Vibration Chapter 3

LESSON
VIBRATION AND NOISE

MEASUREMENT
LECTURE
SUB - OBJECTIVE
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to demonstrate an understanding of
Vibration and Noise Measurement.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Electronic instruments for measuring machinery noise and vibration are generally
classified as METERS, MONITORS or ANALYZERS. The vibration Meter, Fig. 13-31, is a small portable instrument used to take periodic vibration checks on rotating
machinery to determine the overall vibration level. The vibration/sound level meter
shown in Fig. 13-3-2 may be used to take or noise level readings.
A vibration monitor, Fig. 13-3-3 is similar to a vibration meter but is permanently or
semi-permanently installed to provide continuous protection from excessive
machinery vibration. Vibration monitors normally incorporate alarm relays in
conjunction with preset vibration levels to warn when vibration has increased
beyond a given level. Some monitors may actually trigger the shutdown sequence if
vibration becomes critical.
The analyzer, Fig. 13-3-4, includes a tunable filter for separating the individual
frequencies of complex noise and vibration. A stroboscopic light which is triggered
in synchronism with the vibration of noise is also included and is a valuable aid in
analyzing machinery problems and for dynamic balancing.
SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

VIBRATION ANALYSIS & CORRECTION
MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

LESSON 3 PAGE 1
Fig. 13-3-1. A vibration meter is used to take periodic checks of machine

vibration to detect developing trouble.
Fig. 13-3-2. This vibration/sound level meter is used to measure both noise
and vibration.

LESSON 3 PAGE 2

Fig. 13-3-3. Vibration monitors are permanently installed to provide continuous

24 hour protection of critical machinery.
Fig. 13-3-4. A vibration analyzer has all the provisions needed to diagnose
machinery problems and perform in-place dynamic balancing.


LESSON 3 PAGE 3
TRANSDUCERS (PICKUPS)
Regardless of which type of instrument is used to measure the vibration or noise
(meter, monitor or analyzer), the heart of the measurement system is the pickup or
Transducer. A transducer is simply a sensing device which converts one form of
energy into another form of energy. A vibration pickup converts mechanical
vibration into an electrical signal. A microphone converts pressure oscillations into
an electrical signal.
Because there are a number of transducers available, the following paragraphs are
presented to familiarize you with the general operation and use of the pickups most
commonly used. These will include the seismic-velocity type pickup, accelerometer
and non-contact (proximity) pickups for measuring vibration; and the microphone for
measuring noise.
THE SEISMIC VELOCITY VIBRATION PICKUP
Fig. 13-3-5 is a schematic of the seismic velocity pickup showing the principal parts.
The Mechanalysis Model 544 and Model 544M are seismic velocity type vibration
pickups. The system consists of a coil of fine wire supported by springs with low
stiffness. A permanent magnet is firmly attached to the case of the pickup and
provides a strong magnetic field around the suspended coil.
When the case of the velocity pickup is attached to or held against a vibrating part,
the permanent magnet (being firmly attached to the case) follows the motion of the
vibration. The coil of wire (conductor), supported by springs with low stiffness,
remains stationary in space. Under these conditions, the relative motion between
the magnetic field and coiled conductor is the same as the motion of the part
relative to a fixed point in space; and the voltage generated by the pickup is directly
proportional to this relative motion. The faster this motion, the larger the voltage. In
other words, the voltage output of the pickup is proportional to the velocity of the
vibration. As the velocity of the vibrating part changes, the voltage generated
changes proportionately. Hence the name VELOCITY PICKUP.
The voltage output of a velocity pickup is normally expressed in milli-volts per inch
per second. This is also referred to as the sensitivity of the vibration pickup. For
example, the models 544 and 544 M pickups have a sensitivity of approximately
1080 millivolts peak per inch per second. This means that for each inch per second
peak velocity, the pickup generates 1080 milli-volts peak. This information on
pickup sensitivity may be used to check the accuracy of your Mechanalysis
instrument using a standard signal generator and voltmeter. Further details are
available on request.
LOW FREQUENCY VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
The sensitivity of the velocity pickup is only ocnstant over a specified frequency
range. At low frequencies of vibration the sensitivity actually decreases because at
the lower frequencies the pickup coil is no longer stationary with respect tot he
magnet. This decrease in pickup sensitivity begins at a frequency of approximately
600 CPM; below 600 CPM pickup output drops exponentially. The significance of
this fact is that amplitude readings taken at frequencies below approximately 600
CPM, using the standard velocity pickup, are not true readings. The amplitude
meter of your instrument will indicate a value less than the actual amplitude of
vibration being measured.

LESSON 3 PAGE 4

Even though the sensitivity falls off at low frequencies, the standard velocity pickup
is still quite usable. This drop in sensitivity will have little or no effect on the use of
your instrument for balancing or for detecting increases in machinery vibration as
required in a preventive maintenance program. However, for those who must take
readings for comparison with specific criteria, the drop-off in sensitivity is reasonably
predictable, and accurate data can be obtained by using the correction factor chart,
Fig. 13-3-6. All readings applied to the chart must be filtered amplitude readings
obtained using the filter of your vibration analyzer instrument. Overall or filter out
readings such as those obtained with the vibration meter should not be applied to
the chart.
To use the chart, simply note the frequency of the vibration on the horizontal scale
at the bottom of the chart. From this point, move upward to intersect the curve, and
cross over to the vertical axis on the left side and read the value of the correction
factor from the scale. Next, simply multiply the observed amplitude meter reading
times, the correction factor to obtain the true amplitude of vibration.
MOUNTING THE PICKUP
Like most vibration pickups, the Mechanalysis velocity pickup is sensitive only to
vibration occurring in the direction in which it is pointed In addition, the pickup may
be placed in any position without affecting its operation or accuracy.
There are several methods which can be used to apply the vibration pickup as
illustrated in Fig. 13-3-7. Each of the methods shown will hold the pickup in place
without distorting the actual vibration, but only over a limited frequency range. Fig.
13-3-8 lists the highest recommended frequency for each mounting method.
Vibration readings taken at higher frequencies may be subject to error.
The fact to consider when mounting the vibration pickup is that any object (bracket,
probe, etc.) used between the pickup and measured surface will have spring-like
qualities and thus will tend to amplify or distort the true vibration at certain
frequencies. Of course, whenever this distortion occurs, errors in measurement
result.
STUD MOUNTING
By far, the best and most reliable mounting technique is to fasten the pickup directly
to the measured surface with a threaded stud. The mounting surface should be flat,
with the entire face of the pickup in contact as shown in Fig. 13-3-8A. Avoid those
mounting conditions shown in Figs. 13-3-8B and 13-3-8C.
Stud length is an important factor to consider. The stud should not be so long as to
bottom in the end cap of the pickup as illustrated in Fig. 13-3-8D. Bottom the stud
in the end cap of the pickup may not only damage the pickup by forcing the stud
through the sealed cap, but will also reduce the usable frequency range of the
mounting.


LESSON 3 PAGE 5
HAND HELD WITHOUT A PROBE

The hand held pickup without probe is quite satisfactory for most periodic vibration
checks and analysis applications. The pickup should be held against a reasonably
flat surface. When applying the pickup to curved or irregular surfaces, keep in mind
that the pickup measures vibration only in the direction parallel to the pickup axis,
and any unsteadiness of the hand which allows the direction of the axis to vary may
result in unsteady vibration readings.
Use only enough pressure to keep the pickup from chattering or walking on the
surface. When the vibration pickup is hand held, a tingling sensation in the hand
indicates the presence of the a high frequency vibration and the need for more
pressure.
HAND HELD WITH STANDARD 9 PROBE
The standard 9 (23 cm) probe provided with Mechanalysis Meters and Analyzers is
a convenience device for reaching out of the way points for measurement and to
assist in locating the pickup at a specific point on the machine. The probe may be
used for the majority of periodic check and analysis applications; however, caution
should be exercised where vibration frequencies are above 16,000 CPM.
VISE GRIP PLIERS
The vise grip pliers require a firm mounting, preferably with the jaws in contact with
the mounting surface along their entire length. Actually, vise grips are items of
convenience for use during in place balancing, and are not recommended for
vibration analysis purposes because of their very limited frequency range.
MAGNETIC PICKUP HOLDER
The magnetic pickup holder should be mounted on a reasonably flat, smooth, clean
surface. Dirt or grease between the magnet and the mounting surface reduces the
holding power of the magnet and consequently the maximum usable frequency. If
the magnetic surface is not flush with the mounting surface, the holder may rock at
some unpredictable low frequency, producing erroneous readings. When properly
applied, the magnetic holder produces good results as a vibration pickup holder.
Sometimes a machine will require a special pickup mounting bracket or adapter. Or,
perhaps a longer probe is needed to reach out of the way places. Where the
usable frequency range is in question, a quick comparison check will usually reveal
any problems. Simply select an accessible point on the machine with vibration
characteristics similar to those where measurement will be taken. Measure the
vibration first with the pickup hand held without the probe, and then measure the
vibration at the same point using the selected bracket or probe. Any difference in
the two sets of readings will probably be due to the selected mounting.

LESSON 3 PAGE 6

Fig. 13-3-5. Basic construction of the seismic-velocity vibration pickup.


LESSON 3 PAGE 7
Fig. 13-3-6. When using the IRD Seismic Velocity Pickup at frequencies below
600 CPM, if required, more precise amplitude readings may be obtained by
multiplying the observed reading by the multiplication factor obtained from the
chart above. Only Filter In readings should be applied to the chart.

LESSON 3 PAGE 8

Fig. 13-3-7. Common Pickup Mounting Techniques.

SHAFT STICK
Many times it is useful to know the actual vibration of a shaft to compare with
bearing housing vibration. This is especially true of high speed machines such as
turbines and centrifugal pumps and compressors where the machine housing and
rigid bearings will often have very little vibration even though the rotor and shaft
may be vibrating excessively within the clearances of the bearings.
The shaft stick, Fig. 13-3-10, when used with the velocity pickup provides a
convenient means of measuring shaft vibration. The shaft stick is simply a
hardwood, fish-tail shaped stick with a stud for attaching the pickup.


LESSON 3 PAGE 9
The fish-tail shape provides two points of contact needed to keep the shaft stick on
the circumference of a rotating shaft, and also permits the use of the stick with
almost any diameter shaft or roll. In addition, the end of the stick is tapered to
provide a smaller contact area with the shaft in order to reduce friction and prevent
chatter.
Shafts must be reasonably smooth, preferably smooth, preferably turned or ground.
Applying the shaft stick to shafts with rust, dents, pits or an otherwise rough surface
will produce questionable information and may also damage the stick. Tuning the
analyzer filter to the rotating speed frequency will normally improve the results.
Also, take care to avoid keys and keyways, set screws and lubrication holes.
Fig. 13-3-8. Recommended frequency limits for different pickup attachment

methods.
Fig. 13-3-9. The entire face of the stud-mounted pickup should be in contact
with the measured surface. Mounting the pi8ckup at an angle (B) or
overhanging the measured surface (C) may result in errors. Mounting with an
overly long stud that bottoms in the pickup end cap (D) may not only affect
your readings but may also result in damage to the pickup.

LESSON 3 PAGE 10

Fig. 13-3-10. The shaft stick used with the pickup for measuring shaft vibration
a valuable tool for many analysis and balancing applications.
For shaft speeds in excess of 3600 RPM, avoid holding the stick against the shaft
for any length of time. Heat build-up from friction may burn the stick or actually
cause scoring of the shaft. Frequent applications of a medium weight lubricating oil
is recommended to reduce friction and heat build-up on high-speed shafts. Shaft
stick readings are not recommended at shaft speeds above 12,000 RPM.
Two hand are normally required to apply the shaft stick; one hand one the stick to
prevent walking up and down the shaft and the other hand on the pickup to regulate
pressure and control the angular position of the pickup. When applying the shaft
stick, use only sufficient pressure to prevent the stick from chattering. A tingling
sensation in the hand accompanied by a distinctive squeal or growl indicates the
presence of chatter and the need for more pressure. Maintaining a constant
pressure is important also. Studies how that varying the pressure significantly may
affect the accuracy of readings. This is particularly important in balancing or
wherever a comparison of shaft stick readings is important.
In the same way that the shaft stick senses shaft vibration, it also senses any out of
roundness or eccentricity of the shaft. Normally the influence from shaft runout is
quite small and not a cause for concern. Again, the use of the analyzers filter tuned
to rotating speed frequency will usually improve the validity of your readings. On
shafts, couplings, pulleys or wherever runout is suspected, a visual check with a dial
indicator or micrometer is recommended.
Although there may be sources of error in shaft stick measurement from
irregularities in shaft geometry, variations in applied pressure and angular position,
the shaft stick is a very valuable tool for analysis and in place balancing.


LESSON 3 PAGE 11
SHAFT RIDER ACCESSORY

Although the shaft stick is quite suitable for periodic vibration checks, analysis and
in place balancing, where it is desired to continually monitor absolute shaft vibration
the IRD Mechanalysis Shaft Rider Accessory, Fig. 13-3-11, is used.
Fig. 13-3-11. IRD Mechanalysis Shaft Rider Accessory.

LESSON 3 PAGE 12

The shaft rider accessory is permanently installed in the machine bearing housing
and consists of a spring loaded probe held firmly against the rotating shaft to
accurately follow shaft motion. The probe is fitted with a long-wearing non-metallic
tip which is installed within the bearing area to provide tip lubrication. A velocity
pickup or accelerometer mounted to the shaft rider provides an electrical output
proportional to the absolute shaft vibration (relative to a fixed point is space).
Shaft rider vibration pickups are normally installed on large rotating machines such
as turbo-generators with rather massive rotors. On these and similar large
machines where shaft surface speeds are moderate, a measure of absolute shaft
vibration is preferred for monitoring machinery condition and for in place dynamic
balancing. For high-speed machines with relatively light-weight rotors, a measure of
shaft vibration relative to the bearing is generally preferred. These measurements
of relative shaft vibration are obtained using non contact pickups which are
described later in this chapter.
NOTE:
When using non-contact pickups, inaccuracies can result if special attention is not
given to details regarding shaft material. Conditions such as chrome plating,
variations in alloy, use of non-ferrous materials, etc., can result in considerable error
in readings obtained with non contact pickups. As a result, the shaft rider type
pickup is also used on many high speed pumps, compressors and similar machines
to avoid these problems.
MAGNETIC INTERFERENCE
Measuring the vibration on large A.C. motors or alternators sometimes presents a
problem due to the alternating magnetic fields inherent with this type of machinery.
Such magnetic fields can induce a signal in the velocity pickup at a frequency equal
to the frequency of the A.C. field . the amplitude reading which results from the
induced signal is actually a false reading which may have nothing to do with the
condition of the machine. Of course, the strength of the induced signal will depend
on the strength of the magnetic field where the pickup is placed.
The presence and approximate influence of a magnetic field can be easily checked
using your velocity pickup and analyzer instrument. Connect the vibration pickup to
the analyzer just as you would for measuring machine vibration. Next, suspend the
vibration pickup by its cable in the area where vibration readings are normally made.
See Fig. 13-3-12. Hold the cable as steady as possible, but do not touch the
machine with the pickup. To measure the amplitude of the magnetic field, carefully
tune your analyzers filter to A.C. line frequency and note the amplitude reading.
This is the signal caused by the magnetic field.
If you find that magnetic interference is a problem, it is suggested that the pickup be
installed in a magnetic shield as illustrated in Fig. 13-3-13. The shield reduces the
magnetic interference by approximately 100 to 1.
Two magnetic shield assemblies are available. One shield (IRD part # 10449) is
available for use with the standard Model 544 velocity Pickup, and another shield
(IRD Part # 10140) has an integral 4-hole mounting for use with the Model 544 M
Velocity Pickups normally used with permanently installed vibration monitors.


LESSON 3 PAGE 13
A temporary solution to overcome the problems of magnetic interference is to use a

long extension probe. The long probe simply locates the vibration pickup away from
the magnetic field, thus reducing the interference level. The limitation of this
technique is a reduction in the usable frequency range of the measurement system.
THE DIRECT PROD VELOCITY PICKUP
Many times it is necessary to measure the vibration of a small, light-weight part or
structure. However, holding or attaching the standard velocity pickup to a small part
may actually reduce the vibration. To overcome this problem, the direct prod
vibration pickup, Fig. 13-3-14, may be used.
The direct prod pickup is quite similar in construction and operation to the seismic
velocity pickup. However, the direct prod pickup includes a prod extending through
the end-cap of the pickup and directly attached to the movable coil inside.
Toe measure vibration using the direct prod pickup, the prod of the pickup is brought
into contact with the vibrating part while the case of the pickup is rigidly held or
mounted as a fixed reference. The prod may be attached to the part using the
threaded tip, or it may beheld in place by a special magnetic tip.
The normal practice is to mechanically mount the direct prod pickup however it can
be hand-held if special care is taken. When hand holding the pickup it is usually
necessary to tune the analyzer filter to the vibration frequency of interest.
This will prevent errors in your readings resulting from the natural movement of the
hand. In addition, be sure that the probe and pickup coil are free to move within the
limits of travel at all times.
When using the direct prod velocity pickup, only the weight of the prod and moving
coil is added to the vibrating part. This makes the pickup especially useful on small,
light-weight objects where the added weight of a seismic velocity pickup may affect
the actual vibration.
In addition, since the pickup coil is mechanically moved, the output of the direct prod
pickup is virtually unaffected at the low frequencies.
Thus, this pickup is well suited for measuring low frequency vibration and is often
selected for use on balancing machines where parts may be balanced at speeds as
low as 50 RPM with excellent results.

LESSON 3 PAGE 14

Fig. 13-3-12. The effect of magnetic interference can be easily determined by

simply suspending the velocity pickup by its cable in the area where vibration
readings are normally made.
Fig. 13-3-13. The effects of magnetic interference are greatly reduced by

installing the velocity pickup in a magnetic shield.


LESSON 3 PAGE 15
Fig. 13-3-14. The IRD Mechanalysis Model 546 Direct Prod Pickup is used for
measurement of low frequency vibration and on small, light weight parts.
ACCELEROMETER PICKUP
Another transducer commonly used to measure vibration is the ACCELEROMETER,
Fig. 13-3-15. An accelerometer is a self-generating device with an output
proportional to vibration acceleration.
Since acceleration is a function of displacement and frequency squared,
accelerometers are especially sensitive to vibration occurring at high frequencies.
This makes the accelerometer particularly useful measuring and analyzing the
vibration from gears or anti-friction bearings. Accelerometers are often permanently
installed to continually monitor the vibration of gas turbines and other machines with
very high rotating speeds.
The small size and light weight make the accelerometer well suited for applications
where space is limited or where pickup weight is important.
In addition,
accelerometers are much less sensitive to stray magnetic fields than velocity
pickups and are finding greater use for monitoring vibration on large A.C. motors
and alternators.
BASIC OPERATION
In many respects an accelerometer pickup is similar in operation to the seismic
velocity pickup as indicated by the diagram, Fig. 13-3-16. However, in the
accelerometer, the coil of wire used in the velocity pickup has been replaced with a
material that produces an electrical charge when it is compressed (i.e., whenever a
force is applied). The greater the applied force, the greater the electrical charge
generated. Such a material is said to be piezoelectric, and may be a natural or
synthetic crystal or a ceramic material.
The output or sensitivity of an accelerometer is expressed in pico-coulombs per g.
The g, of course, is the standard unit of acceleration defined as the acceleration
produced by the force of gravity at the surface of the earth.

LESSON 3 PAGE 16

The output of accelerometers is usually small when compared to the normal output
of velocity type pickups. For this reason, pre-amplification of the accelerometer
output is usually required before a usable signal is obtained. The accelerometer
pictured in Fig. 13-3-17 has its own amplifier built in. this has the advantage of
eliminating many problems such as limited cable length or cable interchangeability.
The accelerometer in Fig. 13-3-15 does not have a built-in amplifier, but has the
advantage of higher operating temperature and somewhat smaller size and weight
magnetic field which in turn produces a proportional reduction in the amplitude of
the carrier signal.
When the distance between the pickup tip and the metal object (shaft) changes,
carrier signal amplitude changes also. The instantaneous amplitude changes or
modulations of the carrier signal are detected as an AC signal which is proportional
to the peak to peak vibration displacement of the shaft.
Fig. 13-3-15. An accelerometer pickup provides a signal proportional to the

vibration acceleration.


LESSON 3 PAGE 17
Fig. 13-3-16. Block diagram Non-Contact Pickup operation.

Non-contact pickups are installed in the machine with the pickup tip in close
proximity to the rotating shaft. The distance between the tip and shaft is referred to
as the gap. Typical gap settings are .020, 030, .050, .060 and .100. However,
the specific gap setting for a pickup will depend on the type of pickup, shaft material
and system calibration.
To facilitate installing the non-contact pickup and to provide assurance that the
pickup gap is properly adjusted at all times, the gap meter on the accessory
instrument or monitor indicates pickup gap.
Gap readings can be taken when the shaft is rotating (mean gap) or when the shaft
is not rotating (static gap). The gap meter provides the means for installing and
adjusting the non-contact pickup.
This is essential where methods of physical gap measurement are not possible,
such as when a machine is operating or where the pickup is installed with in the
bearing of the machine with no access to the pickup tip.
NON-CONTACT PICKUP INSTALLATION
Non-contact pickups can be supplied in many configurations as shown in Fig. 13-317. Some pickups may be only long while others may be several inches long.
Where some pickups have a threaded body for installation in tapped holes, others
may have a solid body for permanent installation with set screws or epoxy cement.
Some pickups have an integral waterproof, oil tight connector; others have molded
Teflon cables.

LESSON 3 PAGE 18

To provide maximum protection from cable damage, some cables may have
armored covers. Fig. 13-3-17 illustrates only a few of the many styles of noncontact pickups which are available to match individual installation requirements.
Non-contact pickups are normally installed in holes drilled and tapped in the
machine case or bearing cap as shown in Fig. 13-3-18. IN some cases, the
machinery manufacturer may have already made the necessary provisions for
installing the non-contact pickups, in which case installation is a simple matter of
inserting the pickups in the provided locations and adjusting for the proper gap.
For field installations where there are no provisions for mounting the pickups in the
bearing, the pickup may be mounted in a rigid bracket or adapter as shown in Fig.
13-3-19. Whenever adapters are used to mount the pickup, care must be taken to
insure that adapters are securely fastened to the machine. Adapters must be kept
short and massive to minimize any vibration of the mounting.
Fig. 13-3-7. IRD Mechanalysis Non-Contact Pickups are available in a variety

of styles to meet individual installation requirements.


LESSON 3 PAGE 19
Fig. 13-3-18. Non-Contact Pickups may be installed in holes drilled and tapped
in the machine case or bearing cap. (note: The bearing illustrated here has
been cut away to reveal details of installation).
THE MICROPHONE
There are several types of microphones commercially available; however, they all
use a diaphragm arrangement which serves to convert the air pressure oscillations
(sound) into mechanical motion (vibration). The major difference in microphones is
in the method used to concert the resulting diaphragm vibration into an electrical
signal.
The microphone provided with most IRD Mechanalysis instruments is a piezoelectric
(ceramic) microphone. See Fig. 13-3-20. In this microphone, the diaphragm is
coupled to a ceramic element which generates an electrical charge when stressed
by the vibration of the diaphragm. In this respect, the piezoelectric microphone
functions in much the same way as the accelerometer used to measure machinery
vibration. Piezoelectric microphones provide good sensitivity and a frequency
response which is quite adequate for most industrial applications. In addition, they
offer simplicity and durability. For these reasons, the piezoelectric microphone is
provided as standard with IRD Mechanalysis noise measurement and analysis
instruments.

LESSON 3 PAGE 20

Fig. 13-3-19. The Non-Contact Pickup may be mounted on a rigid bracket

firmly attached to the bearing cap.


LESSON 3 PAGE 21
Fig. 13-3-20. A ceramic microphone is provided with most IRD Mechanalysis

instruments
POSITIONING THE MICROPHONE
Unlike vibration pickups which sense vibration only in the direction they are pointed,
the microphone provided with your IRD Mechanalysis instrument is Omni-directional.
This means that the microphone is sensitive to noise coming at it from vitally any
direction. Even though the microphone is sensitive to noise coming from all
directions, some care must be exercised when positioning the microphone in order
to obtain reliable data. For example, Chapter II discussed the presence of three
possible sound fields, NEAR, FAR and REVERBEARANT, and the effect each has
on the noise levels measured. Further more, you will recall from Chapter II that
noise sources are usually directional in nature and may require more than just one
measurement.
The positions selected for noise measurement often depend on the purpose of the
measurement. For example, some government regulations require measurements
at positions which will represent the location of the workers ear, since their purpose
is to determine the amount of noise to which the worker is exposed.

LESSON 3 PAGE 22

Other standards require measurement at a number of fixed positions (e.g., 3 feet

from the machine surface, on each side of the machine at the height of its
centerline, and at the mid length of the machine). Such measurement are generally
made by machinery manufacturers to permit estimation of the noise a machine will
make when placed in different surroundings.
Still other standards require
measurement positions at which the sound pressure level is the highest in order to
estimate whether the machine will be a community noise problem.
Where no measurement standards have been set, the following procedure is a
good approach to measure machinery noise for compliance with government
regulation standards and to correlate noise with the mechanical condition of the
machine:
1.
First, sketch the top view of the machine on your data sheet and divide the
region around the machine into four quadrants at the coupling between the
driver and driven units as shown in Fig. 13-3-21. One sound measurement
will be made in each quadrant to help determine the directional
characteristics of the noise source. Where appropriate, large reflecting
surfaces adjacent to the machine such as walls or nearby machines can be
noted on the sketch along with their approximate distances.
2.
Check the machine for operating conditions such as temperature, pressure,

flow, load, speed, etc.; and note these conditions on the data sheet.
Deviations in these operating conditions may influence your noise level
measurements. Therefore such variations, when noted, should also be
recorded.
3.
Position the microphone in quadrant # 1 by locating it approximately 5 feet

(1.6 meters) above the floor and 3 feet (1 meter) from the machine surface.
Maintain these dimensions and move the microphone along the machine
within quadrant # 1 until the position of highest noise level is observed on
your instrument.
4.
Move the microphone around within an approximate one cubic foot volume
at this position and note any variation in the measured noise level. If this
variation is less than 3 dB, then this position is satisfactory. However, if the
variations are greater than 3 dB, this indicates that the microphone may be
in the NEAR FIELD of the machine. In such case the microphone should be
moved further from the machine to a distance of, say, 5 feet (1.6 meters) and
the position of highest noise level re-established. If the noise level still varies
significantly with position, the microphone may still be in the near field, or it
may be in the REVERBERANT FIELD. Where these variations in noise level
persist, select a position for measurement and carefully mark its location for
future measurements.
5.
Check to be sure that the microphone is more than 3 feet (1 meter) from
reflecting surfaces. You will recall that large flat structures such as walls
cause the greatest reflections; however, other surfaces such as large
adjacent machines can also cause reflections. When the noise level
increases as the microphone is moved away from the noise source and
toward a wall or other reflecting surface, this is a strong indication that the
microphone is in the reverberant field.


LESSON 3 PAGE 23
6.
Once microphone position has been established for quadrant # 1, it should

be permanently located by a suitable mark on the floor and by dimensioning
the position on your data sheet.
7.
Repeat steps 3 through 6 above to establish suitable microphone positions

for quadrants 2,3 and 4.
8.
If there are operator stations near the machine, noise level measurements
should also be taken at these locations. The microphone should be located
at the approximate position of the operators ear as illustrated in Fig. 13-322. The machine operator should not be near the microphone when the
measurement is taken.
Fig. 13-3-21. Microphone position is properly dimensioned, to permit relocation for

comparable readings later.

LESSON 3 PAGE 24

Fig. 13-3-22. Sound measurements are also made at operator stations at the
approximate position of the operators ear.
POSITIONING THE OF THE INSTRUMENT OPERATOR
When the instrument operator is near the microphone, as would be the case when
he is holding the .to make a measurement, his
presence can affect the measured results by as much as 6 dB. For this reason, it is
worthwhile to follow procedures which minimize this effect. The operator should
stand with one microphone extended well in front of him with the apparent noise
source either to his right or left. The microphone should not left. The microphone
should not be pointed directly toward the source. See Fig. 13-3-23.
Hand holding the microphone is generally satisfactory when overall sound
measurements are being taken. However, when an analysis of the noise is to be
made, the microphone should be held by a clamp and the instrument operator
moved 5 or 10 feet away.


LESSON 3 PAGE 25
Fig. 13-3-23. The instrument operator should stand with the microphone held
about 2 feet in front of him with the sound source at his left or right. The
microphone should point away from the operator, but not toward the source.
INSTRUMENT OPERATION
This section outlines the basic features and operation of the instruments used to
measure and analyze noise and vibration and for dynamic balancing. The
instruments illustrated here are typical meters and analyzers. For more detailed
information, refer to the instruction and operation manual furnished with your
specific instrument.
FIBRATION AND SOUND LEVEL METERS
The meters shown in Fig. 1. And 2 are used for measuring overall vibration and
noise amplitudes. The Vibration Meter, Fig. 1, both displacement and velocity. The
vibration/Sound Level Meter, Fig. 2, measures vibration and also provides a
measure of noise levels in dB utilizing the standard A, B and C weighting networks.
Some regulations on hearing conservation require that a check of instrument
accuracy be made before and/or after conducting a noise level survey. Such a
check can be made quickly and easily in the field using an optional sound level
calibrator such as the unit shown in Fig. 13-3-24. The sound level calibrator
illustrated is battery powered and generates a precise sound pressure. Simply
simply fitting the calibrator over the microphone and comparing the resulting
amplitude meter reading to the pre-established level noted on the calibrator checks
instrument operation.

LESSON 3 PAGE 26

Fig. 13-3-24. A sound level calibrator is used to periodically check instrument

accuracy.


LESSON 3 PAGE 27
MEASURING MACHINERY VIBRATION

To measure machinery vibration, first connect one end of the pickup cable to the
vibration pickup and connect the other end of the cable to the pickup input
receptacle on the instrument.
Test the instrument batteries using the TEST provisions of the instrument.
Batteries which read low should be replaced immediately.
To measure the vibration, we must place the pickup at various points on the
machine where we can gain the most useful information. Often the position and
location of the vibration pickup will be dictated by the physical shape of the
machine. In general, however, ..near as possible
to the machines bearing because it is through the bearings that the vibration forces
are being transmitted.
It should be remembered that the vibration pickup measures only the vibration
occurring in the direction in which it is pointed. For this reasons, it is necessary to
identify the position of the pickup for all vibration measurements. Vibration readings
are normally taken with the pickup in the HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL or AXIAL
direction as illustrated in Fig. 13-3-25. Vertical and horizontal readings are taken
with the pickup perpendicular to the machines shaft centerline and are generally
called radial vibration measurements. Axial vibration readings are those taken with
the pickup parallel to the centerline of the shaft of the machine. In either case, the
pickup should be placed on the bearing housing as near to the shaft as possible.
Proceed to measure the vibration as follows:
1.
Place the vibration pickup on the machine in the vertical, horizontal or axial
direction. The pickup may be hand-held with or without the standard probe,
or it may be attached by pliers or magnetic holder as illustrated previously in
fig. 43. When hand holding the pickup, the pickup should be held firmly
against the machine with just enough pressure to prevent it from chattering.
Hold the pickup as steady as you can to insure accurate readings.
2.
Select the DISPLACEMENT of the VELOCITY of the vibration for

measurement using the DISPLACEMENT-VELOCITY SELECTOR. See Fig.
13-3-26.
3.
Starting at the least sensitive full-scale range (100 on instruments with

English readout and 3000 on instruments with Metric readout), turn the
AMPLITUDE RANGE SELECTOR clockwise to each position until a reading
is obtained in the upper two thirds of the AMPLITUDE METER.

LESSON 3 PAGE 28

Fig. 13-3-25. Vibration readings are normally taken in the HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL
and AXIAL directions at the bearings of the machine.
Fig. 13-3-26. IRD Mechanalysis Model 306 Vibration Meter.


LESSON 3 PAGE 29
NOTE:
Dont worry if you happen to turn the amplitude range selector too far such
that the amplitude meter goes off scale. Overload protection is built into the
meter circuits so that the meter will not be burned out or harmed if it goes off
scale. Simply turn the amplitude range selector back until the meter reads in
the upper two-thirds of the meter scale.
You will note that the amplitude meter has two scales: the top meter scale
reads from 0 to 1 and the bottom scale from 0 to 3. The two scales on the
meter are designed so that an up-scale reading of at least one-third full scale
is possible for all vibration measurements. This minimizes inherent meter
error.
The setting of the amplitude range selector determines which scale applies.
If the selector is set to a range which begins with 1 such as 100, 10, 1, etc.,
use the top scale when reading the meter, placing the decimal point as
indicated by the amplitude range selected.
For example, on the 100 setting, the full scale amplitude on the meter
becomes 100 mils (microns) or 100 inches per second (milli meters per
second). IN this case, a reading of .6 on the meter becomes 60 mils
(microns) or 60 inches per second (millimeters per second). If the amplitude
range is set to a number, which begins with 3 such as 30, 3, 3, etc., use the
bottom scale of the meter, placing the decimal point in the same way.
Fig. 13-3-27A through 13-3-27-D are some typical amplitude meter readings.
Study each example carefully, noting how 1) determines the final reading
obtained on the meter.
The position of the DISPLACEMENT-VELOCITY SELECTOR; and 2) the
range selected by the AMPLITUDE RANGE SELECTOR, which determines
whether the top or bottom meter scale is used, and the full-scale amplitude
of the meter.
MEASURING MACHINERY NOISE
To measure machinery noise:
1.
First install the microphone in the INPUT RECEPTACLE. Test the

instrument batteries using the instruments TEST provisions. If local
regulations require, check instrument accuracy using the sound level
calibration described earlier.
2.
Select the appropriate A, B, or c weighting network depending on the

purpose of your measurement. The A weighting is normally used
for measurements taken to comply with legislation on hearing
conservation. The C weighting is used for analysis and for
correlating machinery noise and condition.
3.
Place the meter in position for the measurement with the microphone
properly oriented. Details on positioning the microphone are outlined
in this Chapter under Positioning The Microphone and Position of
the Instrument Operator.

LESSON 3 PAGE 30



LESSON 3 PAGE 31

LESSON 3 PAGE 32



LESSON 3 PAGE 33
Fig. 13-3-27. Typical vibration amplitude meter readings.

LESSON 3 PAGE 34

4.
Starting with the AMPLITUDE RANGE SELECTOR in the least

sensitive range (130 dB) turn the selector clockwise to each range
position until a reading within the 0 to + 10 dB scale is obtained.
(This provides better meter accuracy than readings obtained between
5 to 0 on the scale).
To obtain the noise level reading, note the position of the
AMPLITUDE RANGE SELECTOR (50, 60, 70, etc.) and add this
value to the reading indicated on the meter. For example, in Fig. 133-28, the amplitude range selector is set to 80, and the meter
registers 6. Therefore, the noise level is 80 + 6 or 86 dB.
When recording noise level measurements, it is important that the
weighting network used (A, B or C) be identified for each
measurement value. For example, in fig. 13-3-28, the 86 dB noise
level was measured using the C weighting network. Therefore, this
reading must be recorded as 86 dB .
Fig. 13-3-28. To determine the noise level, add the meter reading
to the selected dB range. Be sure to identify the weighting
network selected.


LESSON 3 PAGE 35
THE VIBRATION ANALYZER

Vibration and sound level meters measure overall machine vibration and noise to
provide an indication of the general condition of machinery. However, in order to
pinpoint machinery problems we must be able to measure and compare all the
defining characteristics of vibration and noise amplitude, frequency and phase.
This is the job of the ANALYZER. In addition, most machinery vibration is some
what complex, consisting of many frequencies all occurring at the same time. This
is true of machinery noise too. Therefore, when the vibration or noise is complex,
the analyzer must be able to separate one frequency from another so that each one
can be measured.
Illustrated in Fig. 13-3-29 is a typical analyzer together with the standard
accessories provided. Although analyzers may differ in general appearance, the
basic features and operation described in the following paragraphs will apply in
most cases.
Fig.13-3-29. IRD Mechanalysis Vibration Analyzer/Dynamic Balancer with

accessories.
THE VIBRATION PICKUP
The standard VIBRATION PICKUP, provided with the analyzer is the same pickup
used with the vibration/sound level meters. The pickup is connected to the analyzer
by the PICKUP CABLE supplied. Longer pickup cables up to 750 feet in length
may be used if necessary.
Many pickup input receptacles as shown in Fig. 13-3-30. This permits two pickups
to be connected to the instrument at the same time to facilitate analysis and
balancing.

LESSON 3 PAGE 36

Of course, the analyzer will only read the vibration from the one pickup at a time.
The pickup receptacle connected tot he instrument is determined by the PICKUP
SELECTOR SWITCH located on the front panel of the analyzer, Fig. 13-3-70.
Other vibration pickups such as non-contact and accelerometer pickups may be
used with the analyzer using available accessories. Or, the analyzer may be
connected directly to a permanently installed vibration monitor instrument which
uses either velocity, non-contact or accelerometer pickups. All IRD Mechanalysis
monitors feature a special ANALYZER JACK for this purpose. See fig. 13-3-32.
For analysis of machinery noise, the vibration/sound level meter may be connected
directly to the analyzer as shown in Fig. 13-3-33. The standard pickup cable is used
for this purpose.
Fig. 13-3-30. Two pickups can be connected to the analyzer to speed analysis
and balancing.


LESSON 3 PAGE 37
Fig. 13-3-31. Pickup selector switch.
Fig. 13-3-32. Vibration analyzer connected to the ANALYZER JACK located on

the front panel of all IRD Mechanalysis vibration Monitors.

LESSON 3 PAGE 38

Fig. 13-3-33. To analyze machinery noise, simply connect the vibration/sound

level meter to the analyzer.
THE AMPLITUDE METER
The amplitude of vibration is read from the analyzers AMPLITUDE METER, 13-334. This meter is identical to the amplitude meter used on the vibration/ sound level
meters, and uses the same 0 to 1 top scale and 0 to 3 bottom scale. Here also, the
full scale range of the meter and the scale to use (top or bottom) are determined by
the AMPLITUDE RANGE SELECTOR.
Displacement or velocity may be selected
DISPLACEMENT VELOCITY SELECTOR.
for
measurement
with
the
The amplitude meter on the analyzer pictured in Fig. 13-3-34 also has a dB scale.
This scale is used when the analyzer is combined with the vibration/sound level
meter for noise analysis.
Fig. 13-3-34. Vibration analyzer/dynamic balancer functions and controls.


LESSON 3 PAGE 39
THE FREQUENCY METER

The frequency of the vibration or noise being measured is indicated on the
analyzers FREQUENCY METER, Fig. 13-3-34. Vibration and noise frequencies are
read directly from the meter in cycles per minute (CPM).
The frequency rang eof the meter is determined by the FREQUENCY RANGE
SELECTOR. Simply set the selector to the frequency range that gives the highest
meter reading without having the meter read off scale. Like the amplitude meter,
the frequency meter has built-in overload protection to the meter will not be burned
out or harmed if you happen to go off scale.
NOTE:
The frequency meter will not function for extremely low amplitude readings.
Normally the amplitude meter must read at least 10% up-scale before the frequency
meter will function. Therefore, adjust your amplitude range selector for a reading
preferably in the upper two-thirds of the scale before selecting the appropriate
frequency range for an up-scale frequency meter reading.
In Filter Out the meter reads the frequency of a single strong predominant vibration
when there are essentially no high frequency components present, or if present, are
of a low amplitude level. If high frequency components are present, the frequency
meter will tend to read them, especially in the velocity mode; in the displacement
mode, high frequencies are attenuated and the predominant lower frequency is
more likely to be indicated. Fig. 13-3-35A through 13-3-355D are sample frequency
meter readings. Study each example carefully and note how the final frequency
reading is determined, based on the frequency range selected and the steadiness
of the meter.
THE TUNABLE FILTER
Because a machine may have more than one vibration or noise frequency present
and, since we must rely on frequency measurements to pinpoint specific troubles in
a machine.
We need some way to block out all but one frequency so we can see which parts
are in trouble and require correction.
This is the job for the TUNABLE FILTER. The tunable filter is much like the tuner in
your radio. You use it to reject the stations you dont want while receiving the one
you do want.
To properly use the tunable filter, it is important to understand some of the
characteristics of filters. First, it is important to recognize that the tunable filter does
not reject all noise or vibration frequencies except the one to which it is tuned. The
filter is actually tuned to a narrow band of frequencies and accepts those
frequencies within the band while increasingly rejecting those frequencies outside
the band.
A typical filter response curve is illustrated in Fig. 13-3-36. Note that the filter
bandwidth is defined by the upper and lower cut-off frequencies.

LESSON 3 PAGE 40

The cut off frequencies above and below the tuned center frequency, where the
response to a signal is approximately 30% less than maximum response. In other
words, at the cut-off frequency a signal would be reduced by 30% of its real
amplitude.
Beyond the cut-off frequencies the signal will be reduced by
considerably more.
The bandwidth of a filter is usually expressed as the percentage between the filters
turned center frequency and the upper and lower cut-off frequencies. For example,
the bandwidth of the filter in Fig. 13-3-36 is 5%, which means that the filter
bandwidth extends 5% above (+) and 5% below (-) the tuned frequency. Such a
filter tuned to a frequency of 1000 CPM would, therefore, have a bandwidth
extending from 950 CPM to 1050 CPM or a bandwidth of 100 CPM. (5% of 1000 =
50). IN addition, this same filter tuned to a frequency of 10,000 CPM would have a
bandwidth from 9,500 to 10,500 CPM or a bandwidth of 1000 CPM. As you can
see, the effective bandwidth of a filter in CPM depends on the tuned frequency.
Understanding filter characteristics is important in this respect. Suppose we tune
our 5% filter to a vibration frequency at 1000 CPM, and its amplitude is 0.5 in/sec.
In addition, suppose that there is also a 1.0 in/sec vibration present at a frequency
of 950 CPM, where the rejection of our filter is 30%. The net result will be two
vibration signals coming through the filter at the same time; 0.5 in/sec at 1000 CPM
and 0.7 in/sec at 950 CPM. Of course, the frequency of the stronger vibration (950
CPM) will be indicated on the frequency meter even though the filter is set on 1000
CPM. Such action through the filter would appear to be undesirable. However, as
long as the strongest source of noise or vibration can be detected, we can pinpoint
the defect and solve the problem.
Most IRD Mechanalysis analyzers provide two bandwidth filters; one designated
BROAD and one SHARP. The BROAD filter has a 5% bandwidth, and the SHARP
filter a 2 % bandwidth. The filter desired is selected and put into operation by
the FILTER SELECTOR, Fig. 13-3-34. The BROAD filter is usually selected for
rapid scanning of the frequency ranges to quickly determine the vibration or noise
frequencies present. The SHARP filter provides better rejection and selectivity and
is used when a particular noise or vibration frequency is studied.
TUNING THE FILTER TO A KNOWN FREQUENCY
Tuning the filter to a known frequency.
Many times we would like to tune the filter to a noise or vibration frequency we know
(or suspect) is present. For example, with the motor/fan assembly in fig. 13-3-37, it
would be safe to assume that some vibration is present at motor RPM (1800 CPM)
and fan RPM (2200 CPM). To tune the filter to 1800 CPM.
1.
Turn the FILTER SELECTOR to the SHARP position.
2.
Set the FREQUENCY RANGE SELECTOR to the range which includes 1800
CPM. For the analyzer pictured in fig. 13-3-34, this range is 500 5K (5K =
5000).
3.
Turn the FILTER TUNING KNOB, Fig. 13-3-34, until the TUNING DIAL
indicates the desired frequency. This is only an approximate setting at this
point.


LESSON 3 PAGE 41
4.
Select either displacement or velocity for measurement using the

DISPLACEMENT VELOCITY SELECTOR.
5.
Turn the AMPLITUDE RANGE SELECTOR to a range which gives an

amplitude meter reading preferably in the upper 2/3rds of the meter scale.
6.
Rock the filter tuning knob by turning it slowly back and forth while observing
the amplitude metre. IN this fashion, make minor adjustments to obtain the
maximum or peak reading on the amplitude meter.
This techniques of tuning the filter to obtain the peak amplitude is very similar to
tuning your radio to a particular station to get the clearest reception. With the filter
properly adjusted, the frequency meter should read steady at the tuned frequency.
TUNING THE FILTER TO FIND UNKNOWN FREQUENCIES
When machinery noise and vibration are complex, i.e., consisting of two or more
frequencies, the analyzers tunable filter must be used to determine which
frequencies are present. It is in this regard that the frequency meter is of great
value.
When seeking unknown noise and vibration frequencies, the analyzers frequency
range is scanned with the tunable filter.
When there is no particular vibration or noise present at the frequency to which the
filter is tuned, the frequency meter pointer will move up and down the meter scale in
a random manner.
However, as soon as the filter approaches a particular vibration or sound frequency,
the frequency meter pointer will lock on to that frequency and cease its wandering
over the scale.
This is the first indication that a particular frequency is present. Fine adjustment of
the filter-tuning dial is then made to obtain a peak reading on the analyzer amplitude
meter.
This method of tuning the filter to discover the various frequencies of noise or
vibration is outlined in more detail in the following step-by-step procedure:

LESSON 3 PAGE 42

ABOVE LEFT: The frequency range selector is set on the 50 500 CPM range.
Therefore, the indicated meter reading is; 420 CPM.
ABOVE RIGHT: The frequency range selector is set on the 500 5K CPM range.
Therefore, the indicated meter reading is 1800CPM.
BELOW LEFT: The frequency range selector is set on the 5K 50 CPM RANGE.
Therefore, the indicated meter reading is 8000 CPM.
BELOW RIGHT: The frequency meter indication is unsteady, indicating that there is
no vibration present at the frequency to which the filter is tuned. In the Filter Out
mode this would indicate that there is no predominate vibration frequency.
Fig. 13-3-35. Sample frequency meter readings.


LESSON 3 PAGE 43
Fig. 13-3-36. Typical filter response.
Fig. 13-3-37. With this motor/fan unit, some vibration will likely occur at motor
RPM (1800) and fan RPM (2200)

LESSON 3 PAGE 44

1.
Turn the FILTER SELECTOR to the BORAD position. The BROAD position
is selected because it allows us to scan the frequency ranges quickly.
Scanning with the SHARP filter would take more time and is usually reserved
for analysis of very complex noise or vibration.
2.
Turn the FREQUENCY RANGE SELECTOR to the lowest frequency range

position. For the analyzer in Fig. 13-3-34, this range is 50-500 CPM. (for
finding noise frequencies, you may ignore those frequencies below 600 CPM
as these are below the audible range).
3.
Turn the Filter DIAL to the beginning of the frequency range.
4.
Select either displacement, velocity or noise level (dB) for measurement.

For scanning vibration frequencies, displacement is recommended below
600 CPM. Above 600 CPM, the velocity mode may be used. For finding
noise frequencies use the C weighting network.
5.
Turn the AMPLITUDE RANGE SELECTOR to obtain an upscale amplitude

meter reading preferably in the upper 2/3rds of the scale if possible.
Remember that a reading of at least 10% upscale on the amplitude meter is
needed before the frequency meter will function.
6.
With your analyzer set up as described thus far, the frequency meter pointer
will most likely be doing one of three things; 1) moving randomly back and
forth over the meter scale, 2) reading off-scale, or 3) reading zero.
Therefore, slowly turn the filter tuning dial through the frequency range while
observing the frequency meter. Remember, the frequency meter is your
guide! Also, check the amplitude meter often to be sure it is reading upscale
and on-scale at all times.
Continue to tune the filter dial in this fashion until the frequency meter stops
moving back and forth over the meter scale and locks on to a particular
frequency.
7.
Once the frequency meter locks on, this means that your filter is
approaching a particular frequency. Note the reading on the frequency
meter, and slowly turn the turning the dial reading is the same as the reading
on your frequency meter. This is only an approximate setting at this point.
8.
Turn the FILTER SELECTOR to the SHARP position.
9.
Slowly rock the tuning dial back and forth to obtain the peak reading on the
amplitude meter.
Once the filter has been adjusted for the maximum or peak amplitude reading, this
means that the filter has been properly tuned to the particular frequency. To fin d
the other frequencies of vibration or noise, switch the FILTER SELECTOR back to
the BROAD position and continue to scan until the frequency meter locks on to the
next frequency. Proceed to scan through each frequency range to discover all
vibration or noise frequencies present.


LESSON 3 PAGE 45
THE STROBE LIGHT

The stroboscopic light of STROB LIGHT furnished with your analyzer is a highintensity light which flashes on and off in synchronism with the vibration or noise
frequency being measured. The light is connected to the analyzer by the STROB
CABLE supplied.
To illustrate the operation of the strobe light, suppose the 1800 RPM motor in fig.
13-3-38 is out of balance. This will cause a vibration at a frequency of 1800 CPM or
once for each revolution of the shaft, and the strobe light will be fired at the same
rate. As the motor pulley rotates, the strobe light flashes each time the part reaches
a certain position.
For the motor in Fig. 13-3-38, the strobe light flashes when the reference mark on
the pulley reaches a position of 2: 00 oclock. The motor pulley is illuminated briefly
at that time. During the rest of the pulleys rotation, the light is off and then the
pulley is again illuminated when the mark is at 2:00 oclock. This action makes the
eye believe that the pulley is standing still.
The use of the strobe light to pinpoint the source of vibration or noise is very
important. You will recall from chapter II that the frequency of vibration and noise is
usually equal to or a multiple of the rotating speed of the pat at fault. Since the
strobe light flash rate is determined by the frequency of noise or vibration, the part
causing the problem will often appear to stand still under the light.
The motor pulley in Fig. 13-3-38 is standing still with one mark visible under the
strobe light because the vibration frequency is 1 x RPM. If the vibration or noise
frequency occurs at 2 X RPM, say due to mechanical looseness, you may see the
pulley standing still with the reference mark in two positions as illustrated in Fig. 133-39.
Fig. 13-3-40 shows the reference mark frozen in three positions which could occur
if the frequency was 3 x RPM.
Sometimes the rotor will not appear to stand still under the strobe light. The image
may be erratic like the one in Fig. 13-3-41. This occurs when the vibration or noise
is unsteady or complex. Or, perhaps the vibration or noise is coming from another
source. If this occurs, the tunable filter should be used.

LESSON 3 PAGE 46

Fig. 13-3-38. The strobe light flashes in synchronism with the vibration. The
reference mark is illuminated briefly each revolution when it reaches the 2:00
oclock position to make the pulley appear to stand still.
Fig. 13-3-39. Vibration at 2 x RPM may show two reference marks under the
strobe light.


LESSON 3 PAGE 47
Fig. 13-3-40. Reference mark frozen in three positions.
Fig. 13-3-41. An erratic strobe image usually means the noise or vibration is
unsteady, complex or, perhaps coming from another source.

LESSON 3 PAGE 48

MAXIMUM STROBE FLASH

RATE
The maximum flash rate of the strobe light is normally limited in order to conserve
bulb life. Some analyzers have a maximum strobe flash rate of 15,000 flashes per
minute while others are limited to 5000 flashes per minute. For noise and vibration
frequencies above the maximum flash rate, the analyzer maximum flash rate, the
analyzer will automatically cause the strobe light to flash at sub-multiple rates of the
frequency; i.e., 1/3, , etc.
The importance of this fact can be illustrated by the following example: Assume that
the maximum flash rate of your strobe light is 5000 flashes per minute, and the
rotating speed (RPM) of a machine is 4600 RPM. If you measure the vibration at 2
x RPM or 9200 CPM, the strobe light must flash at a sub-multiple or 4600 flashes
per minute in this case. Since this flash rate is equal to rotating speed, you would
see only one mark under the strobe light even though the frequency being
measured is two times RPM. Two marks will be seen only when the vibration at 2 x
RPM is at or below the maximum flash rate of the strobe light.
Two important considerations can be drawn from this example:
1.
First, the relationship of a noise or vibration frequency to machine RPM (i.e.,

whether the frequency measured is 1,2,3 etc., times RPM) should not be
determined solely on the number of reference marks which appear under the
strobe light.
2.
Secondly, where the RPM of the machine is unknown, a frequency which

causes one mark to stand still should not automatically be taken as the
rotating speed. In the example above, one reference mark appeared even
though the frequency being measured was 2 x RPM. For this machine, only
one reference mark would be observed for frequencies of 1,2,3,4 and higher
multiples of rotating speed. In addition, only one reference mark would
appear for frequencies at , 1/3, or lower multiples of RPM.
A procedure for using the strobe light to determine the rotating speed of a
machine is outlined later in this chapter under the heading The Internal
Oscillator.
USING THE STROBE LIGHT TO CONFIRM FREQUENCY METER READINGS

The analyzers frequency meter will normally provide accurate frequency indications
within 2% of the full scale meter range. However, the resolution and accuracy of
the frequency meter is such that it is impossible to determine the frequency to an
exact cycle. As a result, the question often arises; Is the indicated frequency exactly
the same as the rotating speed (or multiple of rotating speed) of some part of the
machine?
This question is easily answered using the strobe light. Since the strobe light and
frequency meter are, for all practical purposes, triggered by the same vibration or
noise signal, if the frequency and machine RPM (or multiple) are the same, the
strobe light will make the rotor appear to stand still with one or more reference
marks visible.


LESSON 3 PAGE 49
However, if the frequency being measured is not exactly the same as shaft speed or
some multiple of shaft speed, then the shaft will not appear to stand still under the
strobe light. For example, if the noise or vibration is a actually coming from another
part of the machine or perhaps from a nearby machine, the strobe image may
appear erratic like that in Fig. 13-3-41; or the reference mark may appear to rotate
slowly.
USING THE STROBE LIGHT TO MEASURE PHASE
Another common use of the strobe light is to measure the phase of vibration.
Phase measurements are often essential in vibration analysis to diagnose specific
machine problems. In addition phase measurements are particularly use full for
balancing rotating parts. The position of the reference mark changes when the
position of the unbalance is changed. The position of the reference mark can be
used then to determine the correct place for making weight corrections.
The use of phase measurements for analysis is discussed in Chapter IV, and
dynamic balancing using phase measurements is outlined in detail Chapter V
The first step in using the strobe light to measure phase is to establish a common
reference to which all phase measurements will be made. Normally, a reference
mark is put on one end of the shaft which can be viewed under the strobe light. A
reference mark can be made with chalk or paint, or an existing key or key way can
be used. In some cases where the machine cannot be shut down and where no key
or key is visible, a distinguishing blemish, nick, rust spot or grease spot on the shaft
may be used.
A common practice is to view the end of the shaft as an imaginary clock face, in
which case the phase of the vibration measured in Fig. 13-3-38 would be 2:00
oclock. The clock face reference system is most commonly used when phase is
observed for general comparison purposes.
When it is desirable to measure phase very accurately (such as for balancing) an
angular (o to 360) phase reference system like that shown in Fig. 13-3-42 shows a
phase measurement of 75.
When taking phase measurements, certain precautions should be taken to insure
accurate, reliable data:
1.
First the direction of the pickup axis, together with the reference mark on the
end of the rotating shaft and the superimposed clock face or angular
reference, establish the fixed reference for taking comparative phase
readings. Thus, pickup direction should not be changed from one reading to
another. If it is necessary to change the direction of the pickup, this change
must be noted so that the phase readings can be corrected accordingly for
comparison.
To demonstrate the importance of pickup direction, measure the phase with
the vibration pickup in the horizontal direction on a bearing as shown in Fig.
13-3-43. Next, move the pickup to the horizontal direction on the opposite
side of the bearing so that the pickup axis is so that the pickup axis is
reversed 180 from your original reading. You will note that the 180 shift in
pickup direction produces a corresponding 180 shift in the observed phase
reading.

LESSON 3 PAGE 50

Even minor changes in pickup direction will produce a corresponding phase

change. For example, when hand holding the vibration pickup, any
unsteadiness which allows the angle of the pickup to change will result in
unsteady phase readings. This is especially important to remember when
phase readings are taken for balancing purposes where accurate phase
readings are essential for good results.
2.
When using the analyzers tunable filter for taking amplitude and phase
readings, it is essential that the filter be properly adjusted for each reading.
Although a slight mis-adjustment of the filter may not appreciably change the
amplitude reading, the phase reading may be changed by several degrees.
3.
When taking comparative phase readings, avoid switching from one

parameter of amplitude measurement to another. For example, phase
readings taken when measuring displacement will differ by exactly 90 from
those taken in velocity.
Fig. 13-3-42. When accurate phase readings are needed, such as for
balancing, an angular phase reference is normally used.


LESSON 3 PAGE 51
THE INTERNAL OSCILLATOR

Standard IRD Mechanalysis Analyzers are provided with an adjustable INTERNAL
OSCILLATOR. The internal oscillator is a separate means of flashing the strobe
light, and is completely independent of the vibration or noise source.
The internal oscillator is put into operation by switching the FILTER SELECTOR to
the OSC position. See Fig. 13-3-34.
The rate at which the internal oscillation fires the strobe light is adjustable over the
entire frequency range of the analyzer; however, the strobe light flash rate will
automatically be sub-divided above the strobes maximum flash rate just as it is for
vibration or noise frequencies.
The oscillator is adjusted by the FILTER TUNING KNOB, and the oscillator
frequency will be indicated on the frequency meter. When the internal oscillator is in
operation, the amplitude meter will read zero.
The internal oscillator used in conjunction with the strobe light offers three important
uses:
1.
Perform slow motion studies.
2.
Facilitate filter tuning.
3.
Determine the rotating speed (RPM) of a part
When parts vibrate rapidly back and forth, the eye has difficulty trying to follow the
motion. Normally, the inability of the eye to follow the motion of a vibrating object
causes the part to appear blurred.
Slow motion studies with the oscillator and strobe light provide a means of
observing dynamic conditions that could not be observed by other means except
perhaps by costly high speed motion pictures.
Using the internal oscillator and strobe light for slow motion studies is easy. Simply
adjust the flash rate of the strobe light to a rate slightly slower or faster than the
frequency of motion of the part.
This will make the part appear to move slowly. For example, if a shaft is rotating at
1800 RPM and we adjust the internal oscillator to a frequency of 1780 CPM, the
shaft will appear to rotate at 20 RPM under the strobe light (1800 1780 = 20).
Slowing down the motion this way allows us to observe the relative motion of parts
and other conditions which may be detrimental to machine operation. For example,
in one instance a high level of vibration was detected on a direct driven motor/fan
unit shortly after start-up.
Slow motion observation of the coupling disclosed that the coupling was turning
slightly back and forth on the fan shaft.
Visual inspection after the unit was shut down revealed that an undersized key had
been used to install the coupling on the fan shaft. Replacing the key with one of the
proper size eliminated the movement of the coupling and the high vibration.

LESSON 3 PAGE 52

TUNING THE FILTER WITH THE INTERNAL OSCILLATOR

If the rotating speed of a machine is known, the oscillator can be used to quickly
and accurately tune the filter to rotating speed and multiples of rotating speed.
For example, suppose we wanted to tune the filter to a frequency equal to the
rotating speed (RPM) of a motor where the nameplate on the motor gave its speed
as, say, 1725 RPM. To do this, we would adjust the internal oscillator to
approximately 1725 and make any minor adjustments until the motor shaft
appeared to stand still under the strobe light. Adjusting the internal oscillator adjusts
the tunable filter at the same time.
Therefore, when we switch the filter to either the BROAD or SHARP position, it is
automatically tuned to the rotating speed frequency of the motor. This is a quicker
and easier way to tune the filter than making fine adjustment to obtain the peak
amplitude.
USING THE INTERNAL OSCILLATOR TO DETERMINE MACHINE RPM
If the rotating speed (RPM) of a machine is unknown, the internal oscillator and
strobe light can be used to quickly and easily determine what the speed is. To do
this, adjust the internal oscillator initially to a flash rate of 5000 flashes per minute.
Now, slowly reduce the flash rate while observing a reference mark on the rotating
part with the strobe light. Continue to reduce the flash rate until you reach a point
where a single reference mark appears to stand still. Note this flash rate from the
frequency meter. We call this first reading R1.
After recording R1, continue to slowly reduce the flash rate until, again, you see a
single reference mark frozen under the strobe light. Note this flash rate from the
frequency meter and call it R2.
Once the values for R1 and R2 have been found, the rotating speed of the part is
calculated using the formula:
RPM
R1 x R 2
R1 - R 2
This technique for finding the rotating speed of a part will work for any two adjacent
flash rates which cause the part to stand still with one reference mark under the
strobe light. However, it is important not to miss a flash rate where a single mark
appears, or your calculated RPM will be incorrect.
D.C. RECORDER RECEPTACLE
Most IRD Mechanalysis analyzers, monitors and meters include provisions for
connecting an optional D.C. chart recorder.
See Fig. 13-3-44. The D.C. voltage output available from the instrument is
proportional to the AMPLITUDE METER reading and by connecting a record
vibration or noise amplitude can be recorded over a long period of time.


LESSON 3 PAGE 53
Recordings of amplitude versus time can be helpful in many ways. D.C. recorders
are often used with permanently installed vibration monitors. By continually
recording vibration amplitude levels, it is possible to determine whether machinery
problem has developed suddenly or gradually over a period of time. Such
information may be an important factor when making the decision to shut down an
important machine.
Vibration and noise amplitude recordings can be a valuable aid in diagnosing certain
machinery problems.
For example, one paper manufacturer was experiencing repeated bearing failures in
the dryer section of a paper machine for no apparent reason. A vibration analyzer
was brought in, however, the amplitude readings.taken at the time were very low,
indicating that no significant mechanical problems existed.
After exhausting all realistic possibilities, the decision was made to connect a D.C.
recorder to the analyzer and record the vibration amplitude for a few days to see if
anything could be learned.
The next day, an examination of the chart recording revealed several brief periods
of very high amplitude. Since the starting time of the recording as well as the chart
speed were known, it was an easy matter to establish the approximate time of day
that each severe vibration occurred. With this information, an investigation was
undertaken to determine what might have occurred at these times to cause the high
vibration.
It was learned that the periods of high vibration corresponded precisely with the
schedule of trains running on a nearby track. Stiffening the dryer structure then
eliminated excessive vibration in the paper dryer section caused by the passing
trains. This eliminated the repeated bearing failures.
Time history recordings of noise levels may be necessary to establish compliance
with legislation dealing with hearing conservation. Although hearing conservation
laws normally specify the permissible exposure time for constant levels of noise,
consideration is also given to those situations where the noise level is not constant.
Where the level varies, it is necessary to record the noise amplitude during a normal
working day to determine the levels encountered and the duration of each level.
This information is then used in a formula to calculate the equivalent exposure.
Such recordings serve as valuable documentation of a hearing conservation
program and are then kept on file as evidence of compliance.

LESSON 3 PAGE 54

Fig. 13-3-44. A.D.C. strip chart recorder, shown here being used to record
noise levels, can also be connected directly to the analyzer for recording
vibration amplitude over long periods of time.
OSCILLOSCOPE RECEPTACLE
The OSCILLOSCOPE RECEPTACLE found on all IRD Mechanalysis analyzers
provides an A.C. signal which is an exact reproduction of the mechanical vibration or
sound pressure. By connecting an oscilloscope4 to the receptacle, the vibration or
noise waveform can be observed. Virtually any general purpose oscilloscope can
be used for this purpose;. Consult the scope manufacturers instruction manual for
details on the operation of your particular oscilloscope.
Viewing the vibration or sound pressure waveform on an oscilloscope can provide
much useful information. Many machinery troubles can be identified by the
characteristic vibration waveforms they produce. For example, normal conditions of
unbalance and misalignment will generate a common sine-wave as illustrated in Fig.
13-3-45A. However, these problems accompanied by mechanical looseness often
produce a waveform like that illustrated in fig. 13-3-45B. The waveform in Fig. 13-345C is the result of oil whirl. Fig. 13-3-45D is characteristic of a faulty antifriction
bearing.


LESSON 3 PAGE 55
Another application for the oscilloscope is measuring impact or transient noise and
vibration. Measuring short-klived noise or vibration is often very difficult using the
standard analyzer or vibration/sound level meter because built-in damping
represents the meter from responding to the true peak values.
Since the oscilloscope does not have this built in damping, it will respond instantly
and is often used with the analyzer or vibration/;sound level meter for this purpose.
The oscilloscope is also a valuable aid for evaluating data obtained from noncontact pickups. Earlier, it was mentioned that scratches on a shaft will sometimes
cause misleading vibration amplitude and frequency readings. Connecting an
oscilloscope to the instrument will quickly reveal the presence of scratches by the
spike-like signals they generate on the waveform.
The oscilloscope receptacle on your vibration analyzer can be used for other
applications. For example, when analyzing machinery noise (or vibration) a set of
head phones can be connected to the scope receptacle as shown in Fig. 13-3-46.
This allows the analyst to actually hear the various noise or vibration frequencies
which can be extremely helpful when tuning the analyzer filter.
Permanent records of machinery vibration or noise can be taken from the
oscilloscope receptacle. Extremely high speed chart recorders such as a visi-corder
or oscillograph can be used to provide hard copy data such as that shown in Fig.
13-3-47. Recordings of this type are usually taken to study noise or vibration which
is undergoing rapid change such as during start-up or coast down of a machine.
Vibration and noise data from the oscilloscope receptacle can also be recorded on
magnetic tape. In this way, the data can be gathered quickly and easily for detailed
study and analysis at a later time.
Many companies use this technique for gathering analysis data from machines in
remote locations. The tapes are then sent to a central location and played back
through automatic or real-time analysis equipment for conversion to hard copy
records. This data is then studied and evaluated by trained analysts to identify any
apparent mechanical problems.
Thus far we have discussed only a few of the many possible applications for the
oscilloscope receptacle found on your IRD Mechanalysis instruments.
Other applications include the use of an oscilloscope for remote phase
measurements and observing the actual motion of a rotor shaft within its bearings
utilizing non-contact pickups. These and other applications are covered in detail in
the IRD Mechanalysis Advanced Training Program.

LESSON 3 PAGE 56

Fig. 13-3-45. Connecting an oscilloscope to the oscilloscope jack on the

analyzer to view the time function waveform may reveal valuable analysis
information.
Fig. 13-3-46. Headphones connected to the analyzer oscilloscope jack allow

the analyst to hear the vibration or sound peaks as he tunes the filter.


LESSON 3 PAGE 57
Fig. 13-3-47. An oscillograph connected to the analyzer oscilloscope jack

provides high speed recording of the vibration or noise waveform.
REVIEW
The another has all the necessary features for measuring and analyzing machinery
vibration or noise. The features and operation of the analyzer are covered in some
detail in this chapter and in your instrument instruction manual.
Of course, reading about the analyzer is one thing, but there is no substitute for first
hand experience. Therefore, if you have not already done so, set up your analyzer
and become as thoroughly familiar with it as you can. Hook it up. Measure
vibration or noise amplitude and frequency. BE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND HOW
TO READ THE METERS CORRECTLY. Use the tunable filter, the strobe light and
internal oscillator. Using a small electric motor or a device similar to the one
illustrated in Fig. 13-3- , we suggest you conduct the following exercises.
1.
Find the rotating speed (s) of the machine using the internal oscillator and
strobe light.
2.
Measure the overall filter out vibration one of the bearings. Observe and
record the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
vibration displacement.
Vibration velocity
Vibration acceleration (where appropriate)
Frequency meter indications for displacement, velocity and
acceleration measurements.
Observations with the strobe light for displacement, velocity and
acceleration measurements. View each rotating part.

LESSON 3 PAGE 58

3.
Turn the motor off, and measure the background vibration amplitude and
frequency in terms of displacement, velocity and acceleration.
4.
With the motor operating and with the pickup on the same bearing as for (2)
and (3) above, tune the filter to the rotating speed of each component using
the internal oscillator. Record the vibration amplitude for each frequency.
5.
Slowly scan the filter through each frequency range and note each
frequency of vibration discovered. Fine-tune the filter to each frequency
found to obtain the peak amplitude. Note and record each amplitude and
frequency found. Also, record your observations with the strobe light for
each frequency.
For analyzers equipped for noise measurement and analysis, the following
exercises are suggested:
1.
With the machine operating and the analyzer filter in the CUT position,
locate the microphone approximately 2 to 3 feet from the machine. Observe
and record the following:
1.
2.
3.
Noise amplitude dB (A) and dB(C).

Frequency meter reading for dB(A) and dB(C)
Observations with the strobe light for dB(A) and dB(C), viewing each
rotating member.
2.
Turn the motor off and again observe and record the amplitude and
frequency meter indications for both the A and C weighting networks.
3.
Turn the motor on again and switch your instrument to the C weighting
network. Beginning at a low frequency of 600 CPM, slowly scan the filter
through each frequency range and note each nose frequency discovered.
Fine tune the filter to each frequency found to obtain the peak amplitude.
Note and record each amplitude and frequency found. Also record your
observations with the strobe light for each frequency.
4.
With the motor operating, move the microphone to within a few inches of the
machine. Move the microphone along the length of the machine at this
close range, and note any variations in the measured amplitude. Move the
microphone along the length of the machine at a distance of 2 to 3 feet and,
again, note any variations I the measured amplitude.


LESSON 3 PAGE 59

Vibration Chapter 3

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Vibration Chapter 3

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

LESSON

VIBRATION AND NOISE

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

Fig. 13-3-1. A vibration meter is used to take periodic checks of machine

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

Fig. 13-3-3. Vibration monitors are permanently installed to provide continuous

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

HAND HELD WITHOUT A PROBE

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

Fig. 13-3-5. Basic construction of the seismic-velocity vibration pickup.

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

Fig. 13-3-7. Common Pickup Mounting Techniques.

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

Fig. 13-3-8. Recommended frequency limits for different pickup attachment

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SHAFT RIDER ACCESSORY

Fig. 13-3-11. IRD Mechanalysis Shaft Rider Accessory.

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

A temporary solution to overcome the problems of magnetic interference is to use a

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

Fig. 13-3-12. The effect of magnetic interference can be easily determined by

Fig. 13-3-13. The effects of magnetic interference are greatly reduced by

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

Fig. 13-3-15. An accelerometer pickup provides a signal proportional to the

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

Fig. 13-3-16. Block diagram Non-Contact Pickup operation.

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

Fig. 13-3-7. IRD Mechanalysis Non-Contact Pickups are available in a variety

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

Fig. 13-3-19. The Non-Contact Pickup may be mounted on a rigid bracket

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

Fig. 13-3-20. A ceramic microphone is provided with most IRD Mechanalysis

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE MODULE 13

SPECIFIC COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

Other standards require measurement at a number of fixed positions (e.g., 3 feet