NAVARRO, Kaycee B.

MGMT 3 | TF 11:30AM 1:00PM

One path of wine history could follow the developments and science of grape
growing and wine production; another might separately trace the spread of wine
commerce through civilization, but there would be many crossovers and detours
between them. However the time line is followed, clearly wine and history have
greatly influenced one another.
Fossil vines, 60-million-years-old, are the earliest scientific evidence of
grapes. The earliest written account of viniculture is in the Old Testament of the
Bible which tells us that Noah planted a vineyard and made wine. As cultivated
fermentable crops, honey and grain are older than grapes, although neither mead
nor beer has had anywhere near the social impact of wine over recorded time.
ETYMOLOGY OF WINE
Old English win "wine," from Proto-Germanic *winam (source also of Old
Saxon, Old Frisian, Old High German win, Old Norse vin, Dutch wijn, German Wein),
an early borrowing from Latin vinum "wine," from PIE *woin-o-, related to words for
"wine" in Greek (oinos), Armenian, Hittite, and non-Indo-European Georgian and
West Semitic (Arabic wain, Hebrew yayin), probably from a lost Mediterranean
language
word *win-/*woin- "wine."
Also from Latin vinum are Old Church Slavonic vino, Polish wino,
Russian vino, Lithuanian vynas, Welsh gwin, Old Irish fin, Gaelic fion. Essentially
the same word as vine (q.v.). Wine snob is recorded from 1951. Wine cellar is from
late 14c. Wine-cooler is 1815 as "vessel in which bottled wine is kept cool;" by
1977 as a type of wine-based beverage.
"entertain with wine," 1862, from wine. Earlier "expend in drinking wine"
(1620s). Related: Wined; wining.

MIDDLE EASTERN ORIGINS

An ancient Persian fable credits a lady of the court with the discovery of
wine. This Princess, having lost favor with the King, attempted to poison herself by
eating some table grapes that had "spoiled" in a jar. She became intoxicated and
giddy and fell asleep. When she awoke, she found the stresses that had made her
life intolerable had dispersed. Returning to the source of her relief, her subsequent
conduct changed so remarkably that she regained the King's favor. He shared his
daughter's discovery with his court and decreed an increase in the production of
"spoiled" grapes.
Certainly wine, as a natural phase of grape spoilage, was "discovered" by
accident, unlike beer and bread, which are human inventions. It is established that
wine drinking had started by about 4000 BC and possibly as early as 6000 BC. The
first efforts at grape cultivation can be traced to the area that forms the "Fertile

Crescent", around the Caspian Sea and in Mesopotamia, including portions of

present-day Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. Excavations from
tombs in ancient Egypt prove that wine was in use there by 3100 BC. Priests and
royalty enjoyed wine, while beer was drunk by the workers. The Egyptians
recognized differences in wine quality and developed the first arbors and pruning
methods. Archeologists have uncovered many sites with sunken jars, so the effects
of temperature on stored wine were probably known.
GRECO-ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS
Wine came to Europe with the spread of the Greek civilization around 1600
BC. Homer's Odyssey and Iliad, both contain excellent and detailed descriptions of
wine. Wine was an important article of Greek commerce and Greek doctors,
including Hippocrates, were among the first to prescribe it. The Greeks also
learned to add herbs and spices to mask spoilage.
The foundation and strength of viniculture in Western Europe are primarily
due, however, to the influence of the Romans. Starting about 1000 BC, the Romans
made major contributions in classifying grape varieties and colors, observing and
charting ripening characteristics, identifying diseases and recognizing soil-type
preferences. They became skilled at pruning and increasing yields through
irrigation and fertilization techniques.
WORLD'S OLDEST BOTTLE of WINE
Unearthed during excavation for building a house in a vineyard near the town of
Speyer, Germany, it was inside one of two Roman stone sarcophaguses that
were dug up. The bottle dates from approximately 325 A.D. and was found in
1867.
The greenish-yellow glass amphora has handles formed in the shape
dolphins. One of several bottles discovered, it is the only one with the
contents still preserved.
The ancient liquid has much silty sediment. About two-thirds of the
contents are a thicker, hazy mixture. This is most probably olive oil,
which the Romans commonly used to "float" atop wine to preserve
from oxidation. Cork closures, although known to exist at the time,
were quite uncommon. Their oil method of preservation was
apparently effective enough to keep the wine from evaporation up
modern day.

of

it

to

The bottle is on permanent display, along with other wine antiquities, at

the Historisches Museum der Pfalz (History Museum of the Pfalz), worth a visit if
traveling near the area of Speyer, Germany.
The Romans also adapted wooden cooperage, an invention they acquired
with the spoils of conquering Germanic tribes, to wine storage and transportation.
This was a great advance for operations previously accomplished in skins or clay

jars (amphora). They may also have been the first to use glass bottles, as
glassblowing became more common during this era.
Beginning about 200 BC, Roman exploits were as significant as Roman
experiments as the armies of Rome planted wine vines in the wake of their
conquests, all over the land mass now known as Europe.
ECONOMICS, POLITICS, AND RELIGION
By the first century AD, wine was being exported in barrels from the Empire
(Italy) to Spain, Germany, England and Gaul (France). It wasn't long before these
regions began developing their own vineyards and the Roman Emperor forbid the
import of French wines to eliminate competition with the local wines. Over the next
few centuries, France would become dominant on the world wine market. Monastic
wineries were responsible for establishing vineyards in Burgundy, Champagne and
the Rhine Valley. Sacramental usage preserved wine industry methods and
traditions through the dark ages.
By 1152, during the reign of Henry II, Britain had become the principal
customer of Bordeaux. The end of the Hundred Years War in 1453 left the city of
Calais as the only French territory still under British control and trade between
England and France nearly cut off. Political conflicts between England and France
ultimately benefitted competition in the export wine market. From 1703 until 1860,
tariffs restricted French wine imports and encouraged those from Portugal, so the
English "discovered" and developed a great love of Port.
Exploration, conquest and settlement brought wine to Mexico, Argentina and
South Africa in the 1500s and 1600s. Although there were many attempts during
this period to plant European wine vines along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of
North America and in the Mississippi River basin valleys, none were successful.
Each vineyard planted would die off within two or three seasons. No one
apparently sought to determine why, even though little difficulty was encountered
in Mexico or California vineyards. In the late 1800s, one answer to this mystery
would ultimately prove fatal for nearly all the vineyards of Europe.
WINE MISSION FOR CALIFORNIA
Hernando Cortez, as Governor of Mexico in 1525, ordered the planting of
grapes. The success was such that the King of Spain forbid new plantings or
vineyard replacements in Mexico after 1595, fearing his colony would become selfsufficient in wine. This edict was enforced for 150 years, effectively preventing a
commercial wine industry from forming.
As in Europe, however, vineyards survived under the auspices of the church
and the care of the missions. In 1769, Franciscan missionary Father Junipero Serra
planted the first California vineyard at Mission San Diego. Father Serra continued to
establish eight more missions and vineyards until his death in 1784 and has been
called the "Father of California Wine". The variety he planted, presumably

descended from the original Mexican plantings, became known as the Mission
grape and dominated California wine production until about 1880.
California's first documented imported European wine vines were planted in
Los Angeles in 1833 by Jean-Louis Vignes. In the 1850s and '60s, the colorful
Agoston Harazsthy, a Hungarian soldier, merchant and promoter, made several
trips to import cuttings from 165 of the greatest European vineyards to California.
Some of this endeavor was at his personal expense and some through grants from
the state. Overall, he introduced about 300 different grape varieties, although
some were lost prior to testing, due to difficulties in preserving and handling.
Considered the Founder of the California Wine Industry, Harazsthy
contributed his enthusiasm and optimism for the future of wine, along with
considerable personal effort and risk. He founded Buena Vista winery and
promoted vine planting over much of Northern California. He dug extensive caves
for cellaring, promoted hillside planting, fostered the idea of non-irrigated
vineyards and suggested Redwood for casks when oak supplies ran low.
BLINDED WINE WITH SCIENCE
For centuries wine was produced and enjoyed with little thought for and no
true understanding of its underlying science, wine evolved through "spontaneous
generation," as far as anyone knew. French chemist Louis Pasteur, among many
J. Chauvet vineyard and winery,
circa 1900. Joshua Chauvet planted
his own vineyard in 1875. Agoston
Harazsthy had employed him at one
time. Chauvet also started the first
brickyard, the first lumber mill. the
first grain mill, and the first hotel in
Sonoma County. Hotel Chauvet in
tiny Glen Ellen still exists today.
Photo
courtesy
of Fleet
Irvine
Photomurals, a viewable collection
of wine and other theme photos that
may also be purchased.
discoveries relating to his germ theory of diseases, first proposed and proved, in
1857, that wine is made by microscopic organisms, yeasts. This led to the
discovery and development of different yeast types and properties and ultimately
to better hygiene, less spoilage, and greater efficiency in wine production.
In 1860, Dr Jules Guyot, another Frenchman, published the first of three
treatises describing regional traditional vinicultural and viticultural practices as
well as his own observations and arguments on the economy of grape growing.
Before these documents, viniculture was a practice that had been apprenticed

from generation to generation for over 5000 years, with very few written records
and no formal instruction.
YANKEE VINE-KILLER BUG
In 1863, species of Native American grapes were taken to Botanical Gardens
in England. These cuttings carried a species of root louse called phylloxera
vastatrix which attacks and feeds on the vine roots and leaves. Phylloxera is
indigenous to the Mississippi River Valley and was unknown outside North America
at the time. Powdery mildew, a fungal disease, also indigenous to North America,
had previously migrated to Europe and caused problems in some areas. No one,
however, had any idea of the wide-reaching destructive potential of Phylloxera.
Native American varieties developed resistance to phylloxera by evolving a
thick and tough root bark, so that they were relatively immune to damage. The
vinifera vines had no such evolutionary protection and phylloxera ate away at their
roots, causing them to rot and the plant to die and driving the pests to seek other
nearby live hosts, spreading inexorably through entire vineyards and on to others.
By 1865, phylloxera had spread to vines in Provence. Over the next 20 years,
it inhabited and decimated nearly all the vineyards of Europe. Many methods were
attempted to eradicate phylloxera: flooding, where possible, and injecting the soil
with carbon bisulfide, had some success in checking the louse, but were costly and
the pests came back as soon as the treatments stopped.
Finally Thomas Munson, a horticulturist from Dennison, Texas, realized that
Native American vines were resistant and suggested grafting the vinifera vines
onto riparia hybrid rootstocks. So, there began a long, laborious process of grafting
every wine vine in Europe over to American rootstocks. It was only in this manner
that the European wine industry could be retrieved from extinction. Downy mildew,
another fungal disease in American grapevines, unfortunately probably migrated to
Europe on some of the rootstocks imported for grafting. One tragic consequence of
the Phylloxera devastation is that many of the native species indigenous to Europe,
since they were of negligible commercial value, were not perpetuated by grafting
and became extinct.
There was some debate generated by this replanting that the quality
declined in "post-phylloxera" wines. Whether this was indeed the case and whether
this was due to the rootstocks themselves or to the relatively sudden and nearly
universal youth of the vines, or to changes in vinification techniques, or to some
other concurrent factor or variable, is unknown. Undoubtedly, it will remain a
matter of theory and opinion and provide animated conversation at wine tastings,
but ultimately never be proven.
European consumer demand was unabated, especially in France, yet the
vineyard blights resulted in shortages of wine for many years. French producers
turned their focus to the French North African colonies of Morroco, Tunisia, and
particularly Algeria. Fraud and adulteration became problems. In a short period of

just over a decade, Algeria grew into the World's largest wine exporter, taking over
the position of France. As their industry gradually recovered, ultimately it was
competition from these African colonies that spurred French wine growers to the
form the system of Appellation Controle. AC became the model for all wine
producing countries to both protect reputations and markets for the wine trade and
authenticate product origins for consumers.
Northern
California
harvest,c. 1900.

wine

Around the turn of the century, the

quality of American wines had
reached excellence by international
standards, as testified to by the three
dozen medals won by them at the
1900 Paris Exposition.
Photo
courtesy
of Fleet
Irvine
Photomurals, a viewable collection of
wine and other theme photos that
may also be purchased.
During the period when the Europeans were contending with phylloxera, the
American wine industry was ironically flourishing. By 1900, America had a fully
developed and proud commercial wine producing business. Leading brands from
California, New York, Ohio, Missouri and New Jersey were appearing on many of the
best restaurant wine lists alongside French, German and Italian listings. Barrels of
California wine were being regularly exported to Australia, Canada, Central
America, England, Germany, Mexico and the Orient.
VINE-KILLER POLITICS
The destruction of the American wine industry would come not from an
entomological pest, but from a political one. While it took a hundred years instead
of 20 to complete its course, the results were even more devastating. It didn't
spread from vineyard to vineyard, but from town to county to state to the entire
nation.
Alcohol abuse and alcoholism and their related problems were much more
widespread and affected a radically larger share of America's population in the
early and mid-1800s than they do at present day. Excessive use, rather than
moderate use, was the norm in an era of fewer entertainments and diversions.
The first Prohibition law went on the books in Indiana in 1816, forbidding the
sale of any alcohol on Sunday (still enforced to this day). By the 1840s, many
towns and counties in Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York
and Ohio had gone legally "dry". In 1851, Maine enacted the first statewide law

prohibiting the manufacture and sale of liquor and, by 1855, thirteen of the thirtyone United States had followed suit.
The Industrial Revolution led from local to large-scale brewing and mass marketing,
with intense competition. A proliferation of saloons drove owners to seek side
profits by pursuing illegal and unsavory vices such as gambling and prostitution. As
another beverage containing alcohol, wine began to suffer the successful excesses
of beer.
In 1880, Kansas became the first state to go "dry" by amending their
Constitution, followed by Iowa, Georgia, Oklahoma, Mississippi, North Carolina,
Tennessee, West Virginia and Virginia. Although some of these laws allowed
winemaking to continue for sale elsewhere, few wineries in these states could
compete without selling their wines locally. Most closed their doors and abandoned
their vineyards.
The Drys went so far as to have any mention of wine expunged from school and
college texts, including Greek and Roman classic literature. Medicinal wines were
dropped from the United States Pharmacopoeia. They even tried to prove that
praises for wine in the Bible were actually referring to unfermented grape juice.
Thirty-three states had gone dry at the outbreak of World War I.
In December, 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution, criminalizing the "manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating
liquors"; by February, 1919, 45 states had ratified it; New Jersey held out until
1922, and only Connecticut and Rhode Island ultimately rejected it. To define the
language and set the effective date, Congress enacted the National Prohibition Act,
more popularly known as the Volstead Act, named after Minnesota Republican
Andrew Volstead, tee to taller and primary proponent of the bill. After midnight on
January 16, 1920, National Prohibition would begin.
The net consequences of the legislation made it much more difficult to obtain
alcohol, possession by individuals for personal consumption was not a federal
crime. Through a provision that made penalties not applicable 1 to "a person
manufacturing nonintoxicating cider and fruit juice exclusively for use in his home,"
thousands of otherwise law-abiding citizens became home winemaking hobbyists
and quasi-bootleggers. This poorly-constructed clause eliminated punishments
without strictly legalizing either home brewing or winemaking, yet the obvious
difficulty of interpreting and applying the law's intent led to new pastimes for many
households.
Explosive demand for fresh grapes and a shortage of refrigerated railroad
cars in which to ship them caused prices to skyrocket. Growers began replanting
their vineyards from fine wine varieties over to table or juice grape varieties that
shipped better. Planted acreage nearly doubled from 1919 to 1926. Vineyard land
prices climbed from $200 an acre in 1918 to $2,500 an acre in 1923. Prosperity for
the growers lasted barely five years. In 1925, the railroads finally had enough cars,
too much fruit was shipped and it rotted on the Eastern docks. In 1926, vineyard

land fell back to $250 per acre. The massive plantings produced a constant surplus
of California grapes that persisted until 1971.
By the time of National Repeal, effective December 5, 1933, the industry was
in ruins. Although some wineries managed to survive by obtaining permits to make
wines used for medicinal, sacramental and non-beverage additive purposes,
production dropped 94% from 1919 to 1925.
REPEAL WITHOUT RECOVERY
Even after Repeal, several states stayed dry: Kansas until 1948, Oklahoma
until 1957, and Mississippi until 1966. Seventeen states chose to obliterate freemarket capitalism by establishing monopoly liquor stores with limited selections
and plain-as-dirt merchandising that discourages respectable housewives from
shopping.
There remain local prohibitions that are arbitrary, inconsistent and niggling, with
such manifest foolishness as streets lined door-to-door on one side with taverns
and "package stores" and nary a one on the opposite side where the dry boundary
runs down the middle of the roadway. Today 10 percent of the nation's area and 6
percent of the population remain dry.
Anticipating Repeal, speculators and quick-buck artists soon flooded the legal
market with quickly and poorly made wine. Dilettantes published books and
articles warning Americans about rigid rules that must be followed to serve the
proper wine with the proper food from the proper glass at the proper temperature.
Faced with bad-tasting products with which to risk committing social blunders and
while remaining uncertain about the social acceptance of any alcohol, most
Americans stayed away. Hard drinkers stuck to hard liquor. For decades, moderate
wine drinking in a social context survived almost exclusively in households that
made their own.
The only group of wines that sold well following Repeal were the fortified dessert
wines. Taxed at the lower rate of wine as opposed to distilled spirits, but with 20
percent alcohol, this group made the cheapest intoxicant available for derelicts and
winos. Recovery and re-growth of the wine industry was severely inhibited for the
next half century, in both quantity and quality.
Before 1920, there were more than 2,500 commercial wineries in the United
States. Less than 100 survived as winemaking operations to 1933. By 1960, that
number had grown to only 271. California had 713 bonded wineries before
Prohibition; it took more than half a century, until 1986, before that many were
again operating. Table wines accounted for 3 of every 4 gallons shipped. In 1937,
four years after Repeal, fortified wine production outpaced table wine by a ratio of
5 to 1. It wasn't until 1968 that table wines sales caught up and finally overtook
fortified wines, regaining the status of most popular wine category.2
Prohibition left a legacy of distorting the role of alcohol in American life, ruining a
fledgling world-class wine industry, weakening the U.S. Constitution, and boosting

the success and profitability of Organized Crime (the price of whiskey rose over
500% during the 1920s). The maze of confusing and conflicting laws that currently
vary widely between states impedes commerce, sustains distribution monopolies,
casts aspersions of greed on tax coffers, and mocks the American sense of fair
competition.
More police officers were killed during the decade of the 1920s than in any
decade in history. The "Grand Experiment" implanted moral ambiguity and
disrespect for authority in an entire generation of Americans, while it deprived
them of potential social and health benefits, and brought the character and term
"wino" into the streets and the lexicon.
The one positive remainder is the lingering Congressional hesitance to pass
Constitutional Amendments, especially regarding restrictions on individual liberty
and personal moral choice. We can only hope for the future that our
representatives don't commit such folly when powerful special interests clash with
the shared individual freedoms that make up the public interest.
The forces of prohibition are not dead yet. They are more insidious, combining
moralist and monopolist factions, pursuing an agenda of obstructionist legislation,
that includes preventing or encumbering direct sales of wine to consumers
(see Free the Grapes 3), preventing health information from being printed on wine
labels and spreading disinformation about potential benefits and studies related to
wine and health.
WORK IN PROGRESS
In spite of the political workings, table wine grew in popularity in America
during the last half of the 20th Centruy. U.S. per-capita consumption of wine still
lags far behind most countries of the Western Hemisphere. American wineconsuming growth is on pace to become the number one wine consuming nation
by 2020.
A remaining problem is American tendency toward excess. More than 85% of the
volume of wine America drinks is done by less than 8% of the total population. A
goal of moderate regular consumption seems too tame for America's tastes.
Achieving such might bring better health overall to the population and peace with
all but the most radical tee-totallers.
Research in the past thirty years has led to developments in both agriculture and
technology that have greatly improved overall wine quality. The quality and stature
of California and American wine has never been better and worldwide demand
continues to grow. The attractions of the "gentleman farming" lifestyle and the
increasing demand drove the industry to swell to a total of 4,383 bonded US
wineries in 2006.
In America's Bicentennial Year of 1976, two California wines (Stag's Leap
Wine Cellars 1973 Estate Cabernet Sauvignon and Chateau Montelena 1973 Napa
Valley Chardonnay) bested their top French wine counterparts at a blind tasting in

Paris judged entirely by Frenchmen 4, all experts in wine! This event shocked the
contemporary world of wine and became famous as The Judgment of Paris. More
than four decades later, it is now only surprising when French wines win both
categories at similar events.
THE GOLDEN AGE OF WINE
Improved production techniques in the 17th and 18th centuries resulted in
the emergence of finer qualities of wine, glass bottles with corks began to be used,
and the corkscrew was invented. The French wine industry took off at this point,
with particular recognition being given to the clarets of the Bordeaux region by
merchants from the Low Countries, Germany, Ireland and Scandinavia. Bordeaux
traded wine for coffee and other sought-after items from the New World, helping to
cement the role of wine in emerging world trade. While the 19th century is
considered the golden age of wine for many regions, it was not without tragedy.
Around 1863 many French vines suffered from a disease caused by the Phylloxera
aphid, which sucked the juice out of the roots. When it was discovered that vines in
America were resistant to Phylloxera it was decided to plant American vines in
affected French regions. This created hybrid grapes that produced a greater variety
of wines.
WINE TODAY
Over the last 150 years, wine making has been totally revolutionised as an
art and science. With access to refrigeration, it has become easy for wineries to
control the temperature of the fermentation process and produce high quality
wines in hot climates. The introduction of harvesting machines has allowed
winemakers to increase the size of their vineyards and make them more efficient
and more efficient. Although the wine industry faces the challenge of meeting the
demands of an ever-larger market without losing the individual character of its
wines, technology helps to ensure a consistent supply of quality wines.
Modern wine appreciation pays homage to the timeless art of wine making and
demonstrates the importance of wine in the history and diversity of European
culture.

TIMELINE: How WINE Colonized the World

4100 BC

The Oldest Winery Is

Founded In Ancient
Armenia

The oldest winery is founded in

ancient Armenia. The site was
discovered
in
2007
by UCLA
researchers.

3100 BC

The Pharaohs Rise To

Power In Egypt

The pharaohs rise to power in

Egypt. They begin making a winelike substance from red grapes
and, due to its resemblance to
blood, use it in ceremonies. During
this time, the Egyptians come in

1700 BC

Wine Was Drank At

Least 3,700 Years
Ago
In
NorthernIsrael

1200 BC 539 BC

The
Phoenicians
Begin
To
Trade
Across
The
Mediterranean

800 BC

The Rise Of Greece &

Hellenistic Conquest

146

Rome
Conquers
Greece & Builds An
Empire

contact with Jews as well as the

Phoenicians. It would be the
Phoenicians who would cultivate
the wine and begin to spread it
around the world.
Archaeologists recently
discovered a 3,700-year-old cellar
in northern-Israel. The scientists
who have studied the findings say
that more than 500 gallons of wine
were once stored in this cellar
The Phoenicians begin to trade
across
the
Mediterranean,
including the Middle East (current
day Israel) and stretching around
the sea from North Africa to points
in Greece and Italy. It was during
their trading that they also brought
with them wine, transported in
ceramic
jugs,
as
well
as
grapevines. During travels, the
Phoenicians come in contact with
the Jews, who began to use wine to
mark religious ceremonies. We first
hear the mention of wine in the
book of Genesis, when, after the
flood, Noah, drunk on wine,
exposes himself to his sons.
The Greeks, having been exposed
to wine by the Phoenicians, begin
to perfect the beverage. Wine
becomes a symbol for trade,
religion and health. A god is named
in honor of wine: Dionysus. As the
Greek city-states begin to rise in
power, they colonize other land
around the Mediterranean, and,
along with their armies, travel with
wine. After a new colony was
conquered, Greeks would settle the
area, bringing grapevines with
them. Sicily and southern Italy
formed some of the earliest
colonies, and the wine then
traveled up the boot toward Rome.
The Romans take wine as their
own, creating Bacchus, their own
god of wine, and make wine a
central part of their culture, just as
the Greeks had done. They build
upon and formalize the Greek's

380

The Roman Empire

Adopts Christianity

1492 1600

Wine Travels To The

New World

1543

Portuguese
Jesuits
Arrive In Japan

1554

Spanish Missionaries
Spread Across The
Americas

1556

Spanish Missionaries
Travel From Chile To
Argentina

cultivation methods to the point

that terroir is recognized and
famous vintages (121 BC the most
well known) are enjoyed for
decades. As the Empire and its
troops expand across Europe,
Romans
plant
grapevines
in
modern day France, Germany,
Italy, Portugal, Spain as well as a
number
of
Central
European
nations.
As the Roman Empire adopts the
Catholic Church and Christianity,
wine becomes a central part of the
sacrament. Wines importance to
Catholicism and Mass causes the
Catholic Church to focus on wine
cultivation and production. Monks
in Italy and France begin working
as vintners, and winemaking
technology is perfected. As the
Catholic Church grows across
Europe, wine goes with it.
Wine travels to the New World and
its brought to Mexico and Brazil by
the conquistadors. Wine spreads
across South America from these
two original locales.
he Portuguese sail to Japan. Saint
Francis Xavier brings wine as a gift
for the feudal lords six years later.
Jesuits convert over 100,000
Japanese citizens to Catholicism. At
the same time they introduce
imported European wine to the
population.
In
1587,
when
Toyotomi Hideyoshi reunifies Japan,
Christianity is banned. Grapevines
are finally planted around 300
years later, during the Meiji
restoration,
when
the
nation
embraces Western culture.
Spanish missionaries, traveling
from
points
North,
including
Mexico, establish Chiles first
winery.
Spanish missionaries travel from
Chile to Argentina, settling in the
Mendoza wine region, and planting
the regions first grapes.

1562 1564

Wine Briefly Comes

To The U.S. In Florida

1608

Samuel
De
Champlain
Establishes
Permanent
French
Settlements
In
Canada,
Founding
Quebec City

1619

The French Begin

Cultivating Imported
Grapevines
In
Virginia

1659

The Dutch East India

Company
Colonize
South Africa

1769

Spanish Missionary
Junpero
Serra
Travels To California

Wine comes to America, being

made for the first time by French
Huguenots in Jacksonville, FL. The
Huguenots did not bring European
grapes with them, but instead used
native grapes they found growing
in the area. The wine made was
not pleasant to the Huguenots, and
they stopped making the wine
shortly after they began.
Norseman Leif Eirikson is believed
to have cultivated wildly growing
grapes in 1001 AD, but the
settlement didn't last. The French
claim Canada as their territory in
1534, but they do not establish
permanent settlements until 1608,
when Samuel de Champlain founds
Quebec City. Jesuits quickly follow
and attempt to grow European
grapes. They have little success so
they turn to the local grapes.
The
French
import
French
grapevines and begin cultivating
wine in Virginia. Wine starts to be
made up and down the Eastern
Seaboard, but, due to the colonys
Puritanical roots, it does not
immediately take off.
As the Dutch East India Company
colonizes South Africa, there is a
demand for wine to supply the
sailors for their long journey back
from Africa to Europe. Vines are
planted and wine production
begins in Cape Province to fill this
need. Later the English would seize
the colony.
Spanish missionary Junpero Serra,
having traveled from Spain to
spread the gospel in the New
World, travels to California from
Mexico City, opening a mission in
San Diego and bringing with him
grapes in order to create the
regions
first
wine.
Spanish
missions
then
spread
across
California, and the Franciscan
monks bring with them the art of
making
wine,
establishing
Sonomas first winery in 1805.

1785

Thomas Jefferson Is
Appointed
The
Minister To France

1788

The First Fleet Sails

To
Australia
Via
South Africa

1832

James
Busby
Is
Appointed
British
Resident
Of
New
Zealand

1848 1855

The California Gold

Rush

1863 1962

Wine
Planted
By
French Colonists In
Algeria
Flourish
During The Great
French Wine Blight

Thomas Jefferson is appointed the

minister to France. Jefferson travels
to France and falls in love with
French
wine,
particularly Bordeauxand Burgundy
. Jefferson becomes convinced
wine of equal caliber can be
produced in the US. He returns
with more French grape cuttings,
and a desire to see wine thrive in
Virginia.
The First Fleet, having departed
the UK in 1787 in order to travel to
Australia to establish the penal
colony, makes a stop in South
Africa. During the stop the fleet
picks up grape cuttings that will be
planted in Australia upon the
fleet's arrival.
James Busby, a British resident
living
in
Australia
who
is
considered the father of the
Australian
wine
industry,
is
appointed to the position of British
Resident of New Zealand by the
British government. Busby travels
from Australia to New Zealand and
brings with him grape cuttings
from Australia. He establishes New
Zealands first vineyard in 1836.
Americans seeking to better their
prospects travel west, bringing
with them a desire for riches and a
taste for wine. Their taste for wine
not only increases demand for the
wine already being made in
California, but the gold rushers
also bring with them vines from
the East coast, most indigenous to
France, but also Zinfandel, a grape
for which California would become
known, that originated in Croatia.
Phoenicians planted wine here
back in their era, but Islamic rule
eventually stuffed that out. When
France took control of Algeria in
1830 they started replanting
vineyards. Wine production soared
when phylloxera decimated the
French wine industry in the 1860s 70s. Production hit a high point in

1870

Basque
&
Italian
Immigrants Arrive In
Uruguay

1980 2014

China Opens Up Its

Economy

the 1930s, with most of the wine

being exported, particularly to
French
winemakers
in
the
Languedoc for blending. When the
French ceded control in 1962,
production went into a long
decline.
Don Pascual Harriague, a French
Basque
immigrant
plants Tannatvines,
which
will
come to be considered Uruguay's
'National Grape.'
As the Chinese economy opened to
the world under Deng Xiaoping,
imports of French wine arrived,
followed by the French themselves,
working with local partners to plant
vineyards. In 30 years, as China's
middle and upper class populations
ballooned, the nation has grown
into both one of the world's largest
consumers and producers of wine.

WINE IN THE PHILIPPINES

For centuries, the Philippines has had its own tradition of brewing, fermenting and
drinking wines which are produced in the different parts of the country. Every
region has its unique and exotic line of alcoholic drinks & beverages and such
concoction had been locally developed long before
TUBA
claimed to be the oldest recorded alcoholic drink in the Philippines.
Processed and fermented from coconut sap.
Senor Antonio Pigafetta together with Ferdinand Magelan noted that the
Cebuanos or the natives of Cebu, delightfully offered them as welcome drink
this coconut toddy contained in local jars.
LAMBANOG
Processed Tuba
Tuba is further processed and distilled to come up with a potent clear liquor
called lambanog
80% proof and above
Sometimes a jug or glass jar of this liquor is added with raisins or some other
ingredients and buried under the ground or under a running water in the

river to come up with a much higher percentage of alcohol with a more

distinct sweet taste.
Tuba is produced in provinces where coconut is largely produced in Quezon
and Laguna
PRODUCTION PROCESS
This kind of wine is basically made by soaking raw glutinous rice in hot
water for I hour.
Drain and steam for 25 minutes and then spread in a tray to let it cool for
2 hours.
The yeast and rice is then combined by hand until blended
The mixture is then transferred in a container covered tightly with a lid
and stored in a dry place and allow to ferment for 1 month.
Separate the liquid from the remaining rice mixture.
The liquid is tapoy or rice wine and the residual is rice mash.

TAPUY
Cordilleras claim that their Tapuy or Rice wine has also been existence long
before Spanish Colonizers arrived in the country.
Made from a nearly cooked red mountain rice
PRODUCTION PROCESS

the residual is rice mash. This kind of wine is basically made by soaking
raw glutinous rice in hot water for I hour.
Drain and steam for 25 minutes and then spread in a tray to let it cool for
2 hours.
The yeast and rice is then combined by hand until blended
The mixture is then transferred in a container covered tightly with a lid
and stored in a dry place and allow to ferment for 1 month.
Separate the liquid from the remaining rice mixture.
The liquid is tapoy or rice wine

BASI
In the Ilocos Region the declaration of Wine Monopoly by the Spanish
government during the Spanish era literally disturbed and deprived the
native producers of a district wine called basi.
Brewed and fermented from sugar cane, a tall jointed, maizelike grass,
together with glutinous rice and some botanical ingredients.
This wine is brewed, fermented and aged for at least a year in glazed
earthen clay jars called the Burnay.

 had been a Lucrative industry of the locale long before the coming of the
Spaniards.
Records would reveal that the natives or the Ilocanos would flocks in the
place of Ciudad Fernandina, now known as the town of Vigan, to do export
through the Galleon Trade where the wines are brought to Europe via
Acapulco, Mexico.

It was sometime in the year 1807 that the so-called Basi Revoltalso known
as the Ambaristo Revolt which is named after its leader, took place in Ilocos,

Don Robertos Winery

-

The first Mango Wine in the world

-A pioneer among the new breed of Filipino wine

makers the Wine maker of the Don Robertos
Winery who invented a recipe employing a new
process and technology in fruit wine making
inspired by a secret fruit wine recipe which was
handed down through generations by the Belgian
founders of a religious order f-nuns in Baguio City

from the finest Mango-producing country of the

world, the Philippines, comes the exotic, exquisite,
smooth with the fine taste and the first of its kind

-The Province of Cavite is now known as the coffee capital of the Philippines
with nine (9) coffee-producing towns. Excelsa coffee varieties are the most
commonly grown in these towns.

Don Robertos brewed Coffee Wine is the first brewed

Coffee Wine in the World

Don Ramon Bignay Wine

-

a tropical sweet wine, from Naga Camarines Sur.

Bignay or Antidesma bunius is a sour edible fruit but
often neglected because of its small size.

The fruits come in bunches like grapes but this bignay

has the size of a toy pellet gun bullet. The seeds are
big in proportion to fruit size.

Other Wines in the Philippines and Its Origin

The abundance of Cashew in the Province of Palawan paved the way to processing
and fermenting such into a unique Cashew Wine.

Likewise, the abundance of tomatoes in the Province of Cagayan de Oro in

Mindanao led them to produce Tomato Wine
With the abundance of strawberries and cherries in the Province of Benguet,
particularly in Trinidad Valley and Baguio City, the natives had come up with their
popular Strawberry Wine, and Cherry Wine.
In a quiet convent of a Belgian founded congregation of nuns who promote
organically guavas and pomelos are fermented into Guava Wine and Pomelo Wine.
The Ilocos Region have their own fruit wine called Duhat Wine, which is extracted
from duhat fruit.
Pineapple Wineand Banana Winesare also produced in some other places in the
Philippines
Filipinos likewise produce wines, spirits and liquors from other agricultural sources.
They Ybanag of Cagayan processed and fermented cereal like grains of corn to
come up with a corn spirit which they callLayaw.

WINE SAFETY & ITS QUALITY CONTROL

Its ancient news that wine is a global phenomenon. Wine has flowed across many
seas since it was first produced 8,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence suggests
that the earliest known production of wine, made by fermenting grapes, occurred
about 6,000 BC in the area now known as the country Georgia.
Cut to the present. Total 2012 wine production worldwide was a whopping 6.56
billion gallons, according to the Demeter Groups State of the Wine Industry 2013.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, considering 2011
production, the top wine producing countries based on volume, are: 1. France, 2.
Italy, 3. Spain, 4. U.S., 5. China, 6. Argentina, 7. Australia, 8. Chile, 9. South Africa,
and 10. Germany.
There are wineries operating in all 50 states. WinesVinesDATA identified 7,498
wineries in the U.S. in 2012. Fewer than half the wineries are in California,
reflecting the explosion of wineries throughout the other states. Twelve states have
more than 100 wineries, with California (3,542 wineries), Washington (670), Oregon
(544), New York (306), and Virginia (222) topping that list.
Total U.S. wine production reached 752.4 million gallons in 2012. Despite growing
winery numbers in other states, California bottles more than 88 percent of the
nations wine, 662.8 million gallons in 2012, says the Wine Institute. In 2012, U.S.
wine consumption was 2.7 gallons per person, and total U.S. consumption was 856
million gallons, a record high, reports the Wine Institute.
Another milestone of note: France consumed 742.3 million gallons of wine in 2013,
a 7 percent decline over 2012, while the U.S., by comparison, and consumed 768.7

million gallons, a 0.5 percent increase. That makes the U.S. the biggest internal
market in the world in terms of volume, according to the Paris-based Organisation
Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin, known by its initials OIV.
Based on the most current available figures, we consume more gallons of wine
than we produce in the U.S. despite the fact that U.S. wineries exported a record
$1.55 billion of wine in 2013, increasing both the volume of shipments and the
price of American wines sold overseas.
Moreover, U.S. wineries shipped 48.4 million cases of wine to foreign markets in
2013, up 7.5 percent from 2012 and the highest since 2008, according to the Wine
Institute. U.S. winery revenues increased 16.4 percent in 2013, reflecting growth in
sales of higher-priced wines. By the end of 2012, world wine consumption reached
2.663 billion 9-liter cases, according Vinexpo.
The bottom line is that 8,000 years since its humble beginnings, wine is a
deliriously popular and economically significant component of the global and U.S.
food chain. Iconic author Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) wrote wine is
bottled poetry. Without question, wine is a sensitive consumable and many factors
affect and contribute to its quality and safety.
Winery HACCP
While not currently required to have a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
(HACCP) plan, wineries have been implementing HACCP with increasing regularity,
says Randy Worobo, PhD, an associate professor in the Cornell University
Department of Food Science. Dr. Worobos work includes developing HACCP plans
for wineries.
Even under the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA), wineries likely wont be
required to have a HACCP plan, but they will have to have a documented program
in place to control biological, chemical and physical hazards, Dr. Worobo points
out.
There arent really any microbiological hazards associated with wine, Dr. Worobo
says, since the alcohol protects it from foodborne pathogens.
In fact, the undisputed father of microbiology himself, Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
stated, Wine can be considered with good reason as the most healthful and
hygenic of all beverages.
That said, wines primary potential hazards are chemical and physical.
Glass is the key potential physical hazard and control of this hazard may be listed
as a CCP in a winery HACCP plan or controlled by their prerequisite programs. Its
absolutely essential that every winery have a glass control policy complete with a
handling and breakage management program, Dr. Worobo emphasizes.
Wines noteworthy chemical hazard is sulfur dioxide (SO 2), and it might be
advisable to include labeling for this hazard as a CCP, Dr. Worobo says.

First used in winemaking in 1487 as a preservative, SO 2 currently serves an

antimicrobial agent to inhibit yeast and bacteria, and also as an antioxidant to
safeguard wines fruit integrity and protect it against browning.
Virtually all commercial wines have sulfites and a wine HACCP program should
definitely have a sulfite management program, Dr. Worobo advises. To safeguard
consumers who may be allergic to sulfites, 350 ppm is the maximum total allowed
in the US 27 CFR 4.22(b)(1) for finished product, and wineries need a way to make
sure they do not exceed that level.
Normally, allergens in wine are controlled under a sanitation standard operating
procedure (SSOP). Mycotoxins, particularly ochratoxin A, can be an issue in
winemaking, depending on climatic conditions. Thus, wineries may want to
identify mycotoxins as a chemical hazard, Dr. Worobo says. If the risk for this
hazard is great, a CCP to sort the grapes to remove any moldy grapes is
advisable.
Dr. Worobo mentions that another chemical hazard a winery might want to address
is lysozyme, an enzyme that is extracted from the egg white of hens, which is an
allergen and sometimes used as a clarifying agent. Lysozyme can be used in
winemaking to prevent microbial spoilage by gram positive bacteria, delay
malolactic fermentation (MLF) (the process in winemaking in which tart-tasting
malic acid, naturally present in grape must (i.e. young wine), is converted to
softer-tasting lactic acid), or delay SO 2 additions after MLF is complete. Its
important that any wine containing lysozome be labeled as such, Dr. Worobo says.
In general, HACCP plans are about the same for any type of alcoholic wines, but
winemakers must evaluate the hazards for every type of wine they are making. If
you are using a fruit other than grapes, you may have other unique hazards, Dr.
Worobo explains. Two examples are cherries and peaches whose pits contain
cyanide. The pits will be filtered out during the winemaking process, but the
cyanide will leach into the wine with the macerated fruit, which is then extracted
as juice.
The most important thing is for a winery to identify the most severe and likely
hazards, and if a winemaker is calling a hazard a CCP, they must control and
monitor it, Dr. Worobo emphasizes. Dont dilute the HACCP plan with too many
CCPs, because then you will miss the most important points and end up with
hazards in the finished product, he advises. If hazards can be prevented by
strong prerequisite programs, its best to do that, rather than controlling them with
CCPs.
What about non-alcoholic wine?
Non-alcoholic wine does have biological pathogens, so a HACCP plan to cover
alcoholic wine may not sufficiently cover all of the issues of dealcoholized wines,
Dr. Worobo says. Any winery making both alcoholic and non-alcoholic wines needs
to have two separate HACCP plans. When making non-alcoholic wine, it is

important to have processes in place to make sure pathogens dont get into the
product once the alcohol is removed. That involves documented good
manufacturing practices, site-specific SSOPs for equipment and facilities, and
employee training.
Wine Safety
Wine safety hinges on raw materials safety, packaged wine safety, and wine safety
documentation, according to Glenn ODell, director of quality improvement
for Constellation Brands, U.S., Inc., which operates 14 wineries in the U.S., plus
others in Canada, Italy and New Zealand.
Raw materials safety starts with grape grower documentation of compliance with
pesticide regulations, ODell begins. For the very limited other ingredients used
in our winemaking processes, a manufacturers certificate of analysis is required
for fining agents and additives, including sulfites and allergens such as casein,
albumin, and also enzymes.
Selection of commercial pure yeast strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is
standard practice for most winemakers, ODell ads, noting that technically
speaking, pure cultures are raw materials not required to make wine.
The time-honored method for winemaking was to crush the grapes and allow the
naturally-occurring yeast present on the grape skins (and/or in the winery) to
ferment the juice into wine, ODell explains. While at the initial stages of
fermentation there are typically a large number of different organisms present, by
the end of fermentation only a very few, (all non-pathogenic) organisms can
survive in the low pH, high alcohol environment.
The aforementioned organisms will be primarily yeast, ODell says, but there are
will also likely be some bacteria present. Most are killed off very soon after
fermentation starts by the alcohol. Some, like Acetobacter, can survive postfermentation.
There is a school of winemaking thought that says that these indigenous
organisms create a desirable level of complexity that is not obtainable using pure
cultures, he relates. Ironically, these wild fermentations are typically only
encountered in high-priced wines.
Relative to packaged wine safety, Constellation employs HACCP programs to keep
glass fragments from bottles.
All of our facilities have run hazard analyses on their processes, from receiving
through distribution, ODell mentions. They have identified various low-risk
hazards and implemented controls as appropriate to each facility and process. The
only identified critical consumer hazard that is common to our HACCP plans is
broken glass.
Control comes from rinsing bottles to remove foreign materials just prior to filling,
handling all broken glass encountered during bottling, following detailed and

documented procedures, and performing random quality checks to assure glass

conformance to purchasing requirements, he explains.
Segregated storage and control of non-food grade materials are routine practices
for Constellation.
Documentation is managed through lot controls; work orders; analysis of grapes,
must wine and packaging materials; with paper trails linked by ERP (enterprise
resource planning) software, ODell says.
Wine Quality
Understanding threats to wine quality, having strategies to control those threats,
and maintaining systems to verify the threats are under control are key to any
winerys success, ODell continues.
According to ODell, the five primary threats to wine quality are light, microbial
spoilage, temperature fluctuations, unintended oxygen exposure, and time.
Exposure to light can trigger undesirable chemical reaction[s] in some wines, he
says. Some studies have shown that wines with the right precursors (thiols) can
develop off aromas after even brief exposures to sunlight.
Tetrapak, bag-in-box, and kegs provide positive light barriers, ODell points out.
Glass bottles rely on colors for light protection, he relates. Flint (clear) provides
minimal protection. Various shades of green are better, depending on the color
used. Amber is best, though it is not widely used.
Pathogens may not impact wine safety, but microbes pose a threat to quality.
Microbial activity is required to make wine, ODell says. Wine without the action
of microbes is juice. Some bacteria strains are intentionally encouraged or added
to reduce acidity and add complexity. It can be said that wineries are stews of
microbial activity. So these beneficial organisms, and a few other non-pathogens,
become potential sources of spoilage later in the process.
The five primary threats to wine quality are light, microbial spoilage, temperature
fluctuations, unintended oxygen exposure, and time.
Constellation controls microbial spoilage by several means, including, but not
limited to, in osculating with pure cultures; using non-chlorine gas sanitizing agents
on tanks, grape and wine processing equipment, pipelines, hoses and fittings;
appropriate use of SO2; hot water/steam sanitation of packaging lines following
chemical cleaning in place; and membrane filtration inline to packaging.
To scrutinize microbial control, we monitor CCPs, especially by evaluating
sanitized surfaces using ATP [adenosine triphosphate]-sensitive swabs, ODell
mentions. We also conduct sanitation audits of cellars and packaging facilities,
and we plate for viable organisms in finished goods.
While some oxygen exposure is a necessary part of wine development, too much
oxygen exposure limits shelf life, ODell says. Closures, including various types of

corks and screw caps, all offer benefits and downsides to maintaining seals on
bottles, which impact oxygen exposure.
The optimum temperature for wine storage is generally 40 degrees to 60 degrees
Fahrenheit. Wine does develop with age, ODell elaborates. At lower
temperatures it develops more slowly. At extremely low temperatures it can freeze.
At higher but moderate temperatures, it ages more quickly. At very high
temperatures, 90 degrees to 100 degrees Fahrenheit-plus, wine can cook quickly.
Contrary to popular belief, all wines do not get better with age, ODell points out.
Old vintages are always rarer, but not always better, he says. Some wines do
improve with age, for a while. Eventually, the combination of oxygen, temperature
and time will limit the useful life of virtually all wine. The best we can do is monitor
wine quality, assign an estimated shelf life to all lots and begin monitoring when
lots in inventory are at risk of approaching their expected shelf life.
Wine Regulations
Wine is regulated by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB), under
the U.S. Department of the Treasury.
The goals of the TTB are to collect taxes and protect consumers, says Brent Trela,
PhD, an enology specialist who operates Alert Aesthetics, a private consulting firm
that serves the international wine industry.
Specifically, TTBs existing authority under the Federal Alcohol Administration Acts
[27 U.S.C. 201 et seq.] Section 205 (e) is to provide the consumer with adequate
information as to the identity and quality of the products.
To that end, TTB regulates labels, additives, processing methods, etc. (It is
interesting to note, Dr. Trela says, that while TTB regulates the labeling of alcohol
beverages, it is FDAs responsibility to evaluate the safety of ingredients added to
alcohol beverages, but the TTB still regulates what ingredients are permitted to be
added.)
States can make more restrictive wine regulations, Dr. Trela relates. For
example, California does not allow chaptalization, which is the process of adding
sugar to unfermented grape must in order to increase the alcohol content after
fermentation. The TTB does allow chaptalization under specific conditions.
TTB also works to level the playing field to facilitate U.S. export, import, and
domestic trade in alcohol, Dr. Trela adds. Overseas, TTB serves the U.S. as a
liaison among foreign governments, industry and the public in support of
worldwide trade, he explains.
Aside from TTB, the U.S. participates in the World Wine Trade Group (WWTG), an
informal grouping of industry representatives from wine-producing countries
around the world.

SO2 serves as an antimicrobial agent to inhibit yeast and bacteria, and also as an
antioxidant to safeguard wines fruit integrity and protect it against browning.
The WWTGs vision is a successful, competitive and growing global wine industry,
characterized by social responsibility, sustainability and focus on consumer
interests, operating in a climate free of trade-distorting factors.
As of now, FDA nutrition labeling is not mandatory for wine, and neither is allergen
labeling.
Even though beverage alcohol is not within the jurisdiction of the FDA, TTB, in
cooperation with the FDA, issues its own allergen labeling requirements, Dr. Trela
says. The voluntary interim rules require specific information and wording to be
included if a producer, bottler, or importer of any alcoholic beverage discloses
information. Any allergen declaration must state Contains followed by the
common name for the major food allergen.
The TTB published an interim rule, T.D. TTB-53, 71 FR 42260, effective on July 26,
2006, which sets forth standards for optional allergen labeling statements. This is
still the official statement from the TTB, Dr. Trela points out. There has been no
date offered for implementation, other than indications that ultimately there will be
mandatory allergen disclosure requirements in the U.S. for all alcoholic
beverages.
FSMA will affect wine production, Dr. Trela notes. Actually, it already has. During
fiscal years 2009-2012, about 393 FSMA winery inspections were conducted
nationwide.
While the FDA has always had inspection authority over wineries, many of the
2011 FSMA provisions do not apply to wineries, Dr. Trela says. However, there are
instances where they may be invoked and compliance with the entire Act is
required through Section 116: a) distribute an unpackaged or repackaged (e.g.
potentially exposed to direct human contact), non-alcohol food item; or b) sell
prepackaged food in an amount greater than 5 percent of the overall facility sales.
The FDA sought public comment on the rules and potential impacts of the FSMA on
wineries that concluded in November 2013. Further regulations or changes to the
regulations are expected to follow.
FSMA states that all food facilities must be inspected within seven years and at
least once every five years after that.
The FDA may contract state agencies to conduct winery inspections, Dr. Trela
says. The FSMA directs the FDA, under the federal Bioterrorism Act, to inspect
every registered food facility, including wineries, in the U.S. by 2018. Due to the
recognized relatively low food safety risk of wines, the FDA may scrutinize wineries
less than most other food facilities. Subsequent inspection frequency may likely be
based on risk assessments and facility compliance history.
Wine Labeling: Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau Requirements

According to 27 CFR 4.62, the mandatory information for wine labels includes:

Front Label: Brand name, class and/or type, alcohol statement (as a % by
Vol., or wineries can use Table Wine or Light Wine if alcohol content is 7%
to 14%); appellation of origin, as required in various cases (appellation is
mandatory if type, vintage date, or the term estate is used).

Anywhere on the bottle must be the government warning, sulfites statement,

bottling statement (name and address of the bottling winery, preceded by
certain words such as bottled by, vinted, cellared, etc.), and net contents.

Class: grape, table, light, white, red, pink, amber, rose, or

dessert followed by the word wine may be used.

Type: 75% grape variety, such as merlot. (Or various generic, semi-generic,
or non-generic information of geographic significance).

Multiple varietals can be a type designation, but require listing on the label in
order of highest to lowest corresponding concentrations, and the total must
equal 100%.

Formula wines are wines that require formula approval, such as agricultural
wine (rhubarb), other than standard wine (mixing wine from different
classes), flavored wine, non-beverage wine, and high fermentation wine.

U.S. wine labels do not have to specify the variety. They can have fanciful
names and be blends, such as meritage. If the wine label has a fanciful
name, then that name cannot appear on the same line as the class/type, etc.
5 STAGES OF THE WINE MAKING PROCESS

Wine making has been around for thousands of years. It is not only an art but
also a science. Wine making is a natural process that requires little human
intervention, but each wine maker guides the process through different techniques.
In general, there are five basic components of the wine making process:
harvesting, crushing and pressing, fermentation, clarification, and aging and
bottling. Wine makers typically follow these five steps but add variations and
deviations along the way to make their wine unique.
Harvesting
Harvesting is the first step in the wine making process and an important part of
ensuring delicious wine. Grapes are the only fruit that have the necessary acids,
esters, and tannins to consistently make natural and stable wine. Tannins are
textural elements that make the wine dry and add bitterness and astringency to
the wine.
The moment the grapes are picked determines the acidity, sweetness, and flavor
of the wine. Determining when to harvest requires a touch of science along with

old fashioned tasting. The acidity and sweetness of the grapes should be in perfect
balance, but harvesting also heavily depends on the weather.
Harvesting can be done by hand or mechanically. Many wine makers prefer to
harvest by hand because mechanical harvesting can be tough on the grapes and
the vineyard. Once the grapes are taken to the winery, they are sorted into
bunches, and rotten or under ripe grapes are removed.
Crushing and Pressing
After the grapes are sorted, they are ready to be de-stemmed and crushed. For
many years, men and women did this manually by stomping the grapes with their
feet. Nowadays, most wine makers perform this mechanically. Mechanical presses
stomp or trod the grapes into what is called must. Must is simply freshly pressed
grape juice that contains the skins, seeds, and solids. Mechanical pressing has
brought tremendous sanitary gain as well as increased the longevity and quality of
the wine.
For white wine, the wine maker will quickly crush and press the grapes in order to
separate the juice from the skins, seeds, and solids. This is to prevent unwanted
color and tannins from leaching into the wine. Red wine, on the other hand, is left
in contact with the skins to acquire flavor, color, and additional tannins.
Fermentation

After crushing and pressing, fermentation comes into play. Must (or juice) can
begin fermenting naturally within 6-12 hours when aided with wild yeasts in the air.
However, many wine makers intervene and add a commercial cultured yeast to
ensure consistency and predict the end result.
Fermentation continues until all of the sugar is converted into alcohol and dry wine
is produced. To create a sweet wine, wine makers will sometimes stop the process
before all of the sugar is converted. Fermentation can take anywhere from 10 days
to one month or more.
Clarification
Once fermentation is complete, clarification begins. Clarification is the process in
which solids such as dead yeast cells, tannins, and proteins are removed. Wine is
transferred or racked into a different vessel such as an oak barrel or a stainless
steel tank. Wine can then be clarified through fining or filtration.
Fining occurs when substances are added to the wine to clarify it. For example, a
wine maker might add a substance such as clay that the unwanted particles will
adhere to. This will force them to the bottom of the tank. Filtration occurs by using
a filter to capture the larger particles in the wine. The clarified wine is then racked
into another vessel and prepared for bottling or future aging.
Aging and Bottling

Aging and bottling is the final stage of the wine making process. A wine maker has
two options: bottle the wine right away or give the wine additional aging. Further
aging can be done in the bottles, stainless steel tanks, or oak barrels. Aging the
wine in oak barrels will produce a smoother, rounder, and more vanilla flavored
wine. It also increases wines exposure to oxygen while it ages, which decreases
tannin and helps the wine reach its optimal fruitiness. Steel tanks are commonly
used for zesty white wines.
After aging, wines are bottled with either a cork or a screw cap, depending on the
wine makers preference.

Health Benefits
1) Reducing risk of depression
A team from several universities in Spain reported in the journal BMC
Medicine that drinking wine may reduce the risk of depression.
The researchers gathered data on 2,683 men and 2,822 women aged from 55 to
80 years over a seven-year period. The participants had to complete a food
frequency questionnaire every year, which included details on their alcohol
consumption as well as their mental health.
The authors found that men and women who drank two to seven glasses of wine
per week were less likely to be diagnosed with depression.
Even after taking into account lifestyle factors which could influence their findings,
the significantly lower risk of developing depression still stood.
2) Preventing colon cancer
Scientists from the University of Leicester, UK, reported at the 2nd International
Scientific Conference on Resveratrol and Health that regular, moderate red wine
consumption can reduce the rate of bowel tumors by approximately 50%.
3) Anti-aging
Monks believed wine slowed the aging process,
today scientists do too
Researchers from Harvard Medical School reported that red wine has anti-aging
properties.
Specifically, resveratrol was the compound found to have the beneficial effect. The
resveratrol in wine comes from the skins of red grapes. Blueberries, cranberries
and nuts are also sources of resveratrol.
Head investigator, David Sinclair said "Resveratrol improves the health of mice on
a high-fat diet and increases life span."

Their findings, which were published in the journal Cell Metabolismoffer, was the
first compelling proof of the definite link between the anti-aging properties of
resveratrol and the SIRT1 gene.
Wine's anti-aging properties have been talked about for over one thousand years.
Monasteries throughout Europe were convinced that their monks' longer lifespans,
compared to the rest of the population, was partly due to their moderate, regular
consumption of wine.
A study carried out at the University of London found that procyanidins,
compounds commonly found in red wine, keep the blood vessels healthy and are
one of the factors that contribute towards longer life spans enjoyed by the people
in Sardinia and the southwest of France. The researchers also found that red wine
made in the traditional way has much higher levels of procyanidins than other
wines.
4) Preventing breast cancer
Regular consumption of most alcoholic drinks increases the risk of breast cancer.
However, red wine intake has the opposite effect, researchers from Cedars-Sinai
Medical Center in Los Angeles found.
In the Journal of Women's Health, the scientists explained that chemicals in the
skins and seeds of red grapes reduce estrogen levels while raising testosterone in
premenopausal women - which results in a lower risk of developing breast cancer.
The authors emphasized that it is not just the red wine that has the beneficial
compounds, but its raw material - red grape. They suggested that when women
are choosing an alcoholic drink to consume, they should consider red wine. They
reiterated that they were not encouraging wine over grapes.
The study surprised many researchers. Most studies point to a higher risk of breast
cancer from consuming alcoholic drinks, because alcohol raises a woman's
estrogen levels, which in turn encourage the growth of cancer cells.
Study co-author, Dr. Chrisandra Shufelt, MD, said: "If you were to have a glass of
wine with dinner, you may want to consider a glass of red. Switching may shift
your risk."
5) Preventing dementia
A team from Loyola University Medical Center center found that moderate red wine
intake can reduce the risk of developing dementia.
In this study, the researchers gathered and analyzed data from academic papers
on red wine since 1977. The studies, which spanned 19 nations, showed a
statistically significantly lower risk of dementia among regular, moderate red wine
drinkers in 14 countries.

The investigators explained that resveratrol reduces the stickiness of blood

platelets, which helps keep the blood vessels open and flexible. This helps
maintain a good blood supply to the brain.
Both white and red wines contain resveratrol, but red wine has much more. The
skin of red grapes has very high levels of resveratrol. During the manufacturing
process of red wine there is prolonged contact with grape skins.
Lead investigator, Professor Edward J. Neafsey, said "We don't recommend that
nondrinkers start drinking. But moderate drinking, if it is truly moderate, can be
beneficial."
Neafsey and colleagues wrote in The Journal of Neuropsychiatric Disease and
Treatment that moderate red wine drinkers had a 23% lower risk of developing
dementia compared to people who rarely or never consumed the alcoholic
beverage.
6) Protecting from severe sunburn
Wine and grape derivatives can help reduce the damaging effects of UV
(ultraviolet) light, scientists from the University of Barcelona in Spain reported
in The Journal of Agricultural Food and Chemistry.
The authors explained that when UV rays make contact with human skin, they
activate reactive oxygen species (ROS), which oxidize fats, DNA and other large
molecules, which in turn stimulate other enzymes that harm skin cells. Flavonoids,
found in wine and grapes, inhibit the formation of the ROS in skin cells that are
exposed to sunlight.
7) Preventing blinding diseases
Red wine can stop the out-of-control blood vessel growth in the eye that causes
blindness, researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis
reported in the American Journal of Pathology.
Diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration, which is the leading
cause of blindness among Americans aged 50+ years, are caused by an
overgrowth of blood vessels (angiogenesis) in the eye.
The researchers explained that resveratrol is the compound in wine that protects
vision. Grapes, blueberries, peanuts and some other plants are rich in resveratrol.
8) Damage after stroke
Red wine may protect the brain from stroke damage, researchers at Johns Hopkins
University School of Medicine wrote in the journal Experimental Neurology.
Professor Sylvain Dor believes that resveratrol in red wine raises levels of heme
oxygenase, an enzyme known to protect nerve cells in the brain from damage.
When somebody suffers a stroke, the brain is ready to protect itself because of
higher enzyme levels.

Dor added that nobody yet knows whether it is just the resveratrol that has the
health benefits, or it is the alcohol in the wine which may be needed to
concentrate the levels of the compound.
9) Improving lung function and preventing lung cancer
Dutch scientists reported on a study that looked at the effects of resveratrol, red
wine, and white wine on lung function.
They found that:

Pure resveratrol was good for lung function

White wine was also good for lung function

Red wine made no difference

A reviewer of the study wrote "Resveratrol may well be just the bystander of
something else present in wine. The beneficial effects on lung function are
probably related to many compounds present in wine, and not just resveratrol."
According to a number of scientific studies, moderate wine drinkers appear to
enjoy better lung function, the authors added.
In another study, a team from Kaiser Permanente wrote in the journal Cancer
Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention that red wine consumption may reduce
lung cancer risk. Chun Chao, Ph.D., said "An antioxidant component in red wine
may be protective of lung cancer, particularly among smokers."
10) Raising levels of omega-3 fatty acids
Wine is better than other alcoholic drinks in raising levels of omega-3 fatty acids in
plasma and red blood cells, according to the IMMIDIET study involving European
researchers from various countries.
The study, published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, examined 1,604
adults from London in England, Abruzzo in Italy, and Limburg in Belgium. They all
underwent a comprehensive medical examination with a primary care physician
(general practitioner) and also completed an annual food frequency questionnaire
which included details of their dietary and drinking habits.
They found that regular, moderate wine drinkers had higher blood levels of omega3 fatty acids, which are usually derived from eating fish. We know that omega-3
fatty acids protect against coronary heart disease.
The scientists found that drinking wine acts like a trigger, boosting levels of
omega-3 fatty acids in the body.
11) Preventing liver disease
A study carried out at the UC San Diego School of Medicine concluded that
modest wine consumption reduced the risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by

half compared to people who never drank wine. Their finding challenged
conventional thinking regarding alcohol consumption and liver health.
The researchers reported in the journal Hepatology that regular, modest beer or
liquor drinkers had more than four times the risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
compared to the wine drinkers.
12) Protecting from prostate Cancer
A study published in the June 2007 issue of Harvard Men's Health Watch reported
that male moderate red wine drinkers were 52% as likely to be diagnosed with
prostate cancer as men who never drank red wine.
They defined moderate drinking as an average of four to seven glasses of red wine
per week.
Initially, the Seattle researchers looked at general alcohol consumption and found
no link to prostate cancer risk. However, when they went one step further and
looked at different alcoholic beverages, they identified a clear association between
red wine drinking and lower prostate cancer risk.
Even extremely moderate red wine consumption (one glass per week) reduced
men's risk of prostate cancer by 6%, the authors informed.
13) Preventing type 2 diabetes
In an animal experiment, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences discovered
that a chemical found in red wine and the skin of red grapes - resveratrol improved sensitivity to insulin. Insulin resistance is the most important critical
factor contributing to type 2 diabetes risk.
The researchers reported in the journal Cell Metabolism that resveratrol also
increased levels of the enzyme SIRT1, which was found to improve insulin
sensitivity in mice.
Study leader, Qiwei Zhai said that red wine may have some benefits for insulin
sensitivity, but this needs to be confirmed in further studies.
What is resveratrol?
Resveratrol is a compound found in some plants. Plants produce resveratrol to fight
off bacteria and fungi. Resveratrol also protects plants from ultraviolet irradiation.
Red wine contains more resveratrol than white wine because it is fermented with
the skins (white wine is not). Most of the resveratrol in grapes is in the seeds and
skin.
The following plants and drinks are rich in resveratrol

Red wine
Grapes
Blueberries

Raspberries
Bilberries
Peanuts

The health benefits linked to moderate wine consumption are mostly due to the
beverage's resveratrol content.

Health Risks
While wine consumption may appear to be good for the health, drinking too much
can lead to a higher risk of:

depression

stroke

mental health
problems

hypertension

fatty liver

alcoholic hepatiti
s

cirrhosis

cardiomyopathy

several cancers

arrhythmias

pancreatitis