UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE & SPORT

SCHOOL OF NATURAL & APPLIED SCIENCES

LABORATORY MANUAL
FOR

ENGINEERING PHYSICS 1 (PHS1005)

Prepared & Reviewed

by:
H. SIMPSON & J. BENNETT
SEMESTER 1, 2011

CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction ......................................................................................................2
Graphical methods in Physics...........................................................................4
Graph problems.................................................................................................9

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
EXPT. NO.:

TITLE

1.

The Distribution of Errors in Physical Measurements....................12

2.

Graph Matching...............................................................................14

3.

Acceleration due to Gravity.............................................................17

4.

Back and forth Motion.....................................................................20

5.

Simple Harmonic Motion.................................................................25

6.

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion................................................27

7.

Clement and Desormes....................................................................32

8.

Effect of air resistance on simple pendulum....................................33

9.

Thermal Conductivity of Copper.....................................................35

10.

Diffraction Grating...........................................................................36

11.

Youngs Modulus..............................................................................39

APPENDIX: Sample Best-Fit Straight Graph................................................41

INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL WORK IN PHYSICS
Much of Physics is experimental so it is important to know how to perform experiments
properly; with this in mind the year one practical physics course has been designed to allow
students to:
(i)

Perform experiments accurately and record results in a suitable manner.

(ii)

Use measuring instruments properly.

(iii)

Analyze and evaluate results to arrive at sound scientific conclusions.

(iv)

Start with a given law or theory and design and conduct experiments based on these
laws and theories.

(v)

Reinforce material covered in lectures.

(vi)

Develop the correct attitude, necessary for scientific work.

PREPARATION FOR LAB CLASS

The student is required to familiarize him or herself with the lab schedule and to read the
experiment from the lab manual before entering the lab. It will also be important to read the
relevant sections of the text along with any other literature on the experiment. This enables the
student to be completely familiar with the experiment and allows very smooth operation of the
lab. There will be no time allowed during the session to read the experiment. Failure to conduct
adequate preparation often leads to poor grades.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR PRACTICAL WORK

(i)

Read all instructions carefully and plan your work before doing anything. Ask for
help if you are in any doubt.

(ii)

Plan the number and spread of readings that you are going to take. Record your
results in a prepared table as you take them to the number of significant figures the
accuracy justifies and with the units.

(iii)

Take more than one measurement of each observation if time permits.

(iv)

Do not attempt to set your readings to particular numbers, adjust the variable and then
read its value

(v)

Take at least eight readings over a wide range as possible.

(vi)

Do not dismantle the apparatus until you are certain you no longer need to use it,
which may mean first plotting a graph or making calculations to ensure all your
measurements are sensible.

WRITING EXPERIMENTS
Writing up is another technique to be learned along with the handling of apparatus. A
systematic and tidy approach is helpful. One report per group is required. If the student designs
the experiment the theory and procedure must be included. The following is required:
(i)

The name of the experiment and the date.

2

(ii)

Diagrams of apparatus (where necessary) and circuits.

(iii)

Your readings should be neatly tabulated, as they are taken. If you make a mistake, neatly
cross out the table and make a new one. Do not record results on scraps paper.

(iv)

Calculations

(v)

Graphs

(vi)

Answer to questions

(vii)

Final results and deductions

HANDING IN OF LAB REPORTS

Reports will be collected in the lab prior to the beginning of the next lab session. A zero grade will
be awarded for cheating. Students must not bring into the lab any practical report written up by any
other student or results obtained from past practical reports.
GENERAL BEHAVIOUR
(i)

Radios tapes and CD players are not allowed in the laboratory

(ii)

All cellular phones must be turned off during the lab session.

(iii)

Students must not touch any equipment other than that involved in the experiment
that they are doing.

(iv)

All possible care must be taken with apparatus. A student will be called upon to pay for
anything broken as a result of carelessness, or mislaid during the period he/she is doing
the experiment. The apparatus is checked after each class and students will be held
responsible for anything found missing or broken.

SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS!
(i)

Never leave a Bunsen burner unattended with a flame. Someone may not see it
and get badly burned. Turn the Bunsen off, or on to a yellow flame
(ii) Fire: In case of fire, turn off the gas immediately and leave the lab.

AT THE END OF THE EXPERIMENT

Students should complete, taking results 15 minutes before the official end of the session. Before
leaving, students should:
i.

Check that nothing is missing or you may be held responsible. Report any missing or
malfunctioning apparatus immediately.

ii.

Arrange all equipment tidily on the bench.

iii.

Make sure results are signed. No report without signed results will be graded.

ATTENDANCE
i.

Prompt attendance at the specified hour is required. Each student is required to sign an
attendance register on entering the lab. No student is allowed to sign for another.
Students must remain until the end of the period unless they have written up the experiment
completely and to the satisfaction of the lecturer.

ii.

No student will be allowed to remain in the laboratory beyond the specified time for any
reason whatsoever.

iii.

Absence is excused only on medical grounds. In this case the student should obtain a
medical certificate to be shown to the lecturer in charge of the laboratory. Otherwise zero
marks will be awarded for the missed experiment.

iv.

The laboratory will not be open and experiments may not be performed outside of the
scheduled class hours.

ERRORS AND ORDER OF ACCURACY

The errors in a particular experiment may be due to the observer, or to the instrument used or to a
combination of both. They may also be present by the very nature of the experiment; for example,
the heat lost by cooling in an experiment causes an error in the final temperature obtained. Special
techniques (precautions) can minimize or eliminate errors. An uncertainty or error in an experiment
maybe classified as follows:
i.

Mistakes: These can be avoided by careful experimentation and occurs in reading

Instruments counting events, writing results or doing calculations.

ii.

Systematic Errors: This type of error affects a set of reading in the same manner. It may
be due to experimental technique or faulty apparatus.

iii.

Random Errors: If several measurements of a quantity are made as precise as possible

each reading will differ haphazardly from each other. This is called a random error and
arises because
each reading is limited by uncontrollable factors, so that no two
measurements are ever carried out in exactly the same way. As a result of errors, an
estimate of its precision should be included whenever a result is
presented.
Although approximate, without such an estimate the result is meaningless, since the reader
has no idea of its reliability.

GRAPHICAL METHODS IN PHYSICS:

The presentation of experimental results or theories in the form of a graph has two main
advantages:
(i)
(ii)

the variation of one quantity with another may be seen easily, and
the average value of a constant may be determined from the graph.

Before looking at graphs in detail you should realize that certain guidelines should be followed
when plotting graphs.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

The axes should be labeled with both the quantity and units
The graph should be given a title.
It should fill the space available on the graph paper or page as far as possible
Suitable scales should be chosen something like 5 squares to 10 units, not 7 to
3!
The points should be plotted accurately and clearly.
The best fit line to the points should be drawn clearly but finely.

Probably the most useful form of graph is one in the form of a straight line and so we will begin
by considering this type.
y = mx + c (Eqn.1)
Equation 1 is the general equation for a straight line, where y and x are variables and m and c are
constants. A general example of the graph produced by such an equation is shown in figure 1.
You should notice the following points:
(a)
(b)

When x = 0 the intercept on the y-axis is c.

When y = 0 the intercept on the x-axis is clm.
4

(c)

The slope of the line (the change in y with x (dy/dx) is m.

y

Fig. 1 1
Figure
There are of course a large number of graphs but we will consider just a few other basic types.
The equations and the relevant graphs are shown below.
y = mx2 + c (Eqn. 2)
This is a basic quadratic; if c = 0 the graph passes through the origin. An example of this would
be the variation of the kinetic energy of a body with its velocity.
y

c
x

Figure
Fig. 22

(Eqn. 3)

This shows an exponential increase in y with respect to x; k is a constant. An example of this

would be the increase in the pressure of air with depth.

k
x

Fig. 3
Figure 3

(Eqn. 4)

This shows the exponential decrease of y with respect to x. Once again k is a constant. This
equation applies to radioactive decay the discharge of a capacitor and many other physical
phenomena.

x
FigureFig.
4 4

It is much more useful to plot the results of an experiment in the form of a straight line and so a
means has to be found by which the equations above can be altered to give a linear relation
between function of y and a function of x. This is quite simply done:

Reducing Quadratic and exponential to Linear form

For y = mx2 + c (Eqn. 2) : plot y against x2 (Fig. 5). The slope is m and the intercept is c.

x2
Figure 5

Fig. 5

For y = ke (Eqn. 3): plot y against e x (Fig. 6). The slope is k and the intercept is zero.

ex

Figure 6

Fig. 6
For y

= ke- x (Eqn. 4): plot y against e - x (Fig. 7). The slope is k and the intercept is zero.

Fig. 7
For y

= ke- x: plot y against e - x (Fig. 7). The slope is k and the intercept is zero.

For

(Eqn. 5)

Here c and k are constants. Taking logs (ln) gives:

() = () +
Plotting ln(y) against x gives a straight line with slope c and intercept on the y axis of ln(k).

Fig. 9
Notice that if we have an exponential decrease, c is negative. An alternative method is to take
logs of both sides of the equation; this is also useful when one is attempting to derive an
unknown equation form a set of experimental results. We will consider first two versions where
the equation is known and then one where it is not.
Consider

= (. )

Taking logs gives:

7

log y = log k + 2 log x

Plotting log y against log x (fig. 10 ) will give a straight line of slope 2, with intercept on the log
y axis of log k.
log y

gradient = 2

log k

log x

Fig. 10

Figure 9

Consider

(Eqn. 7)

Here a and b are constants but both are unknowns. Once again take logs of both sides
log y = log a + b log x
Plotting log y against log x will give a straight line of slope b and intercept on the y-axis of log a.
Hence both a and b may be found and the form of the equation determined since the values
will be known.

log y

gradient = b

log a

log x

Figure 10
Fig. 11

GRAPH P ROBLEMS
1.

In a test on a piece of wire values of load L, and extension Y were found. (Some of the values
are missing).

L/Kg
Y/mm

3.1

0.950

1.28

10

13

15

18

2.27

2.95

3.85

The equation connecting Y and L is of the type Y = aL + b.

Find graphically
(i)
the values of a and b and
(ii)
the missing values in the table.
(iii)
The errors in a and b.
2.

The quantity of the common salt (w/ grams) which would dissolve in a fixed volume of water
at temperature t/C given in the table below.

W/g

27

29

30

31

33

35

37

t/C

10

20

25

30

40

50

60

It is known that
W = mt + c.
Find graphically the:
(i)
values of m ad c.
(ii)
errors in m and c.
3.

In a heat transmission experiment the following results were obtained for the temperature
difference T and the time t.

T/K

12.6

16.1

22.0

31.6

39.8

56.3

63.2

t/s

1.00

1.76

4.27

10.2

17.9

40.0

56.2

It is known that the relationship between T and t is of form

=
Determine graphically the:
(i)
values of A ad
(ii)
errors in A and

4.

The following table gives the relationship between barometer readings and altitude
Barometer readings /mm
Altitude /m

76.2

63.5

52.1

43.2

36.8

30.5

1500

3000

4500

6000

7500

Represent the readings graphically and from your graph suggest a possible relationship
between barometer reading and altitude.

5.

The following set of results was obtained from an experiment to determine the acceleration
due to gravity g using a simple pendulum bob swinging from a rigid support. The length of
the string is represented by l and is measured in metres, t represents the time for 30
oscillations in seconds.

l /cm

10

14

18

22

26

30

34

38

42

46

t/s

19.5

24.0

27.6

29.3

30.1

30.6

36.0

37.5

38.9

42.8

It is known that the relation between (T) the periodic time and (l) the length of the string
is of the form:

= 2
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

(1)

Plot a suitable log graph from which g can be calculated.

Calculate the value of g.
Determine the relative error in g.
What is t when l = 20 cm from your graph.
What is l when t = 35 s.

6. Sketch the graphs that would be obtained by plotting y against x for each of the following
equations (k, c and m are constants):
(a)

y = kx + m

(b)

mx = k y

(c)

ky = c mx

(d)

xy = c

(e)

y = x2 k

(f)

y = mex

(g)

y = ke-mx

(h)

yx2 = k

For all linear graphs state the gradient . If the graph is not linear state which two
variables must be plotted on the two axes to obtain a straight-line graph?
7. The following equation is suggested for the variation of two quantities x and t:

=
Where a and b are constants. Use the data below to plot a suitable linear graph and hence
determine the values of a and b and the errors in a and b.

F/N

1.86

2.45

3.16

4.07

5.37

6.61

8.71

t/s

1.60

2.50

4.00

6.40

10.0

15.9

25.1

10

8.

The following set of data was obtained from a radio-active decay experiment

6630

3650

2000

1000

600

330

165

90

50

30

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

N is the number of counts per second and t is the time in seconds. The equation for such
decay is:

= 0
Where N0 and N represent the initial activity and the activity after a time t, and k is a
constant
Plot a suitable graph hence determine the time taken for the activity of the source to fall
to half its original value (the half-life of the source). Also determine the value of the
constant k.
9.

A 120 F capacitor is charged and then allowed to discharge through a large resistor (R)
and the voltage (V) across it is recorded every five seconds. The following set of results
was obtained.

Time/s

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Voltage/V

9.0

6.9

5.0

3.7

2.6

2.0

1.4

1.05

0.8

The voltage across a capacitor during discharge is given by the equation:

V = V0e-(t/RC)
Where V0 is the initial voltage at a time t = O and C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
Plot a graph of the voltage against time and use it to find the time for the voltage to
decrease to 0.367 V0 (the time constant (T) for the circuit). Since T = 1/RC, determine
the resistance of the resistor (R).
Also plot a graph of 1n V against t and determine the value of R from this graph.
Compare your two values of R.
10.

The following readings are taken for the thickness of a single sheet paper, using a
micrometer accurate to 0.01mm. Calculate the mean value and the maximum error in
your answer.

Reading

Thickness/mm 0.11 0.13

11.

3
0.12

0.11

0.10

0.11

0.09

0.11

It has been suggested that the variation of refractive index (n) with wavelength ( ) is
given by n A

/(m)
n

, where A and B are constants for a given material.

4.52 10 -7
1.633

5.10 10 -7
1.630

5.45 10 -7
1.627

6.06 10 -7
1.625

6.48 10 -7
1.623

(a) Plot a suitable straight-line graph to determine the constants A and B.

(b) Determine n when = 6.25 10 -7 m.
(c) Determine when n = 1.58 .

11

EXPT.1 : THE DISTRIBUTION OF ERRORS IN PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS

Purpose: To examine the distribution of measurements of the eye level

Introduction
A measurement of a physical quantity is never perfectly exact but is subject to some
uncertainty as to how close it is to the true value. This uncertainty is commonly called
error and a simple classification is as follows:a) Mistakes:
These can occur in doing calculations, reading instruments, counting
events, or writing results. By careful experimentation they can usually be avoided.
b) Systematic Errors: These affect each member of a set of readings in a similar way.
These errors are usually due to faulty apparatus or poor experimental technique. If for
example, a slow running clock is used to measure time intervals, it will turn out that the
readings will be systematically low.
c) Random Errors: If several independent measurements of one quantity are made with all
possible precision, individual readings will be found to differ from one another in a
seemingly haphazard manner. This is called random error. Such errors arise because
even our most precise measurements are limited by uncontrolled factors so that no two
measurements are ever carried out in exactly the same way.
Because of errors we include an estimate of precision whenever we quote a result. The estimate
may be only approximate but without it the result is meaningless, for the reader has no idea of its
reliability; i.e. the range within which the true value probably lies. [For example, 2 3 is
meaningless while 200 3 is a good result, since percentage deviation or error is 150% in the
first case and 1.5% in the second. (Note that in both of these cases the magnitude of the
deviation or error is the same)].
In this experiment we use a model to study how measurements of a quantity are distributed. The
quantity to be measured is the distance from the floor to the eye level of the student.

PROCEDURE
a)
b)
c)
d)

Measure the distance of your eye level above the ground.

Divide your plain sheet of paper into two with a line.
Draw a reference line 1 cm from the bottom of your plain sheet of paper.
Attach your plain sheet of paper to the board in such a way that your eye level
corresponds to the central line dividing your plain sheet of paper.
e) Measure the distance of your reference point and make suitable marks on the board so
that another paper can be affixed in the same position.
f) Stand at a specific distance from the board and throw darts at the eye level on the paper.
According to your throwing ability several trial throws may be necessary before the most
suitable throwing distance is found.
g) Make a total of 100 throws on the paper. More than one sheet of paper may be used as
long as the same reference level is used. Be careful! Otherwise your graph will be poor.
h) Divide the vertical range of the points on the paper(s) into 10 equal sections of suitable
width, say for example 2cm. (See Fig. 1).
i) Count the number of points in each section and tabulate the results. A few points may be
below section 1 or above section 10 but they would NOT be discarded. Label these
sections 0, 11, etc. (Note: Use a bit enough sheet of paper so that your throws land on the
paper).
j) Draw a histogram illustrating the number of times, n1, that points occur in a certain
section, x1 (Fig. 2)

k) Calculate the mean value of the measurements,

x , using the formula:

1
n1 x1 where N = total number of points
N
12

and x1 can have values from 1-10 etc.

Mark the mean value x on the histogram.

Paper

Eye Level
Section
1 - 10

Reference Mark

Soft board

Note
l)

Each number 0,1, ,10, on the x1 axis is at the center of a section e.g. 9 is at the
center of section 9

2)

The histogram must show a section within n1 = 0 at both the start and end.

(3)

Connect the midpoints by a smooth curve as shown which need not go through all the
midpoints.

Random errors should cause the histogram to approximately follow a bell shaped curve called
the Normal Distribution.

COMMENT ON YOUR RESULTS

The degree to which numerical data is scattered about an average value is called the dispersion of
the data. Common measures of the dispersion are the mean deviation and the standard deviation.
The data is grouped such that x1, x2 occur with frequencies n1, n2 the following form of
standard may be used.

n x
1

Small values of standard deviation indicate that there is not much dispersion or scattered
of the data.
13

(1)

For the data obtained in the first part of the experiment calculate the standard deviation.

(2)

Your experimental value for your eye level is x s. Express this in term heights.

Suppose x = 5.2. Locate the height of section 5.2 above the ground level. It would be
about 150-220 cm. Note that 5.0 refers to the midpoint of section5.
Suppose s = 1.4. If each section in your experimental sheet was 1.5cm wide, the s = 1.4
implies 1.4 x 1.5 = 2.1 cm.

Your experimental value for your eye level is x in cm s in cm.

(C)

Repeat the experiment by standing at a longer distance (1 to 2 times the previous one)
away from the board. You may have to use more sheets firmly fastened together so that
all your throws land on the sheets. You may also have to divide your sheets into more
sections of 2cm each, say, to cover all your points. Plot a histogram of the new results

and calculate x s again.

Comment on your results
Your sheet in which the darts were thrown must be handed in.
EXPT. 2 GRAPH MATCHING

OBJECTIVES
Analyze the motion of a student walking across the room.
Predict, sketch, and test position vs. time kinematics graphs.
Predict, sketch, and test velocity vs. time kinematics graphs.

INTRODUCTION
One of the most effective methods of describing motion is to plot graphs of position, velocity,
and acceleration vs. time. From such a graphical representation, it is possible to determine in
what direction an object is going, how fast it is moving, how far it traveled, and whether it is
speeding up or slowing down. In this experiment, you will use a Motion Detector to determine
this information by plotting a real time graph of your motion as you move across the classroom.
The Motion Detector measures the time it takes for a high frequency sound pulse to travel from
the detector to an object and back. Using this round-trip time and the speed of sound, the
interface can determine the distance to the object; that is, its position. It can then use the change
in position to calculate the objects velocity and acceleration. All of this information can be
displayed in a graph. A qualitative analysis of the graphs of your motion will help you
understand the concepts of kinematics.
walk back and forth
in front of
Motion Detector

14

MATERIALS
LabQuest
LabQuest App
Motion Detector

meter stick
masking tape

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS
1. Sketch the position vs. time graph for each of the following situations. Use a coordinate
system with the origin at far left and positive distances increasing to the right.
a.
b.
c.
d.

An object at rest
An object moving in the positive direction with a constant speed
An object moving in the negative direction with a constant speed
An object that is accelerating in the positive direction, starting from rest

2. Sketch the velocity vs. time graph for each of the situations described above.

PROCEDURE
1. Find an open area at least 4 m long in front of a wall. Use short strips of masking tape on the
floor to mark distances of 1 m, 2 m, and 3 m from the wall. You will be measuring distances
from the Motion Detector in your hands to the wall.
2. If your Motion Detector has a switch, set it to Normal. Connect the
Motion Detector to DIG 1 of LabQuest and choose New from the File
menu.
3. On the Meter screen, tap Length, then change the data-collection length to 10 seconds. Select
OK.
Part l: Preliminary Experiments

4. Open the hinge on the Motion Detector. When you collect data,
hold the Motion Detector so the round, metal detector is always
pointed directly at the wall. Sometimes you will have to walk
backwards.
5. Monitor the position readings. Move back and forth and confirm
that the values make sense.
6. Make a graph of your motion when you walk away from the wall with constant velocity. To
do this, stand about 1 m from the wall and start data collection. Walk backward, slowly away
from the wall after data collection begins.
7. Sketch what the distance vs. time graph will look like if you walk faster. Check your
prediction with the Motion Detector. Start data collection when you are ready to begin
walking.
6. Try to match the shape of the distance vs. time graphs that you sketched in the Preliminary
Questions section by walking in back and forth in front of the wall.

Part Il Position vs. Time Graph Matching

7. Choose Motion Match New Position Match from the Analyze menu to set up LabQuest
for graph matching. A target graph will be displayed for you to match.
8. Write down how you would walk to reproduce the target graph. Sketch a copy of the graph.
9. To test your prediction, choose a starting position. Have your partner start data collection,
then walk in such a way that the graph of your motion matches the target graph on the screen.

15

10. If you were not successful, have your partner start data collection when you are ready to
begin walking. Repeat this process until your motion closely matches the graph on the
screen. Sketch the graph with your best attempt.
11. Perform a second graph match by again choosing Motion Match New Position Match
from the Analyze menu. This will generate a new target graph for you to match.
12. Answer the Analysis questions for Part II before proceeding to Part III.
Part IIl Velocity vs. Time Graph Matching

13. LabQuest can also generate random target velocity graphs for you to match. Choose Motion
Match New Velocity Match from the Analyze menu to view a velocity target graph.
14. Write down how you would walk to produce this target graph. Sketch a copy of the graph.
15. To test your prediction, choose a starting position and stand at that point. Have your partner
start data collection, then walk in such a way that the graph of your motion matches the target
graph on the screen. It will be more difficult to match the velocity graph than it was for the
position graph.
16. If you were not successful, have your partner start data collection when you are ready to start
walking. Repeat this process until your motion closely matches the graph on the screen. Print
or sketch the graph with your best attempt.
17. Perform a second velocity graph match by choosing Motion Match New Velocity Match
from the Analyze menu. This will generate a new target velocity graph for you to match.
18. Remove the masking tape strips from the floor.

ANALYSIS
Part II Position vs. Time Graph Matching

1. Describe how you walked for each of the graphs that you matched.
2. Explain the significance of the slope of a position vs. time graph. Include a discussion of
positive and negative slope.
3. What type of motion is occurring when the slope of a position vs. time graph is zero?
4. What type of motion is occurring when the slope of a position vs. time graph is constant?
5. What type of motion is occurring when the slope of a position vs. time graph is changing?
Test your answer to this question using the Motion Detector.
6. Return to the procedure and complete Part III.

Part III Velocity vs. Time Graph Matching

7. Describe how you walked for each of the graphs that you matched.
8. What type of motion is occurring when the slope of a velocity vs. time graph is zero?
9. What type of motion is occurring when the slope of a velocity vs. time graph is not zero?
Test your answer using the Motion Detector.

EXTENSIONS
1. Create a graph-matching challenge. Sketch a position vs. time graph on a piece of paper and
challenge another student in the class to match your graph. Have the other student challenge
you in the same way.
2. Create a velocity vs. time challenge in a similar manner.

16

EXPT. 3 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

OBJECTIVE

Measure the acceleration of a freely falling body (g) to better than 0.5% precision using a
Picket Fence and a Photogate.

Introduction
We say an object is in free fall when the only force acting on it is the earths gravitational force.
No other forces can be acting; in particular, air resistance must be either absent or so small as to
be ignored. When the object in free fall is near the surface of the earth, the gravitational force on
it is nearly constant. As a result, an object in free fall accelerates downward at a constant rate.
This acceleration is usually represented with the symbol, g.
Physics students measure the acceleration due to gravity using a wide variety of timing methods.
In this experiment, you will have the advantage of using a very precise timer connected to the
LabQuest and a Photogate. The Photogate has a beam of infrared light that travels from one side
to the other. It can detect whenever this beam is blocked. You will drop a piece of clear plastic
with evenly spaced black bars on it, called a Picket Fence. As the Picket Fence passes through
the Photogate, the LabPro interface will measure the time from the leading edge of one bar
blocking the beam until the leading edge of the next bar blocks the beam. This timing continues
as all eight bars pass through the Photogate. From these measured times, the program will
calculate the velocities and accelerations for this motion and graphs will be plotted.

Picket
fence

Figure 1

MATERIALS
LabQuest
LabQuest App
Vernier Photogate

Picket Fence
clamp or ring stand to secure Photogate

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS
1. Inspect your Picket Fence. You will be dropping it through a Photogate to measure g. The
distance, measured from one edge of a black band to the same edge of the next band, is
5.0 cm. What additional information will you need to determine the average speed of the
Picket Fence as it moves through the Photogate?
2. If an object is moving with constant acceleration, what is the shape of its velocity vs. time
graph?

17

3. Does the initial velocity of an object have anything to do with its acceleration? For example,
compared to dropping an object, if you throw it downward would the acceleration be
different after you released it?

PROCEDURE
1. Fasten the Photogate rigidly to a ring stand so the arms extend horizontally, as shown in
Figure 1. The entire length of the Picket Fence must be able to fall freely through the
Photogate. To avoid damaging the Picket Fence, make sure it has a soft landing surface.
2. Connect the Photogate to DIG 1 of LabQuest and choose New from the File menu.
3. Now collect your free fall data. To do this, start data collection and wait for a moment.
4. Hold the top of the Picket Fence and drop it through the Photogate, releasing it from your
grasp completely before it enters the Photogate. Be careful when releasing the Picket Fence.
It must not touch the sides of the Photogate as it falls and it needs to remain vertical.
5. When the Picket Fence has completely passed through the Photogate, a graph of distance vs.
time and velocity vs. time will appear on the screen. Sketch the graphs on paper for later use.
6. Examine your velocity vs. time graph. The slope of a velocity vs. time graph is a measure of
acceleration. If the velocity graph is approximately a straight line of constant slope, the
acceleration is constant. If the acceleration of your Picket Fence appears constant, fit a
straight line to your data.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Choose Curve Fit from the Analyze menu.

Select Linear as the Fit Equation.
Record the slope of the linear curve fit in the data table.
Select OK.

7. To establish the reliability of your slope measurement, repeat Steps 36 five more times. Do
not use drops in which the Picket Fence hits or misses the Photogate. Record the slope values
in the data table.

DATA TABLE
Trial

Slope (m/s )

Minimum

Maximum

Average

Acceleration (m/s )

Acceleration due to gravity, g

Precision

m/s2
%

ANALYSIS
1. From your six trials, determine the minimum, maximum, and average values for the
acceleration of the Picket Fence. Record them in the data table.
2. Describe in words the shape of the distance vs. time graph for the free fall of the picket fence.
3. Describe in words the shape of the velocity vs. time graph. How is this related to the shape of
the distance vs. time graph?
4. The average acceleration you determined represents a single best value, derived from all your
measurements. The minimum and maximum values give an indication of how much the
measurements can vary from trial to trial; that is, they indicate the precision of your
18

measurement. One way of stating the precision is to take half of the difference between the
minimum and maximum values and use the result as the uncertainty of the measurement.
Express your final experimental result as the average value, the uncertainty. Round the
uncertainty to just one digit and round the average value to the same decimal place.
For example, if your minimum, average, and maximum values are 9.12, 9.93, and 10.84 m/s2,
express your result as g = 9.9 0.9 m/s2. Record your values in the data table.
5. Express the uncertainty as a percentage of the acceleration. This is the precision of your
experiment. Enter the value in your data table. Using the example numbers from the last step,
the precision would be
0 .9
100% 9 0 0
9. 9
6. Compare your measurement to the generally accepted value of g (from a textbook or other
source). Does the accepted value fall within the range of your values? If so, your experiment
agrees with the accepted value.

7. Inspect your velocity graph. How would the associated acceleration vs. time graph look?
Sketch your prediction on paper. Change the y-axis to acceleration. Comment on any
differences between the acceleration graph and your prediction. To examine the data pairs on
the displayed graph, tap any data point. As you tap each data point, the acceleration and time
values are displayed to the right of the graph. Note that the vertical scale of the graph does
not include zero. Is the variation as large as it appears?
8. Find the average acceleration by examining the values displayed to the right of the graph.
How does this compare with the acceleration value for the same drop, determined from the
slope of the velocity graph?

EXTENSIONS
1. Use the distance vs. time data and a quadratic fit to determine g.
2. Display the acceleration vs. time graph and note the apparent variation in acceleration.
Examine the data pairs on the displayed graph, by selecting any data point. Read the
acceleration values individually. Is the acceleration varying as much as it first appears?
3. Would dropping the Picket Fence from higher above the Photogate change any of the
parameters you measured? Try it.
4. Would throwing the Picket Fence downward, but letting go before it enters the Photogate,
change any of your measurements? How about throwing the Picket Fence upward? Try
performing these experiments.
5. How would adding air resistance change the results? Try adding a loop of clear tape to the
upper end of the Picket Fence. Drop the modified Picket Fence through the Photogate and
compare the results with your original free fall results.
6. Investigate how the value of g varies around the world. For example, how does altitude affect
the value of g? What other factors cause this acceleration to vary at different locations? How
much can g vary at a location in the mountains compared to a location at sea level?

19

EXPT 4. BACK AND FORTH MOTION

OBJECTIVES

Qualitatively analyze the motion of objects that move back and forth.
Analyze and interpret back and forth motion in kinematics graphs.
Use kinematic graphs to catalog objects that exhibit similar motion.

Introduction
Lots of objects go back and forth; that is, they move along a line first in one direction, then move
back the other way. An oscillating pendulum or a ball tossed vertically into the air are examples
of things that go back and forth. Graphs of the position vs. time and velocity vs. time for such
objects share a number of features. In this experiment, you will observe a number of objects that
change speed and direction as they go back and forth. Analyzing and comparing graphs of their
motion will help you to apply ideas of kinematics more clearly.
In this experiment you will use a Motion Detector to observe the back and forth motion of the
following five objects:

Oscillating pendulum
Student jumping into the air
Mass oscillating at the end of a spring
Ball tossed into the air

MATERIALS
LabQuest
LabQuest App
Motion Detector
pendulum with large bob
spring with hanging mass

meter stick
incline with dynamics cart
rubber ball (15 cm diameter or more)
protective wire basket for Motion Detector
protractor

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS
1. Do any of the five objects listed above move in similar ways? If so, which ones? What do
they have in common?
2. What is the shape of a velocity vs. time graph for any object that has a constant acceleration?
3. Do you think that any of the five objects has a constant acceleration? If so, which one(s)?
4. Consider a ball thrown straight upward. It moves up, changes direction, and falls back down.
What is the acceleration of a ball on the way up? What is the acceleration when it reaches its
top point? What is the acceleration on the way down?

PROCEDURE
These five activities will ask you to predict the appearance of graphs of position vs. time and
velocity vs. time for various motions, and then collect the corresponding data. The Motion
Detector defines the origin of a coordinate system extending perpendicularly from the front of
the Motion Detector. Use this coordinate system in making your sketches. After collecting data
with the Motion Detector, you may want to print or sketch the graphs for use later in the analysis.
For each part LabQuest must be prepared with these two steps:
1. If your Motion Detector has a switch, set it to Normal. Connect the
Motion Detector to DIG 1 on LabQuest and choose New from the File
menu. If you have an older sensor that does not auto-ID, manually set up
the sensor.

20

Part I Oscillating Pendulum

Motion Detector

Figure 1
2. Place the Motion Detector near a pendulum with a length of 1 to 2 m. The Motion Detector
should be level with the pendulum bob and about 1 m away when the pendulum hangs at rest.
The bob must never be closer to the detector than 0.4 m.
3. Sketch your prediction of the position vs. time and velocity vs. time graphs of a pendulum
bob swinging back and forth. Ignore the small vertical motion of the bob and measure
distance along a horizontal line in the plane of the bobs motion. Based on the shape of your
velocity graph, do you expect the acceleration to be constant or changing? Why? Will it
change direction? Will there be a point where the acceleration is zero?
4. Pull the pendulum about 15 cm toward the Motion Detector and release it to start the
pendulum swinging.
5. Start data collection.
6. When data collection is complete, a graph of position vs. time will be displayed. If you do not
see a smooth graph, the pendulum was most likely not in the beam of the Motion Detector.
Adjust the aim and try again.
a. To take more data, start data collection after you have released the pendulum.
b. Continue to repeat this process until you get a smooth graph.
7. Examine the velocity graph.
8. Answer the Analysis questions for this Part I before proceeding to Part II.
Part II Dynamics Cart on an Incline

9. If your Motion Detector has a switch, set it to the Track position. Place
the Motion Detector at the top of an incline that is between 1 and 2 m
long. The angle of the incline should be about 5, or a rise of 9 to 18 cm.
10. Sketch your prediction of the position vs. time and velocity vs. time graphs for a cart rolling
freely up an incline and then back down. The cart will be rolling up the incline and toward
the Motion Detector initially. Will the acceleration be constant? Will it change direction?
Will there be a point where the acceleration is zero?
11. Hold the dynamics cart at the base of the incline. Start data collection then give the cart a
push up the incline. Make sure that the cart does not get closer to the Motion Detector than
0.15 m for Motion Detectors with a switch or 0.4 m for those without a switch. Keep your
hands away from the track as the cart rolls.
12. If you do not see a smooth graph, the cart was most likely not in the beam of the Motion
Detector. Adjust the aim and try again.
a. To take more data, start data collection when you are ready to release the cart.
b. Repeat this process until you get a smooth graph.
13. Examine the velocity graph.
14. Answer the Analysis questions for Part II before proceeding to Part III.

21

Part III Student Jumping in the Air

15. If your Motion Detector has a switch, set it to Normal. Secure the Motion Detector about 3 m
above the floor, pointing down.
16. Sketch your predictions for the position vs. time and velocity vs. time graphs for a student
jumping straight up and falling back down. Will the acceleration be constant? Will it change
direction? Will there be a point where the acceleration is zero?
17. Stand directly under the Motion Detector.
18. Start data collection, then bend your knees and jump. Keep your arms still while in the air.
19. If you do not see a smooth graph, you were most likely not in the beam of the Motion
Detector. Adjust the aim and try again.
a. To take more data, start data collection when you are ready to jump.
b. Repeat this process until you get a smooth graph.
20. Examine the velocity graph.
21. Answer the Analysis questions for Part III before proceeding to Part IV.
Part IV A Mass Oscillating at the End of a Spring

22. Place the Motion Detector so it is facing upward, about 1 m below a mass suspended from a
spring. Place a wire basket over the Motion Detector to protect it.
23. Sketch your prediction for the position vs. time and velocity vs. time graphs of a mass
hanging from a spring as the mass moves up and down. Will the acceleration be constant?
Will it change direction? Will there be a point where the acceleration is zero?
24. Lift the mass about 10 cm (and no more) and let it fall so that it moves up and down.
25. Start data collection.
26. If you do not see a smooth graph, the mass was most likely not in the beam of the Motion
Detector. Adjust the aim and try again.
a. To take more data, start data collection when you are ready to release the mass.
b. Repeat this process until you get a smooth graph.
27. Examine the velocity graph.
28. Answer the Analysis questions for Part IV before proceeding to Part V.
Part V Ball Tossed into the Air

29. Sketch your predictions for the position vs. time and
velocity vs. time graphs of a ball thrown straight up
into the air. Will the acceleration be constant? Will it
change direction? Will there be a point where the
acceleration is zero?
30. Place the Motion Detector on the floor pointing toward
the ceiling as shown in Figure 2. Place a protective
wire basket over the Motion Detector.

Motion Detector

Figure 2
31. Hold the rubber ball with your hands on either side,
about 0.5 m above the Motion Detector.
32. Start data collection, then gently toss the ball straight up over the Motion Detector. Move
your hands quickly out of the way so that the Motion Detector tracks the ball rather than your
hand. Catch the ball just before it reaches the wire basket.
33. If you do not see a smooth graph, the ball was most likely not in the beam of the Motion
22

Detector. Adjust the aim and try again.

a. To take more data, start data collection when you are ready to toss the ball.
b. Repeat this process until you get a smooth graph.
34. Examine the velocity graph.

ANALYSIS
Part I Oscillating Pendulum

1. Print or sketch the position and velocity graphs for one oscillation of the pendulum. Compare
these to your predicted graphs and comment on any differences.
2. Was the acceleration constant or changing? How can you tell?
3. Was there any point in the motion where the velocity was zero? Explain.
4. Was there any point in the motion where the acceleration was zero? Explain.
5. Where was the pendulum bob when the acceleration was greatest?
6. Return to the procedure and complete the next part.
Part II Dynamics Cart on an Incline

7. Print or sketch the portions of the position and velocity graphs that represent the time that the
cart was going up and down the incline. Compare these to your predicted graphs and
comment on any differences.
8. Was the acceleration constant or changing? How can you tell?
9. By hand, add tangent lines to a sketch of the velocity graph to determine the sign of the
acceleration of the cart when it was on the way up, at the top, and on the way down the
incline. What did you discover?
10. Was there any point in the motion where the velocity was zero? Explain.
11. Was there any point in the motion where the acceleration was zero? Explain.
12. Return to the procedure and complete the next part.
Part III Student Jumping in the Air

13. Print or sketch the portion of the position and velocity graphs that represent the time from the
first bend of the knees through the landing. Compare these to your predicted graphs and
comment on any differences.
14. By hand, add tangent lines to the velocity graph to determine where the acceleration was
greatest. Was it when the student was pushing off the floor, in the air, or during the landing?
15. When the student was airborne, was the acceleration constant or changing? How can you
tell?
16. Was there any point in the motion where the velocity was zero? Explain.
17. Was there any point in the motion where the acceleration was zero? Explain.
18. Return to the procedure and complete the next part.
Part IV Mass Oscillating on a Spring

19. Print or sketch the position and velocity graphs for one vibration of the mass. Compare these
to your predicted graphs and comment on any differences.
20. Was the acceleration constant or changing? How can you tell?
21. Was there any point in the motion where the velocity was zero? Explain.
22. Was there any point in the motion where the acceleration was zero? Explain.
23. Where was the mass when the acceleration was greatest?
23

24. How does the motion of the oscillating spring compare to that of the pendulum?
25. Return to the procedure and complete the next part.
Part V Ball Tossed into the Air

26. Print or sketch the portions of the position and velocity graphs that represent the time the ball
was in the air. Compare these to your predicted graphs and comment on any differences.
27. Was the acceleration constant or changing? How can you tell?
28. By hand, add tangent lines to a sketch of the velocity graph to determine the sign of the
acceleration of the ball when it was on the way up, at the top, and on the way down. What
did you discover?
29. Was there any point in the motion where the velocity was zero? Explain.
30. Was there any point in the motion where the acceleration was zero? Explain.
Analysis of All Parts

31. State two features that the five position graphs had in common. State two ways that the five
position graphs were different from one another.
32. State two features that the five velocity graphs had in common.
33. State two ways that the five velocity graphs were different from one another.

EXTENSIONS
1. Investigate other back-and-forth motions such as:
a. Bouncing balls
b. A dynamics cart with a plunger bouncing off a solid object
c. A yo-yo
2. Attach an Accelerometer to your belt and use it to analyze your motion when you jump up.
Compare your landing acceleration when you bend your knees upon impact and when you do
not bend your knees. Safety warning: Jump only a few inches when you do not bend your
knees.
3. Use a Force Sensor to measure the force in the vibrating spring and relate this to the
kinematic graphs that you observed in this experiment.

24

EXPT.5 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

AIM:

To demonstrate SHM and to measure the elastic constant and mass of a Spiral
Spring.

APPARATUS: Light Spiral Spring, Weight Holder, clamp and stand, Weights.
THEORY:

The extension of a spring which obeys Hookes law is proportional to the tension
T which has produced it. Therefore
T=ke
e is the extension and k is a constant of
proportionality which is known
as the spring constant. It is equal to the tension required to produce unit
extension (Nm-1).Suppose that a suspended spring which obeys Hookes law has
a body of mass m attached to its lower end. In Fig. 3.5 (a) the body is at rest in
its equilibrium position. There can be no resultant force acting on the body and
therefore the tension F0 is given by:
F0 = mg

- - - - - - - - - -[3.1]

Fig 3.5
It follows from equation [3.1] that since the extension is e
Mg = ke

--------------

[3.2]

Suppose now that the body is displaced downwards through a distant x Fig3.5(b). The
body is no longer in equilibrium and feels a upward force of (F mg), where F is the
instantaneous value of the tension in the spring. Therefore by Newtons second law
F mg = - m

d 2x
dt 2

- - - - - - - - - - -[3.3]

(The minus sign is present because the resultant force on the body directed upwards and
therefore acts so as to decrease x.) By equation [3.1], since the total extension is now (e + x)
F = k(e+x)
Therefore from equation [3.3]
d 2x
K(e+x) mg = -m 2
dt

But, from equation [3.2], mg = ke, and therefore

Kx = -m

d 2x
dt 2

25

i.e.

d 2x
k
x
2
dt
m

--------

[3.4]

Since both k and m are positive constants, so also is k/m and therefore equation [3.4] may
be written as
d 2x
2 x
2
dt

Where 2 is a positive constant equal to k/m. This equation represents simple harmonic
motion and therefore the motion of the body is simple harmonic. Since 2 = k/m , the
period of the motion is
Period = 2

m
k

- - - - - - - - - [3.5]

Except in the idealized case of a spring of zero mass, it is necessary to take account of the
fact that the spring itself oscillates. It can be shown that m needs to be replaced by (m +
ms), where ms is a constant known as the effective mass of the spring. (Note that ms is
less than the actual mass of the spring because it is only the lowest coil which oscillates
with the full amplitude of the suspended body.) With this modification then, equation
[3.5] becomes
Period = 2

m ms
k

PROCEDURE:
Suspend the light spiral spring vertically with the weights attached.
Load the spring with a mass M of suitable magnitude. Displace the mass a small distance
release, and allow it to oscillate. Obtain the period of the oscillating mass. By
continuously increasing the mass obtain an appropriate set of measurements from which
k and ms can be calculated.

CALCULATION
Plot a suitable graph from the data obtained.
Determine values of K and ms and the errors in K and ms.
DISCUSSIONS:
Discuss your results.

26

EXPT. 6 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

OBJECTIVES
Examine the energies involved in simple harmonic motion.
Test the principle of conservation of energy.

INTRODUCTION
We can describe an oscillating mass in terms of its position, velocity, and acceleration as a
function of time. We can also describe the system from an energy perspective. In this
experiment, you will measure the position and velocity as a function of time for an oscillating
mass and spring system, and from those data, plot the kinetic and potential energies of the
system.
Energy is present in three forms for the mass and spring system. The mass m, with velocity v,
can have kinetic energy KE
KE 21 mv 2

The spring can hold elastic potential energy, or PEelastic. We calculate PEelastic by using
PE elastic 21 ky 2

where k is the spring constant and y is the extension or compression of the spring measured from
the equilibrium position.
The mass and spring system also has gravitational potential energy (PEgravitational = mgy), but we
do not have to include the gravitational potential energy term if we measure the spring length
from the hanging equilibrium position. We can then concentrate on the exchange of energy
between kinetic energy and elastic potential energy.
If there are no other forces experienced by the system, then the principle of conservation of
energy tells us that the sum KE + PEelastic = 0, which we can test experimentally.

MATERIALS
LabQuest
LabQuest App
Motion Detector
spring, 1020 N/m
ring stand

slotted mass set with hanger, 50 g to

300 g in 50 g steps
wire basket
twist ties

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS
1. Sketch a graph of the height vs. time for the mass on the spring as it oscillates up and down
through one cycle. Mark on the graph the times where the mass moves the fastest and
therefore has the greatest kinetic energy. Also mark the times when it moves most slowly and
has the least kinetic energy.
2. On your sketch, label the times when the spring has its greatest elastic potential energy. Then
mark the times when it has the least elastic potential energy.
3. From your graph of height vs. time, sketch velocity vs. time.
4. Sketch graphs of kinetic energy vs. time and elastic potential energy vs. time.

27

PROCEDURE
1. Attach the spring to a horizontal rod connected
to the ring stand and hang the mass from the
spring as shown in Figure 1. Securely fasten the
200 g mass to the spring and the spring to the
rod, using twist ties so the mass cannot fall.
2. Place the Motion Detector at least 75 cm below
the mass. Make sure there are no objects near
the path between the detector and mass, such as
a table edge. Place the wire basket over the
Motion Detector to protect it.
3. If your Motion Detector has a
switch, set it to Normal. Connect
the Motion Detector to DIG 1 on
LabQuest and choose New from the File menu.
If you have an older sensor that does not autoID, manually set up the sensor.
4. On the Meter screen, tap Rate. Change the datacollection rate to 50 samples/second and the
data-collection length to 2 seconds. Select OK.
5. Make a preliminary run to make sure things are
set up correctly. Lift the mass upward about
5 centimeters and release. The mass should
oscillate along a vertical line only. Start data
collection.
6. After 2 seconds, data collection will stop and a graph of position vs. time and velocity vs.
time will be displayed. The position graph should show a clean sinusoidal curve. If it has flat
regions or spikes, reposition the Motion Detector and try again. To collect again, get the mass
moving, and then start data collection. Once you have a clean run, do not move the Motion
Detector or the ring stand for the rest of the experiment.
7. Sketch or print your graphs and compare to your predictions. Comment on any differences.
8. To calculate the spring potential energy, it is necessary to measure the spring constant, k.
Hookes law states that the spring force is proportional to its extension from equilibrium, or
F = kx. You can apply a known force to the spring, to be balanced in magnitude by the
spring force, by hanging a range of weights from the spring. The Motion Detector can then
be used to measure the equilibrium position. You will plot the distance vs. weight to find the
spring constant k.
a. Display a single graph by choosing Show Graph from the Graph menu and selecting
Graph 1.
b. On the Meter screen, tap Mode. Change the data-collection mode to Events with Entry.
c. Enter the Name (Weight) and Units (N). Select OK.
In this mode, the position of the mass will only be measured when you choose. You will then
enter the weight in newtons.
9. Collect force and distance data.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Hang a 50 g mass from the spring and allow the mass to hang motionless.
Start data collection.
When the reading is stable, tap Keep. Enter 0.49 and select OK to store the data pair.
In the same manner, hang 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 g from the spring, recording the
position and entering the weights in N. It is important that the length of the mass not
change as the value of the mass is changed.
e. After entering the last weight, stop data collection.
28

Figure 1

10. The graph of position vs. force should be linear. The magnitude of the slope is k1, since force
is on the x-axis. Find the slope of the data.
a. Choose Curve Fit from the Analyze menu.
b. Select Linear as the Fit Equation. The linear-regression statistics for these two data
columns are displayed on the screen.
c. The inverse of the slope magnitude is the spring constant k in N/m. Record the slope and
its inverse in the data table.
d. Select OK.
11. Remove the 300 g mass and replace it with a 200 g mass for the remaining steps.
12. Tap Meter, then tap Mode. Change the data-collection Mode to Time Based. Change the
data-collection rate to 50 samples/second and the data-collection length to 2 seconds. Select
OK.
13. In order to measure distances from the equilibrium position of the mass, it is necessary to
zero the Motion Detector. Measuring from equilibrium allows easy calculation of the elastic
potential energy, since the distance will correspond directly to spring stretch or compression.
a. Ensure that the mass is hanging at rest from the spring.
b. Choose Zero from the Sensors menu. When the zeroing process is complete the reading
should be close to zero.
Distances will now be measured from the current position of the mass, with displacement
above the current position measured as positive. Displacement below the current position
will be read as negative.
14. Collect position vs. time data as you did before. Lift the mass upward about five centimeters
and release. The mass should oscillate along a vertical line only. Start data collection.
15. After 2 seconds, data collection will stop and a graph of position vs. time and velocity vs.
time will be displayed. If it has flat regions or spikes, reposition the Motion Detector and try
again. To repeat data collection, get the mass moving and start data collection.

DATA TABLE
Slope of distance vs. force

m/N

Spring constant

N/m

ANALYSIS
1. Display a single graph by choosing Show Graph from the Graph menu and selecting Graph 1.
2. Calculate the bobs elastic potential energy (PE)
a. Tap Table to display the data table and choose New Calculated Column from the Table
menu.
b. Enter the Name (PE) and Units (J).
c. Select the equation, ABX^C.
d. Select Position as the Column for X.
e. For the A value, enter 0.5.
f. For the B value, enter the value you obtained for the spring constant, N/m.
g. For the C value, enter 2.
h. Select OK to display the graph of potential energy (PE) vs. time.
3. Inspect your elastic potential energy vs. time graph for the motion of the spring-mass system.
Explain its shape. Be sure you compare to a single cycle beginning at the same point in the
motion as your predictions. Comment on any differences.
4. Print or sketch the potential energy vs. time graph.
29

5. Calculate and graph KE.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

Tap Table to display the data table.

Choose New Calculated Column from the Table menu.
Enter the Name (KE) and Units (J).
Select the equation, ABX^C.
Select Velocity as the Column for X.
For the A value, enter 0.5.
For the B value, enter the mass of your bob in kg.
For the C value, enter 2.
Select OK to display the graph of kinetic energy (KE) vs. time.

6. Inspect your kinetic energy vs. time graph for the motion of the spring-mass system. Explain
its shape. Be sure you compare to a single cycle beginning at the same point in the motion as
your predictions. Comment on any differences.
7. Print or sketch the kinetic energy vs. time graph.
8. If mechanical energy is conserved in this system, how should the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies vary with time? Sketch your prediction of this sum as a function of time.
9. Calculate the total energy KE + PE, and store the result in a third new column.
a. Tap Table to display the data table and choose New Calculated Column from the Table
menu.
b. Enter the Name (TE) and Units (J).
c. Select the equation, X + Y.
d. Select KE (J) as the Column for X.
e. Select PE (J) as the Column for Y.
f. Select OK to display the graph of total energy (TE) vs. time.
10. Display all three energy plots on the same graph.
a. Choose Graph Options from the Graph menu.
b. Select PE, KE, and TE for the Graph 1 Y-Axis.
c. Select OK to display a graph of PE, KE, and TE.
11. Compare your total energy graph prediction to the experimental data for the spring-mass
system. What do you conclude from the total energy vs. time graph (marked with a closed
circle) about the total energy of the system? Does the total energy remain constant? Should
the total energy remain constant? Why? If it does not, what sources of extra energy are there
or where could the missing energy have gone?

EXTENSIONS
1. In the introduction, we claimed that the gravitational potential energy could be ignored if the
displacement used in the elastic potential energy was measured from the hanging equilibrium
position. First write the total mechanical energy (kinetic, gravitational potential, and elastic
potential energy) in terms of a coordinate system, distance measured upward and labeled y,
whose origin is located at the bottom of the relaxed spring of constant k (no force applied).
Then determine the equilibrium position s when a mass m is suspended from the spring. This
will be the new origin for a coordinate system with distance labeled h. Write a new
expression for total energy in terms of h. Show that when the energy is written in terms of h
rather than y, the gravitational potential energy term cancels out.
2. If a non-conservative force such as air resistance becomes important, the graph of total
energy vs. time will change. Predict how the graph would look, then tape an index card to the
bottom of your hanging mass. Take energy data again and compare to your prediction.

30

3. The energies involved in a swinging pendulum can be investigated in a similar manner to a

mass on a spring. From the lateral position of the pendulum bob, find the bobs gravitational
potential energy. Perform the experiment, measuring the horizontal position of the bob with a
Motion Detector.
4. Set up a laboratory cart or a glider on an air track so it oscillates back and forth horizontally
between two springs. Record its position as a function of time with a Motion Detector.
Investigate the conservation of energy in this system. Be sure you consider the elastic
potential energy in both springs.

EXPT.7 CLEMENT AND DESORMES

PURPOSE:

To determine the ratio of the specific heats of air.

THEORY:

Air is pumped into a vessel of volume Vo and allowed to reach a steady pressure
p1 at room temperature. The air is allowed to expand rapidly (i.e. adiabatically)
until it reaches the ambient pressure of the room, Po. The air which then fills the
vessel, volume Vo, will have had a volume V1 before expansion. If the air had
expanded from temperature during the expansion, it would have ended at a higher
pressure, P2. This state can be attained by allowing the air contained in the vessel
after the adiabatic expansion (AB in the diagram) to gain heat from the
surroundings until it reaches room temperature and has the steady pressure, P2
(BC in the diagram).

A
P1
B

P2

P3

V1

V0

For the adiabatic expansion AB p1V 1 poV0 ..

(1)

Where is the ratio of the specific heat capacities of air.

For the isothermal change AC

P1V1 = p2Vo

(2)

p p
Combining (1) and (2), we get 1 1
p0 p2

log p1 log p0
..
log p1 log p2
Now pressures in the vessel are read from a manometer.
Taking logs,

(3)

Thus P1 = P0 + gh2
(4)
where h1 is the height difference between the arms of the manometer and is the density
of the liquid in it
Similarly p2 = p0 + gh2

31

(5)

Substituting (4) and (5) in (3), we obtain

gh1
log po
log p0 1
po

pgh1
pgh2
log p0 1

log p0 1
po
po

so that

pgh1

log1
po

pgh1
pgh2
log1

log1
po
po

. (6)

Expanding (6) by the log series and neglecting squared and higher terms (justified
because ph1 and gh2 are much smaller than P0).

gh1

gh1
po

METHOD:

po

gh2

h1`
h1 h2

(7)

po

Make sure that the release valve is closed. Connect the pump to the vessel at the
outlet on top and pump air into the vessel until a value of h of about 15-20cm is
indicated on the manometer. For some time after pumping has been discontinued
the pressure indicated by the manometer will fall slowly. This is due to the air,
which was heated during the compression, slowly attaining room temperature.
When a stationary pressure is indicated, read the height difference h1.
Depress the release valve, thus opening the vessel, for about 2-4 seconds. Then
allow the valve to close again. This will allow the pressure to fall to that of the
atmosphere sufficiently rapidly for no passage of heat to occur during the
expansion. The expansion will therefore be adiabatic. The temperature of the air
in the vessel will slowly increase to that at the start of the experiment, during
which time the pressure in the vessel will rise to p2. After a steady state is
reached, record the height difference h2.
Repeat the experiment to obtain adequate values of h1 and h2.
Plot a suitable graph from values which may be calculate
Calculate and the error in
Find out the accepted value of for air and discuss your result in relation to this
value.

32

EXPT.8 EFFECT OF AIR RESISTANCE ON A SIMPLE PENDULUM

PURPOSE:

To investigate the effect of air resistance on a simple pendulum.

APPARATUS:
Spherical plastic bob, cord of length 3m, curved graduated scale, stop
watch, stand and clamp.

THEORY:

Let O
s
smax
m
F1
v
t

centre of the scale

any length of arc OB
maximum length of arc
mass of the pendulum bob
tension in the string
velocity of the pendulum bob
time
the air resistance constant
the damping coefficient
length of the pendulum

The oscillating pendulum will have an exponentially decreasing amplitude due to the resistance
of the air to the motion of the bob and the string. Eventually the bob comes to rest at the original
rest position. The decaying amplitude shows how the damping process works. The principle of
damped harmonic motion can be usefully employed to study the process.

The air resistance, the force which gives rise to damping, always acts in the opposite direction to
the velocity, i.e. to the direction of actual motion.
The damping phenomenon being described here can be experienced in certain practical
situations. For example, it accounts for the drag force experienced when an attempt is made to
pull fully inflated balloons through air, and the drag force experienced by a parachutist as he
descends. It will be found that the faster one attempts to move, the greater is the force of
resistance experienced in each case. The equation of the damped harmonic oscillator can be
written as follows,
d 2s
ds
2
o2 s O
2
dt
dt

Solving the equation to obtain s We get:

S = [Smaxe-t] cos (t + )

33

[A] = smax e-t

and 02 2
where

If

angular frequency with damping

angular frequency without damping

(a)

< o we have under damping

(b)

= o we have critical damping

(c)

> o we have over damping

Oscillations take place only when there is underdamping. Naturally the type of damping will
depend on the density of the fluid concerned and the aerodynamics of the moving body.
METHOD:
1.

Set the pendulum into motion with a small amplitude keeping less than 100 .

2.

When the pendulum bob reaches the extreme position on the right side, say C, start your
stop watch and at the same time record OC, which is then the amplitude OD, say, on the
opposite side (OD is negative), and the time. Repeat this for a suitable number of
successive amplitudes and times continuously. If you stop or miss a reading you must
start all over again.
Tabulate your results.

3.

Plot a graph of 1nA versus t and use this to find a value for and the error in .

4.

Calculate the mean period T from the data in your table. (What is the meaning of T?)

5.

Plot another graph of displacement s versus t using the data in your table.

6.

What type of damping does the pendulum exhibit?

7.

Discuss your results.

34

EXPT.9 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF COPPER

PURPOSE:

THEORY:

To determine the thermal conductivity of copper by Searles method.

The quantity (Q) of heat conducted across a section of a substance is proportional

to the area of the section, the temperature gradient at the section, and the time .It
is given by

Q kA

d
t
dx

---------Eqn.1

where k is a constant known as the coefficient of thermal conductivity. It is

defined as the amount of heat crossing unit area of cross-section of the substance
per second for unit temperature gradient.
In Searles method it is assumed that all the heat that enters one end of the bar is
conducted along the bar to be extracted at the other end, thus giving rise to a
uniform temperature gradient. Then if 1, 2, 3, and 4 are the readings of the
thermometers T1, T2, T3, and T4 in the steady state, and if a mass M of water (of
specific heat capacity c) emerge from the copper spiral in t sec, then equation (I)
becomes

Mc (3 - 4) = k.

D 2 1 2
4

where D is the diameter of the copper bar and d is the distance between the two
thermometer T1 and T2
i.e.

4Mcd 3 4
D 2 1 2 t

APPARATUS:
Standard form of Searles apparatus for use with steam heater. The
apparatus consists of a stout copper bar fitted into a steam-chest at one end, and
having a narrow copper tube coiled round the other end through which cold water
from a constant-head device passes. The temperature of this water as it enters and
leaves is taken by two thermometers T4 and T3. The whole apparatus is lagged
with felt and contained in a wooden box. Two holes are drilled in the bar a
35

distance d apart in which are placed the thermometers T1 and T2. Also required
are: beaker, stop-clock, and calipers.
METHOD:

Steam from the steam heater is passed through the steam-chess, and the tap is
adjusted to give only a small rate of flow through the coiled tube. The rate of
flow is obtained by weighing the amount of water collected from the coil in a
measured time. When all the temperatures have become steady (usually after 30
min or more) the readings of the four thermometers are taken and the mass of
water taken over a fifteen minute interval. Remove the bunsen burner and add
water to the steam can. Replace the flame and wait for equilibrium to be
achieved. Take another set of readings. Finally, the diameter of the bar is found
by calipers, and the distance between the two thermometers T1 and T2 measured.
Calculate the thermal conductivity of copper and the error in it.
Compare your value with the theoretical value.
Discuss your results.

EXPT.10 DIFFRACTION GRATING

PURPOSE:

To observe the mercury spectrum and to use the wavelength corresponding to the
observed lines to calculate the spacing of the grating.

THEORY:

Light incident normally on a plane diffraction grating will be diffracted through

angles is given by the equation:

sin

m
where is the wavelength of
d

the light, d is the spacing of the grating, and m is an integer denoting the order of
the spectrum.

METHOD:

Adjust the spectrometer for parallel light. This may be done by focusing the
telescope on a distant object outside the lab.
Set the telescope exactly in line with the collimator. At this point the slit image
should lie exactly on the cross wires in the field of the telescope.
The width of the slit may have to be adjusted to give a suitably narrow line image.

36

Now rotate the telescope through exactly 900 using the telescope angle scale to
ensure this and clamp the telescope in this position.
Mount the grating on the prism table and adjust the table until light is reflected
into the telescope. Adjust the leveling screws on the table until the slit image is
exactly in the center of the field of view. This adjustment sets the grating
upright. Adjust the grating until the reflected slit image is on the cross-wires.
This sets the grating in a plane at 450C to both the telescope and collimator.
Read the prism table scale and then rotate it through exactly 450C so that the
plane of the grating is perpendicular to the collimator.
Unclamp the telescope and locate a diffracted image of the slit Measure the angle
of diffraction for as many lines of the mercury spectrum as you can identify for
the first and second orders. For accuracy you should take readings of the images
on both sides of the direct beam and half the angle between them.
Using the
values of the wavelengths given below and the values of the angles recorded Plot
suitable graphs from which d can be calculated.
Calculated d and the error in d.
Compare the value of d obtained with the theoretical value on the grating.
Discuss your results.

MERCURY LINES
VIOLET

(moderate) 405 nm

VIOLET

(weak)

408 nm

VIOLET

(strong)

436 nm

BLUE-GREEN

(weak)

492 nm

GREEN

(strong)

546 nm

YELLOW

(strong)

577 nm

YELLOW

(strong)

579 nm

37

EXPT.11 YOUNGS MODULUS

AIM:

To determine Youngs Modulus for a wire.

APPARTUS: Two long metal wires, cage with vernier scale, level and masses.

THEORY

A force may be applied to a body to cause deformation that is changes in the size
and shape of the body. In such a case the body is said to experience stress and
strain. The stress is defined as the force per unit area and the strain as the
extension per unit length. The ratio of the stress to strain is defined as the
Youngs Modulus of the wire E.

Stress

Force (load)
F (N )

cross - sectional area A(m 2 )

Strain

Extension
x(m)

Original length L(m)

Young' s Modulus, E

Stress
Strain

METHOD:

Suspend the cage from the ceiling with the wires. Place the heavy mass A
on the wire to remove any kinks. Apply another suitable load to other the
wire to remove any kinks. Use the levelling screw to level the cage
Measure the length of the wire and its average diameter. Record the
reading on the vernier scale. Add another suitable load to the wire and relevel the cage. Record the new reading on the vernier scale hence
determines the extension produced by the load. Repeat for different values
of masses and tabulate your results.

CALCULATION

Plot a suitable graph from your results from which E can be calculated.
Calculate E and the error in E. Compare your value of E with the
theoretical value.

DISCUSS YOUR RESULTS.

38

APPENDIX:
SAMPLE BEST-FIT STRAIGHT GRAPH

ENJOY YOUR LEARNING EXPERIENCE AS YOU STRIVE FOR EXCELLENCE.

39