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LAND USE PLANNING CONCEPT


WHAT IS LAND USE PLANNING
WHAT IS LAND USE PLAN
OBJECTIVE OF LAND USE PLANNING
TWO DIVISION OF LAND USE PLANNING
LAND USE CATEGORIES AND COLOR CODING
FORMULATION OF THE GENERAL PLAN
ENVIRONMENTALLY CRITICAL AREAS

II. LAND USE PATTERNS


1. BASIC URBAN FORM CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2. DIFF. SHAPES IN LAND USE PATTERNS

Land use planning should be a decision-making process that "facilitates the


allocation of land to the uses that provide the greatest sustainable benefits"
(Agenda 21, paragraph 10.5). It is based on the socio-economic conditions
and expected developments of the population in and around a natural land
unit. These are matched through a multiple goal analysis and assessment of
the intrinsic value of the various environmental and natural resources of the
land unit. The result is an indication of a preferred future land use, or
combination of uses. Through a negotiation process with all stakeholders, the
outcome is decisions on the concrete allocation of land for specific uses (or
non-uses) through legal and administrative measures, which will lead
eventually to implementation of the plan.
Land Use Planning Concepts

Land is viewed as a shared natural resource, much like air and water found therein, to be
conservedand cared for with due regard for its effect on society as a whole and for the conditions in
which it will bepassed on to future generations.

Land is also viewed as property a private commodity which can be owned, used, bought or sold
for personal comfort and profit.

Both concepts are within the context of the Philippine constitution which protects a persons right to
ownand use his/her property as well as permits government to impose reasonable limitations on its
use to protectpublic health, promote safety and general welfare of the people.

The first step in understanding Comprehensive Land Use Planning is knowing the basic
conceptsassociated with CLUP such as land, land use planning and land use plan:
LandLand Use Planning
Land use planning refers to the rational and judicious approach of allocating available
landresources to different land using activities, (e.g. agricultural, residential, industrial)
and for differentfunctions consistent with the overall development vision/goal of a
particular locality.It entails the detailed process of determining the location and area of
land required for theimplementation of social and economic development, policies,
plans, programs and projects.It is based on consideration of physical planning
standards, development vision, goals andobjective, analysis of actual and potential
physical conditions of land and development constraintsand opportunities.

Land Use Planning Concepts


Land use planning is done to meet the following objectives:

To promote the efficient utilization, acquisition and disposition of land and ensure the highest and
bestuse of land;

To direct, harmonize and influence discussions and activities of the private and public sectors relative
tothe use and management of land;

To reconcile land use conflicts and proposals between and among individuals, private and
governmententities relative to the present and future need for land;

To promote desirable patterns of land uses to prevent wasteful development and minimize the cost
of public infrastructure and utilities and other social services;

To conserve areas of ecological, aesthetic, historical and cultural significance.


Objectives
V

Land-use planning is the general term used for a branch of urban planning encompassing various
disciplines which seek to order and regulate land use in an efficient and ethical way, thus
preventing land-use conflicts. Governments use land-use planning to manage the development of
land within their jurisdictions. In doing so, the governmental unit can plan for the needs of the
community while safeguarding natural resources. To this end, it is the systematic assessment of land
and water potential, alternatives for land use, and economic and social conditions in order to select
and adopt the best land-use options.[1] Often one element of a comprehensive plan, a land-use plan
provides a vision for the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods, districts, cities, or any
defined planning area.
In the United States, the terms land-use planning, regional planning, urban planning, and urban
design are often used interchangeably, and will depend on the state, county, and/or project in
question. Despite confusing nomenclature, the essential function of land-use planning remains the
same whatever term is applied. The Canadian Institute of Planners offers a definition that land-use
planning means the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly disposition of land, resources, facilities and
services with a view to securing the physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being
of urban and rural communities.[2] The American Planning Association states that the goal of land-use
planning is to further the welfare of people and their communities by creating convenient, equitable,
healthful, efficient, and attractive environments for present and future generations. [3]
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Types of planning

3Methods

4Basis of United States Land Use Planning Authority

5See also

6Academic journals

7References

7.1Notes

7.2Bibliography
8External links

Land use plans


Land use plans define where certain activities can take place and determine the effect
of human impacts on the landscape.They are also used to assign special areas of
spiritual, ecological or cultural importance for protection, and areas designated for
development.
In addition, land use plans are used to establish regional zones and broad criteria to
help evaluate and screen project proposals as part of regulatory permitting processes.
Zoning provisions identify the following:

areas that are well suited for industrial development.

areas that can support industrial development while respecting specific cultural or
ecological values.

areas where, for cultural or ecological reasons, development is prohibited.

Land use plans are required in the Gwich'in and Sahtu settlement areas as a result of
their comprehensive claims, and the process to complete their land use plans is set out
in the Mackenzie Valley Resource Management Act . Typically, land use plans are
reviewed and revised (every five years in the case of the Gwich'in, Sahtu, and Tich o
plans).
If you are a developer or a land user who will require permits, licences or other
authorizations for land or water use, please refer to the relevant regional land use plan
or community conservation plan as early as possible when developing your project
plans. Use the following information and links for regional land use planning initiatives in
the Northwest Territories as a starting point.

Two division of land use

General Land Use Plan


(GLUP)

The General Land Use Plan (GLUP) is one of elevenComprehensive Plan elements and is the
primary policy guide for future development in Arlington. The GLUP establishes the overall
character, extent and location of various land uses. It balances residential, shopping, office
and mixed-use development, focuses development around Metro Station Areas and
encourages construction of a variety of housing types.
The most recent GLUP booklet includes updates through June 30, 2016.

Urban Land Use and TransportationAuthor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue1. The Land Use - Transport
SystemUrban land use comprises two elements; the nature of land use which relates to which
activities are taking place where, and the level of spatial accumulation, which indicates their
intensity and concentration. Central areas have a high level of spatial accumulation and
corresponding land uses, such as retail, while peripheral areas have lower levels of accumulation.
Most economic, social or cultural activities imply a multitude of functions, such as production,
consumption and distribution. These functions take place at specific locations and are part of
an activity system. Some are routine activities, because they occur regularly and are thus
predictable, such as commuting and shopping. Others are institutional activities that tend to be
irregular, and are shaped by lifestyle (e.g. sports and leisure) or by special needs (e.g.
healthcare). Others are production activities that are related to manufacturing and distribution,
whose linkages may be local, regional or global. The behavioral patterns of individuals,
institutions and firms have an imprint on land use in terms of their locational choice. The
representation of this imprint requires a typology of land use, which can be formal or functional:

Formal land use representations are concerned with qualitative


attributes of space such as its form, pattern and aspect and are
descriptive in nature.
Functional land use representations are concerned with the
economic nature of activities such as production, consumption,
residence, and transport, and are mainly a socioeconomic
description of space.
At the global level, cities consume about 3% of the total land mass. Although figures can vary
considerably depending on the city, residential land use is the most common, occupying between
65 and 75% of the surface of a city. Commercial and industrial land uses occupy 5-15% and 1525% of the surface respectively. Land use, both in formal and functional representations, implies
a set of relationships with other land uses. For instance, commercial land use involves
relationships with its supplier and customers. While relationships with suppliers will dominantly
be related with movements of freight, relationships with customers would include movements of
people. Thus, a level of accessibility to both systems of circulation must be present. Since each
type of land use has its own specific mobility requirements, transportation is a factor of activity
location, and is therefore associated intimately with land use.Within an urban system each
activity occupies a suitable, but not necessarily optimal location, from which it derives
rent. Transportation and land use interactions mostly consider the retroactive relationships
between activities, which are land use related, and accessibility, which is transportation related.
These relationships have often been described as a classic "chicken-and-egg" problem since it is
difficult to identify the triggering cause of change; do transportation changes precede land use
changes or vice-versa? There is a scale effect at play as large infrastructure projects tend to
precede and trigger land use changes while small scale transportation projects tend to
complement the existing land use pattern. Further, the expansion of urban land uses takes place
over various circumstances such as infilling (near the city center) or sprawl (far from the city
center) and where transportation plays a different role in each case.Urban transportation aims at
supporting transport demands generated by the diversity of urban activities in a diversity of
urban contexts. A key for understanding urban entities thus lies in the analysis of patterns and

processes of the transport / land use system. This system is highly complex and involves several
relationships between the transport system, spatial interactions and land use:

Transport system. Considers the set of transport


infrastructures and modes that support urban movements of
passengers and freight. It generally expresses the level of
accessibility.
Spatial interactions. Consider the nature, extent, origins and
destinations of the urban movements of passengers and
freight. They take into consideration the attributes of the
transport system as well as the land use factors that are
generating and attracting movements.
Land use. Considers the level of spatial accumulation of
activities and their associated levels of mobility requirements.
Land use is commonly linked with demographic and economic
attributes.
A conundrum concerns the difficulties of linking a specific mode of transportation with
specific land use patterns. While public transit systems tend to be associated with higher
densities of residential and commercial activities and highways with lower densities, the
multiplicity of modes available in urban areas, including freight distribution, conveys an unclear
and complex relationship. Further, land use is commonly subject to zoning restrictions in terms
of the type of activities that can be built as well as their density. Land use dynamics are therefore
influenced by planning restrictions.2. Urban Land Use ModelsThe relationships between
transportation and land use are rich in theoretical representations that have contributed much to
regional sciences. Since transportation is a distance-decay altering technology, spatial
organization is assumed to be strongly influenced by the concepts of locationand distance.
Several descriptive and analytical models of urban land use have been developed over time, with
increased levels of complexity. All involve some consideration of transport in the explanations of
urban land use structures. The following is a non-exhaustive categorization:

Central places and concentric land uses. Von Thunens


regional land use model is the oldest representation based on a
central place, the market town, and its concentric impacts on
surrounding land uses. It was initially developed in the early
19th century (1826) for the analysis of agricultural land use
patterns in Germany. It used the concept of economic rent to
explain a spatial organization where different agricultural
activities are competing for the usage of land. The underlying
principles of this model have been the foundation of many
others where economic considerations, namely land

rent and distance-decay, are incorporated. The core


assumption of the model is that agricultural land use is
patterned in the form of concentric circles around a market
that consumes all the surplus production, which must be
transported. Many concordances of this model with reality have
been found, notably in North America.
Concentric urban land uses. The Burgess concentric
model was among the first attempts to investigate spatial
patterns at the urban level (1925). Although the purpose of the
model was to analyze social classes, it recognized that
transportation and mobility were important factors behind the
spatial organization of urban areas. The formal land use
representation of this model is derived from commuting
distance from the central business district, creating concentric
circles. Each circle represents a specific socioeconomic urban
landscape. This model is conceptually a direct adaptation of
the Von Thunen's model to urban land use since it deals with a
concentric representation. Even close to one century after the
concentric urban model was designed, spatial changes
in Chicago are still reflective of such a process.
Polycentric and zonal land uses. Sector and multiple nuclei
land use models were developed to take into account
numerous factors overlooked by concentric models, namely the
influence of transport axis (Hoyt, 1939) and multiple nuclei
(Harris and Ullman, 1945) on land use and growth. Both
representations consider the emerging impacts of motorization
on the urban spatial structure. Such representations also
considered that transportation infrastructures, particularly
terminals such as rail stations or ports, occupy specific
locations and can be considered as land uses.
Hybrid land uses. Hybrid models are an attempt to include
the concentric, sector and nuclei behavior of different
processes in explaining urban land use. They try to integrate
the strengths of each approach since none of these appear to
provide a completely satisfactory explanation. Thus, hybrid
models, such as that developed by Isard (1955), consider the
concentric effect of central locations (CBDs and sub-centers)
and the radial effect of transport axis, all overlaid to form a

land use pattern. Also, hybrid representations are suitable to


explain the evolution of the urban spatial structure as they
combine different spatial impacts of transportation on urban
land use, let them be concentric or radial, and this at different
points in time.
Land use market. Land rent theory was also developed to
explain land use as a market where different urban activities
are competing for land usage at a location. It is strongly based
in the market principle of spatial competition where actors are
bidding to secure and maintain their presence at a specific
location. The more desirable a location is, the higher its rent
value. Transportation, through accessibility and distancedecay, is a strong explanatory factor on the land rent and
its impacts on land use. However, conventional representations
of land rent leaning on the concentric paradigm are being
challenged by structural modifications of contemporary cities.
Cellular automata are dynamic land use models developed
on the principle that space can be represented as a grid where
each cell is a discrete land use unit. Cell states thus symbolize
land uses and transition rules express the likelihood of a
change from one land use state to another. Because cells are
symbolically connected and interrelated (e.g. adjacency),
models can be used to investigate the dynamics, evolution,
and self-organization of cellar automata land use systems. The
cellular approach enables to achieve a high level of spatial
detail (resolution) and realism, as well as to link the simulation
directly to visible outcomes on the regional spatial structure.
They are also readily implementable since Geographic
Information Systems are designed to work effectively with gridbased spatial representations.
Cellular automata improves upon most transportation - land use models that are essentially static
as they explain land use patterns, but they do not explicitly consider the processes that are
creating or changing them. The applicability and dynamics of land use models is related to issues
such as the age, size and the locational setting of a city. For instance, concentric cities are
generally older and of smaller size, while polycentric cities are larger and relate to urban
development processes that took place more recently. While most of the conceptual approaches
related to transportation and land use relationships have been developed using empirical
evidence related to North America and Western Europe, this perspective does not necessarily
apply to other parts of the world. A dualism in land uses has been observed in cities in

developing countries where on one hand processes such as economic development and
motorization are creating an urban landscape which is common in advanced economies. On the
other hand, an informal landscape of shantytowns represents a land use structure that is not
effectively captured by conventional land use models. It remains to be seen to what extent
globalization will favor a convergence of land use patterns across the world's cities.3.
Transportation and Urban DynamicsBoth land use and transportation are part of
a dynamic system that is subject to external influences. Each component of the system is
constantly evolving due to changes in technology, policy, economics, demographics and even
culture or values. As a result, the interactions between land use and transportation are played out
as the outcome of the many decisions made by residents, businesses and governments. The
field of urban dynamics has expended the scope of conventional land use models, which tended
to be descriptive, by trying to consider relationships behind the evolution of the urban spatial
structure. This has led to a complex modeling framework including a wide variety of
components. Among the concepts supporting urban dynamics representations are retroactions,
whereby one component changes it influences others. The changes will influence the initial
component back, either positively or negatively. The most significant components of urban
dynamics are:

Land use. This is the most stable component of urban


dynamics, as changes are likely to modify the land use
structure over a rather long period of time. This comes as little
surprise since most real estate is built to last at least several
decades. The main impact of land use on urban dynamics is its
function of a generator and attractor of movements.
Transport network. This is also considered to be a rather
stable component of urban dynamics, as transport
infrastructures are built for the long term. This is particularly
the case for large transport terminals and subway systems that
can operate for a very long period of time. For instance, many
railway stations are more than one hundred years old. The
main contribution of the transport network to urban dynamics
is the provision of accessibility. Changes in the transport
network will impact accessibility and movements.
Movements. The most dynamic component of the system
since movements of passengers or freight reflect almost
immediately changes. Movements thus tend more to be an
outcome of urban dynamics than a factor shaping them.
Employment and workplaces. They account for significant
inducement effects over urban dynamics since many models
often consider employment as an exogenous factor. This is

specifically the case for employment that is categorized as


basic, or export oriented, which is linked with specific economic
sectors such as manufacturing. Commuting is a direct outcome
of the number of jobs and the location of workplaces.
Population and housing. They act as the generators of
movements, because residential areas are the sources of
commuting. Since there is a wide array of incomes, standards
of living, preferences and ethnicity, this diversity is reflected in
the urban spatial structure.
The issue about how to articulate these relations remains, particularly in the current context of
interdependency between local, regional and global processes. Globalization has substantially
blurred the relationships between transportation and land use as well as its dynamics. The main
paradigm is concerned with some factors once endogenous to a regional setting have
becomeexogenous. Consequently, many economic activities that provide employment and
multiplying effects, such as manufacturing, are driven by forces that are global in scope and may
have little to do with regional dynamics. For instance, capital investment could come from
external sources and the bulk of the output could be bound to international markets. In such a
context it would be difficult to explain urban development processes taking place in coastal
Chinese cities, or in a region such as the Pearl River Delta, since export oriented strategies are
among the most significant driving forces. Looking at the urban dynamics of such a system from
an endogenous perspective would fail to capture driving forces that are dominantly exogenous.

Refers to the rational and judicious approach of allocating available land resources to different land using activities
and for different functions consistent with the overall development vision/goal of a particular city refers to a document
embodying a set of policies accompanied by maps and similar illustrations which represent the community desired
pattern of population distribution and a proposal for the future allocation of land to the various land-using activities.
Objectives of Land Use Plan To promote efficient utilization, acquisition and disposition of land ensure the highest and
best use of land To direct, harmonize and influence discussions and activities of the private and public sectors
relative to the use and management of lands To reconcile land use conflicts and proposals between and among
individuals, private and government entities relative to the present and future need for the land To promote desirable
patterns of land uses to prevent wasteful development and minimize the cost of public infrastructure and utilities and
other social services to preserve areas of ecological, aesthetic, historical and cultural significance Objectives of
Land Use Plan "The objective in land use planning is to promote the following through interactive planning and
sufficient assessment of impact: 1. a safe, healthy, pleasant, socially functional living and working environment which
provides for the needs of various population groups, such as children, the elderly and the handicapped; 2. economical
urban structure and land use; 3. protection of the beauty of the built environment and of cultural values; 4. biological
diversity and other natural values; 5. environmental protection and prevention of environmental hazards; 6. provident
use of natural resources; 7. functionality of communities and good building; 8. economical urban development; 9.
favourable business conditions; 10. availability of services; 11. an appropriate traffic system and, especially, public
transport and non-motorized traffic."

formulation of general land use plan


Land Capability Classification
(refer to Table B)
Land capability classification shows, in a general way, the suitability of soils for most kinds
of field crops. Crops that require special management are excluded. The soils are grouped
according to their limitations for field crops, the risk of damage if they are used for crops,
and the way they respond to management. The criteria used in grouping the soils do not
include major and generally expensive landforming that would change slope, depth, or other
characteristics of the soils, nor do they include possible but unlikely major reclamation
projects. Capability classification is not a substitute for interpretations designed to show
suitability and limitations of groups of soils for rangeland, for forestland, or for engineering
purposes.
In the capability system, soils are generally grouped at three levelscapability class,
subclass, and unit.
Capability classes, the broadest groups, are designated by the numbers 1 through 8. The
numbers indicate progressively greater limitations and narrower choices for practical use.
The classes are defined as follows:
Class 1 soils have slight limitations that restrict their use.
Class 2 soils have moderate limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require
moderate conservation practices.
Class 3 soils have severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require special
conservation practices, or both.
Class 4 soils have very severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require
very careful management, or both.
Class 5 soils are subject to little or no erosion but have other limitations, impractical to
remove, that restrict their use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Class 6 soils have severe limitations that make them generally unsuitable for cultivation and
that restrict their use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Class 7 soils have very severe limitations that make them unsuitable for cultivation and that
restrict their use mainly to grazing, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Class 8 soils and miscellaneous areas have limitations that preclude commercial plant
production and that restrict their use to recreational purposes, wildlife habitat, watershed,
or esthetic purposes.
Capability subclasses are soil groups within one class. They are designated by adding a
small letter, e, w, s, or c, to the class numeral, for example, 2e. The letter e shows that the
main hazard is the risk of erosion unless close-growing plant cover is maintained; w shows

that water in or on the soil interferes with plant growth or cultivation (in some soils the
wetness can be partly corrected by artificial drainage); s shows that the soil is limited
mainly because it is shallow, droughty, or stony; and c, used in only some parts of the
United States, shows that the chief limitation is climate that is very cold or very dry.
In class 1 there are no subclasses because the soils of this class have few limitations. Class
5 contains only the subclasses indicated by w, s, or c because the soils in class 5 are subject
to little or no erosion. They have other limitations that restrict their use to pasture,
rangeland, forestland, wildlife habitat, or recreation.
Capability units are soil groups within a subclass. The soils in a capability unit are enough
alike to be suited to the same crops and pasture plants, to require similar management, and
to have similar productivity. Capability units are generally designated by adding an Arabic
numeral to the subclass symbol, for example, 2e-4 and 3e-6. These units are not given in
all soil surveys.
The capability classification of map units in this survey area is given in the table "Land
Capability and Yields Per Acre of Crops and Pasture".

Environmentally critical areas

What Is It?
Our Environmentally Critical Areas (ECA) Code governs areas of Seattle that provide critical
environmental functions. For example, wetlands can protect water quality and provide fish and
wildlife habitat. Our ECA code also addresses areas that represent particular challenges for
development due to geologic or other natural conditions. The goal of our ECA regulations, (Seattle
Municipal Code (SMC) chapter 25.09) is to effectively protect these areas and to protect public
safety, while allowing reasonable development in our growing city.
Designated environmentally critical areas are defined in SMC 25.09.020 and are generally described
as:
Geologic hazard areas including:

Landslide-prone areas (including steep slope areas, potential landslide areas, and
known landslide areas)

Liquefaction-prone areas (sites with loose, saturated soil that lose the strength
needed to support a building during earthquakes)

Peat-settlement-prone areas (sites containing peat and organic soils that may settle
when the area is developed or the water table is lowered)

Seismic hazard areas

Volcanic hazard areas

Flood-prone areas

Wetlands

Fish and Wildlife Habitat Conservation Areas including:

Riparian watercourses (all streams and Haller and Bitter Lakes)

Riparian Management Areas (the land within 100 feet of riparian watercourse)

Areas designated by Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife as priority


habitats and species areas

Areas designated by our Director as habitat for species of local importance

Corridors connecting priority habitats and species areas or habitat areas for species
of local importance, when certain criteria are met

Shoreline Habitat, which is all Type 1 waters in Seattle, including Puget Sound,
Duwamish River, Ship Canal, Lake Union, Portage Bay, Union Bay, Lake Washington, and
Green Lake
Abandoned landfills

You can use our online map tool to see if your property has any mapped ECAs. Most of these maps
are advisory; they help us identify potential ECAs on your property. We will use detailed property
information, such as a topographic survey or wetland report, to confirm if an ECA is present. There
are some types of ECAs that we are required to identify based on the maps; for example, priority
habitat areas identified by the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and peat-settlement
prone areas. Your property may also have ECAs that are not shown on our maps.
If your property contains an ECA or a buffer for an ECA, we have specific regulations, based on the
type of ECA, for how you can develop your property or disturb any land, including altering vegetation
or adding impervious surface. We suggest that you visit our Applicant Services Center for more
information.

Volcanic Hazards

A volcanic hazard refers to any potentially dangerous volcanic


process (e.g. lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash). A
volcanic risk is any potential loss or damage as a result of the
volcanic hazard that might be incurred by persons, property,
etc. or which negatively impacts the productive
capacity/sustainability of a population. Risk not only includes
the potential monetary and human losses, but also includes a
population's vulnerability. The definitions of hazard and risk
are not well-defined. For a more complete discussion of the
definitions, please click here.
Tilling and Lipman (1993) estimate that 500 million people will
be at risk from volcanic hazards by the year 2000. In the past
500 years, over 200,000 people have lost their lives due to
volcanic eruptions (Tilling, 1980). An average of 845 people
died each year between 1900 and 1986 from volcanic hazards.
The number of deaths for these years is far greater than the
number of deaths for previous centuries (Tilling, 1991). The
reason behind this increase is not due to increased volcanism,
but due, instead, to an increase in the amount of people
populating the flanks of active volcanoes and valley areas near
those volcanoes (Tilling, 1991 and Hall, 1991).
1.Lava flows are the least hazardous of all processes in
volcanic eruptions. How far a lava flow travels depends on
the flows temperature, silica content, extrusion rate, and
slope of the land. A cold lava flow will not travel far and
neither will one that has a high silica content. Such a flow
would have a high viscosity (a high resistance to flow). A
basalt flow like those in Hawai'i have low silica contents and
low viscosities so they can flow long distances. Such a flow
can move as far away as 4 km from its source and have a
thickness of 10 m (Bryant, 1991). These flows can move at
rates of several kilometers per hour (Scott, 1989). More
silica-rich flows can move as far away as 1.3 km from their
sources and have thicknesses of 100 m (Bryant, 1991).
These flows can move at rates of a few to hundreds of
meters per hour (Scott, 1989). If a lava flow is channelized

or travels underground in a lava tube then the distance it


travels is greatly extended.
2.Earthquakes related to volcanic activity may
produce hazards which include ground cracks, ground
deformation, and damage to manmade structures. There are
two general categories of earthquakes that can occur at a
volcano: volcano-tectonic earthquakes and long period
earthquakes.
Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to
the injection or withdrawal of magma (molton rock) are
called volcano-tectonic earthquakes (Chouet, 1993). These
earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce large
ground cracks. These earthquakes can occur as rock is moving
to fill in spaces where magma is no longer present. Volcanotectonic earthquakes don't indicate that the volcano will be
erupting but can occur at anytime.
3. One of the greatest volcanic hazards is lahars. Lahars are similar
to pyroclastic flows but contain more water. Lahars form 1) from debris
avalanches that contain water from snow and ice which, when released, mixes
with loose debris to form a lahar, 2) from pyroclastic flows and surges which
release water that mixes with debris, 3) from pyroclastic flows which dilute
themselves with river water as they travel downslope, 4) from natural dam
failure (i.e. a lava flow dam or crater lake), and 5) from rainfall on loose material
such as ash. Lahars that contain 20 to 60 percent sediment are usually very
turbulent. Lahars that contain greater than 80 percent sediment usually flow
more smoothly (laminar flow). These smooth flowing lahars usually travel much
faster than their turbulent counterparts and can float boulders, cars, buildings,
and bridges (Philippines, 1992).

4. Pyroclastic flows are fluidized masses of rock fragments and


gases that move rapidly in response to gravity. Pyroclastic flows can
form in several different ways. They can form when an eruption
column collapses, or as the result of gravitational collapse or
explosion on a lava dome or lava flow (Francis, 1993 and Scott,
1989). These flows are more dense than pyroclastic surges and can
contain as much as 80 % unconsolidated material. The flow is
fluidized because it contains water and gas from the eruption, water
vapor from melted snow and ice, and air from the flow overriding air
as it moves downslope (Scott, 1989). The image on the right shows
the formation of pyroclastic flows during a 1980 eruption of Mount
St. Helens (photo courtesy of J.M. Vallance).
Ignimbrites and nuees ardentes are two types of pyroclastic
flows. An ignimbite contains mostly vesiculated material
whereas a nuee ardentecontains denser material (Francis,
1993). Nuee ardente means glowing cloud and was named for
the pyroclastic flows seen at Mount Pelee. These flows were
often accompanied by a cloud of ash elutriated from the flow.
When the incadescent ash particles are observed at night, the
flow looks like a glowing cloud moving away from the volcano.
Pyroclastic flows can move very fast. Small pyroclastic flows
can move as fast as 10 to 30 m/s while larger flows can move
at rates of 200 m/s (Bryant, 1991). Nuees ardentes have been
known to extend 50 kilometers from their source
and Ignimbrites, because of the lighter weight material that
they carry, can extend 200 km from their source (Bryant, 1991
and Scott, 1989). At Mount Pinatubo in the Philipines,
pyroclastic flow deposits were 220 m thick in some valleys but
averaged 30 to 50 m thick in others (Wolfe, 1992). Pyroclastic
flows have been known to top ridges 1000 m high (Bryant,
1991). The image on the left shows a pyroclastic flow
descending Fuego Volcano in Guatemala (photo by W.C. Buell
IV, 1974).
Click here for a movie of a pyroclastic flow at Mount Pinatubo
(movie courtesy of M.T. Dolan).

Pyroclastic flows can be very hot. In fact, pyroclastic flows


from Mount Pelee had temperatures as high as 1075 degrees C
(Bryant, 1991)! Some Pyroclastic flows from Pinatubo had
temperatures of 750 degrees C and pyroclastic flows from
Mount St. Helens had temperatures of 350 degrees C ( Bryant,
1991). Such high temperature flows can burn manmade
structures, vegetation, and, for those unlikely enough to be
caught by then, human skin.
5. In a typical volcanic eruption, an eruption column consisting
of pyroclastic material is ejected into the atmosphere. The
base of this column is known as the gas thrust zone where
material is shot ballistically from the volcanic vent. Above this
zone is the convective thrust zone. This zone is where heat
buoys pyroclastic material upward toward the top of the
troposphere. Once the eruption column reaches the
stratosphere, shearing occurs and the material is spread out in
an umbrella shape (Francis, 1993).

The May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens did not initially
produce such an eruption column. Instead, the initial eruption
was a directed blast. This blast was a result of depressurization
triggered by an earthquake initiated landslide on the north
flank of the volcano. The area affected by the directed blast
extended greater than 19 miles from the volcano. Everything
within eight miles of the directed blast area was either
removed or destroyed. Topography in this area had no affect
on the movement of material in the directed blast cloud.
Between 8 and 19 miles of the volcano, trees were flattened
and resembled toothpicks aligned in a uniform direction on
surrounding hillsides. Material in the blast cloud was somewhat
channelized within this zone. Greater than 19 miles from the
volcano, trees were seared black due to hot gases (Tilling,
1987). Material from the initial blast cloud itself was very hot
ranging between 100 and 300 degrees C (Scott,
1989).
Several people were killed by the directed blast of
Mount St. Helens. Mount St. Helens isn't the only volcano that
has erupted with a direct blast. Its twin, Bezymianny in
Kamchatka, Russia, also erupted in this way. Current research
shows that direct blasts are not uncommon. The eruption of
Mount St. Helens alerted scientists to the warning signs and
hazards of such an eruption. Knowledge of direct blast
eruptions will help in the future so that warnings can be given
to people in areas that might be affected by such a blast.
Monitoring of volcanoes with seismographs and instruments
that would indicate ground deformation can help identify
hazardous zones and indicate areas of possible safety.
6.

Tephra

When a volcano erupts it will sometimes eject material such as


rock fragments into the atmosphere. This material is known
as tephra. The largest pieces of tephra (greater than 64 mm)
are called blocks and bombs. Blocks and bombs are normally
shot ballistically from the volcano (refer to the gas thrust zone
described in the direct blast section). Because these fragments
are so large they fall out near their source. Blocks and bombs
as large as 8-30 tons have fallen as far away as 1 km from
their source (Bryant, 1991). Small blocks and bombs have
been known to travel as far away as 20-80 km (Scott, 1989)!
Some of these blocks and bombs can have velocities of 75-200
m/s (Bryant, 1991). Smaller ejecta such as lapilli (2-64 mm)
and ash (<2 mm) which are convected upward by the heat of
the eruption will fall out farther from the volcano. Most
particles greater than a millimeter in size will fall out within 30
minutes of the time they are erupted (W.I. Rose personal
communication). The smallest particles which are less then .01
mm can stay in the atmosphere for two or three years after a
volcanic eruption. Sometimes these particles produce fantastic
sunsets such as was seen after the eruptions of Krakatau in
1883 and Pinatubo in 1991. Some scientists believe that these
particles may contribute to global warming.
The size of particles that fall out is largest
near the volcano and gets progressively
smaller further from the volcano. The thickness of material
usually decreases the further away from the volcano.
Occasionally, as occurred in Ritzville, Washington when Mount
St. Helens erupted in 1980, secondary thickening will occur.
Secondary thickening means that ash deposits are thicker in a
particular area than in surrounding areas. This results when
ash particles and water form clumps which produce larger
particles that have higher terminal velocities and so fall out of
the ash cloud. When these particles hit the ground they break
apart and produce a thicker deposit of ash than in surrounding
areas.

The distance that ejecta travels away from a volcano depends


on the height of the eruption column, temperature of the air,
wind direction and wind speed. An erupting column that
reaches into the stratosphere will be sheared by strong winds
in this region and cause the eruption cloud to spread out over
a larger area. The temperature of the air during an eruption
will increase due to the hot material ejected into the
atmosphere. This produces a bouyant force that carries tephra
higher into the atmosphere which allows it to be deposited
over a larger area. Wind direction and wind speed are very
important in determining where and how large an area will be
covered by ash. Ash erupting from Mount St. Helens on May
18, 1980 covered the town of Yakima, which is approximately
80 miles to the east of the volcano, with 10 mm of ash
(Foxworthy and Hill, 1982). This caused the sky to become as
dark as night during the middle of the day. The town of
Vancouver, approxiamately 50 miles south of the volcano, had
no ash deposited from the eruption because the wind direction
was blowing away from it toward the northeast.

Earthquake Hazard and Risk


Hazard and risk are two fundamentally different concepts. In general terms, hazard is a
phenomenon that has potential to cause harm. Phenomena are both natural and manmade. For example, earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods are natural
hazards; whereas car crashes, chemical spills, train derailments, and terror attacks are
man-made hazards. Risk, on the other hand, is the probability (chance) of harm if
someone or something that is vulnerable is exposed to a hazard. In quantitative terms,
hazard is defined by three parameters: a level of hazard (severity), its occurrence
frequency, and location, for example, a fatal car crash (severity) in every month at a
specific intersection. And risk is defined by four parameters: a probability, level of
severity, time period, and location. For example, in health sciences, risk is defined as
the likelihood (probability) of getting cancer (severity) if an average daily dose of a
hazardous substance is taken over a 70-year lifetime. In the financial world, risk can be
the probability of losing a certain amount of money (severity) over a period. The figure
below shows the 23 core global risks estimated by the World Economic Forum (2007)
over a 10-year exposure time. This figure also shows that risks are more useful for
policy decision making.

The 23 core global risks over a 10-year time frame estimated by World Economic
Forum (2007).
Although seismic hazard and risk have often been used interchangeably, they are
fundamentally different (Seismic Hazard vs. Seismic Risk):
1. Seismic Hazard: a natural phenomenon such as fault rupture, ground
motion, ground-motion amplification, liquefaction, and induced-landslide that is
generated by an earthquake. Seismic hazard is quantified by three parameters:
level of severity (physical measurement), spatial measurement,
and temporal measurement.
1. Seismic Risk: the probability that humans will incur loss or their built
environment will be damaged if they are exposed to a seismic hazard. Seismic
risk is quantified by four parameters: probability, level of severity (i.e., a physical
or monetary measurement) and spatial and temporal measurements.

Seismic hazard is assessed from instrumental, historical, and geological records (or
observations) and expressed in terms of a level of hazard and its occurrence
frequency: seismic hazard curve, at a site. The figure below shows hazard curves in
terms of earthquake magnitude (a) and peak ground acceleration (b) in San Francisco,
California. Earth scientists, seismologists in particular, play a key role in seismic hazard
assessment.

Hazard curves in terms of earthquake magnitude (a) and peak ground


acceleration (b) in San Francisco, California.

Seismic risk depends not only on seismic hazard and exposure, however, but also on
the models (i.e., time-independent [Poisson] and time-dependent ones) that could be
used to describe the occurrences of earthquakes. High seismic hazard does not
necessarily mean high seismic risk, and vice versa. For example, there are high seismic
hazards in the California deserts, but low seismic risk because of few exposures
(people or buildings). On the other hand, the seismic risk could be high in some areas,
such as Pakistan and Iran, because of high exposures, even though the hazards may
be moderate. The common model being used to describe earthquake occurrences is
the Poisson distribution (time-independent: independent of the history of previous
earthquakes). Other time-dependent earthquake occurrence models have also been
used in seismic risk analyses. These different models will result in different risk
estimates.
The figure below compares seismic hazards and risk posed by an M7.7 earthquake in
the New Madrid Seismic Zone with hazards and risk posed by Hurricane Katrina in
the Gulf Region.

The hazards posed by earthquakes in the New Madrid Seismic Zone can be expressed
as a magnitude 7.7 earthquake, a level of ground motion (i.e., peak ground
acceleration), or a modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) at a site, or as total damages.
Similarly, the hazards posed by Hurricane Katrina in the Gulf Region can be quantified
as a category V hurricane, a level of flood or wind speed at a site, or total damages.
The geological record suggest that the recurrence interval of earthquakes with about
M7.7 magnitude is about 500 years in the New Madrid Seismic Zone, and the historical

record indicate the recurrence interval of category V hurricanes is about 100 years in
the Gulf Region. If the occurrences of earthquakes and hurricanes both follow the
Poisson distribution, the risk posed by earthquakes in the New Madrid Seismic Zone
can be estimated to be about 10 percent probability of exceedance (PE) in 50 years in
terms of a magnitude 7.7 earthquake, a specific level of ground motion, or MMI at a site,
or total losses (life and money); and the risk posed by Hurricane Katrina in the Gulf
Region can be estimated to be about 39 percent PE in 50 years in terms of a
category V hurricane, a specific level of flood or wind speed at a site, or total losses (life
and money). If the total damage from a magnitude 7.7 earthquake is similar to that from
a category V hurricane, the hurricane risk in the Gulf Region is about 4 times higher
than seismic risk in the New Madrid Seismic Zone. This comparison shows that risks
are more useful for policy decision making.
Assessing seismic hazards and risk is difficult because of insufficient data (records),
especially in the central and eastern United States where the data on large earthquakes
are very limited. This lack of data results in large uncertainties for the seismological
parameters that are the basis for assessing seismic hazards and risk. Seismic hazards
are commonly assessed either by probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) or
deterministic seismic hazard analysis (DSHA). The fundamental difference between
PSHA and DSHA is in how the uncertainties are treated: either implicitly (PSHA) or
explicitly (DSHA). Although PSHA has been more widely used, our studies show that it
may not be appropriate because it has some intrinsic drawbacks (see Current
Research for more detailed information).

Ground Motion
Most damage during an earthquake is caused by ground motion (see Figure 1 ). A
commonly measured ground motion is peak ground acceleration ( PGA ), which is
expressed as a percentage of the acceleration of gravity ( g ). The larger an
earthquake's magnitude, the stronger the ground motion it generates. The level of
ground motion at a site depends on its distance from the epicenter -- the closer a site is
to the epicenter, the stronger the ground motion, and vice versa. Ground motion from a
major earthquake in the New Madrid Seismic Zone is expected to be much stronger in
western Kentucky than in the central and eastern parts of the state. Strong ground
motion could also induce secondary hazards such as ground-motion amplification ,
liquefaction , and landslide under certain site conditions.
Figure 1

Ground-Motion Amplification
The local geology and soil also play very important roles in earthquake damage. Soft
soils overlying hard bedrock tend to amplify the ground motions -- this is known
as ground-motion amplification (seeFigure 1). Amplified ground motion can cause
excess damage, even to sites very far from the epicenter. Ground-motion amplification
contributed to the heavy damages in Mexico City during the 1985 earthquake
(see Figure 2) and in the Marina District of San Francisco during the 1989 Loma Prieta
earthquake; both areas were more than 100 km away from the epicenters. Figure
2 shows the total collapse of the Juarez Hospital in Mexico City, caused by the amplified
ground motion during the earthquake of September 19, 1985. Many communities in
Kentucky are set on soft soils, especially those along the Ohio and Mississippi River
Valleys. Those communities are prone to ground-motion amplification hazards. For
example, most of the damage in Maysville during the Sharpsburg earthquake of July 27,
1980, was caused by amplified ground motion.
Figure 2

Liquefaction
Soft sandy soils can be liquefied by strong ground motion -- a process
called liquefaction. Liquefaction can result in foundation failure. Figure 3 shows that
sandy soil was liquefied and behaved like fluid during the Nisqually, Washington ,
earthquake of February 28, 2001. Many communities in Kentucky are set on soft soils,
especially those along the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys . Those communities may
also be prone to liquefaction hazards.
Figure 3

Earthquake-Induced Landslide

Strong ground motion can also trigger landslides -- known as earthquake-induced


landslides -- in areas with steep slopes, such as eastern Kentucky. The slope failure
shown in Figure 4 was caused by the Nisqually earthquake of February 28, 2001.
Figure 4

Erosion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Erosion (disambiguation).

An actively eroding rill on anintensively-farmed field in easternGermany

In earth science, erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that
remove soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, then transport it away
to another location.[1] The particulate breakdown of rock or soil into clasticsediment is referred to
as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is
removed from an area by its dissolving into a solvent (typically water), followed by the flow away of
that solution. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands
of kilometres.
Natural rates of erosion are controlled by the action of geomorphic drivers, such as rainfall;[2] bedrock
wear in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea and waves; glacial plucking, abrasion, and scour; areal
flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes; and mass movementprocesses in steep
landscapes like landslides and debris flows. The rates at which such processes act control how fast
a surface is eroded. Typically, physical erosion proceeds fastest on steeply sloping surfaces, and
rates may also be sensitive to some climatically-controlled properties including amounts of water
supplied (e.g., by rain), storminess, wind speed, wave fetch, or atmospheric temperature (especially
for some ice-related processes). Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and the
amount of eroded material that is already carried by, for example, a river or glacier.[3][4] Processes of
erosion that produce sediment or solutes from a place contrast with those of deposition, which
control the arrival and emplacement of material at a new location.[1]
While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which
erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on-site" and "off-site"

problems. On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural
landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some
cases, the eventual end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of
waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and
houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are
responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of
the most significant environmental problems worldwide.[5]:2[6]:1
Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are
amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion.
[7]
However, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of
vulnerable soils.

A natural arch produced by the wind erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz, Jordan.
A wave-like sea cliff produced bycoastal erosion, in Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, Liaoning
Province, China.

Contents
[hide]

1Physical processes
o

1.1Rainfall and surface runoff

1.2Rivers and streams

1.3Coastal erosion

1.4Chemical erosion

1.5Glaciers

1.6Floods

1.7Wind erosion

1.8Mass movement
2Factors affecting erosion rates

2.1Climate

2.2Vegetative cover

2.3Topography

2.4Tectonics

3Erosion of Earth systems


o

3.1Mountain ranges

3.2Soils

4See also

5References

6Further reading

7External links

Physical processes[edit]

Rainfall and surface runoff[edit]

Soil and water being splashed by the impact of a single raindrop.

Rainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four main types of soil
erosion: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion. Splash erosion is generally
seen as the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by sheet
erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion (the most severe of the four). [6]:6061[8]

In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil,[9] ejecting soil
particles.[10] The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m (two feet) vertically and
1.5 m (five feet) horizontally on level ground.
If the soil is saturated, or if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into
the soil, surface runoff occurs. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil
particles (sediment) down the slope.[11] Sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by
overland flow.[11]

A spoil tip covered in rills and gullies due to erosion processes caused by rainfall: Rummu, Estonia

Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as
both sediment source and sedimentdelivery systems for erosion on hillslopes. Generally, where
water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are
typically of the order of a few centimetres (about an inch) or less and along-channel slopes may be
quite steep. This means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through
the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers.[12]
Gully erosion occurs when runoff water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or
immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a considerable depth. [13][14][15]

Rivers and streams[edit]


For more details on water's erosive ability, see Hydraulic action.

Dobbingstone Burn, Scotland, showing two different types of erosion affecting the same place. Valley erosion is
occurring due to the flow of the stream, and the boulders and stones (and much of the soil) that are lying on the
stream's banks are glacial till that was left behind as ice age glaciers flowed over the terrain.

Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is
both downward, deepening the valley, andheadward, extending the valley into the hillside,
creating head cuts and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is
dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively
steep. When some base levelis reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which
widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat,

and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream meanders across the valley
floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood, when more
and faster-moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the
water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles, pebbles and boulders can also act erosively
as they traverse a surface, in a process known as traction.[16]
Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. This is distinguished from
changes on the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to as scour. Erosion and changes in the
form of river banks may be measured by inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position
of the bank surface along the rods at different times.[17]
Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water.[18] It can
occur both along rivers and at the coast. Rapid river channel migration observed in the Lena
River of Siberia is due to thermal erosion, as these portions of the banks are composed of
permafrost-cemented non-cohesive materials.[19] Much of this erosion occurs as the weakened banks
fail in large slumps. Thermal erosion also affects the Arctic coast, where wave action and near-shore
temperatures combine to undercut permafrost bluffs along the shoreline and cause them to fail.
Annual erosion rates along a 100-kilometre (62-mile) segment of the Beaufort Sea shoreline
averaged 5.6 metres (18 feet) per year from 1955 to 2002. [20]

Coastal erosion[edit]
Main article: Coastal erosion
See also: Beach evolution

Wave cut platform caused by erosion of cliffs by the sea, atSoutherndown in South Wales.

Erosion of the boulder clay (ofPleistocene age) along cliffs of FileyBay, Yorkshire, England.

Shoreline erosion, which occurs on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the
action of currents and waves but sea level (tidal) change can also play a role.

Hydraulic action takes place when air in a joint is suddenly compressed by a wave closing the
entrance of the joint. This then cracks it.Wave pounding is when the sheer energy of the wave hitting
the cliff or rock breaks pieces off. Abrasion or corrasion is caused by waves launching seaload at the
cliff. It is the most effective and rapid form of shoreline erosion (not to be confused
with corrosion). Corrosion is the dissolving of rock by carbonic acid in sea water.[citation
needed]
Limestone cliffs are particularly vulnerable to this kind of erosion. Attritionis where
particles/seaload carried by the waves are worn down as they hit each other and the cliffs. This then
makes the material easier to wash away. The material ends up as shingle and sand. Another
significant source of erosion, particularly on carbonate coastlines, is the boring, scraping and
grinding of organisms, a process termed bioerosion.[21]
Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift).
When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs.
When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result
of deposition. These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift,
alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline,
quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank
(a spit). Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline
from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack
different parts of the shore.[citation needed]

Chemical erosion[edit]
Chemical erosion is the loss of matter in a landscape in the form of solutes. Chemical erosion is
usually calculated from the solutes found in streams. Anders Rapp pioneered the study of chemical
erosion in his work about Krkevagge published in 1960.[22]

Glaciers[edit]

Glacial moraines above Lake Louise, in Alberta, Canada.

Glaciers erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasion/scouring, plucking, and ice
thrusting. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and
gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood. Glaciers can also cause pieces of
bedrock to crack off in the process of plucking. In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as
it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. This
method produced some of the many thousands of lake basins that dot the edge of the Canadian
Shield. The erosion caused by glaciers worldwide erodes mountains so effectively that the
term glacial buzz-saw has become widely used, which describes the limiting effect of glaciers on the

height of mountain ranges.[23] As mountains grow higher, they generally allow for more glacial activity
(especially in the accumulation zone above the glacial equilibrium line altitude),[24]which causes
increased rates of erosion of the mountain, decreasing mass faster than isostatic rebound can add
to the mountain.[25] This provides a good example of a negative feedback loop. Ongoing research is
showing that while glaciers tend to decrease mountain size, in some areas, glaciers can actually
reduce the rate of erosion, acting as a glacial armour.[23]
These processes, combined with erosion and transport by the water network beneath the glacier,
leave moraines, drumlins, ground moraine (till), kames, kame deltas, moulins, and glacial erratics in
their wake, typically at the terminus or during glacier retreat.[citation needed]

Floods[edit]
At extremely high flows, kolks, or vortices are formed by large volumes of rapidly rushing water.
Kolks cause extreme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole-type geographical
features called Rock-cut basins. Examples can be seen in the flood regions result from glacial Lake
Missoula, which created the channeled scablands in theColumbia Basin region of
eastern Washington.[26]

Wind erosion[edit]

rbol de Piedra, a rock formation in the Altiplano, Bolivia sculpted by wind erosion.

Main article: Aeolian processes


Wind erosion is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. It is also a
major source of land degradation, evaporation, desertification, harmful airborne dust, and crop
damageespecially after being increased far above natural rates by human activities such
as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture.[27][28]
Wind erosion is of two primary varieties: deflation, where the wind picks up and carries away loose
particles; and abrasion, where surfaces are worn down as they are struck by airborne particles
carried by wind. Deflation is divided into three categories: (1) surface creep, where larger, heavier
particles slide or roll along the ground; (2) saltation, where particles are lifted a short height into the
air, and bounce and saltate across the surface of the soil; and (3) suspension, where very small and
light particles are lifted into the air by the wind, and are often carried for long distances. Saltation is
responsible for the majority (50-70%) of wind erosion, followed by suspension (30-40%), and then
surface creep (5-25%).[29]:57[30]

Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in
the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times
greater in drought years than in wet years.[31]

Mass movement[edit]

Wadi in Makhtesh Ramon, Israel, showing gravity collapse erosion on its banks.

Mass movement is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a sloped
surface, mainly due to the force ofgravity.[32][33]
Mass movement is an important part of the erosional process, and is often the first stage in the
breakdown and transport of weathered materials in mountainous areas. [34]:93 It moves material from
higher elevations to lower elevations where other eroding agents such as streams and glaciers can
then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations. Mass-movement processes are
always occurring continuously on all slopes; some mass-movement processes act very slowly;
others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any perceptible down-slope movement of
rock or sediment is often referred to in general terms as a landslide. However, landslides can be
classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement
and the velocity at which the movement occurs. One of the visible topographical manifestations of a
very slow form of such activity is a scree slope.[citation needed]
Slumping happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials
like clay that, once released, may move quite rapidly downhill. They will often show a spoonshaped isostatic depression, in which the material has begun to slide downhill. In some cases, the
slump is caused by water beneath the slope weakening it. In many cases it is simply the result of
poor engineering along highways where it is a regular occurrence.[citation needed]
Surface creep is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not
perceptible except through extended observation. However, the term can also describe the rolling of
dislodged soil particles 0.5 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in) in diameter by wind along the soil surface.[citation
needed]

Factors affecting erosion rates[edit]

Climate[edit]
The amount and intensity of precipitation is the main climatic factor governing soil erosion by water.
The relationship is particularly strong if heavy rainfall occurs at times when, or in locations where,

the soil's surface is not well protected by vegetation. This might be during periods when agricultural
activities leave the soil bare, or in semi-arid regions where vegetation is naturally sparse. Wind
erosion requires strong winds, particularly during times of drought when vegetation is sparse and soil
is dry (and so is more erodible). Other climatic factors such as average temperature and
temperature range may also affect erosion, via their effects on vegetation and soil properties. In
general, given similar vegetation and ecosystems, areas with more precipitation (especially highintensity rainfall), more wind, or more storms are expected to have more erosion.
In some areas of the world (e.g. the mid-western USA), rainfall intensity is the primary determinant of
erosivity, with higher intensity rainfall generally resulting in more soil erosion by water. The size and
velocity of rain drops is also an important factor. Larger and higher-velocity rain drops have
greater kinetic energy, and thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than
smaller, slower-moving rain drops.[35]:2931
In other regions of the world (e.g. western Europe), runoff and erosion result from relatively low
intensities of stratiform rainfall falling onto previously saturated soil. In such situations, rainfall
amount rather than intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion by water.[13]

Vegetative cover[edit]
See also: Vegetation and slope stability
Vegetation acts as an interface between the atmosphere and the soil. It increases the permeability of
the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing runoff. It shelters the soil from winds, which results in
decreased wind erosion, as well as advantageous changes in microclimate. The roots of the plants
bind the soil together, and interweave with other roots, forming a more solid mass that is less
susceptible to both water and wind erosion. The removal of vegetation increases the rate of surface
erosion.[36]

Topography[edit]
The topography of the land determines the velocity at which surface runoff will flow, which in turn
determines the erosivity of the runoff. Longer, steeper slopes (especially those without adequate
vegetative cover) are more susceptible to very high rates of erosion during heavy rains than shorter,
less steep slopes. Steeper terrain is also more prone to mudslides, landslides, and other forms of
gravitational erosion processes.[35]:2830[37][38]

Tectonics[edit]
Main article: Erosion and tectonics
Tectonic processes control rates and distributions of erosion at the Earth's surface. If tectonic action
causes part of the Earth's surface (e.g., a mountain range) to be raised or lowered relative to
surrounding areas, this must necessarily change the gradient of the land surface. Because erosion
rates are almost always sensitive to local slope (see above), this will change the rates of erosion in
the uplifted area. Active tectonics also brings fresh, unweathered rock towards the surface, where it
is exposed to the action of erosion.
However, erosion can also affect tectonic processes. The removal by erosion of large amounts of
rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on

the lower crust and mantle. Because tectonic processes are driven by gradients in the stress field
developed in the crust, this unloading can in turn causetectonic or isostatic uplift in the region.
[34]:99[39]
In some cases, it has been hypothesised that these twin feedbacks can act to localise and
enhance zones of very rapid exhumation of deep crustal rocks beneath places on the Earth's surface
with extremely high erosion rates, for example, beneath the extremely steep terrain of Nanga
Parbat in the western Himalayas. Such a place has been called a "tectonic aneurysm".[40]

Erosion of Earth systems[edit]

Mountain ranges[edit]
See also: denudation and planation
This section needs
expansion.You can help
by adding to it. (November
2015)

Mountain ranges are known to take many million of years to erode to the degree they effectively
cease to exist. Scholars Pitman and Golovchenko estimate that it takes probably more than 450
million years to erode a mountain mass similar to the Himalaya into an almost-flat peneplain if there
are no major sea-level changes.[41] Erosion of mountains massifs can create a pattern of equally high
summits called summit accordance.[42] It has been argued that extension during post-orogenic
collapse is a more effective mechanism of lowering the height of orogenic mountains than erosion. [43]
Examples of heavily eroded mountain ranges include the Timanides of Northern Russia. Erosion of
this orogen has produced sediments that are now found in the East European Platform, including the
Cambrian Sablya Formation near Lake Ladoga. Studies of these sediments points that its likely that
the erosion of the orogen was beginning in the Cambrian and then became stronger in Ordovician.[44]

Soils[edit]
Further information: soil erosion and pedogenesis
If the rate of erosion is higher than the rate of soil formation the soils are being destroyed by erosion.
[45]
Where soil is not destroyed by erosion, erosion can in some cases prevent the formation of soil
features that form slowly. Inceptisols are common soils that form in areas of fast erosion.[46]
While erosion of soils is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate
at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on-site" and
"off-site" problems. On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural
landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some
cases, the eventual end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of
waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and
houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are
responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of
the most significant environmental problems worldwide.[6][47]

Water-related
Hazards & Climate
Change
Water-related hazards like floods, droughts, pollution and related
issues, are increasing in frequency and intensity almost everywhere
around the globe due to population growth and effects of climate
change.
Wateroceans, seas, storms, and rainare a source of beauty, inspiration, and
recreation for billions of people. As with many natural processes, part of that beauty
is seated in the untamed grandness of those systems, which can sometimes turn
hazardous. Water hazards have the potential to impact almost everyone on the
planet, because roughly half of the worlds population lives within 100 miles of a
coastline. Those who dont are still at risk for experiencing local or regional flooding
events. Natural Hazards at the University of Washington includes scientists and
researchers working across water-related hazards, each with their own area of
expertisefrom extreme precipitation and regional climate change to roadways and
mountain snow melt. In partnership with other experts, we are working toward
resilient mitigation approaches to water hazards, including tsunamis, coastal threats,
floods.
TSUNAMIS
Tsunamis are are series of enormous, seismic sea waves created by an
underwater geologic disturbance like an earthquake, volcano, or landslide. These colossal waves are
capable of moving at hundreds of miles per hour in the open ocean and can smash into our
coastlines with waves exceeding 100 feet. Tsunamis can greatly impact coastal towns and those who
live there, especially along the Pacific Oceans Ring of Firea geographically active area where
tectonic shifts make volcanoes and earthquakes more common than in other places. This year, two
UW mathematicians and their collaborators developed a tsunami model that simulates waters

movement. Recently, their model was used to help design the first-ever tsunami refuge structure in
the country on the roof of a western Washington elementary school.

COASTAL THREATS
Coastal cities have long been a destination for those seeking sand, sunshine, and surf.
Even after vacation ends and people return to their more landlocked locales, more than
50 percent of people in the United States remain on or near the coast. Naturally
occurring hazards like storms, swelling tides, and currents constantly affect coastal
processes, where erosion, landslides, and flooding can be easily triggered. At the
University of Washington, coastal threats are researched from many perspectives,
including scientists and researchers working in the environmental sciences, social
sciences, policy, urban design, and others disciplines.

FLOODS
Anywhere it rains, a flood can occurits one of the most common natural hazards in the United
States and across the globe. Outdated, clogged, or at-capacity drainage systems and
fast accumulation of rainfall, as well as hurricane systems and full levees can lead to flood
conditions. Flooding can be local, impacting one neighborhood or a community, or very large,
affecting entire river basins and multiple states. While some floods develop slowly, flash floodsthe
number one weather-related killer in the United Statescan develop in moments and often bring
along rushing water, large rocks, and trees. Floods are an area of concentration for the team working
on natural hazards at the University of Washington, and the College of Built Environments Master of
Infrastructure Planning & Management degree now offers a degree option in floodplain management
aimed at inspiring and equipping the next generation of professionals working in floodplain
mitigation.

Weather Hazards

Weather is the measure of short-term conditions of the atmosphere such as temperature, wind speed, and
humidity. The average weather of a region over decades is its climate. Although weather can vary day-to-day or
year-to-year, the climate of a region is relatively stable because it represents the average weather over a long
period of time. Extra-warm summers and extra-cold winters, when combined with typical seasonal change,
result in a moderate average temperature over long periods of decades or centuries. Proximity to a large body
of water can also decrease the temperature range of a geographic region. While the Midwest is far from an
ocean, it is in close proximity to the Great Lakes;; nevertheless, states in this area experience a considerable
range of temperatures over the course of a year. The greatest temperature ranges are found during the winter:
The average winter temperature of northern Minnesota is -13C (8F) while that of areas around the Ohio River
is 2C (35F). Weather hazards can occur fairly frequently, such as several times a year, or relatively
infrequently, such as once every century.

Extreme Temperature
Extreme temperatures can create dangerous conditions for people and may lead to property damage. Heat
waves are periods of excessively hot weather that may also accompany high humidity. Temperatures of just
3C (6F) to 6C (11F) above normal are enough to reclassify a warm period as a heat wave. Under these
conditions, the mechanism of sweating does little to cool people down because the humidity prevents sweat
from evaporating and cooling off the skin. Heat waves have different impacts on rural and urban settings. In
rural settings, agriculture and livestock can be greatly affected. Heat stress recommendations are issued to
help farmers protect their animals, particularly pigs and poultry, which, unlike cattle, do not have sweat glands.
The impacts of heat waves on urban settings include a combination of the natural conditions of excessive heat
and the social conditions of living in a densely populated space. Cities contain a considerable amount of
pavement, which absorbs and gives off more heat than vegetation-covered land does. Air conditioning units
that cool down the inside of buildings produce heat that is released outside. Pollution from cars and industrial
manufacturing also elevate the outdoor temperatures in cities. This phenomenon, in which cities experience
higher temperatures than surrounding rural communities do, is known as the heat island effect. Other social
conditions can cause an increase in the hazards associated with heat waves in urban areas. People who are in
poor health, live in apartment buildings with no air conditioning, or are unable to leave their houses are at
greatest risk of death during heat waves. In 1995, a heat wave impacted the Midwest, leading to nearly 740

heat-related deaths in Chicago alone. In addition to causing widespread illness from dehydration and exposure
to extreme heat, the high temperatures buckled road pavement and warped train rails.
Recently, a different extreme temperature phenomenon has made the news: the polar vortex. As the name
implies, a polar vortex is a regularly occurring area of low pressure that circulates in the highest levels of the
upper atmosphere. Typically, the polar vortex hovers above Canada. However, a pocket of the counterclockwise rotating low-pressure center can break off and shift southward at a lower altitude, covering the
Midwest with frigid air. The jet stream then shifts to a more southward flow than usual, chilling the Midwest and
even the southern states. A polar vortex can lock the jet stream in this new pattern for several days to more
than a week. Extreme low temperatures can endanger livestock, and precautions should be taken regarding
travel on roadways. Although the cold temperatures of a polar vortex can be uncomfortable and make traveling
dangerous in the winter, the Midwest has not yet experienced any major economic or health-related impacts
from this extreme weather event.

Seasonal Severe Storms


Several types of severe storms present challenges to people living in the Midwest. Summer brings severe
thunderstorms associated with cold fronts. Fall and spring can bring ice storms, and winter brings the challenge
of snow and, in some cases, blizzard conditions. Although rare, hurricanes moving north from the Gulf of
Mexico can impact the weather in the Midwest as well. Severe thunderstorms are a common occurrence for
people living in the Midwest because the conditions over the Great Plains are perfect for the development of
severe weather. The flat, open fields are warmed by the summer sun, which sits high in the sky during this time
of year. This results in large temperature differences when cold air masses move across the country. The
boundary between the warm air and the cold air moving into a region creates a cold front.
At this boundary, denser, colder air moves in, making the less dense, warm air rise. This displaced warm air
cools as it rises because air pressure decreases with increasing height in the atmosphere. As the air cools, it
becomes saturated with water vapor, and condensation (the shift from a vapor [gas] state to a liquid state)
begins to occur. This phase shift takes place because the cooler air contains less thermal energy than warmer
air does, and this reduction in energy allows the water molecules to link together faster than they are torn
apart. At frontal boundaries, warm air quickly rises and condenses, and clouds form. Because liquid water
droplets in the clouds must be very small to remain suspended in the air, when there is a significant amount of
condensation, the small water droplets come together, eventually becoming too large to remain suspended.
This process leads to dramatic rainstorms.
Air pressure plays a key role in the formation and severity of these storms. Warm air has a lower pressure
relative to cold air, and the movement of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure generates

wind. Therefore, when a cold front moves into an area that is very warm, the significant difference in air
pressure will generate strong winds. The greater the temperature difference, the greater the air pressure
difference and, consequently, the greater the speed at which the air will move. Wind is very common in the
Midwest, and the topography of the area plays an important role in wind formation, allowing for warm air to heat
up over large expanses of flat cropland without hills or mountains to influence the direction of air movement.
Therefore, the Midwest has the perfect ingredients for severe weather: flat topography and large temperature
differences on a day-to-day basis.
While severe thunderstorms are often a weekly occurrence in much of the Midwest, two less common storm
hazards have the potential to cause serious property damage and endanger lives: derechos and tornados. Both
storm events are associated with wind shear, which occurs when the wind speed or direction changes with
increasing height in the atmosphere. Wind shear can happen when a cold front moves rapidly into an area with
very warm air. There, the condensing water droplets mix with the cooler, drier air in the upper atmosphere to
cause a downdraft.
When these downdrafts are very powerful, they can cause a derecho, or a set of powerful straight-line winds
that exceed 94 kilometers per hour (kph) (58 miles per hour [mph]) and can often approach 160 kph (100 mph).
These powerful windstorms can travel over 400 kilometers (250 miles) and cause substantial wind damage,
knocking down trees and causing widespread power outages. The lightning associated with these intense
storms can cause both forest fires and house fires. Approximately one derecho every year or two will occur in
much of the Midwest (Figure 10.1). They are less frequent in the upper Midwest states, which remain cooler
throughout the summers.

Figure 10.1: Derecho frequency in the continental US.


The differences between tornadoes and derechos are indicated in their names: the word derecho is the
Spanish word for straight ahead, while the word tornado has its roots in the Spanish word tonar, which means
to turn. Both types of storm events can be associated with the same major cold front boundary because they
require similar ingredients to get started. However, tornado formation is a more complicated process. At the
frontal boundary, warm, moist air rapidly rises as cooler, dry air descends. In the meantime, the pressure
differences between the warm and cold air masses cause strong winds. As conditions in the atmosphere
develop to cause a tornado, clouds with a visible horizontal rotation can appear. The clouds seem to roll like
waves crashing on the shore of a beach. This horizontal motion can tilt, lifting the rotating cloud vertically, and
the rolling cloud will form a tornado. Most tornados will last a few seconds to several minutes. During that time,
many tornado-prone areas will use tornado sirens to alert residents of the danger. A smaller tornado might
generate flying debris that can cause injury or damage to buildings, while larger tornados can cause buildings
and houses to be completely broken apart. Tornados are classified by their ranking on the Enhanced Fujita
scale, or EF scale. The classifications are estimates of the wind speeds based on the type of damage that is
observed following the storm.
Although specific tornado paths are not predictable, the conditions that produce them are used to alert people
so that they will seek shelter. The National Weather Service issues a watch, if the conditions are right for a
type of storm event, or a warning, if the conditions are occurring or imminent for the storm event. The National
Weather Service is part of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, which maintains a US
map of all current watches and warnings. Since the atmospheric conditions can change very quickly, an
important factor in preventing loss of human life is getting the public to act upon the severe weather alerts. One
way in which severe weather expert Dr. Greg Forbes has sought to improve public response to warnings is
through a tornado alert index that helps people evaluate the risk of a local tornado. The Tor:Con index used by
the Weather Channel provides a number from 1 to 10 that represents the probability of a tornado occurring.
Meteorologists evaluate the atmospheric conditions associated with a storm and assign a score. For example,
a 4 on the Tor:Con index would indicate a 40%, or moderate, chance of a tornado forming in a particular area.
The hope is that by representing risk as a number from 1 to 10, people will be more likely to heed warnings and
seek shelter.
Other severe weather events are more loosely associated with seasonal weather. Hurricanes occur when a
warm and moist tropical low-pressure air mass forms over portions of the Atlantic Ocean south and east of
Florida. These storms gather strength because the warm summer ocean water evaporates, causing very
humid, low-pressure air. The air rises and condenses into water droplets that form clouds and release latent
heat. The latent heat provides energy for even greater evaporation of warm ocean water, and thus the cycle

continues until the low-pressure center moves over land. These storms are considered tropical depressions
when wind speeds are below 63 kph (39 mph). As the storm develops a more organized structure, however,
with more concentrated rising warm air in the center and bands of rain, it will officially become a tropical storm
when its wind speeds reach the 63 to 117 kph (39 to 73 mph) range. Once winds have reached 119 kph (74
mph), the storm is classified as a hurricane.
Hurricanes are not common in the Midwest. However, if a hurricane is particularly strong, it can move far
enough northward and inland to cause a significant rain event for areas in the Midwest. The impact on the
Midwest is usually less serious than the property damage experienced along the southern and eastern
seaboards of the United States. Natural hazards experienced during a hurricane are similar to those
experienced during a severe thunderstorm that is accompanied by flooding.

Trend Extension

resembles the Dispersed Sheet urban form of Kevin Lynch, which he described as having
maximum flexibility, personal comfort, independence and where local

participation is highly possible

Trend extension is the result of individuals building anywhere according to their own
preferences and convenience with minimal government intervention.

development is spread evenly over a wide continuous tract, very accessible to open land,
and transport is designed as continuous grid.

no vivid or memorable image of the city and costly provision of public service.
Fig: Dispersed Sheet

Land Use Pattern


Linear Urban Form

a.k.a Ribbon or Strip development

characterized by concentration of development


along both sides of major transportation routes
such as roads, navigable rivers or other form of
transport network

generally start on a one-lot-deep into a grid system.

also resembles what Kevin Lynch refers to as the Urban Star which is characterized by a
strong urban core with secondary centers of moderate densities, distributed along main
radials roads.

very strong visual image

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