECONDARY OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES

602
COMPOSITE CUTANIC
DEPOSIT

Old ferruginous bauxite

Orumbo Bocca.
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface
Objective: x I 0

XPL

0.2

0.1

::.. 0.0 mm

603
GOETHITE IN FILLING
Old ferruginous bauxite
Orumbo Bocca,
Toumodi, Cote d'lvoire
Sampled at soil surface

Objective: x 6.3

XPL

1'1'

11

,,,

,I

shows a well-crvstaUized composite inlllling of a dissolution pore.

Several alternating thin layers of
gibbsite ano hematite form the
lo""er part of the photograph,
whereas a large infilling of wellcrystallized goethite is seen in tbe
upper part. Note the shape of the
goethitt' crystals; the: crystallized
as fibrous and cW'ved units, forming
a compact and homogeneous assemblage, without any residual pores or
material between them. The photograph was taken under XPL; the
deep yellow color of the goethite

(under PPL) entirely masks its birel"ringence colors. Only the Fibrous
material that is parallel, or nearly
so, to the cross-hairs of the ocular
lens are at extinction, which shows
that the photograph was taken
under XPL. Note that the fLbrous
crystals of hematite, in the thickest
central layer, conform to the crystallographic orientation of the
fibrous crystals of goethite. This
particular Feature could correspond
to a later epitaxic replacement.
The lower photomicrograph
shows a complete section cut perpendicularly to the main axis of the

PART": LITJ-lOREUCS, ALTEROREUcs. NODULES AND PISOUTHS

tubule. Only one layer of hematite

is visible; it sWTounds a ccntnl part
that is fully infiJled by crystals of
gocthite of similar habit as in the
earlier photomicrographs. Along
the four sides of the photograph,
parts
the iron-rich (E2) and aluminwn-rich matrix of the bauxite
are recognizable.

or

463

SECONDARY OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES

604,60$
MICROlAMlNATED
GOETHITE

Buried iron crust

Koua Bocca, Cote d'lvoire
Depth: 1.2 m
Objective: x 10
PPL and XPL

0.2

0.1

0.0 mm

pore has
formed within an iron crust.
The: matrix of the cru~t is composed
of' fine hematite and goethite:, which
are diversely indurated. Quaru
grain., origillJHy included in the
matTix \\"{~re completely dissolved,
lca\"ing residual pores (C 1, CS). The
large tubular pore, clOd also the
small interstitial pores that formed
between the aggregates of plasma
that make up the matrix, are now
flartially infilled by regular thin
deposits of well-former! crystals of

464

goethite. The upper photomicrograph (PPL) clearl: shows the successi"e coatings, which all are
regularly crcscent-shaped. Some
intercalations of red detrital material Jre '-isible in the lower part of
the composite coating, whereas
each la.mina is separated fi-om the
previous one by a thin, smooth and
dark border.
The lower pbotomicrograph
(XPL) shows the perfect orientation
of the goethite crystals, which have
grown perpendicular tu their sup-

port. In Ule first-formed layers, the

crystals are perpendicular to the
waJls of the cavity, but gradually, as
the cnit)' became infilled, the curvature of the crysralHne deposit is
modified in such a way that the thin
crystals are always oriented perpendicularly to the adjacent pre\iously
formed layer. The grey-colored
areas are due to U1C particular orientation of the individual crystals;
they are supported by walls whose
orientation i~ parallel to the optic
planes of the microscope.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

SECONDARY OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES

606,607

ABSOLUTE
ACCUMULATION
OF GOETHITE
IN IRON CRUST

Embu-Guac;:u. SP. Brazn

Sampled by
S.R. Soares Silva Vieira
Objective: x I6
PPL and XPL

r'

=- 0.0

mm

T (~pL)I;~ th~'I~~~'~~e (Xpl~)

show the characteristic shapes and
colors of coarsely crystalline
goethite. It formed by in situ crystallization from percolating iron
bearing water. The crystals are needle-shaped, and they exhibit a
coarser size and greater thickness
than the 6bers of goethite in earlier
photographs.

In the lower photomicrograph,

the alternating interference-colors
exhibited along the needles may
indicate that the goethite deposit is
composed of several successive layen, simulating a regular true
banded texture. However, this habit
also could be due to a torsion of the
needles during their growth, as is
the case in the apparently banded
structure of chalcedony deposits in

PART 4: UTHORfUCS. ALTEJ\ORflICS. NODULES AND PISOLlTHS

vesicles in basalt. Note that the secondorder colors of the goethite

crystals are partly masked by their
own deep yellow natural color. The
goethite, a-FeO(OH), is orthorhombic and biaxial negative.

465

SECONDARY OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES

608,609
ABSOLUTE
ACCUMULATION
OF GOETHITE
IN IRON CRUST

Embu.Gua<;u. SP, Brazil

Sampled by

S.R. Soares Silva Vieira

Objective: x 16
PPL and XPL

r'

-,,~

'
S

,I
I " , . I,
show
under PPL and under XPL:
respectively, the radiating arrangement of goeth.ite crystals, as it
appears in a section cut more or less
paraJlel to the wal.1s of tJle pore. This
orientation is conseguently moreor-less perpendicular to the orientation of the sections shown in earlier illustrations. All radiating units
are joined together according to a
regular network of suture lines,
which shows some simiJarities to

466

the commonly observed polygonal

granular texture. Wiiliin each radiating unit, all needJes are oriented
radiaJJy around a center (04), and
the regular black crosses appearing
under XPL are the sign of a weHordercd system of radiating fibers.
The regularity of tJle texture, as
seen in a thin section, evidently
depends on the external support on
which the needJes began their crystallization. Well-radiating shears can
be cut, by the p1ane of the tJun sec-

tion, in an obUque clirection that

makes the well-ordered radiating
texture disappear. The two uncolored areas of the top photomicrograph are holes due to plucking
during the preparation of the iliin
section.

ATl.A5 OF M,CROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

SECONDARY OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES

610
RELATIVE
ACCUMULATION
OF TITANIUM OXIDE

within an alteromorph
after perovskite
Tapira. MG. Brazil
Depth: 1.5 m
Objective: x 6.3
XPL

0.3
0.2

0.1

O.Omm

, I

,.

of microcrystals of anatase (TiO z)

results from the complete weathering of a grain of perovskite
(CaTiO,) in the upper part of a ferrallitic profile. The resulting entity
is an ortho-alveoporo-alteromorph.
The randomly distributed empty
areas are residual voids developed
by the partial dissolution of the primary mineral. They do not result
from the further evolution of the
alteromorph. This observation
allows the alteromorph to be classified as an Ol-tho- and not as a paraalveoporo-alteromorph. Around
large residual voids (C-Dl), probably interconnected with transmineral pore-space, and along irregular
intramjneral lIssures, complete
elimination of the soluble primary
elements and optimal circulation of
\vater have resulted in the best conversion of the titanium oxide into
mesocrystals of anatase. Their size

PART

4 ; lm-JOREUCS,

and bright yellow calor clearly contrast with the brownish orange
color of the cl)'l)tocrystaJline background. Exammation of unweathered perovskite. in the lower levels
of the profile. shows that most areas
occupied by perovskite are either
highly fractured large single cTystals
or aggregates of distinct ,maller
crystals. This last ilistin eti on , even in
the case of unweathered minerals, is
not always obvious because the
pseudocubic nature of the perovskite crystals makes these appear
nearly at extinction, between
crossed polarizers, whatever the
orientation in the plane of the thin
section. Irregular aligml1ents of
mesoo'ystalline anatase suggest the
occurrence of a netvvork of
intramineral fissures or of intermineral boundaries. These have played
the same role as residual voids. and
ha\'e locally resulted in enhanced
crystallinity of the secondary prod-

ALTEROREUCS. NODULES AND PISOLlTKS

uct. Such "veil-crystallized titanium-ricb alteromorphs allow individualized and characteristically

colored crystals of anatase to be
clearly observed and identified.
Otherwise, such characteristic
properties would be indistingtdsbable, as in most cryptocrystaJline
alteromorphs of "Ieucoxene" at the
expense of ilmemte and other litamum-rich primary minerals. The
surroundmg reddish brown areas
are crypto-alteromorphs after
clinopyroxene and, pOSSibly, after
pWogopite.

467

References and Hi bliography

TH[TEXT

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BOWEN, N.L. (1928): The Evolution if the Isneous Rocks.

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JONGERJUS,A. & RUTHERFORD, G.K., eds. (1979): Glos501)' Of Soil MicromorpholoBY' Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wagen.ingen,
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VELBEL, M.A. (1993): Formation of protective surface

layers during silicate-m.ineral weathering under
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KUBlENA, W L. (1938): MierOpedoIQB/' Collegiate Press,

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WHIlE, A.F. & BRANTLEY, S.L. (1995): Chemical

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MEJUNO, E., NAHON, D. & W\NG, YIFENG (1993):

Ki.netics and mass transfer of pseudomorphic
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granites et le role des microsystemes. Erude des
arenes du massif granitique de Parthenay (Deux
Sevres). Soc. Geol. France. Mem. 140,80 p.
MILLOT, G. & BONIf'AS, M. (1 955): Transfonnations isovolumetriqucs dans les phenomenes de laterisation et de bauxitisation. Sen. Carre Geol.
!l/saee-Lorraine. Bull. 8, 3-10.
MORIMOTO, N. (1989): Nomenclature of pyroxenes.
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NAHON, D. (1976): Cu.irasses felTugineuses et encrolitements calcaires au Senegal occidental et en
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_ _ _ _ (1991): Introduction to r.he PerroloflY ~f Soils

and Chemica/ltearherins. vViley Interscicnce, New
York, N.Y.
HDRO, G. & DELMAS, A.B. (1980): Regards acruels sur
les l)hcnomene.s d'alteration hy(lJ-olitique. Offiee
Reeh. Sci. Teeh. Outre-Mer (ORSTOM. Paris). Cah. ser.
PedoloBie 18(3-4), 217-234.
STOOPS, G., ALTEMULLER, H.-J., BISDOM, E.B.A.,
DELVlGNE,j., DOBROVOLSKY,V.V, Fn7PATFUCK, E.A.,
PANEQUE, G. & SLEn,1AN, J. (1979): Guidelines for
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& JONGERIUS, A. (1975): Proposal for a
micromorphological classification i.n soil materials. I. A classification of the related distributions of
coarse a.nd tine particles. Geoderma 13, 189-200.

TARDY, Y. (1969): Geochimie des alterations. Etude des

arenes et des eatL"\: de quelques massifs cristallins
d'Europe et d'Afrique. Serv. Geol. d'Alsaee-Lorraine,
Mem. 31, 199 p.

470

78,405-414.

3J, 583 p.

ADomo

AL BIBLIOGRAPHY
lONCER IN I THE A IPLE
~S RIBED
A LT,

J.c., LAVERNE, C. & MUEHI.ENBACHS, K_ (1985):

Alteration of dle upper ocean.ic crust: mineralogy
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BERNABE, E. (1996): Le., mecanismes d'alteration des monuments historiques en environnemem oceanique et rural.
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Penmare'h eL la hasilique NOLre-Dame Ju Fol8oiit.
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Aix-MarseiJ le Ill, MarseilJes, France (217 p.).
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Paris), Trcr..-aux er Doc. 175,364 p_
_ _ _ _ , DEL\.1GNE, J. & ESCHENBRENNER, V. (1973):
Descriptions morpboscopigue.~, geochirnigues et
mineralogigues des facies cu.irasses des principaux
nh'eaux geomorphologiques de C()te d'hoi.re.
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Cah. Ser. Geol. S( I), 59-82.
CLEMENTE, C.A. (1988): Alrera~oes e solos desenvolvidos
sobre rochos vulcanieas aeidas da Forma~ao Serra Geral
nos planaltos de GlJarapum'a e Palmas, ReBiao Cenrro
SuI do EsLado do Parana. Tese de Doutoramento,
Escola Superior de Agrieultma Luiz de Quciroz,
Piracicaba, Estado de Sao Paulo, I3rasil (2l1 p.).
DEKAYIR, A. (1994): Etude de l'ahcfralion supergene d'un
basahe a1calin quarernaire Ju Moyen .4r.las (Maroe).
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111, Marseille~, France (181 p.).
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Univ. Cath. Louvain, Belgique (198 p.).

ATLo\S OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTEl\AnON AND WEATHERING

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l'alteration ferraHitigue des feldspaths et des mineraux feno-magnesiens. C. R. sem. hficromorphol08ie
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LAVERNE, c., HONNOREZ, J. & ALT, J. (1989): Transition

entre ['alteration a basse temperature et I'alteration hydrothermale de la cl"Oute oceanigue: etude
petrographigue et geochimique du puits 504B, Est
Pacitigue. Soc. Geol. France, Bull. 8,327-337.

_ _ _ _ (1977): Aspects micromorphologigues de

I' alteration des roches ultTabasigues de Cote
d'lvoire en vermiculite, montmorillonite et kaolinite. MicromorJol08ia de Suel05, Proc. ?( the Fifth Int.
Workin8 Meetin8 on Soil Micromorphol08Y (Granada,
Spain), 389-406.

NOACK, Y. & NAHON, D. (1982): Sur une association

serpentine - carbonate (lizardite - PFoaurite)
dans J'altcration hypogene de l'olivine des massifs
ultrabasiques de SipiJou et Moyango (Ouest de la
Cote d'!voire). C.R. Acad. 5ci. Paris 295, ser. Il,
1129-1134.

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and weathering of pyroxenes in the Koua Bocca
ultrama5c ino'usion, Ivory Coast, Western Africa.
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Soils (Paris). Sci. Geol. (Strashour8) 72(2),57-68.

DE OUVEIR:\, S.M.B. & DELVIGNE, J. (1988): EvolUl;:ao

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(1990b): Alterations hypogenes et
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guelgues proms sur roches ultrabasigues du Koua
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Outre-Mer (ORSTOM. Paris). Wackerman, Bondy,
France (J99).
_ _ _ _ & BOLlLANGE, B. (1973): Micromorphologie des hydroxydes d'aluminium dans les niveaux
d' alteration et dans les bauxites. Congres into Je MIcromorphol08ie des S015 (Kin8ston, Canada), 665-681 .

_ _ _ _, SOUBlES, F. & SARDELA, I. (1987): MicromorpholOgiC des alterations supergenes de la

lujaurite du massif alcalin de Poc;:os de Caldas
(Minas Gerais, Bresil). Actes de la Sepcieme Reunion
Inr. de Micromorphol08ie des 5015 (paris er Gri8non,
France),97-103.
_ _ _ _ & STOOPS, G. (1990): Morphology omin-

eral weathering and neoformation. I. Weathering

of most common silicates. In Soil Micromorphology (L.A. DougJas, cd.). Elsevicr, The Netherlands
(482-491).
EMBRECHTS, J. & STOOPS, G. (1982): Microscopical
aspects of garnet weathering in a humid tropical
environment.). Soil Sci. 33,535-545.

RElHENCES AND

BIBUOGMPHY

0 deposito de
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e geoguirnica. Rev. Brosileira de Geociencias 15(3),
249-254.

_ _ _ _ & TRESCASES, J.J. (1985):

PAZ MORENo, F. (1992): Le volcanisme Mio-Plio-QyaterMile de l' Erat de Sonora (Nord-Ouest du Mexique):
evolution spatiale et chronoloBique; implicatiOns
petr08eneriques. These, Univ. Aix- Marseille ill,
Marseilles, France (351 p.).
PECROT, A., DELVIGNE, J., G,~STUCHE, M.C., VIELVOYE,
L. & FIUPlAT, J-J. (1962): L'alteration des roches et
la formation des sols au Kivu (Republique du
Congo). Insrirut National POUl l' Ecude A8ronomique
du Con80 (IN&lC, Bruxelles). Publ. Se,. Sci. 97, 101 p.
WALTER, A.V (1991): Caraeterisation 8eochimique er
mJneral08ique de l'alteradon de la carbonatite du complexe alcalin de Juquia (Bnisil). Comporcement des terres
rares dans les mineraux phosphates. These, Univ. AixMarseille ill, Marseilles, France (247 p.).
, FUCOTEAUX, R., PARRON, c., LOUBH,
M. & NAHON, D. (1995): Rare earth elements and
isotopes (Sr, Nd, 0, C) in minerals from the
Juguia carbonatite (Brazil): tracers of a multistage
evolution. Chem. Geol. 120,27-44.
ZANONE, L. (1971): La Bauxite en Cote J'lvoire. Bauxitisation eC PaJeocuirasses. Societe pour le Developpement Minier (SODEM!), Abidjan, Cote d'!voire
(184p.).

471

Glossary

ALTERITE
The term aherile is used to designate, iD a profile,
the levels located between the unweathered
bedrock and the soil horizons. It genera]ly comprises a lower level in whid1 the original petrographic texture IS maintained and still
rec09nizabJe either in the field or in thin section
'"
(isalterile), and an upper level in wh.ich the or-iginal
textw-aJ features have partly or totally disappeared
(al/oterile). The weathered part of a profile, in
which structures of the original rud<s are maintained, is also calJed saproliu.

ARGILLAN
nle term is used to designate a cutanic fabric
whose mineralogical nature is principaUy composecl of clay minerals. The clay minerals are commonly kaolinite, more or less colored by goeth.i.te
or hematite (jerri-argil/an), in ferrallitic soils, or
smectite-grollp minerals (saponite, nontronite)
and montmOliUonite in the lower parts of landscape.s, where the conditions of drainage are less
efficient. ArgilJan exhibits commonly alternating
mkrolan1inations of limpid a.nd speckled clay,
genera.lly oriented parallel to the surface (wall of a
void, skeleton grain or ped surface) on which it is
fIxed by illuviation and deposition of detrital
clayey material.

ARGILLlPLASMA
111e tern1 designates the Fraction of soil material of
colloidal size that consist.s dominantly of clay minerals. In the arrangement of the elements of a soil,
the term argillip!asma is complementary to the
skeleton grains.

ASEPIC
Tbe term designates a kind of p!asmicJabric. The
general term sepie is derived from ,epaTQlion, so
tbat asepic (with a without) means without separation of pla.>ma. An a.sepic plasmic fabric corresponds to a dominantly anisotropic plasma with.
anisotropic domains that are unoriented with
respect to each other. The terms ar8i1!asepie and
si!asepic designate a I'abric of a plasma dominantJy

composed of either "anisotropic" clay minerals or

of particle sizes with relatively high proportions of
silt-size grains so that tJle domains are difficult to
recognize (Brewer 1964-).

CHADACRYST
The term is used to designate the relatively small
crystals that are enclosed within a larger poikilitic
crystal. Chadacrysls of clinopFoxene or plagioc1ase are commonly observed in poikilitic hornblende, for example.

CHITONIC
This term, introduced by Stoops & Jongerius
(1975), pertains to a type of distribution pattern
of coarse and fine constituents in which the
coarser particles are completely or partly coated
by finer matel-ial. Such material may be i.lluviatioo
coatings or random depOSits of clay 00 /:,1T'ain sw-faces.

COATING
This term denotes a layer of any substance covering surfaces of vojds, grajns and aggregates. It was
lIsed by Kubiena (193H) to describe colloidal films
around grains. Coated grains may be embedded in
the groundmass, but the concept excludes biref'-ingent fabrics such as the Branosuialed bjabTic.

CRYSTALLARIA
This term was proposed by Kubiena (1938) to
designate crystalline pedofeatw-es composed of
single crystals or, more commonly, arrangements
of crystals of relatively pure fractions of the
plasma that do not enclose the S-matrix of the soil
material, but rather form cohesive ma~ses. Their
morpholog;', like small geodes, is consistent with
their formation in pre-existing voids in the enclosi.ng soil mateliaJ _The cry~tals that foml a cI)'stallaria are generally oriented paraJlel to eadl other
and perpendicular to the walls on which they
grow. Tbe crystaUaria may be reduced to crystalline bands running arowld J central empty
residual pore, or they may infiU completely tJ1e
origmal empty pore. The size of the individual
crystals is generally sufficient to aUow the deter-

mination of the mineral slJCcies present by optical

methods. The most common cr}stalJaria are composed of calcite, gypsum, gibbsite, goethite,
kaolinite, smeetite'group minerals or quartz (T)'Stab.

CRYSTALUPLASMA
The telm is used to distinguish tIle portion of tIle
soil plasma whose components exhibit a grain size
allo~\ing their distinctjon as separate anisotropic
units. The tern) is generally used in opposition to
the term argilliplosma.

CUTAN
Brewer (1964) coined this term to designate a
mocLification of the texture, structure, or fabric at
natural surfaces in wil materials, due to conc(~n
tration of particular soil constituents or in ~iw
modillcation of the plasma. Cutans may be COIUposed of any or the component substances of the
soil material. See also: argillan, skeletan, fen-an,
and goethan.

ENAULIC
Stoops & Jongcrius (1975) introduced this term to
descI'ibe a type of related distribution pattern of
coarse and fine constituents in which skeletons of
coarser particles are associated with aggregates of
finer material regularly distributed in the interstitial spaces_ The iI&...gregates do not completely fill
the interstitial pore-spaces. The size of the skelpton grains may be greater or equal to that of" tIle
aggregates.

EPIGENETIC REPLACEMENT
The term, or the equivalent, epigenesis, is used to
designate the slow replacement, in a rock, at a
low temperature and a low pressure, of a mineral
or material by another mineral, each added atom
replacing a pre-existing atom. This phenomenon
is linked to the transfer of chemjcal elements to a
point, or volume. Th\? term mefasomatism also is
used to designate such cl replacement. The chemical elements added either cJo not exist in the mineral being replaced, or are present there in
relatively low conccntTations only. [n general, the
volume and shape of the mineral or material are
well maintained during or after the replacement.
Examples are provided hy tJle replacement of
kaolinite by iron oxyhydroxides, of feldspar by
calcite, and of calcite in fossilized brachiopods by
pyrite.

FERRAN
This term refers to a kind of tuu.m exclusively
composed l1f oxides or hydroxicks of iron (or
both). This kind of fen-an is commonly observed

474

in iron-rich crusts and lateritic bauxites of tropical

regions, i.n which large guantities of mobile iron
arc locally djssolved, ba.nsfelTed and deposited to
fOlm crystals. Ferrans commonly exhibit either
linear and banded structures by crystallization in
available planar voids (cracks), or concentric
structw'es by crystallization within three-dimensional residual voids (see also Boerhan and
hemawn).

FERRI-ARG1LLAN
TIus term refers to a kind of cuwn composed of
variable proportions of clay minerals mixed with
iron oxides and hydroxides. Ferri-argiIJans are the
most conunon kind of cutans in soils and near-surface materials, principally in fenalJitic soils. They
correspond generaJly to deposits of day particles
previously stained by iron compounds and not to
synchronous preCipitates of clay minerals and iron
compounds.

GEFUR1C
Stoops & Jongerius (1975) introduced this term to
describe a pattern of distribution of coarse and
fine constituents in wluch the coarser particles are
linked by braces of finer material. The coarse particles are not in contact with each other, and thus
have no skeleton function.

GIBBSAN
This term refers to a kind of cuwn composed
exclusively of gibbsite crystals. Several origins of
gibbsan (sometimes called gibbsiwn to avoid any
confusion 'Nith wp.mn) are observed. Commonly
gibbsaJls are formed iD situ by crystallization of
hydroxide of aluminum from transferred dilute
solutions. They may be also derived from the
desilication of kaolinite cutans (arBillans) previ0usly deposited as detrital particles. More rarely,
gibbsans may form by deposits of detrital crystals
previously formed in a higher level of the profile
and broken and displaced under the influence of
biological factors, such as the activity of tJle soil
micTofauna. In the two first cases, the gibbsite
crystals a.re oriented perpendicular to the walls of
the receptive void, whereas in the third case, the
elongate crystals of gibbsite are genel<llly oriented
parallel to these \va lis.

GLAEBULE

The term, derived from tIle Latin gJaebuJa small

clod of earth material, "vas proposed by Brewel'
(1964) for a tlu-ee-dimensionaJ unit observed
within the S-matrix ancJ whose shape is usually
prolate to equant. It is recognizable by its morphology, its greater concentration of some con-

AnAl OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL AlTERATION AND WEATHERING

stituents, di!Terences in fabric with the enclosing

soil material, and its distinct boundaries. Nodules,
concretions, septal-ia and papulcs arc glaebules.

GLACIS
The term refers to a gentl), inclined slope, formed
by a geomorphological process characteristic of
dry climates, which extends on a mountain side,
either from a duT or around a residual hill, plateau
or inselberg. In some cases, it is equivalent to a
piemonl slope. It is derived by analog)' \'l-ith the
glacis used in fortifications as a defense against
attack. The inclination of a glacis does not exceed
some 5 in its lower part, where tl1e slope may
appear as rectilinear and uniform. In its upper
part, it is 1i11kt~d to the sides of the mountain, with
progressively more and more curved and steeper
slopes.
GOETHAN
This type of cutan consists exclusively of gocthite.
1t generaUy results from in situ deposition from
dilute solutions dCI;ved from the upper parts of
tlle prome or crust, where geochemical conditions may induce the mobility of iron and its transfer to lower portions of the profile. In most
goethans, goeiliite exhibits a very fine fibrous
habit. The fibrils grow perpendicular to the waUs
of the original void. Their bright yellow to orange
colOl's are characteristic and aUow easy distinction
from otller types of cutans.
GRANOSTRIATED BIREFRINGENCE-FABRIC
This term. most commonly wTitten granostriated
b-fabric, is a soil fabric formed by clay particles
oriented parallel to the surfac:e of a resistant fabric
units, such as m.ineral grains or hard nodules. A
birefringent halo is seen arou.nd the grain or nodule between crossed polarizers when the microscope stage is rotated. Poro.ltr;aleJ L'fahric is
simjlar, but found within the matrix all around a
pore. Granostriated and porostriated b-fabrics
have features in common with h/pocoatinas.
HEMATAN
This type of cutan, composed of hematite, is
rather r;)l"(: in iron-rich crusts and bauxites
because it has a tendency to be formed exclusively
in very slightly porous and quasi-anhydrous
media, as in argilJiplasmas and all textures of ver),
Bne-grained materials. In iron crusts and balL'oCites,
it is in some instances observed forming regular
intercalations with goelhans and gibbsans. In these
cases, the hematan (oxide of iron) is invariably
located near the wall of the pore, or even in the
surrounding matrix, where anhydrous conditions

GLOSSARY

prevaJ, whereas tbe hydroxides of the goethans

and gibbsans are particularly well developed along
the walls of large interconnected vugbs, where the
circulation of water is more abundant and easy.

HYPOCOATING
This peclofeature is Jb"tinguished from the most
common cootina by the fact that it occurs immediately adjoining rather than on tll(~ surface with
which it is associated. It may ariBe by impre.srnation of a ground mass immediately adjacent to the
surface of a void or of a skeleton grain (external
hypocoatings) or by impregnation of the surface
zones of a mi<..Toporous grain (internal hypocoating).
INTERTEXTlC
The term is used to determine a kind of elementary fabl-ic in which mineral grains are united or
linked to each others by intergranuJar braces of
finer material (tlocculatcd clays or organic: material). This interce.Hic fabric conesponds to the
related aifuric pattern of distribution of Stoops &
Jongerius (1975). This fabric gives to the material
large and generally continuous networks of pores.
MAMMfLATE
The term relates to the shape of protuberances
appearing on the undulating and rough surface of
a grain. The surface, seen in a section, consists in
juxtaposition of convex curved protuberances
separated from each otller by triangular acute
inward boundaries. The term may also be used to
incLC<lte coIl1orm or botljoidal or reniform textures.
The opposite, or complementary, relationship is
the palmar.e texture, in which the surface of the
grain, as seen in section, is made of a succession or
adjacent concave curves separated from each
other by triangular or acute protuberances. Diaitate is a term that covers the intermediate ~hapes
betvveen mammilate and palmate surfaces, and
generally apphes to "Hnger~like" projections.
MATRIX
The term is used in sedimentology to indicate the
finer synsedimentary material between sand
grains. It is used in soil micromorphology to designate the finest material of the soil fabric (Smatrix).
MONIC
Stoops & Jongerius (1975) introduced this term
f01' a type of distribution pattern of coarse and fine
constituents in which only particles of one size
range (or amorphous material) are present. Associated interstitial voids, generally referred to as

475

packinB rajdI. arc invariably present, though they

may be ultr.unicroscopic. Tlus pattern b commonly observed i.n pure sandy soils and scdiments
devoid of cementing material.

M-PLASMA
This term designates the soil plama that fonns the
colloidal pan of dIe surrounding matrix, by opposition to the plasma that may be observed within
included pedofeatures. Compare \\ith Plasma.

OIKOCRYST
This term designates the large poikilitic crystal
that encloses many small crystals of a different
mineral. Oi.kocrysts of an amphibole-group mineral commonly enclose small crystals of plagiocJase or p)'Toxcne-group minerals. Compare with
chlldauysr.

ORTI-IIC

This term, From thc Greek rnot opeo~

right,
straight. is used in a purely moq)hological sense
and applied to describe the re1.1tionships observed
in the texture of the pedological feature (concretion or nodule) and that of the adjacent matrix.
The term orrhic characterizes a concretion whose
base material is identical to that of the adjacent
matri-x; llnonhic (same Greek root with the prefix
(X or (Xv = without) is used where it is not. Thedirference bel'ween an orthic pedofeature and its
matrix lies in the fact that the locally developed
concentration of a constituent mineral has
obscured the texture of the original matrix, the
skeleton grains 01' which being generally the only
constituents still \"isibk. The concentnted constituents may be iron oxides and hydroxides,
gibbsite, calcite and other secondary minerals.
The distribution and the nature of the skeleton
fractions of the pedofeature, and of the sunounding matrix arc simi.Jar in the case of orthic concretions. In anOl1:hic concretions. the identifiable
constituents and their distTibution differ from
those in the surroundjng matTix. Consequently, a
genetic sense may be added to the abow definitions: an orthic concretion is formed in siw by
local concentration of and impregnation by a soil
constituent, whereas an anorthic concretion is
generally an allochthonous concretion whose orig'
inal matrix (and necessarily its included skeleton
grains) are different. Both terms may, in some
instances, be applied to the same concretion
where its anol,thic nucleus, of allodlthonous origin, is now surrounded by an accretion cortex
formed, in ,lieu, by aureolar impregnation of the
surrounding matri-x.

476

ORTHOBlMASEPIC FABRJC
This complex term is formed from the Greek root
opeo~
straight, from the Latin root bi = two,
and from ma of matrix and sq>ic of separation.
According to Brewer (1964), the rna.<epic fabriC
refers to part of the plasma that has a Oecked orientation pattern, but plasma separations occur as
zones \'\'ithin the S-matrix apparently not associaled with the walls of voids 01' the sw"faces of
skeleton grains; the striated orientation is elongate
parallel to cllC length of the zones. These may be
parallel to each other, or randomly arranged, or
the plasma separations may occur in two (bi-) sets
of subparallel zones, ead, set being inclined as a
definite angle to the other set. This latter fabric is
termed bimllsepic fabric. Where the angle between
the two sets is approximately a right angle, the
fabric becomes all orthobimasepic fabJic.

PACKING VOIDS
These are void~ due 10 the random packing of indi
viduals (Brewer 1964-). Paclcing voids are interconnected between them and may be the
pathways for absolute accumulations of fine matelial. A11 individual voids may exhibit equant size if
they are intertitial between skeleton grains of
approximately the same size.

PAPULE
A papule is a gJaebuJe composed dominantly of
clay minerals with a continuous or lamellar fabric;
it has a sharp external bOllndary and is commonly
prolate to cqnant and somewllat rounded.

PEDOPLASMAnON
Pedoplasmation refers to a near-surface process of
formation of secondary minerals, mainly clay minerals, at the expense either of the minerals of the
parent rock, or of the previously formed secondaI)' minerals that appeared in subjacent alteromorphs. In this case, the microtextural patterns of
tJle aJteromorphs are modHled, and part of their
se.condary minerals is replaced by othcr secondary
minerals of simpler chemical composition, e.B.,
replacement of smectite-group minerals by
kaolinitc, or degradation of the pre-existing
kaolinite by gibbsite.

PEDOTURBAnON
All mixings of soil components not caused by illuviation arc covered by this term. The process of
pedoturbation is a superllcial one that tends to
destroy the soil textures previously formed by
pedological processes. The main factors of pedo-turbation are of biological, phYSical or chemical
order, and they act principally in the upper part of

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEArHERING

the profiles. They arc: the activity of the plant

roots, of animals and microfauna of the soil (pedotubules, channels, galleries, etc.), human activity
(plov.,;ng, work of soil for agJicultural or breeding
purposes),
physical
or geomorphological
processes (colluvial, creep, and all processes of
erosion) and, to a lesser extent, chemical
processes that may promote the dissolution of soluble material and consequent crushing, settling
and textural re-arrangements orthe residual insoluble material.

PLASMA
Plasma is llsed to designate that part of a soil material that is capable of being (or has been) moved,
reorganized or concentrated by the processes of
soil formation. It is the mobile active part of the
soil material. The plasma includes aIJ the material,
mineral or organic, of colloidal size and relatively
soluble material that ;s not bound in the skeleton
gJains. The telm may be written as M-plasma
where it designates specifi.cal.Jy cl)e plasma of the
soil matri.:x.

POIKILITIC
Where an igneous rock displays a poikiJitic texture, small grains of one mineral are irregularly
scattered without common orientation in a typically anhedral larger crystal of an other mineral.
The included small gJ'ains, also called chadacrJ5lS,
are commonJy pyroxene or plagioclase grains
completely embeddefl in an enclosing large crystal, also called oikocr)'St, commonJy of amphibole.
A poikilobla5i (the textural term is poikiloblasric)
refers to a Jal-gc crystal that gJ-ew during metamorphism (i.e., in me solid state), also containing
numerous inclusions of small grains.

PORPHYRJC
This term, introduced by Stoops & ]ongerius
(1975), refers to a type of related pattern of djstribution of coarse and fine constituents in which
ilie coarser particles are completely embedded in
a giou.ndmass of finer material; interstitial pores
are ahsent, at least at the scale of the rustribution
pattern. Depending on the rustance between the
skeleton grains that are completely embedded in a
clayey matrix, one can distinguish a close porphyric
related diStribution, where many coarse IJarticles
have points of contact with each other, and an open
porphyric related disrribution, where few grains an'
in contact with each other. Sinsle- and doublespaced porphyric distJibutions can be distinguished
according to the distances between them in Ielation to Uleir mean diameter.

GLOSSARY

PORPHYROSKELIC
The term, intToduced by Brewer (1964), is eqillvaJeat to porphyric of Stoops & ]ongcrius (1975).
The concept is based on the relation of plasma to
skeleton gJ'ain: the plasma occur-s as a dense
groundmass in wmch skeleton grains are set, in a
manner recalling phenocrysts in a porphyritic
igneous rock.

QUASICUTAN
This tenn refers to a pedologicaL featu.re tl1at
occurs withtn the S-matrix, not immediately
adjoining natural surfaces, but with an obvious
relationship to iliem (Brewer 1964). A quast{erran
is a quasicutan whose constituent minerals mainly
are oxides and hydroxides of iron.

SAPROLITE
Supro/ire is a term conunonly used by geolOgiSts to
refer to a typic..-Jly clay-I-ich, comlJletely decomposed rock, fonued in siw by chemical weather
ing. The original rock may be igneous,
metamorphiC or serumentaly', and its original
structure is commonly preserved throughout the
weatl1ered cover. The iliickness of ilie saprolite
may be very thick, plincipally in humid tropical
regions. Saprolile is equivalent to the tenn alterite.
more recentlv~ introduced and baenerally~ used bv"
soil scientists and other agronomists who study
this material in gJeat detail as an intermecUate
stage in the formation of soil.

SKELETON
The term skelelOn determines relatively stable
residual mineral grains and organisms, t.he size of
which generally corresponds to the sand fraction
of ilie soil. The skeleton grains are generally con
cent.rated or reorganized in specific horizons,
associated with colloidal argiHiplasmas under the
influence or pedological processes.

S-MAffiIX
The S-ma/rix of a soil material is ilie material
(plasma, skeleton grains, associated voids) within
the simplest (primary) peds, or composing apedal
soil materials, that do not occur as pedological
features other than plasma separations; it may be
absent in some soil materials, for example, those
that consist entirely of pedological features
(Brewer [964).

STONE LINE
A stone line is a continuous or discontinuous line
of angular- and subangular rock fragn1ents, paralleling a sloping topogJ'aphic surl'ace and lying just
above the parent material of a soil at a dept.h of a

477

few meters below that surface. Many old ferralLitic soils exhibit stone Lines, a few centimeters to
one meter thick, generally composed of frat,rrnents
of quartz, derived from the residual unweathcrable quartz veins crossing the parent rock of the
soil. and of fragments or gravels of iron dwicTusts
and other resistant materials. Whether a stone tine
is autochthonous or allochthonous (in situ concentration of the fragments by settling and sorting by
microfawla activity, or allochthonous origin by
deposits of gravels on an eroded slope before its
burial under more recent colluvial deposits) is
genel-allya matter of discussion. The heterogeneity of the material may in some cases bring arguments for an allochthonous origin of the matelial
of the stone lines. Where the material is homogeneously composed of ubiquitous Fragments of
quartz, ho",ever, the question may not be
resolved easily.

STRESS CUTANS
The tenn, proposed by Brewer (1964), refers to
an in situ modification of the plasma due to difTerential forces such as shealing. The stress cut,IJ1S are
not true coatings. They develop also between two
or more rigid bodies embedded in a soft clayey
matrix under the influence of variation of volumes
owing to alternations of humidity and dryness;
they arc then expressed by halos of birefringent
oriented clay material contrasting \yith the unoriented day-rich matrix. See also Granosrriated bireJri ngenceJabri(.

SYMPLECTITIC
A s)'mplecriti( texture in an igneous or metamorphic rock is produced by the intimate intergrowth
of (usually) two minerals that grew simultaneously. One or u1e minerals may exhibit a vermicular habit. In this book, the word is used to
characterize the intimate assemblage of vermicular grain;; of magnetite regularly distributed within
one (or more) grain of orthopyroxene. nus
assemblage is interpreted to result From the
replacement of an original grain of otivine subjected to thermal metamorphism.

TOMBOLO
A wmbolo is a bar of sand or gravel or a barrier that
connects an island with the mainland or with an
other island. Where the island has a relatively
large size, two opposite curved (concave) bars
may form, isolating a portion of the sea bet\o\'een
them and the mainland, leading to a double tombolo.

478

TOPOSEQUENCE
The term topaseq[lence (from the Greek root
T01TO~ = place, position, and the Latin root sequi
to follow), also refcrred to as (arena (from the
chain), is used to designate a
Latin root catena
series of profiles or pits regularly distributed and
generally aligned along the longest slope of a
watershed. The distance between each profile can
be l-egular or inegular, and their number, density
and distribution delJend on the local variability of
pedological factors such as topography, vegetation, conditions of internal drainage, ge.omorphological events, and the nature of the bedrock. A
toposequence is created, located and studied in
order to determine the pedologic,ll and weathering response to the local variation of these I'actors
by variations in physical, chemical, mineralogical
and textural properties of the products. These
variations are expressed aJso by the distribution,
thickness and nature or the weathered and pedological horizons of each proll1e or IJit.

VESICLE
The term ,esiclc is used in pedolngy to designate
voids rather similar to vughs, whose walls consist
of smooth, simple cunes, subcircular or elliptical
in section. Vesicles are generally charactel"ized by
a parallel referred distribution within the soil
material. Many of them arc formed by gas development at the expense of organic matter in the
upper horizons
the soil.

or

VUGHS and VUGS

These vcry similar terms have a similar meaning
and morphology, hut involve: a different mode of
origin. Vughs have a supergene origin and occur in
soils and aJterites, whereas vugs have a hypogene
origin and occur in rocks. VUBhs are relatively
large voids or cavities in a soil material, other than
packing voids, usually irregular and not normally
interconnected with other voids of comparable
size. One can distinguish regular vughs (equant,
prolate, acicular) and irregular vughs (mammilate, digitate). Onc can aJso distinguish orthovuahs
(\'\o'ithout coatings) and mctQI'u8hs (with coatings:
Brewer 1964. p. 189). Th~ term does not have a
genetic connotation concerning the origin (dissolution, pedoturbation) of the void. On the other
hand, l'Ug,' an: smaJl cavities in a vein or in rocks,
usually Lined with crystals of a mineral assemblage
different from that in the enclosing rock (Bates &
Jackson (1987.

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

Index

I DEX OF
PHOTOMICR GRAPH
A 0 FIGt RE
This Index is arranged in such a manner that the main dj\~
sions of the hook are easily accessible. The major themes are
successively arranged in a natural and logical order of
description, From the parent rock to lhe most intenselv
weathered bauxitic mateliak Each of the fifteen theme's
!i,ted below is individualJy imlexed. The page numbers cited
refer 1) to photographs and their r"spective captions, or 2)
to specillc figures, identified in parentheses in hold-face
font. The symbols oxFe, oxTi and OxNln represent oxides
and oxyhydroxides of Fe, Ti and Mn, respectively.
PARENT ROCKS
PRIMARY MINERALS (Mineral species)
PRIMAR)' MLNERALS (Morphological Features)
WEATHERED ROCKS
ALTERATION AND WEATHERING
SECONDARY MlNERALS
ALTEROMORPHS
MATERIAL TRANSFERS
LlTHORELlCS
ALTERORELlCS
CONCRETIONS
NODULES
PEDORELlCS
BAUX1TIC PISOUTHS
ARTIFICIAL FEATURES

1"\1-U-:--

479
4-79
484
4-86
486
487
490
491
491
492
492
493
4-94494494

r I{I l( 'K'"

Amphibolite 20,23, 103, 107, 109, 195, 196, 197,232,

233,252,256,330
Anortbosite 14, 199
Basaltic rocks 11,12,17,19,22,75,92,98,116,117,129,
176,177,178,183, 18+, 186, 193,270,281,282,
289
Cale-alkaline granite 18, 139, 141, 142, 143, 145, 147,
185.251
Carhonatite 94-, 95, 127, 220, 329
Charnockite 14+, 146,248,250,253,254-,257
Diabase 115,194,236,319
Gahbro 96,14,104,191,192,203,21+,24-8,255,257,
294,318
Granitic rock SI (48),64-,69, 114,145,161, 162, 164,
165, 171,216,217,218,231,246,247,276,324,
326,327,328,341,354,355,360

INDEX OF PHOTOHICRDGAAPHS AND FIGURES

Granitic: gnei~s 97
Kcr.~antite 100, 101, 128,160,168
Komatiite 131
Metagabhro 187
Mica schist 198, 249
Nepheli.nc syenite (luja\clitej 68, 102, lOS, 106, 10~, 118,
1 I 9, 121. I H, 234, 235, 295, 33 I, 332, 33 3, 334,
335
Pelidotite 132, 268. 269. 302
Phonolite 15
Pyroxcnite 10,17,19,10,21,24,25,61,62,66,67,70,
71,72,73,74,77,78,79,93,96,99,110, Ill,) 12,
113,120,130,133,135,136,137, J38, 140,156,
157,158,159,162, In3, 166, 167,169, 170, 177,
178,188,189,190,198,200,209,210,211,212,
213,215,219,227,228,229,230,231,263,264,
265,266,267,271,272,273,274,275,283,284,
285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 191, 292, 293, 296, 297,
29~, 299, 300, 301, 303,304,305,320,321,322,
323, 32'>, 336.337, 338, 339, 340,356, 357, 358,
365, 366
Schist 16. 202
Ultrabasicrock 51 (4A), 352,353,359,368,369

I'IU'" \1\\ \11'-JI[ol-\l. (,\ll11L'I',d ~p,dl"1

Actinolite 13,20,23,62,63,68, 107, 109,252
cleavages 20,23, 107,252
intranlineraJ residual porosity 109, 252
oriented sccondall' minerals 252
pattt::rns of \\'eath~ring
peripheral 23, 107, 109
regular, cros,ing 2.3, 107,252
primary mineral 20, 23
secondary minerals
oxFe 23, 107, 109,2'>1
lTansyerSe fractures 23, 107, 109
twins 151
Aegirine68, lOS, 108, 121, J34, 234a~ inclusions 295
banded pattern of weatb<:riug 134
denticulate cores 134
primar)' mineral 68, 108
secondary millel-als
oxFc 108,1)4
transverse I'raeturcs 68, 108, 134
AIlanite 185
Amph.iholes (mineral spccic$ not spcciJicd) 24, 25, 61, 62,
63, 195,1%, 197,153,256
cJca"age~ 256

479

inclusions of quartz 256

minute remnanll 256
twins 256
t\nkeritp 127, 220, 215
Anonhoclase 14
twin$ 14
t\patile68, 74, 94,95, 133,156,157,182,219,220
cavernous resiclues 219
displacement of fragments 84 (6A)
fracrures 84 (6A), 133, 157
inclusion in biotite - phlogopite - ve.rrnicuLil<' 84 (6A),
156, 157
inclusion in hornblende 133, 182
primary mineral 182
residual empty pore$ 219
>econdary minerals (oxFe rim) 219
Augite 11,12,22,177,178,308 (<<lA)
cleavages 22, 308 (<<lA)
inclusions in 12,22,177,178
infillings of gibbsite 308 (40A)
primary mineral 11, 12,22,177,178
secondary miner-als: oxFe 22, 308 (40A)
transverse fractures 308 (<<lA)
t,,"ins 11
zonation 11, 12. 177, 178
Biotite 64, 74, 84 (6A, B, C), 86 (7A, B), 100, 101, 128,
139,158,159,160,161,162,164,165,166,168,
171,189,190,231,321,324, HI, 354
cleavages 128, 139, 158, 159, 160
deformation 84 (6C), 171, 198
epigenetic replacement 198
exfoliation 168, 324
expansion 84 (6A, B, C), 86 (7B), 158, 159, 160,
162,164,165,166,324,341
inclusion.,
primary inclusions
of ap,ltite 84 (GA)
of titanite 168
secondary inclusion.,
of iron uxyhydroxides 84 (6B)
inl1llings of
calcite 160, 168
gypsum 168
iron accumulation 198
kaolinite 324
guartz 160
interla}'ered secondary minerals 84 (6B), 86 (7A, B),
231,324,341
irregular pores 84 (6C)
lenticular pores 84 (6A, D), 158, 159, 160, 161, 231,
324, 341
orientation of secondary products 324
patterns of weathering
irregular, banded 128, 341
peripheral 164
secondary mine.rals
chldrite 8G (7A, B), 118,139, 160
gibbsite 161, 341
bolinite 84 (6B), 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 171,
198, 231, 341
later evolutiun 341

480

oxFe 84 (6B), 231

oxTi 128, 160
smectite-group mineral 84 (6C), 164, 165
tremoLite 190
vermicuJite 84 (6A), 166, 17 J, 189
secondary tram and intermineral rrilctures 164Biotite - d,lorite 100, 1() 1, 139
peripheral pattern of weathering "100, 101
primar, minerals 139
secondary minerals
chJorite 100,101
Calcite - ,1l1keJ"ite 94,95, 127, 220,329
denticulate cores 127
in1ll\lng~ of secondary apatite 220, 329
patterns of weathering
peripheral 95, 329
thick pellicular 127
thin pellicular 94, 220, 329
primary mineral 94
residual pores 95, 127
secondary minerals
oxFe 94,95,127,220
ox(Fe + Mn) 329
Clinopyroxene (mineral species not specified) 21, 51 (4A),
61,62,63,65,66,71,83 (5B), 92, 93, 136, 137,
138, 177, 178, 194,200,227,228,229,230,246,
250,262 (35A), 304, 305, 321, 337, 338, 365, 366
breakage 136, 321
cleavages 21, 229, 250, 262 (35C), 338
coatings in 32 1
denticulate cores 136,137,138,227,250,321
diffusion of iron 337, 338
fissures 61,62,63,73,74,77,93,230,250,337
hypocoatings 74,337,338
inclusions in 21, 262 (35C)
infillin.gs in 321
oriented particles of clay 138, 227, 228, 229, 230,
246, 262 (3Sq, 337
uriented residues 136, 138, 250
patterru of weathering
irregular, banded 337
pa.rallel, banded 250
peripheral, banded 137
peripheral, centripetal 227
primary mineral 21, 61, 62, 63
quasi. coatings 221l
residual cores 337
residual empty pores 227,228,229,250,337
secondary minerals
acti~oJite 62, 63
iron 0XY'hydrox:icles 194, 228, 229, 246, 250.
337, 338
saponite 65, 73, 74, 77, 93,137,138.227,230,
337,338
smectite-group mineral 83 (5B), 136, 228, 229,
262 (3SC), 321
Diopside 13,20,137,157,200,303,304,305
cleavages 20
CTacks 20
denticulate cores or residues 137, 200, 304
erroneous interpretation 303, 304, 305

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

inc111~ions

or
amphibolc 303, 304-, 305
magnetite 303
onbopyroxene 303
orientation of inclusions 303, 305
orientation of secondal]' products
random, une\'('11 200
regular 304-, 305
peripheral + banded patterns of m:'athcrillg I j7, 157
primary mineral 20, 303
secondar} mjnerals
calcite 200
,aponite 137,157,304,305
Epidote 18,180, 185,202,262 (35B), 355
allanite 185
concentTic pattern of weathering 185
rim 01" primary mineral 185
fracture.l 202
inclusion" of 262 (35B)
inclusions of quartz 180
prirnary mineral 130, 135
"econdan'/ mineraJ~
saponite 185
iron oxyhydrox:ides 202
Euclial \,te 121, 234a~sociated mioeral 234patchy pattern 01" weathering 121
secondarl" minerals
natrolite 121
oxJ"'(' 121
Feldspars (mLneral species not spt'ciried) 51 (4B), 69, 89
(9C), 90 (lOA, B), 14-3, 145, 146, 232, 233, 247,
250,257,276,308 (4DB), 330. 354. 367
cal'f~rnou" 143, 146
cleavages 143,247
fractures 69,257, 301l (40B)
inclusions in 145
inflllings of
days 69,308 (40B)
smcctile 2)J, 330
interconnecteJ vughs 257
minute residues 14.3
oriented secondary mineral> 247, 257
patterns of weadlering
complex 146
irregular 89 (9C)
irrel,rular digitate 89 (9C)
res.iclual voids 247, 308 (40B)
residues, cores 308 (40B)
reticulate intramineral fractures 132, 133, 330
secondary minerals
gihb~itt: 89 (9C), 143. 145, 146, 247, 257, 308
(40B)
isotropic matc-ria189 (9C), 143,232,233,3.30
twins 143, 146
Fenomagnesian mincrals (mincral speci<:s not specilled)
201,250,291,319
cleavages 319
epigenetic replacement 20 I
fractures 20 I, ~ 19
inJlllings of gihbsitc 319

INDEX OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND FIGURES

secondary minerals
iron' oxybvdroxides 20 I, 319
Garnet 16, 88 (8B): 97, 181, 249
l"a\"(~rnous residue~ 249
external rim 97
inclu~i()n.s in 16, 181
irregular cro,~ing fncturcs 16, 88 (8B). 131, 24-9
patterns of \\'(.'aulcring
Lrr<:guJar linear SS (SB), 24-9
peripheral 97
prima,," mineral 16. 18l
rl'sic!uaJ empty pores 88 (SB), 249
re"idues (random) 88 (8B)
~econdarv minerals
gibhsite 249
oxFe 8S (SB), 97, 2+9
Hornblendt: 13, 19,24,25,51 (4A, B), 61, 62. 65, 71, 79.
88 (SC), 13~, 156, 178,195, 196, 197,232,233,
151,253,278 (37C), 291,303,304,305
bundles of crystals 195
cleavages 24,' 25,88 (SC), 133.251,278 (.37C), 291
denticulate residues 38 (SC), 133, 196, 278 (.37C),
291
diffusion halos 197
erroneous interpretation .103, 304, 305
fractures 278 (3 7C). 291
Lnel usions in I 3. 1.3 3, 195, 25 I
inclusions or 261 (35C)
inilllings 25
inn,lm.ineral porosity 2+, 25
oriented secondan mineral> 253
pattelTls or wcath~ring
complex 291
irregu1Jr, banded 1.33
pelliC1dar 196, 278 (37C)
regular, crossLn.g 88 (8C), 251,253
prin1ary mineral 13, 19,24-,25,61,178,195
residual empty pores 278 (HC), 291
-'l'condarv minerals
gibbsite 278 (37C), 291
nxFc 51 (4A), 88 (SC), 133. 196, 197, 251, 253.
278 (37C), 291
smectite 51 (4B)
twins 13
zonation 19
H~'pcrsthe-Il<' 10,78,79, 130, 1.35, 177, 187, 188,265,
266, 267, 273, 274, 275, 284, lR5, 292, 293, 296,
297.198,299,300,301,318,340
as second.n\" mineral 273
clca\'ages 130, 292
cl;'stals protruding 187, 188
dcnticul.ltion 130, 135,267,292,293,299,301
c!i\'ergent pattern 188
fractures 78, 130, 135,292,301
orientation 01" secondary minerals 266,167,284,285,
293,300
patterns of weathering
linear or handed 130, 135, 292, 293
p<lrallel. banded 187,284,285,292
p'Tipberal 300
primary mineral 177

481

residual cores 293, 299, 300

residual empty pores 292, 293,300,301
secondary minerals
iron oxide diffusion (halo, coloration) 300
i.ron oxyhydroxides 293, 300
nontronite 78,130,265,266,267,273
saponite 30 I
smectite 135, 267, 292, 293, 298, 299
smectjte + oxFe 135, 292, 301
talc 266, 267, 300
tremolite + magnetite 187, 188,285
tremolite + talc + magnetite 284, 301
Isotropic primary material 236
Leueite 15
incl usions in IS
intramineral cracks 15
primary mineral 15
twins 15
Magnetite 10,12,63,70,71,74,79,92,96,110,111,
112,113,156,175 (18C), 188, 189, 190,209,210,
212,214,262 (HA), 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268,
27\, 273, 274, 275, 278 (37A, B), 282, 284, 285,
286,287,288,290,296,297,298,299,300,301,
320, 336, 339
associated with
chlorite 282
clay mineral.s 214,266,271,273,275,297,298
fractures 10, 209, 210, 214, 263, 266, 271, 282,
284, 287, 290, 320, 339
"iddingsite" 110, Ill, 113,209,263
oLivine 10
orthopyroxene 296, 297, 298
talc and tremoLite 188,189,190,210,266,267,
278 (37A, B), 284, 285, 286, 287, 296,
300, 301, 320, 336, 339
serpentine 112, 262 (35A), 264, 268
inclusions
alignments, lineaments 209, 210, 214, 262
(35A), 263, 264, 266, 267, 268, 271, 282,
284,285,287,290,299,320,339
euhedral crystals 285
intergrowths 96, 175 (ISe), 265,273,274,275,
296,297, 298, 299
interstitial (interlamellar) 284, 287
rim 188, 189, 190,210, 278 (37A), 287, 288,
300, 320, 336
size and shape 301
symplectite 273, 274, 275, 284, 296, 297, 298,
299
textural signature 175 (18C), 273, 274, 275, 296
secondary minerals
hematite 274, 275
iron oxyhydroxides 290
oxFe + oxTi 96
twins 96
Micas 198, 231, 325
Mjcrocline 64, 65, 354, 355
fractures 64, 65
infilLings 64, 65
Mosandrite -linkite 102,234,295,331,332,333,334
as inclusion 234, 295, 331, 332, 333, 334

482

Myrmelcitic and granophyric textures 64, 145, 276

intergrowths 145, 276
secondary minerals
gibbsite 145, 276
textural signature 276
Natrolite 102,121,313 (42A, B, C), 334
Nephel.ine 102, 106, 118, 234, 235, 295, 312 (4IA, B, C),
313 (42A, B, C), 331, 332, 333, 334, 335
infillings ofgibbsite 295,312 (41B, C), 313 (42B, C),
331,332,333,334,335
patterns of weathering
pateny pattern 106, 118
peripheral pattern 102, 106, 118,295,312
(4IA), 313 (42A), 331
residual core 295,312 (41A, B,C), 313 (42A, B, C),
331, 332, 333
reticuJate intramineral fractures 118, 234, 235, 295,
312 (41A, B, C), 313 (42A, B, C), 331, 332,
333, 334
secondary minerals
gibbsite 118, 235, 295, 312 (41C), 313 (42C),
332, 333, 334, 335
isotropic material 106, 118, 234, 235, 295,312
(41A, B, C), 313 (42A, B, C), 331,332,
333, 334
natrolite 102, 118,313 (42A, B, C), 334
size, shape, crystallinity 118, 332, 333, 334
Olivine 10, 51 (4A), 66, 70, 76, 88 (8A), 92, 98, 110, Ill,
112,113,129,131,132,167,176,183,184,186,
191,192,193,209,210,211,213,214,262 (35A),
263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 302, 269, 270, 271,
272, 273, 274, 275, 281, 282, 286, 287, 288, 289,
290,296,297,298,299, 320, 336, 339
alveolization, pores 336, 339
concentric pattern of disoibution 282
cores and resldues
coarse residues 262 (35A), 302
denticuJate 129, 191, 265
irregular 132, 263, 268, 269, 302
minute fragments 263
"saw-tooth" 88 (8A), 129, 302
smooth residues 131, \32
crystals protruding 191, 192
embayments 176, 184
fractures 10,70,76,88 (SA), 110, 111,112,113,
129, 167, 183, 193,209,210,214,262 (35A),
263, 264, 265, 266, 271, 272, 286, 287, 290,
299, 339
inclusion of basaltic material 176, 184
infillings of
ferruginous clays 320
gibbsite 76
iron diffusion 209, 268, 269, 272, 302,320,336
iron oxybydroxides 339
manganese oxides 70, 209, 264, 272
quartz 302
ol.ivine + orthopyroxene 10, 175 (18B), 266, 267
oHvine + sympJectite (Opx + Mgt) 175 (18C), 265
273, 274, 275, 296, 297, 298, 299
patterns of alteration or weathering
linear or banded pattern of alteration 88 (SA),

ATlAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINEI\AL ALTEAATION AND WEATHERING

129,131,132,183, U;(;, 214, 262 (35A),

264, 268, 286, 302
patchy pattern of alteration 299
peJipheral pattern of alteration 92, 98, 1 10, 111,
112,263,265,299
reticulate pattern of alteration 132, 268, 269, 302
plimarv mineral 10, 176
radiating textural pattern 186
rim 92,176,210,263,265,267,297,299,336
residual empty pores 270, 302
secondary mineral,;
calcite 281
chJOIitc 129, 281, 282
chlorite + actinolite 289
"chlorophaeite" 98
cr)'sta.lJinit)' 88 (8A), 212, 290
ferruginous c1a\'s 186, 274
"iddingsite"70, 76,92,110,111,113,167,176,
192,209,262 (35A), 263, 264, 270, 272,
299
ironox)'h~'droxidcs76, 132, 167, 191, J93, 269,
270,290,297, 302
nickcloan saponitc 268
nontronitc 88 (SA), 193, 265, 266, 267, 271,
290, 299
ol-icntation 88 (8A), 262 (3SA), 268, 269, 270,
271,181,282,287,288,290,339
ol'thopyroxene + lTIilgnetite 26S, 266, 274, 275,
296, 297, 298, 299
quartz 281 , 282
sap0rlitE' 191,268,269,297
saponite - "bowlingite" 129, 132, 176, 183. 184,
21.3.214,265,271,274,298,299, 302
se'-pentinc + magnetite I 12, 131, 132, 262
(HA), 263, 264, 268, 269, 302
smectite 5 I (4A)
talc + magllttire 131, 210, 266, 267, 296, 320,
339
tremolite + magnetite 287
trcmolitc + saponite 288
tremol.ite + talc + magnttitl:' 286, 336
zeolites 186
skeletal o)'stal 176, 184
sympJectitic texnllT 265, 273, 274, 275, 2%, 297,
298, 299
zondtion 176
Olj"ine + orthop)'roxc.n~ 10, [75 (18B), 266, 267
Olil'ine + sympJectit(' (Opx + Mgt) 175 (ISC), 265, 273,
274, 275, 296, 297, 298, 299
Opaque minerals 196, 197
OI,thoclase89(9A,B),90(10B), 105, 119, 121, 145,146,
195,196,197,217,)35
associated minel-aJ 195, 196, 197
ca\'ernous residuc~ 89 (9A), 90 (1013)
cleavage" 89 (9A, B), 90 (1013), 14-6
denticulate residues 145
infillings of
gibbsitr: ll9, 335
nan'oUt" I 19
organized minute re~idues 89 (9A), 90 (1013)
or'thoclas<o + plagioclase 175 (ISA)
patterns of weathering

INDEX Of PHOTOMICROGMPHS AND fiGURES

irre1:,'uJar 105
irregular, patch," 119
secondary minerals
gihbsirc 89 (913), lOS, 145, H6, 217
isotropic material 89 (9A), 90 (1013)
kaolinite 90 (lOB)
twirLS 89 (9B), 105
Orthop)Tnxen(' (mineral species not specitled) 83 (SC),
189, 190,278 (37A, B), 280 (3SC), 296, 297, 298,
299, 300. 318,34-0
ck'avages 278 (37A), 280 (38C), 318
dentic'~lat<. residual cores 340
fracttLrt.'"s 79, 177, 278 (37A), 280 (38C), 318, 340
inl1llings of
gibbsite 318
iron oX}'hvdroxirl~s 3+0
nrthop}'roxenc + oli\'in", 10, 175 (1SB), 266, 267
orthopyroxene + oli~'ine + magnetite 175 (ISC), 265,
273.274,275,296,297,298,299
prinlarY mineral 177
resicl ualcores 278 (37 A)
residuaJ pores 318, 340
secondary mineral~
;unplubole + magnetite 190
iron oxvhvdroxides 280 (38C), 318, 34-0
later e,,'ol~tion 280 (38C)
orient.ation or 340
smectite 83 (SC), 280 (3SC), 340
talc + magnetite 278 (37A, B). 79, 189
wlc + anlphibole + magnetite 188, 278 (37B)
Orthop~Toxene + oli\ine. 10,175 (ISB), 266, 267
OrthoPFoxene + oli<-ine + magnetite 175 (I RC), 265,
273,274,275,296,297,298,299
Pf'I'O\'sl-ilt' 18J., 212, 467
flssure, 212
primar)' mineral 182
'cconclal"l' min('fals
anatasc 212, 4-67
crystallinity 212., 467
porosi ty 4-67
twin.s 11\2
Phlogopite 21, 77, 78,140,156,157,162.163,169,170,
198,322, 323, 325
breakage or iJlclucl(:c1 Cl''', Hbl, Mgt, Ap 77,78, 156,
157
derormation 198
epigen,'tic replacement 140, 198
expansion 156, IS7, 163, 169,170,322,123
illlillings of
gi'f,bsite 325
quartz 322,323
interlayert'd port's 322, 323
rcplacemE'nt by
calcite 1+0
iron oxyhr'droxides 198
secondary mi.Jl~rals
kaolinitc: 162,163,169,170,198
orientation of 322, 323
\wmiculite 156, 162, 163, 169. 170, 198, 322.
323
Plagioclase 14, 17, 18, IC), 68, 90 (IOC), 98, 103, 104,

483

114.115.117,141,142.144. 14b, 147, 179., 191,

192. 194. 199,203.217.24-6.24-8.251.254.262
(35B), 270. 276, 280 (38A, B), 283, 294-, 326, 327.
328, 355
cleavages 141,142,179,248,251,280 (38A, B), 326
cores (irregular, cavernous) 90 (lOA. B), 142. 144.
1+6, 24-8, 280 (38A, B)
epigenetic replacement 199
fractures 19,90 (lOA), 14-2, 14-6, 147, 179. 191, 192.
199. 248. 280 (38A. B). 326
inclusions in 17, 262 (35B)
infillings of
amorphous products 326
calcite 199
days 104kaolinite 203
patterns of weathering
complex 103. 14-6, 14-7.203,280 (38A. B), 326
concentric 19. 90 (lOC), 114. 179. 262 (35B),
283
crossing, linear 141
digitate 103
irreguJar 104.191,192
irreguJar-regular 14-7, 280 (38A, B)
parallel linear 25 1
patchy 90 (lOA, C). 103, 117, 147
peripheraJ 99. 103
regular 179
plagiodase + orthodase 175 (18A)
primary mineral 17. 18,19,179
residual empty pores 24-8.251, 326,327,328
secondary mineraJs
calcite 199
crystallinity 294epidote + sericite 18, 114-. 179,283
gibbsite 144.146.14-7.192.194.203,24-8,251.
276.280 (38B). 294, 326, 327,328
isotropic materiaJ 19,90 (lOA. C), 99. 103, 104,
14-1,142, 14-7, 191, 192,262 (35B). 280
(38A, B). 294kaolinite 90 (IOC), 24-6, 280 (38A). 327, 328
later evolution (neoformation) 203. 326. 327,
328
oriented 18,248,251,326.327.328
smectite-group mineraJ 115, 179
zeolites 1 17
twins 14.17,19,103,115,117,146,147,203
zonation 17. 18. 19, 114, \79.262 (35B)
Plagiodase + orthoclase 175 (18A)
Pyrite 83 (SA), 96, 182
patterns of weathering 96
peripheraJ 96
th.ick pellicular rim 96
primary mineraJ 182
secondary mineral
oxFe 83 (SA), 96
Pyroxene (mineral species nol specified) 11. 12,21,22,25,
70,74,75,77,79,86 (7C). 137, 138, \77, 178,24-6.
254, 255,270. 368
denticulate residues 86 (7C)
inJillings of
gibbsite 255

484

ino-amineraJ features
cleavages 86 (7C), 254, 255
fractures 254
twins 255
patterns of weathering
regular, crossing 254
regular. parallel 86 (7C)
porosity
circum-mineral pores 75
circum-noduJar residuaJ pores 86 (7C)
residual pores 86 (7C), 255
secondary mineraJs
oriented secondary minerals 254, 255
oxFe (goethite) 86 (7C), 254. 255
smectite-group mineraJ 51 (4A)
Quartz 51 (4B). 69. 116, 120, 195, 196. 197.215.216.
2\7.218,276.308 (40C), 355, 367
cavernous rcsidues 215. 216, 217, 218
dissolution voids 120. 215, 216, 217, 218. 308 (4OC),
fractures 69,216,217.218,308 (40C)
inclusions of 143. 145
in/tHings of
clays + oxFe 120
gibbsite 69,216,217,218.308 (40C)
iron-rich materiaJ 217, 218
pattern of weathering
patchy 116, 120
secondary minerals
zeolites 116
Staurolite 181
pleochroism 181
primary mineral 181
Titanite 180
primary mineJ-a1 180
Tremolite 368
Volcanic glass and vesicles 236
Zeolites 102.116,117,186.334
PIUM..\I{' 'Vl1l\! 1(\1' I hlrphillll"it.11 1",II'lr,>q

Complex features
accordant surfaces 66,69.78,232
digitating, branched fissures 99. 103, 104, 142, 191
non-accordant surfaces 71
reticulate (hierarchized) 118,232,233,234-,268,269,
330
traos-, inter-. intramineraJ fissures 23, 79, 107. 109,
136,137,166,268.269.335.367
Crystal shapes
acicular crystals 68, 187. 284, 285
chadacryst 61, 354, 358
coarse crystals 292,294,295,331,332.333. 337
diamond-shaped crystals 168, 180
elongate crystals 104, \ 05. \33, 195
embayments 12, 22, 184
embedded minerals 77,133.303,304,305
euhedral crystals 11,12.15,16,19,20,22,83 (SA),
88 (8B. C), 92, 99,101,117.118,133,176,
177. 178,179.180.181,182, \83. 184-. 185.
186,234-,251,281.304,312 (4IA, B, C), 313
(42A. B. C), 354-.460
fibrous crystals 68, 289

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

lamellar (layered) crystals 68, 84 (GA, B, C), 140,

156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 164, 165,231,322,
323, 324
lath-shaped crystals 92,115,184,194,270,294
needle-shaped crystals 68, 102, 108, 190, 220, 287,
368
neosoma 6 I, 79
oikocrysts 61,65,354,358,359
paleosoma 61, 79
phenocrysUi 15, 75,178,184,270,281
poikiloblastic crystals 13, 61, 62, 77, 79, 178, 189,
190,303,321,358
porphjToblasts 16, 97
prismatic crystals 19,23,77, 102, 107, 109, 133, 136,
181,182,187,188,201,278 (37B) , 284, 287,
288, 291, 292, 301, 321, 340, 356, 357
protruding crystals 188, 190, 278 (37B), 460
rectangular shape 19, 178, 179
skeletal crystals 176, 184, 284
six "sided crystals 176,178,181,182,184,186
subhedral crystals 19, 20, 86 (7A, B), 99, 103, 104,
106,114,116,129,283,325
tabular crystals 68, 105, 131
textural signature 273, 274, 275, 276, 296
Inclusions
actinolite I 3
aegirine 106, 295, 331, 332
apatite 84 (GA), 133, 137, 209, 214, 296
basaltic groundmass 177, 178, 184
chlorite 251
cljnozoisite 262 (35B)
displacement of 84 (GA)
distribution of
he.Ucitic 16
random 17, 179
epidote 18, 179,262 (35B), 355
fracturing of 84 (GA)
hornblende 13, 262 (35C), 285, 303, 304, 305
hypersthene 13, 303
magnetite 187, 303
microcline 355
mosandrite - rinkite 102, 106,234,295, 331, 332,
333
olivine 12
oxyhyclroxides 158
plt.logopite 21
pJagioclase 180, 354
quartz 16,143,145,180,181,197,256,276,355
sericite 179
titanite 168
weatherability of 84 (6A)
Interntineral features
circum-mineral corte-x 96
circum-mineral pore 75,127
circum-nodular pore 75,83 (5C)
cracks 71,72, 164, 211, 367
fissures 73, 75, 79, 93, 94,127,145,162,193
interconnected fissures 23, 73, 107, 109, 338
int(~rconneeted voids 246
intermineral fissures 23, 107, 109, 166,278 (37A)
intersertal minerals 184, 270

INDEX OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND FIGURES

interstitial pores 167, 246

lenticular pores 100
packing voids 246
peripheral pores 97
porosity 74, 95, 137,338
residual empty pores 134, 135, 318
residual alveolar pores 227
suture planes (or boundaries) 23, 94, 95, 107, 193,
194,195,196,199,201,216,217
Intramineral features
cracks
breakable minerals 84 (GA), 119, 156, 167
cleavage cracks 20, 23, 88 (BC), 89 (9A, B), 90
(lOA), 107, 109, 179,250,251,319,335
irregular 10,11,16,78,88 (SA, B), 89 (9C), 90
(lOA), 96,115,119,133,142,181,183,
186, 199, 203, 218, 249, 250, 319, 337,
367
radial IS, 202, 249
transverse 23, 77,107,109,133,136,157,230,
248,285,321,335,357
twin-related cracks 89 (9B), 115, 179,202,203
displaced planes 84 (6C), 162
fissures 10, 77, 79, 147
digitate fissures 89 (9C), 103, 191
hierarchized 132, 232, 233, 234, 330, 331
radiating fissures 191, 202
reticulate fissures, pores 118, 232, 233, 234, 235,
236
inclusions 15,16,18,177,178,180,184
inter-plasma - mineral pores (pe.linuclear) 86 (7C), 88
(SB, C), 217, 228, 248, 249, 250, 291, 365,366
porosity 24,25,76,202,212,215,216
alveolar texture 274, 292, 320
concentric patterns of pores I 14
interlayered voids 189
inter-plasma - mineral pores 357
irreguJar vughs 247,257
lenticular pores 84 (GA), 100, 158, 159, 160,
161,231
residual pores 84 (GC), 86 (7C), 88 (BB, C), 89
(9B), 203, 273, 292, 337
transverse pores I 36, 321, 335
vesicu.lar residual pores 27 3
protoclasticfraetures 10,70,76,88 (BA), 110, Ill,
112,209,210,211,214,263,265,266,271,
284,287,290,299,320,339
Mineral features
cleavages
not speCified 90 (lOB), 179
oblique 20,23,24,25,88 (SC), 107, 141,251
opening of 20, 24, 69,158,159
orthogonall1, 20, 21,142,229,250
parallel 22, 23, 84 (6A, B, C), 86 (7C), 107,109,
130, 133, 139. 140, 143, 158, 159, 160,
161,164,165,251,262 (35C)
symmetrical 89 (9B), 255
jntergrowths 96 143, 145,265,273, 276, 296, 297,
298, 299
symplectitic texture 175 (lSC), 265, 273, 274,
275,284,296,297,298,299

485

texturaJ signature 175 ( ISC). 273, 274. 275. 276,

296
lnincral patterns 10. 11. 12. 13, 14. IS. 16. 17.18,
19.20.21,22,23.24,25
mvrmekitic texture 64, 145, 276
twins
multipl,' 11,14, IS. 99,103,104,143,146,179,
182
simple 11, 13,89 (9B). 96. 105, 115,213
zonation
l'hemical 11, 17.18, 19. 114, 176. 177,178
concentric 1I,I2,17,lS,19,lJO(IOC), 114.179
discontinuous 17
not "pecified I 1, 17
OSt-iIlJlory 12. 178
setto r I 2. I 7S
Transmineral features
cracks 61,62,63,64,65,66,67,69,70,146,164,
166,201,211,231, 2-f8, 264. 268, 269. 272.
286,292,301, 13S, 340
fissures 61,62,63,79, 1<)3,209
pores 137
tHosl'l'r,,' llssures 23, 68, 77, 104, 105, 107, 108.
109, I"lO, 133. 134,145,177,262 (35C), 318.
321
\\1.\ IIILH.L()

I~t

ll'k

Bauxite 69,145,217,218,326,341,412,433.434,435.
436.437,430, 439, 440, 441, +42, 445, 446, 447,
+48,449,450,451, -1-52, 453. 454, 455, 456, 457,
-1-60, +61,462, 463
Cl!crctp 140, 199
Iron ,Tusl 76, 19S, 201, 202, 215, 274, 325, 368, 37+.
375,380,383,384,386,418,419,420,421,422,
423,464,465,466
Sikrde 302
Soil 275, 358. 359, 360, 36S, 366. 367, 376, 377, 381,
382,413,414

Pa!t:erns

bJ..nrkd
concCJ1tric z\>nation I I'~
crossing 1 32
hierarchized 132
irregular 73, 110, 111, 112, 113, 128, 129,130,
131,132.133,135,1+2,147,186,21+,
216,262 (35A). 264, 268, 293, 299,302,
337
irregular lTos.-handed 14-7, 302. 319
parallel 183
parallel to clea\'agl's 20, 23, 107, 252, 256
parallel t.u layering 139, 140, 158, 159, 160, 161,
164
parallel t(> twins 115, 147.203,252,255,256
regular transverse 23, 107, 109. 134, 136
r('ticulatt' 268
cuml)lex (mixed) 84 (GA) 84 (6B) 84 (6C), 23, 107,
109,110, Ill, 112, 137, 146,186,203,256

486

concenb-jc 18, 19, 90 (I OC)

irrc'gular 146, 147.200
Ii.near
irregular S8 ISA. B), 96. 104, 105, 191, 192,
210, 248, 2+9, 280 (38A, B), 299
irregular, digitate 89 (9C), 103
regular 96, 104, 105, 103
regular, crossing 23, 88 (SC), 89 (9A), 107. 14-1,
250,251,252
regular, parallel 23, 86 (7A, B, C), 107,251
regular, symmetrica.l 19,89 (9B)
regular, tranS\Trse 23, 107, 108, 109, 136
patdly90(IOA,B,C}, 103.106, 116,117, 118,119,
120,121,142,147,21(,,299,334pathways
weathering 10,20, 73, 74, 78, 99, 137,
1'.2,145,164,193,248,24-9,336
pellicular 33 (SA, B. C), 84 (6A, B. C), 89 (9C), 196,
2S7, 278 (37A, C)
particular 100. 102
thick (russolutic,n \-oids) 127
thick (secondary mineral) 96,257,263,297,298,
299,300,312 (418)
thin (rim) 83 (SA), 99, 176,278 (37A), 300, 312
(4IA), 329, 333,340,3(;8
peripheral
cenb'ipetal 23, 24-,107.109.227,295,302,331,
332, 333
ilT('gular 74,78,83 (SB, C), 96, 97, 98, 99, 103,
104,106,118,164,186,215
regular 24,73,83 (SA), 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,210,
227,270, 2 ')5, 2'17,298,302
speckled
concentric 90 (10C), 262 (35B)
irregular 90 (lOA)
regular 90 ( lOB)
Processes
accumulation 119,203.308 (4DA. B, C), 318, 319,
320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 329.
330,331,332,333,334,335
aJVt'olization 280 (38C), 320336
biological proce.,>c:s 456, 457
brt"akin~ 77,78, 156, 157
co niJ1c;t.io n
bridges 368
cC'ntrifugal (accretion) 368, 414, 432, 433
cenb'ipctal 368
cld'ormation 162, 163, 164, 165, 171
dc_hydration 232, 312 (41A, B, Cl, 313 (42A. B, C)
(lilh.l~ion 115
diFfusion of i.ron 74, 105, 133, 137, 141, 209,
228, 229. 232. 248. 269, 302, 328, 365,
366
silicwcation 302, 327, 328
discoloration 43+. 435, +36, 437, 438, 439
dissolution 120, I 7,203,212.215,216,217,293,
325, 316, 327, 328,329, 336,339,375, 382
dissolution vughs 120. 144. 326, 328
or inclusions 3~26
residual empty pores S3 (sq, 86 (7C), 88 (8B,
C), 217.218,227,280 (38C), 292, 293,
312 (4IC), 326.334,336,339,375.382

or

ATLAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

epigenetic replacement 140, 198, 199,200,201,368,

373, 374, 377, 380, 381, 383, 384
erosional 202, 292, 293, 368,437,456,457
erroneous interpretation 118, 119, 262 (35C), 303,
304, 305
expansion 77,157,158,159,161,162
hydrothennal 18, 118, 119,286,287,296,299,300,
301,302,313 (42A, B, C), 322,334,336
varying intensity of 278 (37B), 286
hydrothermal alteration versus weathering process
119
med1anical 84 (6B), 136
metamict 185
radioactive elements 185
metamorphic 288
pedological
colloid plucking 78
pedogenetic 320
pedoplasmas 169, 170
pedoturbation 169, 170,456,457
polygenetic 118, 132
shrinkage 232,233,234,235,236,295,312 (41A, B,
C), 313 (42A, B, C), 330, 331,332, 333, 334
surface protective layer 96
swelling 84 (6C), 157, 158, 159, 161, 162,164,165,
166, 189
weatherability 18,24,84 (6A), 233
weathering 2"90,291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 297, 298,
299, 300, 301, 302, 318, 334, 336, 339
completely weathered rock 197
evolution of (modification of) 203, 292, 293,
294,295,301,340,356,357,365,366
unweatheredcores 195, 331, 332
weathered cortex 195, 196, 197
I ( "-(HR)' ,\11,

'f-Jur"

Assemblages
isolated 147
divergent (bundles) 188, 236, 329
interlayered 84 (6B), 86 (7A, B), 140
parallel 365, 366
radiating (and spheruJes) 186, 188,220,246,323
Degradation 74, 76, 83 (5C), 161, 163, 167, 169, 170,
171,192,203,280 (3SC), 327, 328,336,339,341
"iddingsite" to iron oxybydroxides 76, 167, 192
gibbsite to kaolinite 327, 328
kaolinite to gibbsite 161, 341
smectite-group mineral to kaolinite 74, 163
talc to residual pores 336, 339
venniculite to kaolinite 163, 169, 170, 171
Distribution
agglomerate texture 248,257,312 (41C), 313 (42A,
B, C)
aureolar 229, 297, 300, 331, 332, 333
banded pattern 84 (6B), 131, 132, 147,262 (35A),
264, 268, 269, 292
boundaries, suture planes (along) 23, 88 (SA), 106,
107,109,278 (37C)
bundles 188, 278 (37B)
cleavages (along) 19, 20,23,88 (SC), 89 (9A, B), 90
(lOB), 107, 140,147,278 (37A, C)

INDEX OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND FIGURES

composite 88 (SA), 103,210

concentric (zoned) 18, 19,90 (IOC), 114, 185,262
(35B), 263, 265, 282, 283, 297, 331,332,333
crossing, linear 88 (SC), 89 (9A), 290, 291
crystallini ty 326
macrocrystalline (coarse grained) 200, 203, 294,
325,333,334
microcrystalline (fine grained)118, 147, 200,
203, 294, 333
digitate 103
fractures (along) 19,23,88 (SA, B), 90 (lOA), 107,
109,119,136,147,200,203,262 (35A, C), 278
(37A, C), 335
homogeneous 83 (5B), 209, 211, 272, 336, 337, 339
interconnected 23, 107, 109, 132
intergrowths 175 (ISC), 273, 296, 297
interlayered 84 (6B), 86 (7A, B), 140, 160, 161, 164,
165, 168,23 1,322,323,324,341
internal rim 293
interseptaric 186, 203, 291
intersertal, interstitial 63, 236, 287, 288, 331
interstratified 161
irregular 88 (SB), 106, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 166,
2J6,291
lateral edges 84 (6B), 100, 158, 159
linear pattern (alignments) 88 (SA, B, C), 131, 210,
216,217,218,264,284,286,335
organized 86 (7B), 143
paraJJel 189, 190, 211, 284, 285, 291
patchy 103, 106, 118,119,147
peripheral 23, 103, 106, 107, 109, 118,336
radiating bundles 188, 329
random 119, 147,200,287,287,288,289
regular 83 (5B), 184, 185, 189, 190,211,246,252,
253,254,255,256,285,297,320
reticulate 295,312 (41B, C), 313 (42B, C), 331,332,

333
rin110, 83 (5B, C), 97, 99,101,103,106,145,176,
185, 188, 189, 190, 210, 217, 218, 219, 220,
263, 264, 270, 283,287, 288, 293, 297, 298,
300, 320, 329, 336, 339, 340
septaric texture 186, 202, 203, 235, 249, 250, 252,
253, 254, 255, 256, 270, 278 (37C), 291, 292,
318
crossing 88 (SC), 251,252,253,254,256,291
irregular 88 (8B), 249, 257, 278 (37C)
parallel 86 (7C), 250, 251,255,270,292,318
surface protective layer 96
symmetrical I 9, 255
wedges 100, 158
Mineral species
actinolite 187,190,289
amph.iboles 278 (37B)
anatase 96, 21 2
micromorphology 467
apatite
primary 133, 156, 157, 182,219
secondary 220, 329
b6bmite 432,'433,435,438,439,442,451
deposits 447, 448, 449, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455
evolution to gibbsite 438, 439, 441, 445, 446,
447,448,449,450,454

487

"ho\\lingilc"-silponjll' 129,176, IS3, 184-,213,214,

265,271,274,298, 299. ~02
calcilc 14-0,200.281
chlorite 86 (7A, B), [00, 101, 128, 129,139,160,
187,281,282,2S9
"chloroph<Jl'ile" 98
c1inowi,ire 18, 187,262 (35B). 283
epiJulc 18, 114,262 (35B), 283
l;ihhsitt'
~
'T~'stall<Jria of76, 161.232, 25.5, +36, 4-38, 't39,
44 7, ++S, ++9, '~50, 451, 4-S'f
c','olulion 01203, 327, 328
evolution to 118, 147, 161,203,232,234,235,
280(38B), 294, 295, 312 (41C), 313 (42C),
326,332,333,33+, HI, 4-38, 4-39, 441,
442,445,4-46,4-47, 4-48, 4-50, 454inAllinguf69. 76,161,216,217,218,255, BI,
3l2, 333,31+,335,4-50,4-56, +57
micromorphology 460, 4-61, 4-62
wl'<Jthcl-ing to 51 (4B), 89 (9B, C), 96, 105, 118,
I 19, 14- 3, 1+4, 14:;, 14-6, 16 I, 175 (18A),
194, 1%, 197, 203, 217, 234. 247, 248,
2+9, 250, 25 [, 25+, 257, 276, 278 (37C),
291,294,295,326, 328, 333,335
goethite 24-6,255,270,278 d7C)
micromorphology 4-61, +62, 463, +64, +65, 466
gypsum 168
hemalite 274
micromorphology 461, +62, +63
hypcrstbcne rim 10,265,266,267,297,298,299
hyperstlwne - magnetit(,i)'mplertit<: 273, 27+, 275,
296,297,298.299
"iddingsile"70, 76,92,110,111,112,113,167,192,
209,261 (35A), 263, 264. 270, 272, 299
alteration ro gOl'thite 167
d~graoation of 7t>, 167, 192
iron ()x~'h"droxide,
cu;'oRcation by 368
degradJlion to 76.83 (5C), ](,i7, 192,297, 302,
336
dcpo'its of 146,158,159, 19l, 219, 293.326.
329, 336, 34-0
dilfu~ion 0174,105.133,137,141,197,198,
203,251,268,269, 300, 320, 328, 337,
l38, 365, 366
ferruginous clays 186,231,251,274.301,326,
)40

residual depusits or 329, 34-0

weath,:ring to 23. 66. 70. 76, 79, 83 (SA). 86
(7C), 88 (8B, C), 9+, 96. 107. 109, ) 33.
135, 138, 158, 159, 161, 19+, 196, 197.
201, 228. 24-9, 250, 25 I, 252, 253, 25+,
256. 269, 270, 271' (37C), 290, 291. 292,
293, 300, 318, 329, 337, 338, 340
isotropic materi<J1
apparently J.morphotls 19,89 (9A, C), 90 (lOA,
B, C),99. 103. 10+, 106, 118. 14[. 142,
1+3, 144-, \45, 1+7, 191, 192, 232, 233,
234, 235, 236, 262 135B), no (38A, B),
29+,295,312 (4IA, B, C), 313 (42A, B,
C), 330, 331, 332, 33~, 33+

488

evolution of 89 (9A, C), 90 (lOB, C), 280 (38A,

B), 312 (41C), 313 (428, C)
evolution lO
e.mpty pores 313 (42B)
gibhsitc 118,147,312 (41C), 313 (42C)
hallo)'site 270
kaohnitc 19, 89 (9A), 90 (lOB, C)
bolinitc
ch'gradation 01' 161, 198, 203, 341
degradation to 74, 163,166,167,169,170,171,
198, 203
(:\'olution to 1')
inllllings of 6+,67,203. 324neo[or;narion 01' 327, 328
weathering to 84 (6B), 89 (9A), 90 (lOB) 90
(IOC), 158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 171,231,
246, 280 (38A), 341
magncrire
intcrgrowths 273, 27+, 275, 296, 297, 298, 299
secondary 131,189,190,210,262 (35A), 264,
267, 273, 274, 275, 278 (37A, B). 284,
285,286,287,288, 300, 301, 336
manganesl' oxides
concretion 41'~
deposits or infillings of 70,209,272,329,4-53
residu<J1 deposits 329
natrolitc 102,118,119,121,313 (42A, B, C), 334nontronite78, 88 (8A), 113,193,265,266,267,271.
273,290,299
organic material 168
p-a1~g()l1ite 236
Cjuart-L (~econdar)') 28 I, 282
5~ponite 2.5, 65, 70, 73, 74, 77, 93, 137. J 38, 157,
167, 185, 191, 192. 211, 227, 230, 268, 269,
288,301,30+,305,337
:<<:ricite - paragonite 18, 114, 128, 179,283,354
serpentine 112, 131, 132,262 (HA), 263, 264, 268,
269,302
smectite
negradarionofSI (4B), 74.163,297.301,302
inr.lJjng~ of 6+, 66, 7 I
wl'alJlering to 51 (4A, B), 83 (5B, C), 84
(6C),IIS, 130, 135,136,164,165,175
(18B, C), 179,228,162 (35C), 292. 293,
297,298,299,321,340,365,366
ralc79, I~I, 189,210,266,267,278 (HA, B), 284,
286,296,300, 301,320, 336,339
ncgr<JdatioIl to rt'sidual pores 336, 339
titanire \60
rit.1nium oxides 118,212,467
tremourc 187, 188, 190, 284-, 285, 286, 287, 288,
301, 336. 368
"amicuJire
31rcration to 74,77,84 (6C), 136, [56, 157, 162,
166,188,189,296,321,322,323,354
degradation of 163,167,169,170,171,198
dpgradaliol1 to btJ!.iIlire 163,166,167,169,170,
171, 198
It':olites 102,116,117,119,121,186,313 (42A, B,
C),33+
Orient~oon

ATu..s

OF MICROMOR?HOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

crystaJlographic 77, 99, 104, 108,210, 213, 252, 253,

254,255, 265, 267
extinction (orientation (1)
common extinction
of residues 108,135,132,138,145,263
of secondary crystallites 83 (5B, C), 211,
252. 253. 254, 255, 265, 270, 272,
281, 284, 305, 337, 365,366
loss of simultaneous extinction of resiclues 25, 86
(7C), 144. 157, 165,215,250.301
non-simultaneous extinction of residues and
secondary minerals 304. 305
process 229,252,253,254,255
simultaneous extinction of residues and secondary
minerals 111,113,117,135,139,209
inclosions (orientation of) 86 (7A), 303, 304, 305
inherited from primary minerals 167,209,210,213,
227, 228, 229, 230, 250, 251, 252, 253. 254,
255, 265, 267, 269, 270, 272, 284, 285, 293,
304, 305, 320, 337, 338, 340
mixed regular-random 89 (9A), 175 (l8B), 284, 323
nor specified 70, 99, 110, 128, 129, 135, 137,138,
161,167,183. 184, 196,209,210,213,227,
228. 229, 230, 248, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257,
264, 265, 267, 269, 271, 272, 282, 284, 285,
298, 304, 305, 320, 322, 323, 324, 336, 337,
339,340
parallel
between them 18,77,99,102, 128,131, 161,
187,189,190,211,227,228,229,230,
247, 265, 270, 284, 285, 320, 324
to clea\'ages (of pJimar)' mineral) 88 (8A, B, C),
247,248,251,280 (38C), 338
to Z axis (of primary minel-al) 84 (6B, C), 175
(18B), 252, 253, 254,269,270,280 (38C),
284, 285, 291, 293, 300, 304, 305, 337,
340
particular 214, 255
perpendicular
to cleavages or septa 248,257,322,324,327
to Fissure planes 88 (8A), 131, 264, 268, 290
to pore walls 312 (418, C), 313 (42B, C), 322,
323,324
to the support 324, 327
random 88 (8A), 90 (lOB, C), 140, 147, 175 (18B),
200,210,216,246,257,263,267,268,271,
282, 284, 287, 288, 289, 290, 296, 339
regular 83 (5B, Cl, 131, 132, 138, 161, 183, 184,
187, 191,209,210.211.213,227,228,229,
251, 252, 253, 254. 255, 264, 265, 267, 269,
270, 272, 284, 298, 304, 305, 320, 322, 323,
324, 336, 337, 338, 340
t"in planes (according to) 255
Primary residues
disl1ibution
central (core) 83 (SA, B, C), 98, 99, 114,227,
263,297,298,331,332,333
organized 86 (7A, B), 88 (8q, 89 (9A), 128,
139,141,143
random 88 (8A, B), 90 (lOB), 129 130, 132,
133, 135, 137, 138, 143, 147,200,215,
216,263,269,291,293,301

INOEX OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND AGURES

residual cores 83 (SA, B, C), 84 (GB). 109, 147,

2 [8, 280 (38A, B, Cl, 337, 340
orientation
loss or orientation of 86 (7C)
of denticulation 83 (5B), 130, 135, 136,200.250
oriented rC$idues 89 (9A), 109, 132, 138, 140,
164, 200, 250, 304
sbape
cavernous 89 (9A, .8),90 (lOA), 142, 143, 144,
146, 147, 215, 216, 217, 218, 248, 249,
280 (38A, B)
coarse, large 109, 278 (37A), 292, 293
denticulate (fine) 73, 74, 77, 83 (5B, C), 86
(7Cl, 94, 95, 98,102,108,109,127,130,
133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 145, 191,
196, 200, 227, 229, 250, 265, 278 (37C),
280 (38C), 291, 292, 293, 299, 301, 304,
321,340,356,357,365,366,368
denticulate (saw-toou1) 88 (8A), 129,302, 366
fissured 331
irregular 104,132,136,137,138,219,256,269,
295,302
lamellar 140
minute 90 (lOA, B), 137, 138, 143, 256, 263.
278 (37C), 299, 301
rOlU1d, cavernous 147, 217, 218
smooth 108, I 31, 2 17
Secondary pm'es
distribution
around alterorelics 75
around residue, 83 (5C), 88 (8B, C), 109,250,
278 (37C), 291, 301, 356. 357
hicrarchized network (of pores) 232, 233, 234,
235,295.312 (4IA, H, C), 313 (42A, B,
C), 330, 331,332,333,334
interlayerecl 84 (6A), 189,322,323,324random 203, 336, 337, 338, 339,340
symmetrical 23
trans\'crse 78, 136
oricntation
parallel 84 (GA, B), 89 (9B), 109, 189, 251, 300,
318
random 229
shape
denticulate 83 (5C)
irregular 83 (5C)
smooth 83 (5C)
Septa
di5tributionnotspecilled 113, 134, 144, 145,146,248
irregular 145, 186,201,202,248,319
according to transverse li-actures 88 (8B), 278
(37C). 280 (38A, B), 291, 318, 319, 326
regular 146,25 [,252,253,254,255,256
according to
cleavages 88 (8C), 278 (37C), 291, 292,
300, 318, 326
cleavages + twin plane 89 (9B), 255, 256
median planes 326, 328
twin plane 203
Volwne modification of alteromorphs ver5US primary minerals
breakage 136, 167,321, 335
decrease by epigenetic replacement '140

489

exfoliation 168, 169, 170, 17!, 324expansion (perpendicular) process 77, 84 (6A, B, C),
86(7B),156, 157,159,160, 162,164, 166, 169,
170,171,231,321,322,323,324,34-1
faulting 165, 166
increase 75,77,78,84 (6A, B, C), 86 (7B), 100, 136,
156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161. 162, 163, 164,
165,166,167,189,191,278 (37A), 321, 322,
323,324,341
sliding 165, 166
shrinkage
artificial pores, 6ssures 130, I 35
process 66,232,233,234,235
swelJing process 66,84 (6C), 164, 165, 166

\t

r RI l.\\OH1'11,>

Alveoporo-alteromorphs 196, 222 (23), 223 (24), 227,

228,229,275,280 (38C), 293,336
alveo-phylJoporo-aJteromollJhs 227
alveoporo-glomero-alteromorph 203
centro-alveoporo-alteroolorphs 266, 267
cumulo-al"eoporo-alterom0'l)hs 320
meta-alveoporo-alteromorIJhs 51 (4A, B), 337, 338,
339
meta-para-alveoporo-aJteromorphs 336
ortho-alveoporo-alteromorphs 83 (5C), 280 (38C),
340
para-alveoporo-alteromorphs 83 (5C), 280 (38C), 316
(43), 339
partial alveoporo-alteromorpbs 316 (43)
Botryo-alteromorphs 143, 237 (27),238 (28), 246
botryo-septo-alteromorphs 243 (31),257
Complex alteromorphs 243 (3 I)
polygenetic-polyphase alteromorphs 112, 296, 297,
298,299, 300, 301, 302, 312 (41A), 334, 336
Crypto-alteromorphs 153 (I 1),175 (18A, B, C), 193, 194,
195,196,197,202,275,288
crypto-glomero-alteromorphs 197
Cumulo-alteromorphs 260 (33), 307 (39), 335
cumulo-glomero-septo-alteromorphs 308 (40B)
cumulo-koiJo-aJteromorphs 308 (40C), 325, 329
cumulo-meta-alveoporo-glomero-septo-altcromorphs
328
cumulo-para-alveoporo-alteromorphs 320, 321
=ulo-phanto -alteromorphs 203
cumulo-phylJoporo-alteromorphs '322, 323
cumulo-polygenetic a1teromorphs 70, 272
cuDlulo-reti + alveoporo-alteromorphs 312 (4 I C),
313 (42C)
cumulo-retiporo-alteromorphs 245 (32), 312 (4IB),
313 (42B, C), 330, 331,332,333, 334
cumulo-septo-alteromoryhs 255, 308 (40A), 318,
319,326
Echino-alteromorpbs 153 (11),172 (16),187,188,189,
190, 191
polyphase echino-alt.eromorphs 278 (37A, B)
Further evolution 316 (43)
Genet.ic cri teria 260 (33)
Geometrical criteria 153 (11)

490

Glomero-alteromorphs 194, 196,220,237 (27),239 (29),

247,276
glomero-septo-alteromorphs 5J (4B), 144, 146,203,
217,243 (31),248,254,257,280 (38B), 335,
450
Hcilo-alteromorphs 51 (4A, B), 110, 111,183,205 (19),
206 (20),209,210,211,212,213,214,272,290,
336, 339
holo-(iso)-alteromorph 83 (5B), 88 (8A), 90 (lOA)
holo-pseudomOlph 83 (5A)
lso-alteromorpbs 86 (7A), 139, 153 (11),154 (12),189,
272
Kata-alteromorphs 84 (6C), 140, 153 (11),154 (14),162,
166,167,168,169,170,171,300
Koilo-alteromorphs 94,95,127,205 (19), 207 (21), 216,
219,220,325,329
curnulo-koilo-alteromorphs 216, 217, 2 J 8, 220, 308
(40C) , 325,329
Meso-alteroll1orphs 77,78,86 (7B), 100, 153 (11), 154
(13),156, 157, 158, 159,160, 161,171,189,231,
321,322,341
meso-(kata)-aJteromorphs 162, 163, 164, 165., 171
Meta-a1teromorphs 74,336,337,338,339,341
meta-alveo-cumulo-retiporo-alteromorphs 245 (32)
meta-a1veo-retiporo-alteromorphs 245 (32)
meta-cumulo-phanto-alteromorphs 203
Mia"otexturaJ crit.eria 205 (19), 222 (23), 237, (27), 243
(31),245 (32)
Monogenetic (partial) alteromorphs 260 (33)
partial mono-holo-alteromorphs 316 (43)
Phanto-alteromorphs 140, 153 (11), 173 (17), 198, 199,
200,201,202,203
PhyUoporo-a1t.eromorphs 158, 159, 222 (23), 225 (25),
227,228,230,231,305,322,323,337,365
cumulo-phylloporo-alteromorphs 322, 323
phyUoporo-meso-alteromorphs 84 (6A), 84 (6B), 231
Polygenetic alt.eromorphs 113,118,121,189,260 (33),
261 (34),262 (35A, B, Cl, 263, 264, 265,266,267,
268,269,270, 271, 272, 273,274,275,313 (42B),
336, 338
polygenetic cumulo-alveoporo-alteromorph 76
(ctlD1uJo)-polygenetic alteromorphs 70, 272
erroneous interpretations 262 (35C), 303, 304, 305
Polyphase alteromorph.~
gTadual polyphase alteromorphs 89 (9A), 90 (lOB, Cl,
104, 135, 141, 142,228,260 (33),277 (36B),
278 (37A, B), 280 (38A), 294, 295, 333
synchronous polyphase alteromol-phs 1 t 2, I 14, 128,
129, 161, 186, 188,210,249,260 (33),277
(36A), 278 (37C), 281, 282,283, 284, 285, 286,
287,288,289,290,291,292,293,320,336
two-phase alt.eromorphs 316 (43)
t.wo-phase ortho-alveoporo-alt.eromorphs 316 (43)
Pop-alte.romorpbs 169, 170
"Poro"-alteromorpn., 205 (19), 221 (22),222 (23),237 (27)
centroporo-a1t.eromorphs 22 2 (23)
Pseudomorphs 92, 153 (I I), 172 (15), 183, 184, 186,25 I,
281
holo-pseuclomorphs 83 (5A), 184
Retiporo-a1teromorphs 118, 221 (22),226 (26),232, 233,
234,235,236,237 (27),245 (32), 295, 312 (4IA),
330, 33 I, 332, 333, 334

ATlAS OF MICROMORPHOLOGY Of MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

cumulo-retiporo-alteromorphs 245 (32)

Septo-alteromorphs 5 \ (4A) , 186, 194, 239 (30), 248, 368
acantbo-septo-altcromorphs 19,89 (9B), 255
botryo-septo-alteromorphs 257
cellular septo-alteromorphs
rdjporo) 235, 312
(41A, B, C), 313 (42A, B, C)
comple.x septo-alteromorphs 256, 29\
cumulo-glomero-septo-alteromorphs 327
cumulo-septo-alteromorphs 255,318,3\9,326,327
glomero-septo-alteromorphs 89 (9C), 144, 146, 217,
24-8,254-,257,280 (38B), 327
irregular septo-alteromorph 88 (8B), 237 (27)
polyphase septo-alteromorphs 278 (37C)
regular scpto-alteromorphs 237 (27)
septo-alteromorphs (irregular) 237 (27), 248, 249,
319
septo-alteromorphs (regular) 5 I (4A), 86 (7C), 237
(27),250,251,252,253,254,300,3\8,326
septo-pseudomorph 251

->

Accumulation
absolute 32 (3),76, 119, 140, 161, 199,200,201,
203, 209, 219, 220, 233, 255, 272, 295, 308
(4tlA, B, C), 312 (41B, C), 313 (42B, C), 318,
319,320, ')21,322, 323, 324, 325, 329, 330,
331,332,333,335,340,447,44-8,449,451
pathways of 24, 25, 324, 331, 332
relative 32 (3), 76, 95, 138, 160, 161,293,329
Crystallaria
of apatite 329
of calcite (microsparitc) 14-0, 199, 200
of gibbsite 76, 119, 161, 203, 232, 233, 295, 308
(40C), 318, 319, 325,4-36,445,4-60
of natroUte I 19
of quartz 322, 323
of titau.ium oxide J 28, 212
Enridunents
of Al 69, \61,318,319,335
of ea 140,199,200,288
of Fe 198,201,203,209,219,228,231,445
of 11111 209, 264
of Ni 268
ofP 95,220,329
of Si 322, 323, 327
pClipberal enrichment 162, 219, 329
Halos or diffusion 197,228,272,300,336,445
I1luviation 71, 199, 203, 217, 320, 321, 330, 331, 332, 335
1nfiJIings
coatings 25, 67, 69, 71, 75, 76, 120, 201, 320, 321,
326, 339, 340, 352, 353, 354-, 4-39, 445, 446,
447,4-5 1,4-52
fault.ing of 67
h)poc<~atings 70, 74-, 337
quasi-coatings 228
of material 69, 75, 76, 120, 160,165,218,326,441,
44-7,44-8
amorphous material 326
apatite 220, 329
bohmite 438,4-39,44-0,442, 449, 450, 4-5 I, 4-52,
453,4-54-,455

INDEX OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND FIGURES

calcite 160, 199, 200

complex 321
gibbsite 119, 161,216,217,218,235,255,295,
308 (40A, C), 312 (41B, C), 313 (42B. C),
318,319,325,326,331,332,333,334-,
335, 436, 440, 447, 449, 4-51, 4-52, 4-54-,
456,457
iron-rich plasmas 202,217,218,308 (40B), 320,
321,326,34-0,445
kaolinite 203, 324manganese oxide$ 209, 264-, 272
natrolire I 19
quaru 160, 302, 322, 323
smectitc 64, 66, 71,233,330
intcrlaye.red 322, 323, 324
mio'olaminated 67, 308 (4tlB) , 326,447, 448, 449,
451,4-52,453,454-,455
parallel to the pore walls 4-56, 4-57
particulat.e material (infillings by) 308 (40B), 320,
321,456,4-57
reticulate 330, 331,332,333,334solutions (infiJIings by) 76,119, \99,200,2\9,220,
233,308 (40A, C), 312 (4IB, C), 313 (42B, C),
322,323,324,325,327,329,330,445
Relative displacement of material 67, 157, 162, 165, 167
Transfer 64-,65,66,67,69,70,7\,76, 115,160,161,
199,200
chemical transfer 288, 44 5
1 J11J( JIHIIL' 1>4,/_. Ei2.

,q.

\',+, P;-,

3~h.

357. 1;;;0;,

is'),lfU
Cr-ack.~,

fractures
accordant surfaces 354inte.rconnected 352, 353, 354intermineral 353
intralllineral 352
peripheral 355, 358, 359, 360
Orientation
granostriated b-fabric 359
loss of orientation 352
Parent minerals
epidote 355, 356, 357
hornblende 358, 359
mirrocline 354plagiochse 355
pyroxenes 352, 353, 356, 357,358
Parent rocks
granitic rocks 354-,355,360
calc-alkaline granite 355
pyroxenitt' 356, 357, 358, 368
ultrabasic rocks 352,353,359
Processes
aJJuvial 359
breakagt' 352, 354-, 355
colluvial352
displacement 354
erosion 352
illu\'iation, inl"llJings
clayS 354, 355
iro'n-rich clay material 352, 353, 358
incorporat.ion to matrix 352, 353

491

Shape
irregular 352, 358
disturbed 353
Size
small 354
Weathering to
altero-lithorelks 353, 356, 357
evolution of conditions of weathering 356, 357, 359
iron oxyhydToxides 356, 357
smectite 353, 356, 357
, I ITI\r)1 r'II\\ 7~. ~(,:;. 11'l,. Ih7, lr,~, -1(,<1, PO,
112, \7:1, n. 175. i'7, '17.1,(1, 'l'\I. i.\\,
,'5. jilt", 1'17, 3<l<. 4U:::, -Ill)

71,
~I<

Cracks, fractures
coatings (with) 369, 370
interconnected 369, 370, 373, 386
intermineral cracks 367
inter'plasma - mineral pores 366
intramineral cracks 367, 386
peripheral 365, 368, 370, 371, 372, 381, 385, 386
phynopores 373, 377
porosity in volumes of plasma 368, 369, 370, 371,
372,374,380,381,384,386,387
protoclastic 376, 383, 384
radial 370, 386
residual pores 375,376,382
Matrix
pedoplasma369. 370, 371, 372,374,376,380,381,
385, 388
iron crust 375, 380, 383, 384, 386, 387
Orientation
preserved 369, 371
disturbed 371
Parent material
charcoal fragment 388
clinopyroxene 365,366,380,381,383,385
feldspar 367
"iddingsite" 383, 384
magnetite 381, 383,385,386
micas 373,374,377
oHvine 376, 383, 384
papule, pedorelic 387
guartz 367,375,382,386
tremoute 368
Parent rock
granitiC gneiss 373
pyroxenite 365,366,367,372
uJtraba~ic rock 368, 369, 370. 380, 381, 383, 384,
385, 386
volcano-sedimentary rock 371
Processes
cortification, nodule formation
bridges 368, 384, 387
centrifugal (external or accretion cortex) 368,
370,380,384,385,387,388,397,398
centripetal (internal or epigenetic cortex) 368,
370, 380, 381, 383, 385,387, 388
combined internal and external cortices 368, 370,
380, 385, 387, 388

492

microlaminated cortex 385

interlayered goethite - hematite cortex 368, 380,
385, 387
creep, displacement 371, 372, 383, 387
dissolution 375, 386
epigenetic replacement 368,369,370,373,374,377,
380,381,383,385,387,388
geochemical eguilibrium 381, 383
induration (hardening) 370, 37\, 374, 381
in ternal stress 370
material transfers
iron oxyhydroxide diffusion (enrichment) 365,
366,367,373,375,383,388
guartz 377
pedoplasmation 371, 372
weathering to
evolution of conditions of weathering 365, 366,
376, 383, 384
"iddingsite~ 376, 384
iron oxyhydroxides 365, 366, 368, 374, 376,
377, 380, 384
kaolinite 373
smectite-group mineral 365, 366
Shape
embayments 375
irregular 365,366,367,372,375
rounded, smooth 368, 371, 372, 383, 385, 386, 387,
388
Size
decreasing 369, 372
isovolumetric 369
Texture
disturbed or lost 372
maintained 365, 366,368,371,376,377,330,381,
388
recognizable 372,373,381,383,387

Matrix
granostriated b-fabric 411
hypocoatings 41 1
guartz-ricb 411,412
soil
colluvial411, 412, 413, 414
sandy 411 , 412
Origin
allochthonous 41 1, 41 3, 414
anorthic 41 2
autochthonous 411
mixed 412
orthic 411 , 412
Parent material
alterorelics 412
detrital minerals 41 1, 41 2
sandy soil 411, 412, 413
Porosity
peripheral assure 41 1, 41 3
Process
cortification 414
induration 411 , 412
destruction 41 3

ATlAS

OF MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

colluvial 402, 405, 406, 407, 409

recent 407
smectite-rirn 392, 393, 394

Shape
boundary
progressi ve 41 1
sharp 412
irregular, sinuous 41 I , 41 3
rounded 41 1, 414
subrounded 41 I

>out UU.. 19'1.

l'-'R, +00,

~5

. iql, I 2,

01, 4U2 ...H)'j,

.l.!.O..12 I , -+ J.!,

~9\. 1';'"", ;'J~,

i')o, 3\)7,
+1 4

Of" j(J7, +1'1, +1"

+) j

Composition
iron oxyhydrox:ides 380, 382, 391, 392, 393, 394,
395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 401, 402, 405, 406,
407,410,418,419,420,421,422
Mn-rich nodules 414
Cortex
bridged 384, 400, 402, 410, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422,
423
broken 405,406,407
centrifugal (external) cortex 380, 394-, 395, 396, 397,
398, 399,400,401,402,406,408,410,414,
418,419,420,421,422,423
centripetal (internal) cortex 380,421
composite (goethite + hematite) 380, 396, 398, 399,
419
discontinuous 408
discordant 394, 406, 407
incorporated features
alteromorpbs 421
pedoplasma 398,399,418,419,420,421,422
quartz grains 400, 401,402,406,413
microlaminated 397, 398, 399,401,402
orientation of constituents 396, 399
particular section of 396,400,419,420
separation fTom nucleus 405
Evolution 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413,
414,418,419,420,421,422
destruction, desquamation, spalling 405,406,407
erosion, abrasion 406, 408
Matrix
braces, bridges 393, 398,418, 419, 420, 421, 422,
423
chitonic distribution of 392, 409
coatings 409
detrital grains 394, 396,400,406,408,409,420
epigenetic replacement 418, 419
evolution 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423
gefuric b-fabric 393
granostriated b-fabric 391,392,395,407,408,419
interconnected 418, 421
interstitial 418, 419
iron crust 398,399,400,418,419,421,422,423
isolated by bridges 410,418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423
isO"0lun1etric evolution 421
leaching 420, 421, 422
pedoplasma (incorporation of) 396, 398, 399,419
relict S-matrix 393, 398
sandy 406, 409
sandy residues 422
soil

INDEX OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND FIGURS

Nucleus
irregular 397, 408
regular 397
Parent material
alterorelic 397, 398,400,401,402,408,409,410,
421,4-22
Parent rock of the nucleus
granite 391, 402
quartz assemblage 408
ultraba5ic rocks 391, 397, 398,402,409,414
Porosity
coatings 409
concentric internal 405, 413
interstitial fissures 392, 393
peripheral fissures 391,392,394,395,413,421
porosity in volumes of plasma392, 393, 419, 420
preservation of shapes 382, 401
radial fissures 396, 405, 413
residual pores 382, 401, 406, 410
within the cortex 40 I
within the matrix 392,419,420,421,422
within the nucleus 409
Primary mineral
pyroxenes 380, 409
quartz 382, 400, 401,402,406,413
Process
cortification 380, 394, 395, 397, 398, 399,400,401,
402,406,408,410,418,419,420,421,422,
423
bridges 398, 400, 402, 410, 418, 419, 420, 421,
422,423
centrifugal 380, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399,
400, 401, 402, 406, 408, 410, 414, 418,
419,420
microlaminated cortex 397, 398, 399,400,401
interlayered goethite - hematite 398, 399,419,
420
creep, displacement 394, 395, 400, 402, 405, 406,
407, 408
destruction 405, 406, 413
dissolution 382, 401,405,406
epigenetic replacement 380, 402, 410, 419
formation of fissures in the matrix 391, 392
induration, hardening 410. 418
internal stress 401
leaching 420, 421, 422
Shape
broken 394, 405, 406, 407
irregular 41 3
rounded, smooth 382,391,392,394,395,397,398,
406,419,420,421,422
spherical 407, 414-, 418
Size
constant, maintained 406, 414
decreasing 405,423
increasing 397, 421, 423
Texture
chitonic 392, 409

493

disrurbed or lost 4-02

gefuric 393
granostriated b-fabric 391, 392,393,395,4-07.419
maintaind 402
.
microlaminated 397, 398, 399,4-01,4-02
recognizable 402

l'n)l )Rflll'~ 3,7

h' U.'JrIC ['h( Hili I +E. +"35. -I- H, ..1-3 ~, .1\(" + 17. BIl,
+l'l. +40,1-+1. +-1.2 ...\-H. +-1f,.
7, -l-h, ++ '. -1-;(1, +51
Constituent minerals
bohmite 432,433,438,439,440,442,445
gibbsite 435,436,438.439,440,445,446,447,448,
450
goethite 435
hematite 432
Parent material 431
Porosity
dissolution
(residual) pores 438 439 ~ 440 445 446
~7
I

ferruginous halos 445, 454

fissures
concentric 433,434, 435, 436, 438, 439, 442,
445,455
interconnected, network 432,446
peIipheral 438, 439, 445
radial 432, 433, 434, 436, 438, 439, 455
uneven 435
infUlings, coatings
of gibbsit' 432,435,436,445, +52
ofbohmite 442, 452, 453, 455
of detrital l11aterial44-7, 448, 449, 451, 452, 455
wiLhin the bauxitic parcllll11aterial 452
within the cortex 433,436,440,441,441,445,446,
447,448,449,455
within the marrix +38, 439, 44\, 446, 447, 448
witllin ule nucleus 432,433,435,438, +39, 440, 441,
447,448,449,455
Process
cortification 432,437,438,439, 44()
cl'),staJlization of new material 435, 436, 438, 439,
442,445,446,447,450,452,454
degradation
aJveolization 4-33,440,441,445,446,447,448,
449,455
advanced 446
complete 447,448,449,4-51
cortex 445,446,447,448.449
incipient 44 5
matrL" 436,437,438,439,440,441.446,
447,448,449,451,455
.
nucle.us 446, 447, 448. 449

494

crystallization of new mateIial 433, 435, 436,

438, 439, 440, 442, 445, 446, 447, 448,
450,452,454
deposits
allochthonous 446,447,448,449,452,453.
455
autochthonous 440,445,448,450.454
microlaminated 452 453 454 455
discoloration 433,434,435,436,437
complete 436, 437, 438, 439, 440. 441,
442,445,446
incipient 433
partial 434-, 435
nucleu.s l'erSU5 cortex 433, 434, 435
peripheral crystalla.ria 438, 439, 445, 447, 448.
449,451
.
erosion, transport. deposition 437, 438, 439. 440,
441,442,448.449,451,452,455
Shape
nucleus
irregldar or fragmented 437,438,439,440,441.
442
.
round 432
pisoJith
angular, frahTfnented 437, 438, 439, 440, 441.
442
spherical, round 436, 437, 441, 445
subrolU1ded 437,438,439,440
Texture
cortex
discontinuous 438, 439
discordant 437, 438,439,440
microlarninated 432, 433, 435, 446
matrix
alveolized 437, 438439, 440, 441,445,446,447,
448,449
discolored 433, +3+, 438,439,440
homogeneous, continuous 432
replaced 436,438,439,442,445,448
nucleus 432,435,436, 44-6
fragment 437, +38, 439,440,441
recognizable 435,436,438,439,446,454
septaric 450

t\ \ l'1I-rt 1/\

1--[:\ TII ({ -S

Air bubbles 183,401

Auxiliary plate (/4) 102
Coloration 75,268,341
Holes 183, 269
Isotropic material 24-6
Shrinkage 130, 135

ATLAS Of MICROMORPHOLOGY OF MINERAL ALTERATION AND WEATHERING

About the Author

1"', I. 11Illh. I
born in Tournai, Belgium, on
July 12, 1929, has an academic background in
agronomy and the geological sciences. He
obtained his doctorate from the Universite
CathoLique de Louva.in, in Belgium. He began h.is
professional activities in 1956 atYangambi, then in the
Belgian Congo, where he was affiliated with the lnstitut National pour I'Etude Agronomigue du Congo
(INEAC). There, he studied the alteration of the
important rocks, mostly basalt, that make up the broad
expanses of that country. He also investigated the formation of soil at the expense of volcanic ash emitted by
volcanos in the eastern part of the country. His observations relied heavily on optical methods and on the
technigues of thermal and chemical analysis available in
that setting and at that time.

Forced out of the Congo in 1960 as a result of the

tragic events that fonowed the granting of independence, the author came back to Louvain, where he participated in a synthesis of the field-based results, aided
there by X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy. He
then joined ORSTOM (OJJice de la Rechercl1e Scientifigue et Technique Outre-Mer) in Paris, and was
assigned from 1962 to 1976 to the Adiopodoume
Research Centre, near Abidjan, Cote d 'Ivoire. There he
founded the Laboratory of Geology, and continued to
apply optical methods, technigues of chemical, thermal and seclimentologlcal analysis, and eventually,
X-ray diffraction. He became much involved in studies
of the alteration of the basic and ultrabasic rocks as
well as granites of the Cote d'Ivorre. He focussed on
the relations between alteration and geomorphological
expression, commonly as iron crusts and bauxite,
witnesses of paleoclimatic oscillations that affected this
region of western Africa.

After a short time dedicated to the synthesis of his

previous findings, spent at tlle Universite de Nit'e, the
author was asigned by ORSTOM to the State University of Sao PauJo, in Brazil. Up until 1987, he focused
his attention on the weathering of basaltic rocks of
Riberao Preto (Sao Paulo) and of the Parana flood
basalt sequence, the nepheline syenites of Po<;:os de
Caldas (Minas Gerais), 31ld the carbooatite at Jacupiranga (Sao Paulo).
Over this long period of professional activity, he
rose to the title of Director and "lnspecteur general de
Recherches". He taught courses about the mineralogical response to weathering and the micromorphology
of alteratiolLS at the University of Abidjan, the Ecole
Nationale Superieure Agronomigue, both in Cote
d'lvoire, and at the universities ofSao Paulo and Porto
AlJegrc, in Brazil. He was called on to give short
courses on the subject for the International Society of
Soil Sciences (ISSS), Wageningen, The Netherl311ds.
Assigned by ORSTOM in 1988 to the Laboratory
of EnvironmentaJ Geosciences at the Universite de
Marseilles, the author had the opportunity to rc-investigate part or his vast coLlection of thin sections, and to
undertake complementary stutLies of the alteration of
rocks. He built up his collection of over 10,000 color
slides. He had by then begun preparing the publication
of this Atlas. This book represents the culmination of
over forty years of professional activity, strongly
grounded in field observations, complemented by various types of analyses in the laboratory, but very much
rocussed on the power of observations made with the
optical microscope.

PRIMARY MINERAL

ISO-ALTEROMORPH

MESO-AtTEROMORPH

KATA-ALTEROMORPH