ABSTRACT
DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN
GROUTING PRACTICE
A.V. Shroff
Permeation and Jet grouting can control ground water seepage through and
below the structure and can increase the stability of soils/ rocks against any
structural load during and after construction while, compaction grouting can
densify surrounding weak mass and/or uplifting the settled structure. Today,
India is on the verge of take off for using new grout materials & techniques with
more confidence after having had used them in several field trials and also
through concerted theoretical understanding coupled with laboratory studies. The
paper focuses attention on the process of development and understanding that
has been generated in India and elsewhere over the last one and half decade
highlighting the research conducted at M S University, Baroda, Gujarat.
Paper includes design and characterization of suspension-cement based
conventional grouts along with newly developed micro fine grouts & grouted
mass with reference to rheology and strength aspects under static and dynamic
loadings. Long term compressive and tensile strength with creep measurements
and Cyclic Behaviour of MC grouted sand under cyclic undrained load for
liquefaction, fatigue life and damping ratio measurements have been dealt with
including apparatus developed & typical results and their performance in the
field.
Use of newly developed triangular chart for design of chemical and cement
based grout mixes & their field performance are worth pursuit. Some of the new
patterns of grout holes with reference to site geology, volume of mass to be
treated and kinematics of rig are designed and implemented for (i) curtain,
consolidated blanket below dam (ii) strengthening of top, sides & bottom of
tunnels (iii) seepage control during shaft sinking operation are discussed. Newly
developed TPC (Time-Pressure-Consumption) concept synonymous with GIN
(Grout Intensity Number) has helped in the assessment of the behavior of grout
holes during grouting operation. Computerization of grouting plant with soft
wares and pick ups along with readout station can perform effective monitoring
of permeation/ compaction/Jet grouting.
Execution problems and methods of remediation along with control of
production parameters at various grouting sites in India and elsewhere of
Permeation/Compaction and Jet grouting are described. Conformation of
proposed method of remediation at some project by Centrifuge Modeling and
numerical methods using 3-D model are also presented.
The paper concludes with suggestions that India must adopt innovative
techniques to help Grouting to emerge out as an industry of its own right.
Key Words: Cement, Chemicals, Micro Fine Grouts, Liquefaction, Grout
Curtain, Consolidation/Blanket Grouting, Triangular Charts, Grout Hole
Patterns, Computerized Monitoring, Execution Problems, Remediation,
Permeation, Compaction, Jet Grouting.
2.
Optimization of field grout mixes and pattern of grout holes for various
applications along with computerized Grouting Plant and monitoring.
3.
INTRODUCTION
In the context of ground engineering the term grouting is used for the process of
pressure injection of setting fluids into pores and cavities. The process is widely
used in the construction of tunnels, shafts and dams for the purpose of either
reducing percolation or increasing the mechanical stability in water-bearing soil
or rock. If a useful engineering purpose is to be achieved, the sealing and
strengthening actions must extend a considerable distance into the formation, and
it is, therefore, general practice to inject the grout into a special array of
boreholes drilled into the rock or the soil.
*
**
Current grouting methods are effective in sealing cavities and both coarse and
fine fissures in rock, and in sealing pores in granular materials typical of all soils
short of clays and very silty sands. With the development of high-pressure
pumps, cement grouts came to predominate, and they were frequently associated
with the sinking of mine shafts. Local clays modified by peptizers were being
used in earth and rock-filled dams constructed in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s
these techniques reached their peak. By this time, bentonites, either natural
content or treated Montmorillonite clays, had come into use, and the property of
such materials to form stable and impermeable gels with the ability to penetrate
medium-to-fine sands had been utilized for seepage control by cutoff, upstream
blanket with relief wells. In certain ground conditions, e.g. boulder clays and in
earthquake-prone areas, grouted cut-offs have attractions.
By 1910 Francois refers to the then current existence of grouts based on sodium
silicate in combination with other reacting chemicals, and uses such materials as
preliminary injection to improve the penetration of subsequently injected cement
gouts. However, the development of a particular silicate grouting technique by
Joosten in 1925 greatly advanced the application of grouting, particularly for the
strengthening of controlling gravel formations. The practical difficulties of
controlling the rate of gelling of sodium silicate solutions led to two distinct
methods of injection, generally known as single-shot and two-shot processes.
In the late forties, Robert E. Lenihan, a mud jacking contactor in Long Beach,
California (USA), stated using zero slump soil-cement grout pumped through
pipes driven to various depths to lift structures. Working empirically, the basic
technique termed has compaction grouting is developed for spacing grout bulb
injections effectively to compact a low density soil mass. Graf, 1969 and
Mitchell, 1970 distinguished compaction grouting and penetration grouting. It
consists of intruding a mass of very thick consistency grout in to the soil, thus
both displacing and compacting it. Thus, its use is nearly always limited to soils
and usually of low compaction. Brown and Warner, 1973 used this technique to
stabilize the soil under residences and light commercial building, however it has
been extensively used to stabilize foundations of large structures including even
bridges and culverts and the ground under the tips of piles.
The in situ deep mixing of stabilizers with soft soils to form columns, walls grids
or blocks in the foundation has been developed and applied extensively in civil
engineering practice since the 1970s. The two type of mixing methods, namely
deep mechanical mixing (DMM) and high-pressured Jet-grout mixing have been
the used under deep ground conditions. The method of application range is
shown in Fig.1. The Deep Mixing Method-DMM uses slurry state or dry powder
state stabilizer. Originally, the process ejected the grouting material itself at a
pressure of 200 bars to cut soil and fill, but it was capable of obtaining an
improved body only 0.5 meters in diameter. Both methods rapidly spread
nationwide in the 1970s. By 1990, creating a much larger improved body became
a primary concern and a variety of approaches were tested to achieve this.
Engineering Classification
The engineering classification is based on grout characteristics and its
engineering performance. It includes not only the flow and strength
characteristics of grouts, but also the strength and permeability of the grouting
mass due to its interaction with the grout. Engineering classification and its
subdivision based on grout characteristics are given by strip chart (Bell, 1957).
Rheological Classification
Rheologically, particulate and fine chemical grouts are classed as granular
Binghamian and non-granular Newtonian grouts respectively, based on their
initial viscosity. The flow curve for a Newtonian grout is a straight line that
passes through the origin; for a Binghamin gout it makes an intercept with the
shear stress axis, which is commonly referred to as the yield value about
120 N/mm2. It is required to overcome it for maintaining uniform flow Fig. 4.
Penetrability of Grouts in Relation to Formation Material
In particulate gouts, the limits of injectibility are decided from the groutability
ratio, in addition to its initial fluidity, while in Newtonian fine grouts these limits
are mainly a function of their initial viscosity and gel time.
Various workers have suggested particle size criteria based on D15, D10 sizes of
foundation material and d85, d95 sizes of grout material. The following criteria
exist for limits of particle size for effective grouting:
(i) D15/d85 should be between 5-24 (Kravetz, 1958) or should be at least 16
(King and Bush; 1961) or should be greater than 25 (Johnson, 1958; Karol,
1960; Mitchell, 1970).
(ii) The diameter of the grout particle must not be more than 1/10th of the D10
size of the soil (Bell, 1982).
(iii) The soil pore should be three time the diameter of the grout particle to
avoid blockage by bridging (Raffle and Greenwood, 1961).
(iv) True Binghamian grouts such as clay, cement, bentonite or bentonitecement, can be successfully grouted in a formation having a permeability of
more than 103 cm/sec and a specific surface area of particle greater than
101 cm and its effective size (D10) greater than 0.5 mm (Terzaghi, 1936;
Cambefort, 1957; Glossop, 1962; Skempton, 1963).
(v) In the of rock grouting, the size of fissure should be three time greater than
the diameter of grout particle for an appropriate groutability ratio (Mitchell,
1970).
(vi) The usual cement particle size limits the penetration of cement grout to
fissures in rocks of less than 160 micron width unless fracturing pressures are
used (Littlejohn, 1982).
(vii) To avoid filtering of grout material from the void space, the ratio between
D10 and d95 should be more than 6 (Kravetz, 1958).
From the experimental study of (Shroff, Joshi, 2005) penetrability of newly
developed micro fine (MC) cement-grouts in different sand gradations, it is
found that D15 / d85 >40 (D for sand & d for MC).
Criteria presented above provides only guide lines because of heterogeneity in
pore, crack & fracture sizes of alluvium/rock & swelling characteristic of some
grout materials (Shroff, Joshi, 1994) nevertheless it controls upper & lower
limits of size of grout particles & the size of discontinuity of formation to be
grouted. At the same time it guards against washing out of injected grout from
the grouted formation.
Fine Grouts
Grout viscosity is one of the important factors in regulating the movement of
grout injected into a porous formation. The penetrability of various chemical
grouts in relation to soil grain size is shown in Fig. 5. Pure chemical solution
such as acrylamides, aminoplast or phenoplast & MC grouts are recommended
for very fine soil characterized by d10 less then 0.02 mm and a surface area of
less than 1000 cm1 (Shroff, 1994). Caron (1982) ascertained that rock cracks
less than 0.1 mm wide can be grouted with chemical grouts in cases where
cement cannot be injected.
Fig. 7: Various Laboratory Set-ups for Permeation, Compaction & Jet Grouting
For chemical grouts, the additional tests: PH value, syneresis, toxicity,
measurements by fish mortality test are required to be performed.
Since the grouting is carried out under pressure particular for jet grouting, the
grout is subjected to hydrostatic pressures; this test has been developed to study
the bleeding of grout under pressure Fig. 7c (Shroff, 2005). The schematic
10
11
12
13
significantly alter the rheology of a cement paste at an early age. The quicker
stiffening of an accelerated paste may result in higher viscosity at a later stage.
Figure 11 shows time viscosity relation of cement with various admixtures
Shroff and Shah (1992).
Sodium silicate as an admixture slows long term strength while calcium chloride
accelerates the short geletion. Accelerators display time-viscosity curves which
exhibit high viscosity at any time for a given water: cement ratio. The water
reducer shows linear Binghamian in the low stress range compared to neat
cement while the accelerators remain non-linear Binghamian in the same low
stress range. Accelerators show early strength build up and visoelasticity
compared to neat cement while water reducer gives consistent delay in stress
build up. The grout with accelerators remains elastic for higher peak stress
compared to neat cement (Figure 12) Shroff et al., 1992. Sodium Silicate
exhibits high compressive strength compared to neat cement. It is higher by 21,
49 and 25 percent over that of neat cement at 7, 28 and 90 days respectively.
14
Fluidiser
Sodium silicate
Sodium aluminate
Calcium lignosulphonate
Trataric acid
Sugar
Calcium lignosulphonate
Optimum dosage, %
cement weight
0.52
1% + 1.2% Benzoyal
Peroxide or
AIBN*(1.2)
0.53
0.53
0.20.5
0.10.5
0.10.5
0.20.4
Expander
Aluminum Powder
0.005-0.02
Filler
Fly ash
Antibleeder
Bentonite
Aluminium sulphate
2.0
5.0
Accelerator
Retader
Chemical
Calcium chloride
Methyl Methal Acrylate
Remarks
Accelerates set and
hardening
Accelerates set
Accelerates set
Also increases
fiuidity
Two times UCS,
Effective water
reducer
UP to 15%
expansion
Reduce afflux time
and bleeding with
same long tern
strength
For making mix
dense and stable
15
16
can be made irreversible by addition of sodium silicate. Also, rate of gelation and
final shear strength marked influenced by several concentrations. Sodium and
Potassium chloride induce volumetric expansion in Bentonite can seal and
reduce permeability.
Table 2: Various grout mixes used at Ukai and Daman Ganga Projects (Gujarat)
Shroff and Mistry (1980)
Clay
0.8
0.4
H.G.
Cement
Bentonite
Water
1.0
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.6
1
1
0.6
8
6
5
5
6
0.5
+Peptizing
agent
0.1 to 2 %
2%
2%
2%
Sodium silicate
=1
Monosodium
phosphate
S/P=1
NPR
gm/cm2
1628
1804
2475
2060
1775
Washout Pressure
Average
(Kg/cm2)
reduction in
(hydraulicgradien) permeability,
%
2.45 (81)
7.14 (63)
2.8 (92)
2.45 (81)
2.75 (85)
99.03
1250
6.42 (90)
2350
2.9 (92)
17
along with basic chemicals. Sensitivity & toxicity of chemical grouts are tested
by lethal Dose (LD50) or fish mortality tests. Strength aspects have been
discussed by shroff and Amin (1982) and Shroff and Shah (1984, 1985) and
Shroff Amin (2005). Guide specifications were laid down for proper testing
procedure of chemical grouts by Mistry, (1964) Shroff and Shah (1983, 1987,
1988, 1992, 1995).
Sodium silicate
In silicate grouts, initial minimum viscosity of grout which can produce gel is by
SiO2: Na2O ratio of 3.9, having pH value 8.5 to 9.2 for a given dilution within
ideal frame work of gel time. Rate of reaction (gel time) and gel strength are
directly proportional to concentration of acidic or basic catalysts and silicates in
grout at constant temperature respectively. Various reactants (a) inorganic i.e.
acids and acidic salts (mainly sodium aluminate and sodium tetraborate (b)
organic (mainly formamide, ethyl acetate, silica fume (c) colloidal silicate
(mainly with potassium chloride) (Shroff et al., 2004) and acid silica sol
(Yonekura, 1997) are used for producing medium stiff, hard and very stiff silica gel.
A soft to medium stiff gel can be formed by neutralizing with weak acidic salts,
sulphate salts etc, by forming small chains of dense spherical aggregation of
polymerized silicic acid, while formamide, ethyl acetate, ethyl alcohol & acetic
acid form a hard gel that neutralizes sodium silicate by the saponification
process. Silica gel is resultant of the reaction obtained by the addition of bivalent
or trivalent cat ions, causing polycondensation that leads to a three-dimensional
network structure of highly coiled & interlinked.
Table 3: Sodium Silicate grouts with organic and inorganic precipitants
(Shroff et al. 1999)
Sodium Silicate
Inorganic
300 cc
260 cc
100 cc
Organic
70 ml
30 ml
30 %
50 %
30 %
Water
Precipitants
500 cc
900 cc
1750 cc
30 ml
60 ml
54%
9 cc (ethyl acetate)
10 cc (5 ethyl acetate + 5 Cacl2)
12.5% formamide + 1.5% Cacl2)
Silica fume (in slurry form with 50% solids)
5 ml ethyl acetate + 5 ml formamide.
60 ml
18
with the passage of time depends on the gelling agent. The short-term strength of
pure silica gel is inversely proportional to setting time, since setting time is
related to catalyst concentration, strength increases with increasing sodium
silicate. Factors affecting the syneresis of hardened gels are density of the grout
mix and environmental changes.
Shroff and Moghe (1980) studied the time viscosity and time-strength
relationship of silica gel developed by using phosphoric acid and sodium
aluminate ( Figs. 17 and 18). These grouts are used in curtain grouting at Girna
dam, Maharashtra, India.
It is found that 10.29 meq of HCl produces gel strength of 0.35kg/cm2 with
15meq sodium silicate. The gel time is influenced considerably by the amount of
sodium aluminate and to a lesser extent by temperature. Formamide helps
increasing rigidity compared to other precipitants.
Lower increase of viscosity of silicate formamide during limiting injection and
zero displacement compared to aluminate and phosphoric acid but higher
viscosity at gel time. Limiting injection, zero displacement and gel time of
aluminate are longer than phosphoric acid but shorter than formamide. It seems
that formamide remains watery for longer time for any stress range compared to
other precipitants (Fig. 19a). Grout with formamide precipitant produces highest
stress build up at gel time and also higher order transformation from semi
viscous-elastic compared to other precipitants. Shroff and Shah (1988) produced
a hard silica gel employing formamide and presented its interaction mechanism
with sand and used during box jacking operation for underpass below railway
track alignment to prevent raveling of sand towards portal at railway yard,
Baroda, India.
19
20
Hoshiya et al. (1982) developed a silica gel using non-alkaline sodium silicate,
which is capable of solidifying in several seconds to several hours (Fig. 21). This
gel possesses a high strength because no water glass was left unreacted and all
the silicon dioxide was embraced in gelation to control the injected area,
therefore, the combination of both slow-set grout and flash-set grout is the most
effective.
21
reactants and nil to minimum in case of colloidal silica (Fig. 22) Average
diameter of the particle is 10-20 nm. Time viscosity and strength study along
with microscopic gelation is shown in Fig. 23 (Shroff, Joshi 2004). Jellification
occurs at pH vale above 9.5 at optimum concentration 20 to 30 g/l potassium
chloride within 15 to 25 minutes, while with 35 g/l potassium chloride flash set
is at w : c = 2. Increase content of KCl has prominent effect on yield value and
viscosity. Ten days vane shear strength of inorganic & UCS of organic reactants
give 67 kPa & 162 kPa while colloidal silica gives 165180 kPa for w: cs = 2.
For grout w : cs = 1, after 45 days the UCS = 340 kPa with KCl = 30 g/l, while
peak deviator stress after 45 days reaches to 700 kPa with w : cs = 0.5 at
confining stress 196.2 kPa and Kcl = 30 g/l. Cohesion ranged from 59 to 150 kPa
with no much variation in f Fig. 24. UCS of grouted sand exhibits increase of 60
to 65 per cent with decrease of w: c ratio: 2 to 0.5, Kcl concentration and curing
time. Peak deviator stress of 711 kPa at 45 days with confining stress 196.2 kPa
is observed in grouted sand compared to 415 kPa of organic reactant. Grouted
and raw set-grout samples follow Mohr-Column failure criteria. Cohesion range
from 60 kPa to 130 kPa with little change in f for grouted sand sample.
Adherent wash out strength 430 kPa of colloidal silica (Threshold hydraulic
gradient: 198) which is 1.75 time with organic reactant while 1.8 times with
inorganic reactant.
Fig. 23: Time-Viscosity Relation of Colloidal Silica Grout along with Progress in
Gel Development
The gel net work of colloidal silica grout is formed by polymerization and
condensation of silanol radicals on the surface of colloids. During initial time
after mixing hybrid silica sole is formed while nearer to LI time gelling by
bridging K + occurs in hybrid silica. During final jellification, formation of
22
closer and harder potassium silicate with hybrid silica gel forms. Pile of spherical
colloids will be connected close and harder potassium silicate in hybrid silica gel
increasing strength of grouted mass (Fig. 23, 24).
800
Unconfined / Triaxial
compression test results
700
600
500
400
300
200
Unconfined
Confiningl pressure = 98.1 kPa
100
10
12
Fig. 25: Long Term Behavior of Stabilized Sand with Silica Grout and Structure
Long term permeability test on stabilized sand under the hydraulic gradient of
50 (5N/cm2) for a long time remain stable and impermeable state upto 3000 days
in organic reactants. In case of colloidal silica they remained impermeable state
for even 10 years or more.
Lignosulphonate
It is known that soluble lignousulphite mixed with dichromate becomes a firm
gelatinous mass. The increase or decrease in setting time is controlled by a
higher of lower pH value, adjusted by acid or alkaline salts (Moghe, Shroff,
1980). A lignin gel is produced by reacting it with a catalyst and accelerators.
23
24
Raw gel is insoluble in water and grouted mass remains intact under water
submergence. It develops high resistance to washout forces making mass less
permeable to water. Grouted mass shows increase in strength with increase in
confining pressure (Fig. 27b). The injection of grout into sand is observed to lead
to a material that adds cohesion component in addition to original friction
component of the sand.
Rate of reaction and gel strength are directly proportional to concentration of
oxalic acid and urea-formaldehyde respectively. Mathematical model as
suggested (? = exp {0.015 (s)0.4/D}) accounts all the rheological changes of UF
grout system, which follows reasonably time viscosity curve. New interactive
chemical process of double order condensation in presence of melamine ion of
alluvium to be grouted and non-metallic ion of oxalic acid help increase the
strength of grouted mass.
Table 4: New UF Mixes Designed & Developed by Shroff and Shah (1995)
Urea
formaldehyde
30 cc
55 cc
50 cc
50 cc
catalyst
Water
1.5 cc
100 cc + 0.5 gm
oxalic acid Urea + 1.5 gm
Malamine + 0.5 gm
Copper Sulphate
5 cc H3PO4 200 + 4.0 gm
Sodium Aluminate
10 cc
200
H3PO4
5 cc HCL 200 + 3 gm Sodium
Aluminate
Row gel
UCS
3 Days
qc=2.9
kg/cm2
Adherent
strength
3 Days
28 Days
1.1 kg/cm2 3.4 kg/cm2 1.95 kg/cm2
1kg/cm2
0.98 kg/cm2
0.65 kg/cm2
0.55 kg/cm2
1.75 kg/cm2
1.65 kg/cm2
25
sand exhibited qc = 6.5 kg/cm2 at 7 days and deviator stress, s d value = 10.25
kg/cm2 at confining pressure of 21 kg/cm2. Strength of each grouted fine sand
characterized by linear Mohr envelope showing cohesion = 2 kg/cm2 with least
variation in f value (Fig. 28b). The reaction of resorcinol with formaldehyde
under alkaline conditions produces hydro gels which fill the pore space of
granular soils. The resultant product may be regarded as a matrix of set grout
densely filled with sand. Acidic RF grouts were used successfully for grouting
the Woolwich and Reading beds at Blackwell Tunnel in UK. The alkaline RF
gouts used in grouting deep rock for mine shaft sinking at North Yorkshire.
Polyurethane
Hydroxyl group (pu1) is reacted with an isocynate to from urethane gel.
Isocynate componate is qasi- prepolymerised by mixing hydroxyl compound
(OH) with excess amount of isocynate (NCO) in the ratio NCO/OH = 4:1 to
reduce toxicity and efficient reaction (Shroff, 1992). Increase in hydroxyl
compound-pu1 with constant volume of 10cc and 20 cc of prepolymer-pu2
increased the strength. Blowing agent, methyl ethyl ketone and adipic acid
improves the strength property of grout system.
With initial watery viscosity, polyurethane grout is injectable in fine cracks,
joints and voids of sizes 0.1 mm or less (Fig. 29a). Unlike the other chemical
grouts, this grout possess the characteristics of expanding into the voids of a soil
mass or crevices of the rock mass after jellification and producing strong grouted
mass. Polyurethane grout has controlled gel time (30minutes) with high gel
strength. It is observed that though 20 % of water in 1:1 ratio gives maximum
strength of 1.53 kg/cm2 and gel time within limit, but 70% of water can be
26
considered as economical mix giving optimum strength of 1 kg/cm2 and gel time
within specified limit of 30 mnt. Raw gel and grouted mass are insoluble in
water.
An elastomer coupling of gellified foam in void spaces of grouted mass develops
consistent compressive & tensile strength and resistance against any wash out
forces. It is observed that grouted sand give nearly same compressive and tensile
strength. Dry cured submerged sample shows comparable higher compressive
and tensile strength than moist and saturated submerged cure sample. The
respective compressive strength values are respectively: 3.15kg/cm2,
2.037kg/cm2 and 1.18kg/cm2. Also the study of dry cured submerged sample by
extension test with confining pressure of 0.07kg/cm2 exhibited ultimate tensile
strength of 3.71kg/cm2. (Fig. 29b)
Apart from the use of polyurethane as soil penetration grouting, many other
possibilities exist to use polyurethane in reinforced earth construction, reduction
of machine foundation vibrations, Geotextile construction, pipe jacking operation
and other geotechnical engineering applications.
Epoxy
Epoxy resins have often been used for various problems in civil engineering
works in India, during the last decades. The sealing of cracks (Koyna, 1968;
Konar, 1971; Hirakud, 1976) in concrete structures, plugging if leaks in
hydraulic structures and bonding of fresh concrete to hardened concrete are the
main applications.
The epoxy gel is developed by interacting chemical compound derived from bisphenol-A with epichlorohydrin and catalyst or hardener consisting of amines and
polyamides. As per the requirement, the resultant jellified mass, either rigid,
elastic or elastoplastic can be cultivated by proportioning resin, hardener and
water component. The time-viscosity relationship shows that the initial viscosity
27
The higher initial viscosity is attributed to the formation of primary micro gels of
0.5 micrometer to 1 micrometer, which grow into secondary micro gels
interacting with each other before the onset of physical gelation immediately
after mixing. At a critical concentration the secondary micro gels (10
micrometers) pack together abruptly to form and gel mass having a high crosslinked density that explains the typical time-viscosity curve.
A mix having resin: hardeners ratio 2, gives compressive strength of 662.8
Kg/cm2. 775.36 Kg/cm2 and 800.12 Kg/cm2 at 1 hour, 14 days and 21 days
respectively (Fig. 30b). Stress-strain curve indicates that peak stress increases
with increases of curing time reverting strength-time relationship of epoxy set
mass as strongly time dependent. Two categories basically identified, mainly
time dependent linear elastic and time dependent non-linear elastoplastic leading
to brittle failure. High pressure Tri-axial test gives cohesion value of 450
Kg/cm2.
Considering the above time-viscosity and strength behavior, the grout is selected
for injection purpose consists of optimum ratio of resin: hardener. Viscosity of
50 cp is desirable for cracks of the order of 0.15 mm. It is observed from the
metamorphic and igneous group of rock specimens vein lets, bends & minor
fractures (Fig. 31) that adhesion over discontinuation and cracks by epoxy grout
always exceed the strength of the rock. Rupture always occurs through the rock
and never through bonded crack.
Rock Joints of Basalt and sand stone specimens having single and multiple joint
configurations are grouted. The test results on wet surfaces also showed that
significant strength could be developed across joints by bonding them with these
epoxy resin grout.
A suitable injection gun is developed for grouting epoxy in rock sample in metal
box 10 cm 10 cm 10 cm (Shroff, Amin, 1990).
It infers from universal compression test on raw set mass that peak compressive
strength of 1500 kg/cm2 and residual strength of 1450 kg/cm2 with initial tangent
modulus of 50000 kg/cm2. Tensile strength measurement gives 120 kg/cm2,
elongation 10.2% and water absorption as 0.21%.
28
Basalt:
Sand stone
Bhuj)
Configuration
of joints
*
**
***
Compressive
strength of rock
with out joint
kg/cm2
712
712
116
Tensile strength
of rock without
joint
kg/cm2
51.05
61.05
20
Compressive
strength after
bonding joint
kg/cm2
712
712
150
*Joint configuration at 54.8, ** joint configuration at 75, *** Joints at 180 & 75
29
Penetration Test: It involves estimation of pressure and the time required for an
epoxy mix of known viscosity to travel through the gap of known width and
length.
Bond Strength Under Tension: Once the sealing system is set, the grout system is
injected through the inlet nipple using a small syringe. The specimens are then
left undisturbed for curing for 7 days. Tensile testing machine is used to evaluate
bond strength of epoxy grouted with concrete or rock. For underwater
applications the gap between the prisms is grouted underwater so that the water
in the gap is replaced by grout system.
Flexure Test: These cracks are then grouted by epoxy system under study. The
grouted rock cracks are then tested under flexure mode.
Pressure Bearing Capacity of the Sealing System: After a curing period of 7
days, water under pressure is injected in the gap which is grouted through the
hole provided in one of the cubes. Water pressure is then gradually increased till
failure of the sealing.
A trial field injection was made with the above resin grout mix (Shroff, Amin,
1990). It is found that, it provides better bonds to moist rock and has more
flexibility than other chemical grouts to accommodate movement before bond or
shear failure occurred and has shown lower volumetric shrinkage during curing.
The stratascopy inspection at the site has indicated that larger cracks and smaller
cracks are appeared to be filled up and interacted properly with epoxy grout.
Acrylamide
The acrylamide grout is developed by polymerizing the monomers acrylamide
and methylene-bis-acrylamide in about 90:10 proportion with the requisite
amount of the catalyst, ammonium persulphate (0.5%) and the accelerator,
triethanolamine (25% in 75% water diliution) and inhibitor potassium
ferricyanide (KFe = 0.05%) (Shroff, Shah, 1995). Although the grout exhibits
good penetrability, with a constant low viscosity during the induction period and
better gel control with adequate strength, it can be dangerous and toxic if certain
basic safety and handling precautions are not observed.
A new low toxic Acrylate based grout is developed (Shroff,1999) having long
term stability, employing the non-toxic catalyst calcium hypochlorite, exhibiting
higher initial viscosity, requiring a one-hour gel time and possessing a lower
strength than the above grouts.
CRACK GROUTING
Shallow cracks (extending up to about 60cm depth) can be grouted by grouting
through surface nipples/surface entry ports (SEP) and only in the remaining
depth of crack the grouting through inclined drilled hole (IDH) method is
employed. Fig. 32 (a) shows two types of nipples and their fixing details. After
sealing the cracks, the surface is sealed by cutting v notch. Horizontal cracks in
D/s wall of inspection gallery of Konar dam Fig. 32 (b), Damodar valley
corporation, u/s top corner of drainage gallery of Koyna dam, Hirakund dam
wherein these methods are used successfully.
30
Time in Days
31
32
stress (5860kPa) with cohesion 1050Kpa amongst various water cement ratio
(0.8 to 5) for any OPC and slag variation. In MC-I & MC-III of grouted sand it is
observed that there is no much variation in ? value (40 to 45).
Fig. 38 shows indirect tensile strength vs. time relationship. MC-I grout gives
higher indirect tensile strength (3275kPa) among other variation of slag with
OPC and w:c ratio (Table 6). It is observed that maximum deviator stress of
triaxial compression strength is about 1.61.9 times indirect tensile strength.
Group-2
Time-viscosity of only slag with activator-NAF (0.1%) tends towards ideal curve
remaining watery up to 60 min & thereafter rate of viscosity increases
immediately after limiting injection 140 min leading to solid mass (Fig. 35).
When only slag grouts are considered with chemical activators, three days
strength ranged from 127 kPa to 990 kPa whereas 90 days strength are in the
range of 1995 kPa to 8029 kPa. For grouted sand, slag with 0.1% NaF activator
has 33% more strength at 90 days with w: c = 0.8 and 240% more strength with
w:c = 0.5 compared to slag with OPC grouts (Fig. 37). Amongst the alkaline
activators with slag, 0.1% NaF is found to be best activator.
Slag with 0.1%NaF gives highest flexural strength (6279Kpa) amongst other
reactants while activator o.1% K2Co3 gives higher indirect tensile strength of
3343 Kpa which is almost the same value of NaF activator. In slag with alkaline
activators UCS is 1.3 times flexural strength (Table 7).
Group-3
The pattern of T-? curves of MC-III with activators remain same irrespective of
any w:s ratio giving initial time 50 min and gel time 240 min (Fig. 36) In the
33
third group of grouts (MC-III) i.e. 75% slag + 25% OPC which is found to be
weak, 0.1% activator is added. 3-days strength of grouted sand ranges from
130kPa to 1020kPa for variation of w:c 5 to 0.8 and respective 90 days strength
are in the range of 2017 kPa to 8278 kPa. For the same grouts, strength of neat
grout ranges from 5412 kPa to 18379 kPa for variation of w:c = 5 to 0.8 after 90
days of curing (Fig. 39). Considering strength of grouted sand after 90 days of
curing, MC-III + 0.1%NaF is found to be the best grout amongst all slag based
grouts. For all the slag based grouts strength of grouted sand is found as high as
at 4050% of neat grout in majority of cases when grouted in loose sand.
(Table 8).
34
Group-4
MC-SS as component grouts and MC + Bentonite & MC+ Silica fume (SF)
admixture (Shroff & Joshi, 2005):
Time viscosity relationship: MC grout with silica fume (Fig. 40b) and bentonite
(Fig. 40a) additives reflect pseudo plastic behavior with deflection of flow curve
increases towards shear stress axis with progress of time. Time viscosity curve of
MC-SF grout remain towards viscosity axis compared to that of MC-bentonite
showing elastic dominancy while bentonite curve shows more zero displacement
and gel time.
Time-strength relationship: Stress-strain curve of MC bentonite and MC-SF
grout illustrate more elastic-plastic behavior. Increase of % bentonite and silica
fume content shift the stress-strain curve towards strain axis and peak stress and
corresponding strain decreases. Also MC-bentonite and MC-SF grout offer
residual stress to some extent for further increase of strain. MC with bentonite
and silica fume grouts exhibit elastic-plastic failure unlike neat MC grout.
MC-SF failed samples indicate more towards elastic failure tending to elasticplastic failure while MC-bentonite samples exhibit more towards plastic failure.
Cohesion and -value decreased with increase of bentonite/silica fume content.
Cohesion decreases continuously (19% drop with W:C = 2) with addition of 1 to
35
3% bentonite while -value decreased to 17% at W:C = 2 and 59% with W:C
= 5. When SF content increased from 4% to 20% cohesion reduces 33% with w:c
= 2 and 55% with w:c = 5.
UCS of MC with SF grouted sand shows increase with curing time while MC
with Bentonite, though it is increasing with time but remain less than MC-SF and
neat MC grout (Table 9).
Bentonite addition hampers the process of hydration of MC grout. The increase
in unconfined strength or peak deviator stress up to optimum silica fume is due
to pozolonic activity of silica fume.
MC with sodium silicate (MC-SS): In MC-SS, UCS of 60%ss increases from
60kPa @ 1day to 680kPa at 28 days with w:c = 5.
Specific gravity and time of extraction decreases with increase of w:c ratio and
decrease of silicate content. Gel time of MC-SS grout is within few seconds
which can be lengthen up to 30 min by adding 1 to 3% phosphoric acid (by wt of
MC). The grout is most stable with minimum bleeding in very lean mixes. Depth
of true permeation increase with increase of permeability of sand, W:C ratio and
decrease of SS content.
Time-viscosity relationship: Viscosity of MC-SS grout increase with increase of
time, % SS concentration and decrease of W:C ratio. Time-viscosity curve of
MC-SS grout is extreme left of the cement based grouts. The addition of
phosphoric acid (PA) shift these curves towards right side showing distinct
behavior conforming to ideal grout as compared to OPC, MCD and MC grouts.
(Fig. 41a)
36
*days, Na2CO3- Sodium carbonate, K2 Co3- Potassium carbonate, NaF- Sodium fluoride, KF- Potassium fluoride, Na2S- Sodium sulphide
Table 7: Effects of Alkaline Reactants on Ground Granulated (Microfne) Blast Furnace Slag Grouts (Shroff, Joshi, Sinroja, Patel, 2006), Group-2
Unconfined Compressive Strength, kPa
IndirectTensile
Slag+
Opt
Flexural
Adherent
Reactants
%
Strength, kPa
strength
washout
kPa
strength,kPa
Raw gel
Grouted sand (RD=30%)
Grouted sand
Grouted
Grouted
sand
sand
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W 2W 5W
2W
5W
3*
90*
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
90
90
90
90
7
Na2CO3
0.1
1319 14663 1233 12514 1110 11122 373 5943 193 5433 127 4019 2708 2591 2080
4036
700
K2CO3
0.1
1356 14707 1203 12614 1097 10991 575 6184 198 5822 148 4943 3343 2657 2335
4916
835
NaF
0.1
2101 16126 1923 13515 1717 12303 591 8029 464 7835 447 5917 3029 3014 2007
6279
790
KF
0.1
2152 18255 2068 15450 1411 11809 522 8016 497 7315 476 5965 2839 2627 2138
5468
817
Na2S
0.1&2 1947 9629 896 13776 1006 5348 990 4375 573 5912 479 1995 2474 2109 1313
1794
660
NaOH
5
825
4615 185 2449 290 2915 180 2400 -1184 575 1510
-
36
Table 6: Effects of per cent OPC on Ground Granulated (microfine) Blast Furnace Slag Grout (Shroff, Joshi, Ghrisma, 2005), Group-1
Flexural
Unconfined Compressive Strength, kPa
IndirectTensile
Adherent
Proportion
strength
slag+OPC
Strength, kPa
washout
strength,kPa
kPa
Raw gel
Grouted sand (RD=30%)
Grouted sand
Grouted Grouted sand
sand
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W 2W
5W
2W
5W
3*
90*
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
90
90
90
90
7
25%+75% 3685 8156
1022 4665 615 2611 516 3661 308 1196 296 986 3275 1594 50%+50%
1050 5036 883 3978 650 2527 2955 1380 75%+25% 1060 15935 626
8124 418 4800 1060 4810 575 2100 108 361 450 260
125
810
37
Table 8: Effects of Reactants on 75% Slag+ 25% OPC Grouts (Shroff, Joshi, Ketki, 2007), Group-3
Opt
%
IndirectTensile
Strength, kPa
Flexural
strength
kPa
Raw gel
Grouted sand (RD=30%)
Grouted sand
Grouted
sand
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W 2W 5W
2W
3*
90*
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
90
90
90
90
Na2CO3
0.1 1336 14869 1164 12761 1121 9368 1396 6015 195 5498 131 4059 3520 3302 825
4519
K2CO3
0.1 1373 14928 1215 2791 1109 11123 581 6258 200 5886 150 4998 2989 2682 797
5020
NaF
0.1 2206 16641 2020 13907 1802 12343 621 8278 488 8070 469 6066 4369 4146 1439
6827
KF
0.1 2217 18379 2180 15238 1430 11927 538 8138 507 7389 480 6025 4185 3902 1046
6117
Na2S
0.1 2205 9797 1087 7135 1033 5412 1020 4441 596 2516 492 2017 2842 2790 811
1981
S.S
0.1% 1236 13435 1069 11639 965 9574 494 5507 176 5298 130 4248 4021 3858 955
4480
*days, Na2CO3- Sodium carbonate, K2 Co3- Potassium carbonate, NaF- Sodium fluoride, KF- Potassium fluoride, Na2S- Sodium Fluoride
Adherent
washout
strength,kPa
Grouted sand
5W
7
490
660
513
547
509
722
Table 9: MCIII+SS as component & MC with Bentonite & Silica fume admixture (Shroff & Joshi, 2005), Group-4
C:SS$ =1:1
MC +
Bentonite &
Silica Fume %
as Admixtures
0.8W
7*
Bentonite
1
Bentonite
2
Bentonite
3
Silica fume
4
Silica fume
12
Silica fume
20
sodiumsilicate 20 2225
sodiumsilicate 40 4100
sodiumsilicate 60 4400
Sodiumsilicate 80 5500
28
2950
4900
6500
6780
Raw gel
2W
5W
7
28
7 28
3250
1900
2400
400
2000
380
4810
4075
4250
2750
4000
1480
2400 2250
2200 3150
2300 2850
458
2500 4150
820
0.8W
sd
C
2200
3400
4500
3300
5000
8100
7500
7500
54
55
55
50
3800
4800
5500
3350
1200
1800
2000
2400
1800
2000
2200
3110
820
920
950
1120
Grouted sand
0.8W
sd
C
f
4500
7250
6550
4400
955
1090
1175
-
37
SS$ = Sodium Silicate; Adherent wash out strength of MC-III with 20% SS grouted sand at w:s=2 is 660kPa,while at w:s ratio 5 give 171 &231 at 40% and 60% SS
38
49
48
-
75% slag+
25% OPC+
reactants
38
Peak deviator stress at 7 days, with 40% SS increases from 665 kPa to 6529 kPa
as W:C ratio decreases from 5 to 0.8. For 2W grout at 7 days, it increases from
3204 kPa to 4186 kPa as % SS increase from 20 to 80% (Table 9). MC-SS
material follow Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.
Cohesion of raw MC-SS grout increase at faster rate up to 7 days and increases
gradually or remain constant afterwards. Per cent increase from 0 to 3 days is
about 70% and between 7 to 28 days it is 21%. value of raw MC-SS ground
ranged from 25 to 55. The increase in value between 3 to 7 days is 15-25%
and between 7 to 28 days, it is 0 to 15%. -values are 35 and 55 for 2W and
0.8W grouts.
More content of sodium silicate help shifting stress-strain curves towards stressaxis of MC-SS grouted sand. MC-SS grouted sand exhibit average E-value of
443 MPa when grouted with thick grout while average value of 162 MPa for
thinner grouts. Strength of MC-SS grouted sand increase with curing time and %
SS concentration (Table 9). MC-SS grouted sand exhibits 1.5 time strength than
MC grouted sand.
After 7 days of curing, cohesion of 0.8W grouted sand with % SS = 20, 40 and
60 is 675 kPa, 970 kPa and 1050 kPa respectively. Increase in cohesion from 7 to
28 days is around 7 to 41% while % increase in cohesion from 3 to 7 days is
between 24 to 35%. SS component impart cohesive bond bridging between
micro cement flocs while MC contributes overall stiffness of MC-SS matrix.
-value of MC-SS grouted sand ranged from 37 to 49. MC-SS grouted sand
resist the threshold hydraulic gradient of 236 (660 kPa) against washout forces
with W:C-2 and 20% SS concentration.
CREEP STUDY
New Creep test setup is developed for grouted sand mass and to study the creep
behavior of MC grouted sand with W:C ratio 2 and MC-SS grouted sand with
W:C ratio 5 and 60% SS concentration (Shroff, Joshi, 2004).
39
The rate of increase of creep diminishes with progress of time. The creep of MC
grouted sand lower than 40% load of UCS is 0.00148 after 12 days which
remains constant up to 17 days. After that, fewer than 70% load of UCS;
additional creep up to 42 days is 0.00119. At the end of the test, the specimen is
deformed up to 0.62 mm. The specific creep is 7.22 107 m2/kN (under 40% of
ultimate load) after 12 days.
Creep increases continuously for MC-SS grouted sand up to 42 days but the rate
of increase of creep diminishes with progress of time. The creep of MC-SS
grouted sand is more compared to that of MC-grouted sand. MC-SS grouted sand
specimen shows initial strain of 0.002375 on loading and creep is 0.00345. At
the end of test, the specimen is deformed up to 0.699 mm. The specific creep is
1.53 106 m2/kN after 42 days. Creep of MC or MC-SS grouted sand is 3 to 6
fold that of ordinary concrete/mortar (sand-cement grout).
RHEOLOGY AND STRENGTH ASPECTS UNDER DYNAMIC
LOADINGS-SOLUTION GROUTS
The cyclic behavior, estimation of the fatigue life of grouted sand with 50%
sodium silicate, 40% water, 5% formamide and 5% ethyl acetate (by volume) is
useful in Earthquake & machine foundations applications.
Damping (attenuation) characteristics combined with stiffness characteristics
have significant potential to reveal considerably more information about grouted
sand. The logarithmic decrement method was used to evaluate internal damping
of grout and grouted sand. S-N-P(s- stress level, N -number of cycles to failure,
P- probability of failure) relationship to ensure better predication of the fatigue
life of grouted sand is used in probabilistic analysis. The McCall model based on
a nonlinear relationship between maximum stress level Smax and the logarithm of
number of cycles to failure Nf. In addition, the probability of failure P is
introduced as a third variable.
The Relation Between Smax Nf and P
L = 10-aSbmax(log Nf)c, where L = 1 P = probability of survival: Sbmax =
maximum applied stress expressed as a fraction of the static compressive
strength (max/c) and ; a, b, c = material parameters. It was observed that almost
all of the experimental data were within the probability of failure of 50 and 90%.
Stress-Strain Relation
To fully understand the performance of grouted sand under cyclic loads, a
complete record of the changes in the stress strain characteristics is required. The
major properties of concern are the variation of cyclic strain, secant modulus and
damping ratio with the number of cycles at different stress levels. The test results
selected for this analysis had a 50% probability of failure. It should be noted that
confinement did not have any effect on the shear strength of grouted sand under
the conditions tested. The typical stress-strain record for cyclic tests on a grouted
sand specimen (cured for Tc = 28 days) loaded to a maximum stress level of Smax
= 0.75, under a confining pressure of 3 = 207 kPa, is shown in Fig. 44. It is
therefore concluded that actual failure was assumed to occur at the time when the
40
maximum stress recorded decreased from the initial preset value (max). Hence,
in this case the number of cycles-to-failure was indicated as Nf = 1,673.
Hysteretic Characteristics
The loading branch of the stress-strain relationship, which was originally convex
toward the stress axis, becomes concave upward after the first loading cycle and
continued to maintain the same shape until the last few cycles before failure.
This is typical silicate grouted sand specimens loaded to stress levels lower than
Smax = 0.90. For stress levels equal to or higher than 0.90, the loading branch of
the stress-strain curve remains convex toward the stress axis until failure.
Grouted Sand failed below an axial strain of 3%.The variation of axial strain &
secant modulus with cycles at high stress level characterized in three stages:
(Fig. 45) In the first stage, between 5 and 10% of the number of cycles-to-failure,
the strains increased with the number of cycles at a decreasing rate. In the second
stage, between 10 and 75% of the number of cycles-to-failure, the strains
increased at a constant rate. The third stage is identified by the said increase of
strains up to failure. The strain values at the initiation of failure in cyclic tests (at
N/Nf = 0.75-0.9) are very similar in magnitude to the strain at peak stress under
static loading conditions.
Secant Modulus
The secant modulus Emax determined as the slope of the straight line joining the
maximum and minimum points of the hysterias loop, decreased in three stages as
observed for the axial strains. The ratio of the secant modulus E max to the initial
tangent modulus Ei versus the life-cycle ratio N/Nf is presented in (Fig. 46 a).
The modular ratio varied between 65 and 75% of the initial modulus. At low
stress levels (no failure) the secant modulus remained in the range of 7580% of
the initial modulus, even beyond 100,000 cycles.
AL is defined as the area between the loading and unloading branches of cycle
and expresses the loss of dissipation of energy. The secant area As, defined by
the area between the loading branch and the secant, serves to quantify the
deviation of the stress-strain relationship from the linear path. With increased
number of cycles, the hysteretic area AL was <0.005 kPa for grouted sands
(Fig. 46 b).
41
Damping Ratio
Damping ratio, commonly expressed as D%, is often used in geotechnical
engineering as a measure of attenuation or energy dissipation. The damping ratio
is defined as the ratio of the energy dissipated per cycle of harmonic excitation in
a certain volume to the peak elastic energy stored in the same volume and is
expressed as (Richart et al. 1970). D = AL/4Ar, where Ar = area of triangle
OAB as show in Fig. 46(b) (insert). The damping ratio during the first few
hundred cycles varied between 2 and 4% and increased with the increase in the
number of cycles.
LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL OF SAND GROUTED WITH AND
MICRO FINE CEMENT (MC) & MC WITH CHEMICAL GROUTS
(SHROFF & JOSHI, 2004)
Soil liquefaction during earthquakes can cause severe damage to all types of
overlying or buried soil structure systems.
Among the treatment methods used for reduction of liquefaction potential,
chemical grouting may be the most effective in cases wherein the soil to be
treated is difficult to reach, as in the case of soils under existing foundations
(Maher, Ro and Welsh, 1994).
The undrained cyclic test results were used to evaluate the effect of grouting on
the potential for initial liquefaction (i.e. pore pressure generated equals confining
stress and effective stress becomes zero) and cyclic mobility by measuring the
cyclic stress ratio and number of cycles required to reach initial liquefaction and
5% strain cyclic mobility. There are basically two approaches in the literature for
defining liquefaction (1) flow failure liquefaction and (2) initial liquefaction and
cyclic mobility.
1.
2.
42
43
Fig. 48: Liquefaction Potential of Grouted Sand (1 day strength) and of Pure
Sand
MC-SS Grouted Sand
The pattern of the curve indicate that irrespective of % SS concentration, initially
CRR reduces significantly with little change in cycles required for liquefaction
which alter wards become gradual. At 30 cycles, CRR values are above 0.6 at 1
day and 3 days curing time which indicates safe state of grouted mass with
reference to liquefaction. Compared to pure sand, the cyclic strength of MC-SS
grouted mass is more than 3 times after 1 day curing time.
As % SS concentration decreases, CRR decreases for same W:C ratio. The cyclic
strength of grouted mass increases by about 10 to 15% as % SS concentration
increased from 20% to 80%. This increase in strength is attributed to bridging of
sand particles with network of silica gel preventing any contraction of sand mass.
Time History of Cyclic Loading
Under high frequency and relatively high cyclic resistance ratio, pore pressure
increased suddenly and pore pressure ratio reached to 1 quickly in pure sand.
Immediately, initial liquefaction and 5% axial strain occurred simultaneously.
While MC bentonite grouted specimen took quite longer time (210 seconds) and
MC-SS grouted specimen took maximum (350 seconds) in the entire three
specimen under consideration to reach initial liquefaction (Fig. 49).
44
(a)
Typical time history of
cyclic loading for
specimens containing sand
only
(b)
Typical time history of
cyclic loading for MCbentonite grouted sand
(c)
Typical time history of
cyclic loading for MCSS grouted sand
45
When same soil grouted with MC-SS grout with W:C =5 and SS = 20% after one
day, CRR increased to 0.81 at 8.33 cycles (Fig. 47.a). Applying same correction
factor Cr = 0.642,
CRRc = 0.642 0.81 = 0.52
Grouted factor of safety after one day curing = 0.52/0.1259 = 4.1
And improvement index = CRRc after grouting /CRRc before grouting
= 0.52/0.161 = 3.23
Factor of safety with respect to liquefaction increased from 1.28 to 4.1 with
improvement index of 3.23, when pure sand is grouted with MC-SS grout.
When same soil grouted with MC-bentonite grout with W:C=5 and
bentonite=1% after one day, CRR increased to 0.99 (extrapolated value) at 8.33
cycles (Fig. 48).
CRRc = 0.642 0.99 = 0.635
Grouted factor of safety after one day curing = 0.635/0.1259 = 5.04
and improvement index = 0.635/0.161=3.94
Factor of safety with respect to liquefaction increased from 1.28 to 5.04 with
improvement index of 3.94, when pure sand is grouted with MC with 1%
bentonite grout.
In brief, the danger of liquefaction in grouted sand is too remote as set grout fills
the pores and adheres to surface contact of void space which displaces the pore
water imparting cohesive component.
Cyclic Plate Load Test
For sand grouted with MC (w:c = 5), the ultimate load intensity obtained from
load settlement curve that after 28 days of curing is 50kPa which 4.67 times in
dry sand and 5.53 times that of 30% saturated sand. In grouted sand (MC-W:C =
2, 14 days curing) Ei, En & Cu increased from 44.4kPa/mm, 77kPa/mm,
65200KN/m3 at dry sand to 50kPa/mm, 93.3kPa/mm and 90000KN/m3
respectively, which gives improved Ei ratio, En ratio and Cu ratio equal to be
1.31, 1.21 and 1.44 respectively. (Fig. 50 (a, b))
46
Vaughan et al. (1963) stated that the flow rate under a differential hydraulic head
is directly proportional to the (fissure width)3 and inversely proportional to the
viscosity of the injecting fluid. For a uniform flat rock fissure of width b
penetrated by a hole of radius r and connecting with an open reservoir or sink at
a radial distance R from the hole, the estimation of flow rate q either for grout
flowing through a fissure into the formation: q/H = (wgb3)/6(log R/r), Where,
g = acceleration due to gravity, w=density of water, = viscosity of injected
fluid, and H=differential hydraulic head. When fissure merges with open
structure or multi connected fissures and joints flow is largely determined by
b3/. The flow resistance of chemical grouts in fissured rock by a parameter is
dependent on the characteristic width and mean spacing of the fissures. Shroff
et al. (1987) Computed the radius of penetration of grout from data on its
consumption and studied the effect of flowing water through stratification and of
short gel time on shapes of stabilized mass (Fig. 51 (a, b, c)).
Further, Shroff and Shah (1992) studied the flow interaction of grout along by
injecting through layered sand samples having different permeability, density
and stage length. To achieve a uniform stabilized mass while grouting from top
47
to bottom or from bottom to top, the optimum stage length should be maintained.
Fig. 51(a, b, c) also depicts a non uniform stabilized mass having two spherical
bulbs with no grout in between. A spherical model of the injected mass, stating
that upon injection the grout appears to flow progressively into the soil, with
fresh grout displacing the older grout towards the exterior of the grouted mass.
The analytical approach of spherically radiating displacement flow is as follows:
If the grout has reached a radius R at time t, the volume flow rate Q is related to
the hydraulic head h at the source of radius r by:
h = (Q / 4k) [ (1/r 1/R) + (1/R)]
where is ratio of grout viscosity to that of surrounding ground water. If the
void ratio of the soil is e, the time for grout to reach a radius R is given by:
t = (er2/kh) [/3 (R3/r3 1) (-1)/2 (R2/r2 1)]
The specific value of t can be found from Fig. 52 (a) in which kht/er2 versus R/r
for three values of viscosity ratio is given.
48
particle of cement, positive blockage can be expected on this basis for a soil
permeability of 102.5 m/sec.
Consolidation of Clay Gauge Material
The volume of grout injected after time t, i.e., volume of water displaced from
the voids to consolidate the soil is given by V= (Uo U)mv x 4r2dr, (limit of
integral is from o to a) Where V = volume of water expelled (equal to volume of
grout injected), a = radius of sphere of influence, Uo = injection pressure, mv =
volume compressibility of the soil, U = pore water pressure as a function of time
and position within the sphere, r = radius of sphere of influence between 0 and a.
Integration of equation governs the rate at which consolidation can occur. This
approach was adopted for compressing silt or clay existing in karstic lime stone
at Kharun III River at Iran. Also it is helpful in jointed rock with gauge material.
Hydro Fracturing by Grouting
The values of hydro-fracture pressures in terms of their magnitudes and
orientations are being actively investigated. Theoretically, they can be
determined by the relation: Pf = v(1+sin ), where Pf = hydro-fracture
pressure, v = effective vertical stress, = Poissons ratio and = angle of
shearing resistance (Fig. 53a).
Relation:
Pf = (qr/2k) (gVg/H x Vw) (log r/r) ,Where Pf= hydro-fracture, lb/ft2
qr = rate of grout flow; g = unit weight of grout, lb/ft3;
k = permeability, ft/sec; vg = viscosity of grout, cP;
vw =viscosity of water, cP; H = thickness of zone being grouted, ft;
r = radius of zone being grouted, ft; r = radius of grout hole, ft.
Time Viscosity Equations
Shroff and Shah (1977) developed a theoretical concept and suggested a
modified power model law for the viscosity of a grout at any time after mixing to
any stage of permeation in the formation. The free volume of the liquid grout
changes with time either in a gradual fashion or instantly; the viscosity must
necessarily mirror the change of free volume at any time (Shroff and Shah 1977).
Power model ? = s/Dn = shear stress (s)/shear rate(D).
This power model will not follow the entire curve of time-viscosity, as the total
behavior from liquid to gel of a grout system consists of various rheological
changes. Shroff and Shah (1988) putforth the mathematical model. Viscosity of
grout ,?g = exp (0.013){(S)0.395/D}. The above equation accounts for all the
rheological changes in a chemical grout system and follows the time viscosity
curve reasonably well.
Mechanical Requirements of Grout
The grout pumped into fissures has to fulfill certain mechanical requirements in
order to be suitable for consolidation or tightening. The allowable average
49
50
Assume that at a distance r (radius of action) the pressure p = O, and obtain for a
given fissure and grout type, a diagram of the type given in Fig. 54c, which has
to be slightly modified for greater values of Q when the laminar flow changes
into a turbulent one. The phenomenon of widening the fissures by hydraulic
pressure makes the quantitative interpretation of water test very difficult.
The setting time of grouts must meet the time needed for injection,
corresponding to the design spreading radius. The spreading radius of grout R in
cm can be evaluated by the Jiacai et al. (1982) formula:
t = [1.02 10-7? (R2 r2) log R/r] / (p po) b2
Where; t = time needed for injection, min; ? = viscosity of grout, cP;
R = spreading radius of grout, cm; r = radius of grouting hole, cm;
p = pressure in the grouting hole, kg/cm2;
po = hydrostatic pressure of the grouted water in the water bearing fissures,
kg/cm2; b = thickness of the fissure, mm.
51
52
53
Rock Soundness
When holes collapse frequently during or after drilling, the upstage method is
totally unsuitable. Only downstage methods without packers or, in extreme
cases, circuit grouting will serve the purpose. If there are many surface cracks in
the rock, stand pipes help to control surface leaks. A grout cap helps to improve
the grouting by reducing the surface leaks.
Rock Stresses
The stress in rock is usually of tectonic origin and can be severe in massive
strong rock. The strain energy released can frequently project the detaching rock
away from the bedrock and leave rebound joints that are open up to a few
centimeters. The grouting practitioner needs to be able to recognize the presence
of stressed rock because of its predominant effect on grouting procedures. The
other extreme is the soft, intensely cracked foundation of the type which has
already relieved stresses itself and will present no difficulties on this score during
grouting.
Uniformity
Uniformity of the foundation assists in the layout of grout holes whereby they
can be evenly spaced and all drilled at the same inclination. Irregular jointing,
variable rock type, intrusions, faults etc. may require the holes to be at various
inclinations and weak features may need especially intensive grouting.
Proneness to Piping
If the material in joints is liable to be removed by seepage, the grouting may
need to be more intensive than otherwise to virtually eliminate seepage in the
piping-prone areas.
The above considerations are only the commonly observed. There are many
others and vigilance is necessary in finding them before grouting is undertaken to
enable a grout design that is intelligent and appropriate.
Geological investigations
The following information should be obtained and shown in either a topographic
or geologic scheme to optimize position and orientation of grout holes. (a)
boundaries and contacts of the different geologic units to be treated, (b) altitude
(dips and strikes) of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, (c) prominent joint
system, their spacing, opening and character of the material of infilling if any;
location and altitude of prominent faults, shear zones faults etc. (d) lines of
geologic cross section and (e) location and logs of drill and auger holes,
exploration tunnels and shafts.
Geophysical methods may be used with advantage to locate boundaries between
different elements of the sub rocks. Rotary drill cores are also a useful source of
information.
54
DRILLING
The types of drilling used for grout holes include (i) percussion (wet only), (ii)
rotary-diamond bit and roller bit (tricone) and (iii) bits-wagon drill. (Fig. 56a).
(iv) Drilling bit of RPT (Fig. 56b).Cased hole drilling is effective for installing
grout holes ranging in depth from 7.6 m to 36.6 m. The method negated the need
of drilling the suspension fluids and protected the borehole from washout and
fracture pressures. The drill bit is mounted on eccentric coupling so that drill
hole is expanded during rotation of the bit to the external casing diameter of
100cm. The drilling bit of rotary penetrating test (RPT) is set-up at a point on the
boring rod and measures the cutting resistance during rotary penetration. The
choice of drilling method is mainly dependent on the types of cuttings produced.
Suitable drills include: Percussion-using extension steel (with rope threads or
similar), crawler-mounted wagon and long-hole drifter, hand-held. Rotary- using
blast hole or plug diamond bits, 2 or 3 wheel roller bits and various types of
small diamond drills, usually with screw feed, mounted on standpipe grip stands,
tripods, mining bars etc.
Hole Size
Percussion3.75 cm is the smallest permissible size holes larger than 6.35 cm
are undesirable but permissible.
RotaryEX size 3.81 cm diameter is the smallest practicable size, normally for
diamond bits holes larger than BX 6.03cm diameter are excessively
expensive for diamond bits-roller bits should be approximately 5.08 cm in
diameter.
Drilling through boulders necessitates different biting with a special frame
having shorter rods and appropriate casing. For percussion drilling through a
restricted place, Fig. 57 particularly in the gallery, small rotary drill rigs with a
55
short stem are recommended. A recovery ratio near 1.0 usually indicates good
quality rock. RQD of 0.750.9 and more indicates good to excellent rating of
rock.
Compressed air is the principal mover of all the mechanical contrivances used
for drilling, such as a jack hammer, drifter etc.
A casing is required where the clay thickness exceeds 10m followed by rock
head to permit the insertion of a plastic standpipe. The ODEX eccentric
overburden drilling method is adopted for such field situations Fig. 57 (b).
56
57
about 80 mm. (2) The outer tube should be the main conveyor of impact force.
(3) The inner tube should be able to resist the force of impact without suffering
any damage. (4) The double tube should be able to be installed and removed
mechanically, in the same way as conventional percussive single drilling rods.
(5) The main liquid and hardener of the chemical grout should be sent
independent of one another to the tip of the grouting tube. Even at high grouting
pressure, there should be no leakage or contact between the separate flow
channels. (6) The drill tip equipment should be able to discharge water for
drilling and during grouting, chemicals. It should also be able to use existing drill
bits.
(a)
(b)
58
Fig. 60 (a, b): Clonen Bit System with Check Valve and its Attachment to
Drilling string
59
60
(Shroff, 1999). The gradient of the xy plot at the higher pressure stages is used
to calculate the Lugeon value.
Some techniques have been reported in the literature for Lugeon test, such as the
air pressure test (Kayakin et al., 1985), the free oscillation test (Aidel and
Krauss-Kalwait, 1985), and the radioactive tracer dilution method (Monev et al.,
1985). Whereas the air pressure test is limited to special circumstances, the other
two tests seem promising and need further development.
OPTIMIZATION OF FIELD GROUT MIX FOR ALLUVIUM
There are certain considerations to be observed in the use of cement bentonite
grout for alluvial grouting; in general, the quantity of bentonite or clay which can
be incorporated in a mix is dependent for the purpose, it is to be used.
Triangular Chart for Cement-Bentonite ( Suspension)Grouts
Considerable economy in cement consumption per unit volume of grout mix can
be realized, particularly when the final strength is of secondary importance. A
cement bentonite grout for impervious grouted mass should contain hardly more
than 175kg of dry material for 1 m3 grout and 300 kg of dry materials for
moderate consolidation resistance (20 kg/m2).
61
62
Downstage with Packer: In this method, rubber packers are used which expand
on pressure to about five to six times the diameter of the hole. Hence, grouting is
facilitated in a particular zone by fixing packers on the top and bottom of it. This
method facilitates the washing and grouting of seams at a particular level with
the desired pressure established within permissible limits. Grouting thus becomes
more effective than in the case of stage grouting. The addition of packers to the
downstage method is rarely warranted. The downstage method with packers has
one special advantage however, it delimits plastering of the walls of the borehole
which extends to the successive stratum to be grouted (Houlsby, 1983).
63
64
When the grout is pumped in through the inner pipe, its pressure expands the
rubber sleeve and cracks the brittle grout to escape and fill the voids in the
surrounding soil. Thus, both the problems of supporting the hole while
permitting the grout to flow into the soil and of using packers are solved. This
method is generally best suited to alluvial grouting. Though the procedure is
65
66
Fig. 68: Typical Profile of Curtain Grout Holes and Pattern of Grout Holes
The most common difficulty experienced in consolidation grouting is surface
leakage. It is therefore customary to pipe through the required height of concrete
or masonry and carry out the grouting after the rock permits use of higher
pressures so that even the smaller seams can be grouted effectively.
Curtain Grouting
In curtain grouting the purpose is impermeance; the grout holes are arranged in a
series of lines to form a curtain approximately perpendicular to the direction of
seepage. The depth of holes is dependent on design considerations as also on the
depth of pervious rock and the configuration of zones of relatively impervious
strata. For grouting with cement 38mm holes have been in common use. In long
holes, the diameter at the top of the holes may have to be larger than the final
diameter at the bottom of the hole to facilitate telescopic observations or to allow
for the wear of the bit.
Single-line Grout Curtains: In this type of curtains, it is customary to drill a
widely spaced system of primary holes, subsequently followed by secondary and
tertiary holes at a progressively smaller spacing Fig. 69a. The initial spacing (of
67
The typical patterns of the grout holes drilled at Ukai dam in Gujarat, India are
shown in Fig. 69(b) (Mistry, Shroff, 1977). The grouting pattern adopted
included: (i) three rows staggered with equal spacing in the outer rows at 6m and
half-spacing in the central row, (ii) three rows staggered with equal spacing at 6
m and (iii) three rows with a square pattern and equal spacing of 4.2 m. The
68
distance between each row in (i) and (ii) was 1.5 m while in (iii) 2.1 m was
adopted. The sequence of grouting adopted is depicted in Fig. 69b. It can be seen
that the square pattern with a check hole at the centre (Fig.70a) was more
effective than the staggered pattern (Fig. 69b).
69
for curtain drilling and grouting is followed (Fig.70a or b) (Shroff, 1999). Post
grouting permeability should be 1/100 th of original permeability.
Optimization of Grout Curtain Dimensions-Cut off efficiency
Quantitative Estimation of cut off Efficiency Based on Piezometric Measurement:
Cut-off effectiveness may be assessed quantitatively in terms of the head
efficiency. Head efficiency Eh = h/H, where H = the difference between RWL
and TWL or GWL at the d/s toe or piezometric level in foundation at the d/s toe;
h = the difference between the piezometric level in a foundation just u/s and d/s
of the COT bed. The piezometric level at the d/s toe ideally should be at such
level as to ensure a safety factor of, say, 2.5, against blowout, boiling or heave.
Analytical Estimation Based on Flow Efficiency: The efficiency of an imperfect
cut-off can be defined by the ratio Eh = 100(Qo-Q/Qo)(%), where Q = discharge
per unit length through imperfect cut-off and Qo = discharge that would have
taken place had there been no cut-off. Zero efficiency means the cut-off is
completely ineffective, while with an efficiency of 100%, there is no flow of
water through the cut-off. The smaller the ratio of B/D, the greater the effect of
the width of the cut-off efficiency, where B = width of the cut-off and D =
thickness of the previous stratum below the dam. The value of the ratio B/D for
earth dams is usually large and hence, if the cut-off below the dam is to be
reasonably effective it has to be fairly wide.
Efficiency by Loss in Head Method: The loss in head due to the cut-off,
expressed as a percentage of the total loss in head across the dam, was used as
the measure of cu-off efficiency. For the two dimensional problem, the loss in
head beneath the dam may be considered in the zones: (1) Upstream zone of
essentially parallel flow, of length L1-- head loss H1; (2) cut-off zone of length
L2 parallel flow - head loss H2; (3) Downstream zone of essentially parallel
flow of length L3 -head loss H3; k permeability of the material forming the
pervious layer and k1 the permeability of the grouted cut-off, both assumed to be
isotropic, then the efficiency with respect to loss in head, h is equal to.
Eh = l /{l + (k1/k)} [B/L2 (1 + 0.88 D/L2)], numerical values can readily be
inserted to indicate the magnitude of cut-off efficiencies likely to be encountered
in practice.
Efficacy of Cut-off: Consideration should be given to the effect of mainly three
variables-depth of penetration, degree of imperfection and thickness of the cutoff. The degree of imperfection is defined by the ratio of cut-off permeability
(k1) to the foundation permeability (k). The installation specification (represented
by k1 or k) required to achieve a specified level of performance becomes less
demanding as the thickness of the cut off is increased. The interdependence of
the cut-off parameter B/D and k1/k2 is therefore clearly apparent.
Comparisons: Compared to the first method, Eh gives only an approximate
assessment since the quantity Qo can not be directly established; one has to rely
on flow measuring devices positioned downstream of a dam in assessing the
quantity Q. Contrarily Eh is directly determinable on the basis of field
piezometric data.
70
Fig. 71(a, b, c, d): Different Patterns of Grout Holes for Tunnel Stabilization
71
72
GROUT PRESSURE
Various Imperial Concepts
Allowable Injection Pressure = Overburden above the section being grouted
(Grundy 1957, North American Practice)
Allowable Injection Pressure = psi per foot of overburden (Lippard 1958)
Allowable Injection Pressure = 4 times overburden (Italian Dam Practice)
Allowable Injection Pressure = 5 times overburden (Europian Practice)
Allowable Injection Pressure = P/h = (1 + c / h) cot if horizontal planes are
the dominant planes of weakness Zaruba et al. (1962).
Indian Standard Practice
It is always advisable to begin with a low initial pressure, say 0.1 to 0.25 kg/cm2
per meter of overburden, and build up pressure gradually.
Control of Pressure: It can be exercised by adopting the following means singly
or in combination: The results of trial grouting, along with observations of
upheaval by an uplift gauge. Fig. 73 (a) may be used as a guide, subject to
verification by trial grouting. Pressure limits can be decided by analysis of the
results of cyclic percolation test. Limiting pressure can be decided by continuous
review of the trends of pressure and the rate of intake during grouting operations
along with observation of leaks and movement of uplift gauges.
73
Figure 74a has been adapted with an upper limit of 150 psi (10 bars) applied for
average conditions. The hydrostatic aspects of grout pressure are explained by
Houlsby (1981) as shown in Fig. 73b. The critical injection pressure would be
given by P = Pe + whw The common specification of 1 lb/in2 per foot depth
applies to a material with no tensile strength and a principal stress ratio of unity.
The pump cannot exceed the overburden pressure unless the material has some
cohesion. The existence of stratification, jointing, and changes in tensile strength
74
with depth can be considered. Fig. 74b,c depict diagram of the drop in pressure
with distance from the grouting hole in the fissure & it reduces to zero towards
the end of the influence zone. Since no useful approach can attempt to account
for all these factors, the most reliable method for finding the allowable injection
pressure will be based upon field tests.
Such tests are discussed in a subsequent section. The hydraulic fracture test is a
useful method for determining the allowable grouting pressure if fracture is to be
avoided.
GROUTING PLANTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
The mixing plants and delivery systems for suspension and solution grouts differ
mainly in their storage and mixing configurations. A typical cement suspension
grouting plant is shown in Fig. 75.
The basic items of a grouting plant and their functions are as follows: (Fig 76 a,
b, c)
(a) Mixer to mix the grout ingredients and then discharge them to
(b) Agitator-top stir the grout and keep it ready for the pump
(c) Pump-which draws the grout from the agitator and pumps it through a
(d) Circulation line-which commences at the pump, leads to the grout hole and
then discharges unused grout back into the agitator
(e) Control fittings-located at the grout hole, these control the injection rate and
pressure so that the hole can be regularly bled of water and thin grout.
75
Fig. 76(a):
Agitator
Fig. 76(b):
Colcrete Mixer
Fig. 76(c):
Groutpump
Grout mixer
The basic differences between a high speed and paddle mixer are the rotation
speed and the type of mixing impeller; high speed mixers operate at 1500 to
76
2000 rpm while paddle mixers usually rotate relatively slowly at about 100 rpm
or less. The paddle mixer uses a stirring action while the high speed mixer uses a
violent shearing motion in conjunction with a vortex wetting each cement grain
promoting through hydration. The resultant grout is commonly called colloidal
& can penetrate well. High speed mixing is an essential requisite for obtaining
effective cement grouting in rock. There remain, however, applications where
the paddle mixer is superior, such a compaction grouting, where the mix is so
thick that instead of being stirred, it has to be chopped.
Colcrete Mixer (Fig. 76(a)) is the most commonly used mixer in India. Being
manufactured in India, this mixer has a major price advantage.
Grout Agitator
During the period between the time of grout mixing and the time it enters the
pump, it must be agitated continuously to prevent setting. This is accomplished
by an agitator sump between the mixer and the grout pump. An agitator sump is
usually a cylindrical tank (Fig. 76(b)) approximately 1 meter high and 0.75 m in
diameter. Within the tank is an agitating mechanism consisting of a vertical shaft
to which horizontal blades are connected, which revolve at 30100 rpm.
Pumps for Cement based Grouts
In a Helical rotor pump, rotation of chrome plated rotor within double internal
helix , resilient stator provides pulse free flow of grout. Duplex & Triplex pumps
have less pronounced pulsation. For some application an accumulator is used to
smoothen the output still further.
Hydraulic Pumps: These types of pumps are best suited for foundation grouting
works for they have the following advantages: They have independent control of
pressure and flow. They can be set at a predefined pressure and the output
pressures exceed 100 bars.
Chemical Grout Pumps
Metering System: Figure 77 presents Flow Monitoring device a line diagram of
the major components of a chemical grout metering system along with
instruments to indicate actual discharge flows from each pump and a pressure
actuated shut off system to prevent in advertent over pressuring of the formation.
Glass tube flow meters or computerized flow monitoring device (Shroff, 2004)
are used on the discharge end of each pump to give constant readings of
discharge volumes. Metering is accomplished by adjusting the pump outputs to
the desired values or ratios. For electrically driven pump units, similar controls
are available to shut off and restart the motor. More sophisticated mix/metering
equipment (Fig. 77) should be used to allow the resin and hardener elements to
be pumped separately to the injection nozzle or to special mixing heads. There is
another metering system, rated at 6gpm and 400 psi (28 kg/cm2). Motive power
is air, monitored by a pressure controller.
General Observations on Grout Pumps: For applications involving the injection
of fissured rock, such a curtain grouting on dams or contact grouting program in
tunneling, there is a distinct preference for ram type pumps. It is believed that the
77
78
Upheaval Gauge
Under high pressure the foundation has a tendency to heave upward. While
grouting is in progress continuous observations are taken on nearby casing pipes
(which extent to the rock below) and concrete blocks prepared for the purpose
and grouting immediately stopped if any upheaval is observed. The allowable
upheaval is 5 mm in earth dams, while 0.25 mm for the formation of masonry/
concrete dam. Fig. 78(a) Computerized upheaval guage is shown in Fig. 78b.
79
80
81
From grouting field practice, it seems that time parameter is very significant
while considering pressure-grout consumption relationship. New TPC (TimePressure-Consumption) number/system: (Shroff et al., 2004). Time-PressureConsumption diagrams during grouting is conceived by Mistry 1985 and further
modified by Shroff (2004) bears several important features of grout hole
behavior and time-viscosity and time strength study of Newtenion & Bingamian
grouts and grouted alluvium or rock mass suiting to permeability or lugeon value
of rock or alluvium.
TPC Number is devised form field study at several grouting sites. It is defined as
a number, called time Pressure-Consumption (TPC) number which is injection
pressure during or end of injection pressure at that time multiplied by injected
grout (Volume) at that time its dimension is of grout power (energy) (Pressure
* volume/time) kg. m. per unit time & unit depth of hole. This co-efficient is
proportional the power (energy) used in grouting the rock or alluvium at that
time. This may vary as per joints fissures orientation and their width in rock and
tortuosity of grout flow in alluvium. When TPC value is reached, grouting is
completed satisfying refusal criteria. When TPC is remaining constant during the
grouting, grout penetration is steady and the volume in open fissures is
automatically limited, while the pressure can rise in finer fissures that are harder
to penetrate, if one crosses this number, the hydro fracture (Upheavel) may
82
initiate. It signifies adverently that a limit pressure and limit volume must be
with reference to rock jointings or pore size.
The various curves of TPC are discussed earlier. A typical 3-D diagram is as
shown in the Figure 79d.
New Grouting Process
Micro Fine Grouting along with newly devised TPC system author has put forth
micro fine grouting process. Micro fine process consists of grouting the soil in a
single operation with very thin mix comprising micro fine cement, or colloidal
Silica components which combine with the in situ soil to form hard set mass.
Time-viscosity and Time strength study of above grouts are co-related to TPC
number which is discussed earlier.
DAM GROUT DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM (Fig. 80. a,b,c,d)
It consist of flow and pressure detection unit, flow and pressure recorder unit,
data processing unit, Daily report preparing unit along with grout mixer and
grout pump.
83
Ceramics are used for materials of the return valve head and sheet so that
abrasion resistively has been much improved.
Throttle can be made arbitrarily on either one of bore hole side or return side
of the return valve so that flow control in low flow rate has become easier.
The mixer is able to be installed either a higher or lower position than the
entrance of a borehole, dependent on the lay of the site.
The return valve is easily decomposable by the use of a one touch coupler so
that overhaul is easy to be made.
Rapid and reliable data management is possible and directions for operation
are possible.
84
Enpasol-Reconnaissance
Screen displays graphs, bar charts and numerical values of parameters from
2.16 grout pumps
Stops pumps on reaching refusal pressure, set, volume, empty pipe, etc.
Logging
Records pump, borehole, stage and mix numbers, injection time, mean grout
flow, volume, final pressure, cause of stoppage, etc in all, more than 30
parameters per stage.
85
Sorts Data
Acquisition of grout flow, pressure and volume 100 times per second.
Regulation of pump speed to keep flow and pressure within set limits.
At 486 computer:
-
86
1.
Flow regulation: If actual pressure less than set pressure, then flow
regulation normal.
2.
3.
The real time display of grout pressure versus flow rate is of great assistance
because the pressure can be increased monotonically provided the xy plot
remains linear or the pressure increases faster than the flow rate (turbulent flow).
The limiting pressure desired is just prior to the hydraulic fracture, which
appears as a line almost near parallel to the flow axis on the xy plot. Grouting
Engineer can control injection pressure to 80 per cent of the fracture pressure for
normal injection by this system. Moreover, interpretation of the time plot of the
flow rate record on the two channel chart recorder allows the grouting engineer
to determine the required grout mix. A list of suppliers manufacturing such type
of recorders are as under, Altas Copco, Haeny, Ciolcrete Eurodril.
87
mixer is mounted on electronic load cells and can measure the quantity of water
and cement added. This helps in rapid and accurate mixing in the required
proportion.
Purulia Pumped Storage Project (West Bengal Electricity Board)
The project involved drilling and grouting of upper dam, lower dam and
penstocks. A peak rate of 48 stages per day was achieved using 12 automatic
grout plants, and 6 automatic self recording gauges.
EFFICACY OF GROUTED MASS (Fig. 82a, b)
Consideration should be given to the effect of mainly three variables-depth of
penetration, degree of imperfection and thickness of the cut-off. Some new
methods with compensatory accuracy and ease have been devised. Notable
amongst them are (i) radioactive tracer, (ii) earth probing radar and (iii) crosshole acoustic system.
Radioactive Tracer
It is possible to inject readily absorbable radiotracers through a tube inserted near
the bottom of reservoir. The accumulation of adsorbed tracers at any point on the
bottom is proportional to the amount of water which passed through that point.
The detectors are deployed at points where seepage water has emerged. The
electronic recorders give the number of isotopes collected at such points. If the
grout curtain is watertight, the number of isotopes collected at a certain point will
be less. A deep-water isotope current analyzer (DWICA) may be used for
discharging isotopes, as shown in Fig. 82.a. It consists of a central isotope tank
and is associated with a number of scintillation counting detectors placed
peripherally around it. The entire device is lowered into the water by means of a
hoist and measures both the direction and the velocity of currents. The
limitations in leakage investigation is the quantity of seepage.
88
89
two types of mixing methods, namely, deep mechanical mixing (DMM) and high
pressured grout mixing (Jet Grouting) have been developed for mixing with
stabilizer under deep ground condition. These are shown schematically in Figs.
83.a,b.
Jet Grouting Technology: The latter technique termed as jet grouting, was first
developed in Japan in the late 70s and was introduced for the first time in India
in 1983. In jet grouting the soil is mixed in-place, with a stabilizing mixture
under a very high nozzle pressure. By using this technique, it is possible to treat
a wide range of soils and even weathered rocks by use of a simple cement grout
mixed in place with soil particles under very high nozzle pressures of even up to
300400 kg/cm2.
90
Advantages of the systems are wide range of soils that can be successfully
treated, capability to obtain Jet-grouted columns of consolidating soil with
diameter ranging from 60 to more than 200 cm by using small diameter drilled
holes, (usually 100 to 140 mm), capability to overpass pre-existing foundations
boulders, rocky layers and use of light weighing and small sized drilling rigs in
small working areas. Main applications of the method are underpinning,
diaphragm walls, tunnel consolidation, bottom plugs, slopes consolidation,
impervious Cut-offs, diaphragm walls gaps and break-in and break-out for TBM.
Jet grouting 1 implies the use of single fluid (the grout) as a fracturing medium
and stabilizing agent, when single phase system is adopted.
Jet grouting 2is the double fluid consists of the simultaneous high-pressure jet
injection of grout and air. In the process, the in-situ soil structure is broken up
completely by the very high-pressure grout jet, assisted by an enveloping air jet;
the air jet increases the cutting radius and improves the workability of the soil
grout mixture.
Jet grouting 3 means the use of 3 fluids, air and water as the fracturing and
washing media and grout as the stabilizing agent, when three phase system is
used. In Jet grouting 3, soil is cut by cutting action of air-water jet from upper
nozzle (4mm dia), at pressure of 300 to 400 kg.cm2 and removed by water flow
and is simultaneously replaced by cement grouting lower nozzle (7 mm dia) (at
40 kg/cm2) pressure. This system is known as the three phase (air, water and
grout) procedure (Fig. 83. b.)
In three phase jet grouting process, the monitor, which comprises a triple phase
fluid drill pipe, conveying three process elements of air, water and cement grout,
is lowered in to predrilled hole.
There are two nozzles (Fig. 83. b) one above the other, separated by a spacing of
500mm. Generally, the cutting action of jet is effective, up to a distance of 1.5m
from the nozzle. The high pressure jetting grout in-situ soil structure breaks up
and pushes out the destroyed materials through the annular space between the
rods and the borehole while the grout mixes with part of the disturbed soils. The
soil cement mix sets after some time to form a stabilized pile with nominal
diameter of about 6001400mm.
In brief, the jet grouting technique aims at treating the unstable stratum, by
replacement of weaker materials with stronger materials, to enable the same to
bear the overburden on the top, by arch action transferring the loads to stable
supporting media.
Comparisons: For grout injection rates above 500t/m, the triple-fluid system can
from large diameter columns with less spoil generated than when the single-fluid
system is used. The excavating efficiency of the triple-fluid system is sensible
because the airlifting action of the compressed air/water cutting jets assists in the
removal of cuttings from the drill hole, though per cent out flow generated is
more (60%) than in single system (50%), facing less handling problems.
The unconfined strength versus depth data plotted in Fig. 84.a indicates that the
single-fluid system results in higher strengths than the other two jet grout
91
methods. Below 6m, the single-fluid system produces soil Crete comparable to
structural concrete (400 kg/cm2). The triple-fluid creates the second strongest
soil crete (150300 kg/cm2. The double-fluid system produces the weakest soil
crete with most strength between 75 and 150 kg/cm2.
Jet grouting is usually applied below the water level. Direct jetting in water
results in significant attenuation and does not make sense, accordingly. In an
actual work, a longer cutting reach is the vital concern. Surrounding a water jet
with a cylindrical film of air has proved the solution to lowering the attenuation
of jetting power.
Because the shear force at the wall for a two-phase fluid is smaller than for a
single-phase fluid, the momentum also becomes smaller and as a result, the jet
can excavate farther. Both jet pressure and flow rate similarly affect soil cutting.
Deep Jet Grouting in Clay: During Jet grouting in marine clay (more than 35 m)
to form a slab, the production process is separated in two phases. The first is
cutting the clay by modified double system (super jet) with a grout of low
cement content and afterwards filling the volume with a grout of high cement
content which will satisfy the requirement of column with high strength in the
treated soil
The permanent back flow of spoil (waste slurry) & its viscosity should be
monitored to prevent heaving or settlement of the adjacent buildings.
Theoretical Considerations
Jet cutting is predominantly affected by the nozzle characteristics. Subsequent
research at M.S. University, Baroda, India made it possible to publish a general
nozzle specification based on the following: (1) The nozzle should be made of
the hardest material possible, e.g. tungsten carbide. (2) The internal surface
should be mirror-finished. (3) The contraction angle should be 13, as shown in
Fig. 84.b. (4). The straight portion should be 2.5 to 3 times as long as the nozzle
diameter.
92
A nozzle satisfying the above conditions can maintain good efficiency. The
upper stream condition towards the jetting nozzle is also of vital importance for
achieving ideal jetting performance. Fig. 85.a describes the jet structure.
Both the experimental and theoretical results verify that the length of the straight
portion generating a laminar flow in the upper part of the nozzle, significantly
affects the jet performance. Specifically, L/D should exceed 50.
New Concepts: A new concept was introduced in which two water jets are
aligned to collide with each other and then artificially diffused to attenuate the
kinetic energy which would otherwise continue.
By diffusing the kinetic energy of the jets, the concept succeeded in controlling
the reach of the jets within the desired distance of improvement. The principle
concern of conventional methods was only to enlarge the improved body, not to
improve homogeneity which is dependent on the characteristics of the soil.
Because two jetting streams always cross at an exact point, (Fig. 85.b) the grout
front constructs a nearly straight configuration as if within a virtual formwork.
The many diamond shapes formed by intersection stream lines promise a better
mixing of soil with cement slurry. Auxiliary equipment has been specially
developed to generate a highly focused flow (Shroff et al., 2007). The research
includes that simply increasing jetting energy along will not always prove
successful in meeting improvement goals, because increasing the cutting reach
and acquiring an exact diameter and homogeneity are dependent on principles of
fluid dynamics.
93
25.9
3<N
19.5
100 < N 150
10.0
50 < N 100
14.5
30 < N 50
94
Drilling Machinery: Drilling rig, called Casagrande C-6 rig is a self contained,
track mounted, hydraulic drilling rig, which can be easily maneuvered in all
types of ground conditions. At this site, 115 mm diameter boreholes were drilled,
using special type drill rods with male female joints and tricone roller bottom
bits, using a T-150 power swivel. The drilling was done at rate between 80 to
100 rpm.
Effectiveness of Jet Grouting (Fig. 86.a & 86.b): Vertical or inclined drilling and
jet grouting have effectively stabilized the unstable strata in tunneling work,
which were anticipated to be hazardous were properly treated in advance, by jet
grouting and later on no problems were faced during the excavation of tunnel in
these stretches. Whenever jet grouting treatment was given, excavation of tunnel
face was carried out by using hand held jack hammers, allowing a 2m clearance
on either end of treated portion.
Case: 2: Tunneling in Soft Ground Using Shield and Jet Grouting: Sinking
of Shield in Soft Ground
Eastern Railways have constructed 17 km of underground railway known as
Calcutta Metro. The job required construction of Underpass beneath the 6
existing railway tracks (Fig. 87.a) without disturbing the traffic. Two tunnels of
5.1 m inside diameter (one for up-line and other for down-line) were to be
constructed for this purpose.
Execution Problems Encountered: After construction of 30 m length of up line
tunnel, construction progress was hampered on account of very soft nature of
strata. Due to soft clayey silt, the shield started sinking in soft ground underneath
and could not be maneuvered. At this stage, the shield nose dived by 87 cm and
it was very much in excess of specified tolerance limit of 50 cm (Fig. 87.b).
Further construction of tunnel was then suspended. It was decided, to use jet
grouting technique to stabilize ground conditions, by strengthening the soft
95
clayey silt beneath the base of tunnel, by mixing it with cement slurry introduced
by jet grouting.
Jet grouting was carried out from outside the tunnel. For this purpose, jet
grouting rig was kept on the railway embankment and inclined holes were drilled
up to required depth. After completion of drilling only 2 to 3 m portion of
borehole, the tunnel was jet grouted below the base.
Spacing between centers of adjacent drill holes was kept between 50 to 60 cm.
Diameter of each jet grout column was of order of 1.5 m2.0 m by orienting the
drilling direction properly, the jet grout columns were so formed that, they were
more or less touching each other and formed a composite envelope beneath the
base of the tunnel. Jet grouting was done using single phase process i.e. water
cement slurry only. Cement consumption varied between 300400 kg/m of jet
grout column. After treating a length of 8-10m, excavation in that portion, was
carried out using blade shield unit. By providing jet grouting beneath the base,
the nose diving tendency was totally restricted and tunnel shield could be
maneuvered in correct alignment.
Case 3: Jet Grouting for Well Foundation at Jogighopa Bridge
Well foundation on sloping rock strata: A major rail-cum-road bridge was
recently completed across river Brahmaputra connecting NH31 at Jogighopa
with NH37 at Pancharatna (M.P.). These wells were sunk up to 67m depth in the
river bed through predominantly sandy/silt strata.
Execution Problems (Fig. 88.a): At locations 17 & 18, however, a hard rock
stratum was existing at a depth of 40m and that too in a steeply sloping
condition. Scour during the floods is expected up to the rock strata and as such
the wells were not likely to have any passive resistance from the overburden.
This necessitated a very special and innovative design in order to rest the
foundation uniformly over sloping rock strata and stabilizing it against
tremendous horizontal force of about 5000 MT.
Among various alternatives jet grouting was selected as to be the most optimal
solution in view of its inherent advantages of geometric flexibility and costeffectiveness.
96
Execution of Jet Grouting: As the jet grouting operation took place below ground
with practically no direct control, it was necessary to introduce redundancy in the
layout of columns by providing overlapping. The gap between cutting edge and
rock was sealed by two rings of overlapping columns as shown in Fig. 88.b.
Specialized Equipments: The following specialized equipments were mobilized,
Drill rig with all control attachments, High pressure Haliburton pump, Diesel
driven, Specialized drill rods and other accessories, Cement grout and bentonite
mixers and Borehole survey instrument.
Working Platforms: For overcoming problems posed due to water depth and
current, specially designed working platforms had to be provided for carrying out
the jet grouting operations.
Working Parameters: During drilling: Bentonite pumping pressure = 820 bars,
Air pressure = 2.5 to 4.5 bars, Bentonite slurry Sp. Gr. = 1.031.06, Rotational
speed of drill rods = 50rpm. Drilling with bentonite slurry was preferred.
During Jetting: Air pressure = 6 bars, Grout pressure = 360380 bars, Rotational
speed of drill rods = 12 rpm, Retraction speed of drill rods = 2225 cm/min.
Special Features: Due to the large depth of 40m, drilling accuracy was a crucial
parameter on this project. Drilling was done in a manner which minimized the
risk of deviation from the desired location by accurate survey. The exact location
was surveyed using a special inclinometer. After surveying, jetting was started.
Grout pressure of about 360 bar was used for cutting the soil and forming jet
grout columns up to the desired height.
Case 4: Jet Grouted Cutoff Below Cofferdam
In construction of Omkareshwar Hydroelectric Project (520 MW) an effective
curtain is provided to prevent seepage water from river bed getting into the dam
97
seat. Riverbed material consisted of large size boulders. When most of the
techniques were not either suitable or cost and time effective, it was decided to
follow the technique of formation of jet grouted columns for cut off below the
cofferdam (Fig. 88b).
To mobilize the equipments and make a cutoff wall for cofferdam by using Jet
Grouting Column (JGC) method having length of 1169.00 m. Each jet grout
column is 1200mm diameter with center to center spacing of 1000 mm between
two JGC having 14m depth from the top of the soil strata.. Hence, total 1168
number of JGC to be done. For this project Bi-Fluid system was followed.
Jet grouted elements correspond to the volume of soil eroded and cemented from
a single borehole. When rotating and simultaneously translating the erosive jet
stream in the borehole with constant speeds, a column is formed having the
shape of a cylinder in homogeneous soil.
Fig. 88 b Layout of Jet Grouted Column as cut off for D/s coffer dam
In heterogeneous ground, with obstacles, the jet grouted column obtained has an
irregular shape, because of the resistance opposed by the soil to the jet erosion
and the parameters of execution. When jetting in sandy soils, the jet around
material is like a cement mortar.
Execution problems during excavation of works:
1.
2.
When there used to be tight space around the jet monitor, the air got returned
towards compressors, resulting in the stoppage of air supply. This problem
was solved by installing non return valves in the air line to stop the back
flow of air.
During pre drilling, Rotex N-116 bits and also 152 diameter steel casing pipes or
drilling with Odex bits using Panthar Hammer and 141.2 mm steel casing pipes
were resorted to.
Pre-Drilled Holes Filling: After the pre-bored holes were filled up with cement
bentonite (1 : 0.5) the drilling rig was setup at the hole location for the re-drilling
of the hole and for the final soil treatment with the high pressure jetting. The drill
rig will need to have a jetting trestle of about 20 to 22 m to permit the JET2 drill
98
99
maximum water flow from caisson to intake. Generation of this critical stress at
junction may be due to reversal of hydrostatic stresses at the junction point, also
simultaneously it adds to overturning stresses acting towards the reservoir which
may create adverse condition (Fig. 89).
Observations of the model testing by centrifuge model set up at GERI as
confirmed the above considerations at the junction of intake well and cassion.
Further it seems that there can be leakage of water depth wise, partly from the
cassion and partly from the well.
Solution of the Problems: For the solution of these problems the various
alternatives viz;
(i) Grouted sand fill at junction of well and caisson,
(ii) Constructing interconnected ring of 50mm diameter pipes keeping nearer to
well steining and caisson box
(iii) Jet grouted columns all around the junction.
Among various alternatives, jet grouting is to be selected to be most optimal
solution in view of inherent advantage of geometric flexibility and cost
effectiveness.
Fig. 89: Jet Grouted Columns for Strengthening In-Take WellCassion Junction
The experience of double raw jet grouted columns at Jogighopa Bridge will be
useful for the work.
Two rows of jet columns overlapped with one another to act as barrier against
seepage and capable of withstanding over tuning moment of well towards
reservoir side. Design calculations worked out from the over tuning forces
indicated that total number of jet grouted columns required are 20 nos. on east
side & 20 nos. of west side of well caisson-intake well junction. Spacing and
100
101
grouting caused the 0.8 to 1.2 m thick adjacent retaining diaphragm walls to
move between 9.7 to 36.4 mm, away from the jet-grout area as shown in Fig.
90a, causing significant +BM and -BM (Max.787KNm/m). The grouting also
caused the soil next to the diaphragm walls to move back by up to 54 mm (Fig.
90b). Soil heave behind the walls, induced by production grouting ranged from 2
to 24 mm, with the majority less than 10 mm which has tilted MRT station Viaduct columns to 20 to 90 sec and caused the column to settle.
Mitigation measures: The use of temporary casing during jet grouting would
ensure the borehole stability and provide effective path for waste slurry to reach
ground surface. The use of temporary casing together with properly selected
grouting operation parameters would substantially reduce ground movements
caused by the jet grouting.
Case 7: Comparison of the Effectiveness of Deep Soil Mix Columns Using
2-D and 3-D FEM
Slip Descriptions: Topography and Ground condition: The slip discussed
occurred in State Highway 11, in Himachal Pradesh. It was a road slip which
occurred in a section where the road has been constructed on a natural valley
feature. The upper slope of the valley above the road is hummocky and shows a
number of head scarp, creep and slump features. The area below the failure is
highly vegetated with trees and bush, with the lower flanks of the valley also
containing houses. Bore hole logs indicate that the sub surface condition consist
of soft to firm silt clay sandwiched between fine to coarse grained gravel and
firm to stiff silt clay. Mudstone/sandstone forms the bedrock.
Failure Mechanism (Fig. 91a): Site observations suggest that the failure is likely
to have resulted from a circular slip, which has probably been induced by
saturation of the slope during a heavy rainfall event. Creep movement was noted
below the toe of the slip, which would have contributed to the failure to some
102
extent. A secondary deeper block failure was suspected to be responsible for the
crack adjacent to the road centerline.
Table 10: Strength properties of soil/rock
Soil/Rock
Fill
Backfill
Soft firm clay
Silty clay
Mud stone
C, kPa
0.0
2
5
30
2000
Degree
30
30
28
30
30
E, mPa
12
20
25
50
1000
In 2D models, the column has been modeled using a replacement ratio method in
out of plane direction. The columns are modeled together with the surrounding
soil as a block of composite material. This takes the column spacing into account
by assigning appropriate average composite properties.
103
The 3D model uses the design properties of the deep soil mixing column as
input. The columns are positioned in such a way that a block of improved soil
bounded by the columns is created in the pavement and the slope below the road.
Two rows of 0.3 m by 0.3 m columns are installed and the lengths of the
columns are 5.0 m and 6.0 m. Our research focus on the behavior of columns for
the following scenarios:
Variation on column spacing i.e. 0.6 m (2 times diameter spacing), 2.5 m (8
times diameter spacing) and 4.0 m (13 times diameter spacing) in the
longitudinal direction (parallel to road). The 2.5 m spacing is the practical
maximum spacing we have adopted based on field observations of completed
projects.
The effect of soil model used in the assessment i.e. Mohr Coulomb Soil Model
and Hardening Soil Model.
Results: The output of Plaxis analysis with regard to factor of safety and shear
stress acting in column are given in Table 11.
Both models 2D & 3D given a similar failure mechanism as shown in Figure
91c, d & FS = 1.1 & 1.2 respectively. The shear stress mobilized by the columns
are determined from the deviator stress given in the Plaxis output. In 2D models,
this needs to be converted to an equivalent shear stress as the columns have been
modeled as a block of composite material instead of an individual column as in
the case for 3D. The conversion is based on the assumptions that the shear stress
taken by each column is proportional to the stiffness of surrounding soil and
takes into consideration of column spacing. This aspect needs to be refined to
maximize the effectiveness of the columns.
Discussion: Factor of Safety: The computed factor of safety in 3D models are
lower than 2D models by 5% to 7%. As in 2D model the effect of stress
distribution for different column spacing have not been taken into account. For
this problem a spacing of 2.5 m is the maximum and probably a closer spacing
would be more beneficial in reality.
Table 11: Comparison of Factor of Safety Using Plaxis 2D Version 8.2 and Plaxis 3D
Tunnel Programme
Column Spacing (m)
max = Max Shear
stress ( kPa)
Pre-existing Case
0.6
2.5
4.0
2D
1.10
1.54
1.53
1.54
104
Mohr Coulomb models show higher shear stresses in the column in comparison
to Hardening Soil Model, if E of the Mohr Coulomb model is equal to E50 of the
Hardening Soil Model (Fig. 91c,d). However, the impact of the columns being
stiffer than the surrounding soil modifies the stress regime and hence the actual
stiffness, making the direct comparison more difficult.
Dry Slope versus Wet Slope: The ground water is approximately 2.0 m below
road embankment. Comparison between the modified dry model and the original
saturated model confirms a similar failure mechanism on the embankment slope
for both models. On the saturated model, a deeper secondary failure mechanism
is noted. The reported factor of safety for both models however are the same
since the main failure is on the slope. It is noted that installing deep soil mixing
columns have increased factor of safety by 20% to 40%.
Modeling versus Reality: The column spacing of 2.5 m was adopted in the final
design. The calculated shear stress significantly increases between the 0.6 and
2.5 m spacing and then appears to level out suggesting that the 2.5 m spacing
design appears to be close to the threshold spacing for grout effect.
The remedial work has performed satisfactorily and has undergone events of
heavy rainfall without developing any signs of further instability in support of
the design adopted.
Conclusions: This study clearly demonstrates the 3D effects of soil column
interaction. For closer column spacing of 0.6 m (two column diameters),
interaction becomes more dominant, and 2D and 3D results coincide. At wider
spacing, the 3D effect dominates, and the 2D results may not be reliable.
There is a need to understand the interaction of deep soil mixing columns with
surrounding soil mass. Columns need to be designed so that they create an
arching effect, and change stress distribution. Such change in stress distribution
should be readily visible in model output and should in most cases be reflected in
computed factors of safety. 3D effects of column interaction play a key role in
the field performance of deep soil mixing columns in road remedial work.
COMPACTION GROUTING TECHNOLOGY
Definition: Compaction grout is a silt sand grout, with or without Portland
cement and/or aggregate, pumped with a maximum (50 mm) 2 inch slum,
preferably one inch (2.54 cm) or less slump, characterized by high internal
friction and minimal plasticity, injected into the soil under pressure to form a
mass of grout that radially displaces the surrounding soil without hydro fracture
and damage to adjacent structure or permeation of the soil (Fig. 92.a)
Range of Applications
Compaction grouting has been successfully used in most types of soil, and to a
deeper depth. Injection into saturated clays is dependent upon their ability to
drain, however, and very slow injection rates are usually required. This increases
the amount of time required to perform the work, as well as the cost and often
limits its use. The procedure also has limited effectiveness in clean, course, sands
and gravels. Sequence of compaction grouting as shown in Fig.93).
105
106
containment for those that follow, whereas upstage injection is nearly always
accomplished in one continuous operation. When working downstage, each stage
is allowed to harden before the next one is drilled and grouted.
Grout holes are usually spaced on a grid of 1.8 to 3.6 m although closer spacing
is occasionally used. Alternate primary holes should be injected before the
intermediate secondary holes. Where inclined holes are used they should
generally be not more than about 20 degrees, off vertical.
Travel Index
One measure of regularity of the obtained grout mass is the Travel Index, (TI) of
the grout. The TI is the maximum radial travel of the grout from the point of its
injection, divided by the minimum radial distance to a grout-soil interface, and is
thus representative of the grouts propensity to remain in a controlled mass and at
the intended location. Grouts with a low travel index (less than about 3) remain
in relatively symmetrical masses that have clear interfaces with the surrounding
soil. Travel indices (Fig. 92d) exceeding five however, virtually assure hydraulic
fracturing of the soil.
In addition to the grout Rheology, the rate of injection must be carefully
controlled. While it will vary with the individual soil, it will most often fall
within a range of 0.027 to 0.216 m3 (1 to 2 ft3) per minute. Excessively high
injection rates also result in loss of control of the grout and hydraulic fracturing
of the soil.
In those instances where only a small amount or even no cementation is desired,
another fine material such as hydrated lime or a pozzolana can be used in place
of cement.
Field Applications
The greatest use of compaction grouting is in connection with the repair of
settled buildings and other structures. The process also is used for site
improvement prior to construction of new as well as under existing structures,
such as for mitigation of the liquefaction potential of soil during earthquakes.
Theory of compaction grouting
The potential conical shear failure surface will be inclined at an angle, , of
about 60 to the horizontal;
po = [h{(h/a)2+3(h/a)tan+3tan2}/3tan2] [1+2(1-sin)cos(180-+)}/cos cos]
in which = total soil bulk density, po = the maximum allowable grouting
pressure one can equate the upward force exerted by the grouted mass to the total
weight of the truncated cone of soil plus the downward shearing resistance
(calculated from Mohr-Coulomb criterion) of soil along the potential failure
surface (See Fig. 94.a). It can be seen that design curves, such as those in Fig,
94.b, offer a very convenient means of predicting the order of magnitude of the
maximum allowable grouting pressure in actual compaction grouting since the
and h values are normally available. As for the diameter of the grouted mass, 2a,
107
this can be estimated by measuring the volume of grout that has been pumped in
(Graf, 1992).
Rational analysis indicates that the soil immediately adjacent to the grout bulb
becomes dense due, to spherical bulb cavity of radius R i expanded by uniformly
distributed internal pressure p. The pressure reaches and ultimate value Pu, the
cavity will have a radius, Ru and the plastic zone around the cavity will expand
to a radius Rp.
_______
Rp/Ru = 3Ir/(1+Ir)
Where Ir = E/2(1-)(C + qtan) = G/S, quantity Ir is introduced as Rigidity
index which can be represented as the ratio of shear modulus G of the soil
surrounding bulb to its initial shear strength, S = C + q tan. (Shroff, Shah, 1991).
108
Radius of Compaction
Rational analysis and field observations indicate that the radius of compaction at
each bulb is a function of:
(1) The restraining pressure of the soil (Fig. 94.a) which is: (a) The weight of
the inverted cone of soil above the bulb (b) The shear strength along the
shear surface of the restraining cone of soil.
109
(2) The weight of structure above the grout bulb. When even a small amount of
lift is made, it may involve up to 50% of the weight of the entire structure
when the lift is made at one small area of the structure (Fig. 94a).
(3) The surface area of the grout bulb (total radial force) directly proportional to
about the 2/3 power of the volume.
(4) The grout pressure at the bulb.
Lifting of Structures
Controlled lifting of structures with compaction grout can be accomplished under
almost all soil conditions. Many structures have been lifted in soft clays. The
limiting weight that can be lifted using compaction grouting has not yet been
demonstrated. Structures have been lifted more than 0.5 m with compaction
grout. Machinery foundations including pier & pile supported have been leveled
to within 1.5 mm.
Laboratory & Quality Control Field Tests
It can be by nearly continuous observation of the mix at the mixer with frequent
slump tests (Fig. 7) & the apparent shear strength of grout by custom
penetrometer. M S University, Baroda, India had fabricated a special cone &
horizontal flow meter that is directly related to the slump. Slump value is
correlated to value of horizontal flow meter (Fig. 92c.)
Rheological parameters such as initial shear strength and plastic viscosity should
be measured routinely to classify the fluid properties of the grout. Flow through a
5.08 cm hole at a 0.067 m3/min pumping rate, the pressure drive of about 0.07
Kg/cm2 open ended; that is pretty good grout. A filter press, (Fig.7 m of part-I)
has the advantages of allowing much bigger pressure to be applied, and of being
easily standardized. The test is same as squeeze test.
The degree of compaction in the field can be controlled by the following
parameters, depending on the requirements.
Soundings (CPT, SPT) before and after the compaction grouting process
M4-print out depth, pressure and grout volume are continuously recorded
and shown on a time axis. Alternatively, recordings can be drawn on a depth
axis.
Performance: The results of the relative deeper injections are better consistent
than those of the relatively shallower ones. In this regard, it should be mentioned
that the injections into soils shallower than about 4.80m were associated with
significant upward displacement of ground surface. These displacements are
reported elsewhere (Yamaguchi et al. 2000). On the other hand, no significant
changes of ground surface elevations were observed due to the deeper injections.
The depth of 4.8 m is the critical depth for the injected piles. The gradually
110
111
holes a & b. These comparisons indicate that stiffer soil conditions had been
achieved by compacting grouting. The soil densification effects are further
supported by the results of inclinometer observations. The ratio between radial
displacements to bulb radius represents the radial strain caused by compaction
grouting. The radial strain response to grout holes i was about 2 time of those
response to grout holes c.
112
grouting operation were to make effective use of the lifting effect as well as to
achieve ground improvement, so the work commenced at the foundation
footings.
The Grouting Plant: The mixing of the materials and pumping are carried by
grouting plant. As the grouting operation is normally carried out indoors,
adequate covering with vinyl sheeting was necessary. Two types of grouting
sequence are used, one is the sequential grouting method from bottom to top and
the other is grouting progressively from top to bottom. The choice of method
depends on the grouting objectives and prevalent conditions.
113
rectification work period was about one and a half months, and 42 columns were
formed using a total volume of 160 m3 of grout. Figure 97d shows the relation
between grouting quantity and amount of correction achieved.
Case 3: Compaction Grouting for Alleviation of Settlement and Tilting of
Roadway Retaining Wall
Shortly after construction, post-tensioned twin-tee concrete retaining walls, with
toe pressure in the range of 115 to 140kPa, supporting the main line of interstate
road through Bhuvneshwar, Orissa Glenwood canyon, began to settle and tilt.
Typical soil profile along with retaining wall with backfill is shown in the Fig. 98 a.
Fig. 98 (b, c, d): Triangular Stress Distribution with Spherical, Cylindrical &
Grout Pressure Distribution Respectively
Execution problems: Monitoring of the movement with level and inclination
surveys indicated erratic and inconsistent, but progressive settlements of over
35 cm occurring over approximately three years out of which 80% of which
would occure in upper 6m under a 4.5 m wall and fill surcharge. By comparison
of the wall, stress distribution to the radial variation of compactive force applied
114
115
karsted lime stone are frequently associated with construction activities i.e. when
the ground water is lowered; rock/soil is removed or triggered by vibrations.
Objectives: The objectives of compaction grouting works were mainly to reduce
ground water lowering and minimize disturbance to the very loose soil
overburden by compaction using thick mortar grout.
Drilling: For overburden compaction, this was typically at 3 m c/c with a 2 3
m grid. Where grout takes was high, treatment points were added at appropriate
distance.
Materials: The grout material comprised of stiff mortar grout which was mixed
at batching plant and delivered to site. Typical slump suitable for soil
compaction is less than 100 mm.
Compaction process: The stiff mix is pumped into the soil under high pressure of
10 to 20 bar until a pre-determined termination criteria is met. The overburden
soil was treated as the grout pipe was withdrawn in steps upwards of 0.5 m with
an injection rate 100 l/m. The end product is a homogeneous grout bulb or series
of linked bulbs, formed near the tip of the grout pipe as the pipe is withdrawn in
steps. The grout bulbs formed compacts the surrounding ground by displacing
loose soil and closing voids existing within the soil (without causing hydro
fracture). Pre and post grouting SPT N values are shown in Fig. 99b. The
displacement ability of the compaction bulbs also raised the subsided ground
surface, thereby remedying any previous ground settlement.
Compaction Grouting Termination Criteria: Grouting at each step (depth) was
terminated when one of the following criteria was achieved:
(i) Surface ground heave was observed exceeding prescribed limit
(ii) Refusal of further grout flow at pre-determined pressure (e. g. overburden
stress + line losses + 510 bars)
(iii) Volume of grout exceeded pre-determined volume.
116
117
sump location-1 by 32 equally spaced grout holes and grout cover no. 2 from
sump location 2 consists of two rings 48 equally spaced grout holes (Fig. 101).
118
Access Shaft Periphery Cement Grouting for Rock Fracture System: As grout
injection rates are dependant upon the connectivity of rock fracture system with
grout holes, careful selection of primary holes to be grouted can result in
significant savings of overall time and costs of project. In this case, selection of
most appropriate hole(s) for the initial injection helped achieve the most rapid
seal of inflow area, thus appreciably shortening the overall grouting operation
times.
Grout 1: While treating with foliated gneiss under water table used double fluid
silica sole based cement suspension grouts with short gel to long gel time. 200
liter liquid A (100 liter silica sole + 20 liter sodium silicate + 3.5 liter
hardening agent + 76.5 liter water) is mixed with 200 liter liquid B (80 kg
cement + 3 kg hardening agent + rest of water). Hardening agent of liquid A
was 6-% dilute sulphuric acid while for liquid B it is sodium bicarbonate. For
suspension grout, a pump with a capacity of more than twice the suction capacity
was used to avoid the clogging in the pipe line or a suction port.
Grout 2: Gel times should be controllable to time as short as several seconds to
avoid dilution by rapidly moving or large quantities of water. Filling of large
spaces is accomplished by using expansive foaming type polyurethane grouts.
Remedial Grouting Covers adopted for Encountering any Seepage at Higher
Depths: (Fig.102): Further the correlation of RQD, Lugeon value and joint
(crack) intensity has established the location of an aquifer. Stable cement based
silica soil grout discussed earlier can be limited to the relatively large inter
connected cavities such as passages and to fissures and open joints greater than
200 microns in width. Finer fissures and almost all inter granular porosity as well
as porosity left out in first stage grouting (C and D1 series) required
chemical grouting or micro fine cement based sodium silicate grout for A, B
and D2 series. The main components of both types of grout can be pumped
down to the shaft and mixed at bottom with reactive chemicals. The grout is then
injected as a single solution. The grout hole pattern comprised a primary rings of
32 holes and an inner secondary ring of 16 holes. After injection of certain
quantity of cement a simultaneously inflow to four central test holes are required
to be carried out. The last grout cover not only helped in preventing the inward
flow but also reduced any seepage through first grout cover. The shaft can be
excavated and further sunk and eventually to 190m through weak fractured
rocks.
Case 2: Curtain and Consolidation Grouting at Arch Dam site, Iran
Karun III hydroelectric Project is located on Karun River in Khuzestan province,
Iran, 28 km away from Izeh city. It is a double curvature thin concrete arch dam
having height 205 m and length 388 m with crest width 5.5 m and base width
29.5 m. Fig. 103. Dam site located in limestones, dolomites and mudstones of the
Asmari and Pabdeh Formations. There is a clear alteration of weaker, more
easily erodible beds (marlstones and marly limestones) and stronger, more
resistant beds of lime stones in the Asmari Formation. Local faulting
immediately upstream from the dam site in the right bank, as well as crossing the
dam foundation at the left bank are located.
119
Fig. 102: Access Shafts Periphery Cement with Chemical Grouting in Various
Stages
120
121
Grout Materials: Cement grout will be used. The following grout additives are
required: (1) Accelerator (i.e. Calcium chloride or approved equivalent). (2) An
approved super-plasticizer. (3) Thickener (i.e. sand as specified) (4) Bentonite
admixtures shall not be used for consolidation grouting.
Quality Control of Grout Materials: Rigorous quality control of grout mixtures
was observed. Accurate batching of grout mixture, grout consistencies are to be
expressed as the ratio of water/cement by weight. Marsh cone viscosity testing is
carried out at least 5 times per shift at each grout mixing plant. Laboratory
testing of typical grout mixtures to determine representative specific gravity as
specified.
Grout Hole Layouts: Grout holes will be drilled in fans as shown in Fig. 103c.
The fan layouts consist of primary fans spaced at 3 m; secondary fans spaced at 3
m, (between primary fans); 35 to 37 holes per fan; grout hole inclinations of 0 to
80 degrees from vertical; hole lengths of 26 m to 47 m; holes collared in the el
651 m gallery and at the downstream toe of the dam.
Drilling and Grouting Sequence: Grouting used the 'Closure sequence" method.
Series "A" fans is drilled and grouted before Series "B" fans. Work must be
completed on at least 5 Series. "A" fans before the first Series "B" fan can be
started. Within each primary and secondary fan, drilling and grouting shall
follow split spacing methods.
Series 1: Drill and grout every fifth hole in the fan pattern, Series 2: Drill and
grout holes to split space series 1, Series 3: Drill and grout all remaining holes to
split space series 1 and 2 holes.
Grouting Procedures: The grouting was in accordance with the Technical
Specifications and conformed to the following.
The contractor shall use a closure take of 50 kg/m of cement. Additional holes
will be needed in areas where this closure take is exceeded in the final split space
holes of secondary fans. In general the contractor has used upstage grouting for
most of the work. Down-stage grouting is carried out in areas of very high takes
or where holes experience frequent water loss or artesian flow during drilling.
A stage length of 5 m is used during the initial stages of grouting. This is
increased to 10 m, as instructed in upper areas of the fans where takes are
122
negligible during the later stages of grouting. More precise criteria for the use of
10 m stages will be developed as grout take data becomes available.
Contact grouting of the concrete/rock interface is carried out during the final
stage of grouting in each hole. The packer is set in the concrete about 1m above
the concrete/rock interface for this stage of grouting.
Drilling and Testing of Grout Holes: At least two cored grout holes and water
pressure testing along with drilling accuracy is done as per the codal provisions.
Grouting Pressures: Recommended grouting pressure criteria is 0.3 kg/cm2/m of
vertical depth and minimum pressure maintained 4 Kg/cm2 for holes drilled into
base of dam and minimum pressure 2 kg/cm2 maintain at holes drilled adjacent
to dam foundation.
Grout Mixes: Each grout stage is water pressure tested prior to the
commencement of grouting. This will consist of the 5 minute single pressure
"Abbreviated" test specified. Thickening steps followed are: C:W - 1:2, 1:1,
1.5:1 and 2:1 for L < 10, L between 10 to 20 and L > 20 respectively.
Grout Refusal: It occurs when no measurable injection occurs after a 15 minute
period using the maximum grout pressure of the grout stage. When this has
occurred, the grout pressure is maintained for a further 15 minutes in order to
"Pack" the grout.
Curtain Grouting
Factors and Characteristics of Design: The factors which have determined the
design of grout curtain are (a) a 180m head will exist across the dam and
spillway structures. (b) The Asmari Limestone is Karstic and is locally riddled
with solution cavities. (c) Ground water levels in the abutments are low. (d) The
lower limit of practical rock grout ability is about 2 Lugeon. (e) The presence of
silt/clay filled voids. The design included following characteristics: (i) ties in to
Pabdeh formation in the left abutment. (ii)terminates in the asmari formation in
the valley bottom and ridge abutment. (iii) there are nine galleries and two shafts,
most grouting is to be carried out from galleries located at elevations 850, 795,
771, 711, 651 and 621 m. (iv) in asmari, triple line grout curtain to 75m depth
from the base of the dam in areas of high take and single line grout curtain
elsewhere. (v) single line grout curtain in Pabdeh. (vi) grout pressure should be
equal to/or greater than induced pressures from the planned reservoir.
Objectives: The curtain grouting at the Karun III dam site is designed to provide
a watertight barrier to prevent seepage of water through the rock mass around the
dam, with purpose to displace as much of the infillings as possible, and to
replace these material by cement grout & to confine and compress the erodable
silt clay material filling in the joints, bedding planes and Karstic voids.
Grouting Parameters: The general grouting parameters used to date are as follows:
123
The spacing of 8 meters for holes of series 'A', as a start for the split spacing
method is appropriate.
Split spacing method for B, C, D and E series holes. Closet hole spacing is
thus 0.5 m to date.
Acceptance Criteria: The general acceptance criteria for completion of a line of
grouting is as follows: Split space the drilling pattern until grout takes of less
than 50 kg/m are achieved in the final series of hole. Permeability of less than 3
Lugeon units must be attained in check holes.
Triple Line Grouting Triple line curtain is strongly required at Karun III because
the significant amount of joints and bedding planes in filled with silt-clay
material. As previously noted, one of the main objectives of the pressure
grouting is to confine and compress the silt-clay material in the discontinuities
and voids. The only way to achieve this objective is by using a triple line
approach in order to 'encapsulate' the clay bearing rock. Where grout takes more
than 600 kg/m.
It is planned to drill the middle line last and inject it to a stable grout with higher
pressure than the previous u/s & d/s lines. In this concept, the higher pressure
will be used to compress the clay seams in the centre of the curtain. Cement
grout from centerline will travel in between the external lines ensuring that all
the spaces are filled with higher pressure. The grout holes will be oriented so as
to cross in all directions any type of joints and bedding. These procedures will
make an efficient grout curtain.
In addition to the above criterion, it was decided that triple line curtains would
extend for a minimum of 70 m from the portals of the galleries.
For saving cost of drilling, RQD values & Lugeon depth wise are compared &
where ever primary takes are less than 600kg/m two line grout curtain are
recommended.
Use of "Grouting Intensity Number (GIN)" method, was proposed to decrease
the time of grouting operations as the water test is omitted in this method. TPC
system is used to control behavior of grout holes during injection.
Case 3: Grouting of TBM Diversion Rock Tunnel at Seymareh Arch Dam &
Hydro Power Plant at Iran
The Seymareh dam is located on the Seymareh river, west of Islamic Republic of
Iran, approximately 700 km south west of Tehran. Diversion system: u/s & d/s
Coffer dams and two diversion tunnels (870 m length) with 10.5 & 8.3 m
diameter.
Site Geology: According to the bore hole logs the weak limestones sections
(Possible cavernous sections) are detected as rock falls. Those sections are
moistly concentrated at elevation between RD 550 and RD 650m, i.e. the
existing river level. Only the boreholes in the river bed (HM-22, HM-23 and
124
HM-25) indicate some possibility of karst features, or crushed rock mass 4.5m
below the bottom of the gorge. At that elevation cavities are filled by clayey and
sandy material.
A three phase grouting system was developed under change order to fulfill the
requirements. This consisted of:
Water springs were principally associated with faults of rock type boundaries
consequently; few 65m wide grout zones were initially identified at geological
features with the upper and lower Asmari lime stones to prevent inflow of water.
Face Grouting: Original contract requirements included probing ahead of the
TBM face to determine ground water inflow potential and direct grouting when
probe hole inflows exceeded 175 l/m per 30 m of probe hole. In the grout zones,
grouting was carried out when inflow exceeded 7 l/m per 30 m. Each TBM was
equipped with 2 fixed hydraulic Boart rotary drifters above spring line and a
third drill was temporarily mounted below spring line. These were subsequently
supplemented with rotary percussive drills in the karsted limestone.
Cutter head limitations reduced the available grout pattern to 4 horizontal holes
drilled through cutter head buckets. To achieve desired grout travel, a fine
ground slag cement referred to as micro fine was used except during major takes
where type III Portland cement was used. Often Type III would meet with
pressure refusal and a switch to micro fine cement would result in significant
grout take in the same hole. Volumetric water/cement ratios of 1.5:1 to 3:1 were
mixed and pumped at the face to pressure refusal of 3.5 bar above hydrostatic
head. Verification holes were repeatedly drilled and grouted until the 7 l/min per
30 m of hole criteria was met. Face inflow was generally less than 35 l/m per
1.2 m (4) shove during excavation through the grouted zone.
125
mechanical packers at the hole collar. Refusal criterion was zero take at 14 bar.
Additional holes were added to the pattern holes to target specific fissures and
inflows as required. With relatively open fissures in the lime stone, grout takes
per hole would often exceed 100 sacks (13.6 kg, each) of micro fine, prompting
implementation of a volume criterion of 30 sacks of micro fine to determine a
switch to Type III cement.
Formation Contact Grouting through the Tunnel Liner: Despite face and
supplemental grouting efforts, a formation contact grouting program was
developed to create a low permeability annulus around the tunnel. Radial ring
patterns, on 2.4 m centers consisting of eight 3.6m long holes are planned. After
the concrete lining of the diversion tunnels had attained sufficient strength, grout
holes 40 mm diameter Fig. 105c were drilled with percussion type rock drills
through the 75 mm diameter pipe nipples Fig. 105d already embedded in to the
rock so as to expose the contact between rock and the concrete for effective
grouting. As per supplemental grouting, micro fine cement will be pumped to
similar refusal criteria to further reduce annulus permeability. Formation
grouting with the final liner in place is anticipated to be even more effective in
reducing the permeability than that achieved in the supplemental grouting Fig.
105b. Tunnel lining strains will be monitored by strain gauge arrays to confirm
the adequacy of allowable grout pressure.
Case 4: Foundation Treatment of Turbo Generator Unit Description of the
Machine Foundation
Foundation of Turbo set 9K78 (1 75 MW KLTPS Extension, stage 2, Unit
3-TG, Gujarat) is a reinforced concrete frame structure consisting of bottom slab
and of the frame structure i.e. columns and upper slab. Foundation bottom slab is
supported directly on the bed rock on level (-) 5.50m, slab dimensions in plan (-)
15.50 8.30 m and its thickness (-) 2.00 m. Structure upper slab is supported on
six columns supporting upper slab with three transverse and two longitudinal
beams (Fig. 106.a).
126
127
bearing levels of the machine. The general guidelines are followed as per codal
provisions. i.e. /n should be 0.8 or 1.2; max in vertical motion 0.02 mm,
in horizontal motion 0.04 mm;
The contact pressure transmitted to the soil should be within the allowable soil
pressure. Usually 50% of the dynamic load is added to the static loads to
calculate the contact pressure.
FEM Analysis: The dynamic response of base slab has been analyzed using finite
element models and results have been used to bring out the versatility of the
analysis for a vast range of situations. A modified version of the SESOL was
used in this computation scheme. The program can handle many cases of loads
simultaneously. For rocks with joints with depth dependent elastic modulus,
amplitudes of vibration reduce at small frequencies whereas at higher mass and
frequency ratios effect of non- homogeneity is significant in comparison to the
soils with constant elastic modulii. The nonlinearity in elastic modulii
considerably reduces the amplitudes of vibration at smaller frequencies. With a
decrease in mass ratio, the resonant frequency of the system increases. Similarly,
the amplitudes of vibration at resonance increase with decreasing mass ratio. An
integrated computational procedure has been developed to solve the problem
eliminating the need for an assumed interface stresses at the foundation rock
interface. In this model a large domain is discretized, resulting in a large system
of dynamic equilibrium technique called Lanczos vector transformation. An
efficient profile (variable band width) scheme has been utilized for storing large
system matrices.
Various Methods of Decreasing Vibrations of Existing Raft Foundations (Base
Slab): Counter balancing of exciting unbalanced loads implored by turbo
generator, Chemical grouting of soils, Structural measures, Dynamic vibration
dampers.
Rock grouting has resulted in an increase in the rigidity of the base and
consequently in an increase in the natural frequencies of the foundation-rock
system. This method is very effective where natural frequency of the foundation
rock system on a non-stabilized soil are higher than operating frequency of the
machine, which is usually the case. An increase in rigidity will increase still
further the difference between the frequency of natural vibrations and the
frequency of the machine, consequently the amplitude of foundation vibrations
will decrease.
The method can be applied without a prolonged interruption in the working turbo
generator. The limits of stabilized zones of jointed rock and their shape are
determined by the character of the vibrations, about on axis passing through the
centroid of the base contact area, then it satisfied to stabilize the rock near the
foundation edges, perpendicular to the plane of vibrations and it is not necessary
to stabilize the jointed rock under the entire foundation. Depth of stabilized zone
is determined from dynamic bulb of pressure concept not less than 2 m in any
case.
The vibration measurements on a turbo generator foundation indicated that the
natural n for a rotational motion in the foundation was approximately 3500 rpm,
128
while the operating frequency was approximately 3000 rpm. With the machine
thus operating at near resonance, a solution of the problem appeared to lie in
changing the natural frequency of the system, since the operating frequency
could not be changed (Fig. 106c). The amplitude of these vibrations were considered
sufficient to cause fatigue in cracking of the joints of the rock and a reduction in
the life of the bearings in the compressor. In addition the vibrations were being
transmitted through the rock in tern to the joints material-micaceous silt.
In order to perform the grouting operation for changing the natural frequency,
the holes were drilled at each end of that portion of the foundation, where the
horizontal motion of the turbo generator was causing the rocking motion in the
foundation. After drilling these four holes through the concrete foundation, a
grouting tube along with surrounding casing was lowered to a depth of
approximately 2.4m. Colloidal sodium silicate at 10 per concentration and
having 50 Sodium Silicate: 50 Water : 30 g/l kcl (hardener) with initial viscosity
of 5 Cp. With UCS = 400 N/mm2 at 7 days.
Under cyclic behavior of grouted joints executed damping ratio between 2 to 3%.
Grouted rock failed below axial stain 3% under high stress level of cyclic
loading. The variation of axial strain and secant modulus with increase in
number of cycles characterized by three stages as described earlier.
The epoxy grout was forced into the interface between the floor slab and rock in
order that the contact between these surfaces would be complete.
The seismographic measurements made before and after grouting shown in
Fig. 105d. The effect of grouting of this vibrating rock mass proved to be
extremely satisfactory from the point of view of plant operation and less
expensive than modification of the foundation.
Case 5: Impervious Barrier for Cross Passage at BC-24 Section of Delhi
Metro Project
General Information on the Project:
Cross passage is proposed at 9 different locations, connecting two main tunnels
of the Delhi Metro Rail alignment (Fig. 107). Each main tunnel width is 7m and
these two tunnels are separated by a clear spacing of 15 m. The width of the
cross passage is 3 m, which makes its dimension as 15 m long by 3m wide.
Owing to high ground water table, it is proposed to construct a barrier to arrest
any seepage of water into the cross passage. One such option under proposal is
used of micro-cement grouting.
Sub Surface Information: Ground Level: 209.287 m; Ground Water Level:
201.687 m; Tunnel Centre level: 194.424 m; Permeability between 14 to 16 m
below ground level: 4.12 104 cm/s.
Borehole No. ABH-13:
Ground Level: 209.948 m; Ground Water Level: 201.198 m; Tunnel Centre
level: 189.483 m; Permeability between 17 to 19m below ground level : 1.59
10-4 cm/s.
129
From the details of both the bore hole supplied by client it seems that from the
depth of 2 m to 9 m loose to medium dense sandy silt exist which has average
permeability 2.85 10-4 cm/sec having average SPT-N value: 7 to 24.
2.
3.
4.
Owing to shallow water table (3m from ground level), the heavy leakage in cross
passage and maintained can triggered. The grouting program with fan shafted
hole was designed using CASTAUR CAD program. By using CHAIRLOC
software, the fan position with each hole spacing (1.5 m are plotted on colour
diagrams showing either grout quantities or pressures. Fan orientation kept 250
with vertical at centre staggered to 50 extreme fan on both sides of Tunnel as
well as at middle cross passage of 3 m width is planned. Computer interpretation
of grout flow and pressure gave an accurate data of grout taken by the different
strata. TPC graphical interpretation has helped decided maximum and minimum
pressure along with rate of flow in the grouting hole. SINNUS software system
can be used for TPC digital recording.
Inclined grout holes as shown earlier in Fig. 71c of part-II were recommended to
intercept the clayey sandy silt (SPT-N = 7 to 14) and clayey silt k = 4 10-4
cm/sec in modified to 6.2 10-7 cm/sec. about 64% seepage can be reduced at
194.42 level while at tunnel centre level 189.48 level, it was 63.6%. Primary
grouting can be made effective by employing Portland cement and secondary
was micro fine cement with 2% dispersant along with 30% sodium silicate. The
expected cement and MC consumption at level 194.42 are 28 kg/m & 14 kg/m
respectively, while 189.48 level, 26.78 kg/m and 27.08 kg/m respectively.
130
Fig. 108: Grout Curtain and Drainage Holes through Drainage Gallery and
Unconformity Zone and Its Treatment at Block 45 to 52
131
132
valve of rock. Trial grout mix was decided based on comparison of grout intake
and water intake in the hole.
Pattern of grout hole as shown in Fig. 109 b1, b2 b3 are followed one from the top
of overburden rock at crown and other horizontal from inside tunnel and third
towards junction between wall and crown. The pattern was design as per dip and
strike direction of joints of the rock. Using CHAIRLOC software and Singota
analytical work. Grouting holes from top-downward in 15 15 meter @ 3.0 m
c/c are planned to be grouted in a Fan shaped sequence as shown in Fig. 109b1,
b2 & b3 with primary hole extreme end and then secondary hole 1.5 m c/c inbetween primary hole grouting is designed.
After percolation test if seepage is not in within permissible limit then tertiary
hole is to be made. Cement bentonite grout in primary hole and cement based
silicate in secondary and sodium silicate with formamide and calcium chloride in
Tertiary hole are recommended.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
A number of grout materials are available and new materials are on the horizon.
More innovations are required in many fields: binding agent, process, operation
and apparatus. We need more innovations for both higher cost effectiveness and
higher performance in comparison with the conventional grouting technology.
133
The specific mechanical properties of each grout that are important factors in the
selection of a grout for a specific job include mechanical permeance,
penetrability and strength. Similarly, the chemical properties include chemical
permeance, gel time control, sensitivity and toxicity. Following points are the
subject for future investigation. (1) expansion of yield stress/ yield locus (2)
transition of failure criteria under residual strength (3) change of permeability
with time (4) hardening and erosion for a long curing duration (5) relation
between consolidation and effects of cementation.
The ratio of viscosity of grout to that of ground water, time viscosity
relationships and the radius of the grout front are interdependent. Change of pore
size of widening of fissures are the main features of hydro-fracturing when
increasing grouting pressure. An analytical determination of the optimum
orientation of a grout hole for a given geological bedding plane should be a
prerequisite. Further experimental and analytical research efforts as well as field
measurements are required to investigate the characteristics of treated soil and
improved ground behavior more accurately and to conduct more economic
design.
Ground water contamination by grouting chemicals is more serious. Ultra fine
particles below 4 and has very low viscosity, excellent penetrability, strength
and durability. Several field applications of Micro-fine grouts in India and
abroad have proved the efficiency of these new innovated grouts in the fine sand
and silts in place of chemical grout in static and dynamic conditions. In this case
durable grout and precise injection methods are very important and in near future
this application is thought to increase. However, there are still many problems to
be investigated on dynamic interaction of the improved ground and soft soil
stability and lateral displacement under large lateral forces and so on.
There is scope for improvement in drilling technology and for geological
investigations aimed at a higher percentage of core recovery with minimal
disturbance. A correlation needs to be developed between the type of drilling
method to be selected and the type of rock. For a soft rock, the possibility of
using a 5-bar nominal pressure may be considered a worthy modification of the
Lugeon test. Optimization of alluvial grout mixes by triangular charts provides a
ready Reckoner for various basic properties directly required for an ideal grout.
In selecting a trial grout mix for rock grouting, a flow chart based on water and
grout intake seems to provide excellent optimization.
The selection of grouting techniques relies mainly on repetitive experience and
on personnel options. Though new injection methods are available, the tube-amanchette technique is best suited for grouting alluvium. The pattern and depth
of the grout hole are governed primarily by the design requirement and the
nature of the rock. The piezometric level relating to the dam foundation interface
is the real measure of cut-off efficiency. Lower pressure permeation and critical
pressure to hydraulic fracturing can be used for different purposes. Research is
further needed to work out optimum pressure, correlating it with the radius of
penetration, joint thickness and viscosity/strength of the grout mix.
The successful execution of compaction grouting requires through investigation
and engineering analysis combined with continuous control of the actual work.
134
135
and improvement of soft soils in particular, but developments in the fields of Jet
Grouting, Deep Mixing and Fast-Set Chemical Grouting with minimum
environmental impact are the requirement of the present time.
I conclude with words of Karl Terzaghi:
Man can choose how to use technology and by intelligent use can protect the
environment without relinquishing progress.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Faculty of Technology and Engineering, M.S. University of Baroda,
Vadodara provides the ideal ambience for academic and research activities. I
have been most fortunate in being one of the faculty members of Applied
Mechanics Department of this outstanding Institute. The author gratefully
acknowledges the books, journals and proceedings of conferences for their use in
the preparation of the manuscript.
The research reported in this lecture would not have been possible without the
enthusiasm and active support extended by my past doctoral student Dr. D.L.
Shah, Dr. Nitin Joshi, Dr. H.J. Shah and my present doctoral student Shri Manish
Shah and research fellow Shri Vishal Arekar along with many Masters students
too numerous to mention by name. Prof. K.R. Biyani, Prof. R.M. Bhagia, Prof.
A.K. Shah, Smt. Padmini Giri and Shri Lalit Thakur have joined me in pursuing
this exciting research Whole hearted support and uninhibited sharing of thoughts
of Prof. Dhananjay Shah and Dr. Nitin Joshi is warmly appreciated. Late Prof.
Piyush Parikh, Shri J.F. Mistry & Dr. C.D. Thatte have been a source of
inspiration in this venture. Prof. N.M. Patel, Prof. S.C. Patodi, Prof. Sarad Joshi
and Prof. Bhuvan Parekh have provided along with other colleagues an
environment conductive to academic excellence.
The enthusiastic support, I received from Mr. L.V. Ashara, Ex. Director & Chief
Engineer; Mr. H.P. Pandya, I/C Chief Engineer, Vigilance; Mr. K.L. Dave, Joint
Director and Mr. P.A. Santwani, Senior Scientific Assistant at the Gujarat
Engineering Research Institute, Baroda & and Dr. A.K. Dhavan, Ex. Director
and Mr. Morari Ratnam, Director, CSMRS, New Delhi and Late Dr. J.M. Sirke,
CWPRS, Pune and Mr. Patil B. N. & Kaprea B. S., Ex. Joint Director, MERI,
Nasik; Mr. Manoj Garnaik, Project Manager, L&T, EC Division,
Visakhapatanam have greatly facilitated in disseminating the research output
through various workshops/seminars.
Thanks are also due to Dr. V.S. Raju, DGM & Mr. Harikrishna, GM, Keller
Ground Engineering India Pvt. Ltd; Dr. Manishkumar, GM & Dr. Basarkar,
DHM, ITD Cementation (I) Ltd.; Dr. N.V. Nayak, Ex. Executive Director,
AFCON Infrastructure Ltd.; Mr. M.V. Dharap, Sr. Vice President, & M.U.
Zatkar, DGM, Gammon India Ltd.; Mr. Ramesh Kulkarni, MD, Kulkarni
Associates, Pune; Mr. V.T. Ganpule, MD, Sterling Foundations, Mumbai for
sharing many thoughts and valuable suggestions.
The research work has been possible by the undaunted supoort, I have received
from various quarters of M.S. University of Baroda and Financial support from
AICTE, CSMRS, Ministry & Water Resources, CSIR & UGC, New Delhi. The
136
author is thankful to the AICTE, New Delhi for their offer of Emeritus
Fellowship.
In addition, the organization that have extended my participation in their projects
include Prof. Abdolha Ghazvinian, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran, Ministry of
Energy, Islamic Republic of Iran; Dr. RYOZO Yonekura, Prof. Emetrus, Tokyo
University, Japan; K. Ramchandran, GM & D.A. Subramaniam, Sr. V.P., Project
Head, Essar Const. (I) Ltd., Hazira; Lignite Thermal Power Corporation, GEB,
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd., Gandhinagar.
Through their painstaking efforts and meticulous work Mr. P.C. Gandhi, Mr.
Vasant Kadam, Late Mr. Suresh Dagdu, Mr. Yogesh Pawar and Mr. Ashok
Parmar have made it possible in execution of research and in collecting many
thoughts and put them in presentable shape. Thanks are due to Mr. Jayesh Shah
who carefully typed a manuscript.
My special thanks to my wife, Mina for all encouragement and sacrifice, love,
affection and forbearance.
REFERENCES
Adel M. et al, (2001). Model of Compation Grouting, ASCE, Jr of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engg., Vol. 127, No. 11, pp. 955.
Akiyama, T. et al. (1996). Compaction grouting for buildings suffering uneven
settlement. Proc. IS-TOKYO 96, IInd Int. Conf., Grouting and Deep Mixing, I:
243-249.
Alla Ata et al, (1999). Factors Affecting Mechanical and Creep properties of
Silicate-Grouted Sands, ASCE, Jr of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engg.,
Vol. 125, pp. 868.
Alla Ata et al, (1998). Cohesive and Adhesive Properties of Silicate and Grouted
Sand, ASCE, Jr of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Eng,g. Vol. 124, No. 1,
pp. 38.
Amin D.P. and Shroff A.V. (1988). Epoxy resin grout system for solutions to
traditional geotechnical problems. 2nd Int. Conf. Case Histories in Geotech.
Engg., St. Luouis, MO. Univ. Missouri, Rolla and Army Office of Research,
paper no. 5-66, pp. 1165-1168.
Bell. F.G. (ed.). 1975. Methods of Treatment of Unstable Ground. Butterworths,
Newnes, London.
Bowen, R. (1975). Grouting Technology in Civil Engineering Practice. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
Bishop. A. (1963a). The development of uplift pressures downstream of grouted
cut-ff during the impounding of the Selset reservoir. In: Grouts and Drilling
Muds in Engineering Practice. Symp. Brit. Nat. Soc. Soil Mech. & Found. Engg.
Butterworths, London, pp. 98-104.
Bidasaria M. (2005). Restoration and Rehabilitation of old Pagara Dam.
GRUTCEP-05, IGS, Vol. 1.
137
138
Kauschinger, J.L. et al. (1992). Jet grouting: State-of-the practice. Proc. Conf.
Grouting, Soil Improvement and Geosynthetics. ASCE, USA. 1: 169-182.
Kadkade D.G. (2005). Jet grouting cut-off below cofferdam at Hydroelectric
Project, Omkareshwar MP. GROTCEP-05, IGS, pp. 73-93 Vol. 1.
Kamon M., (1996). Effect of grouting and DMM on big construction project in
Japan. Proc. IS- Tokyo 96. IInd Int. Conf., Grouting and Deep Mixing, II: 807824.
Koerner R. M., (1985). Construction and Geotechnical Methods in Foundation
Engineering. McGraw-Hill, Newyork, USA. P. 270-308.
Liao Hung-Jiun et al. (1992). Microfine Cement/sodium silicate grout. Proc.
Conf. Grouting, Soil Improvement and Geosynthetics. ASCE, USA, 1: 676-688.
Leung H. et al. (2006). Comparision of the effectiveness of Deep Soil Mix
Columns using 2-D and 3-D FEM. Plaxis Bulletin. Issue 20/October 2006.
Liao Hung Jiun et al. (1996). Grouting for a pipe-roofed underpass construction.
IS-TOKYO 96. IInd Int. Conf. Grouting and Deep Mixing, I: 171-177.
Maher, M.H. et al. (1994). Cyclic undrained behaviour and liquefaction potential
of sand treated with chemical and MC grouts. GTJ. June 1994. ASTM, pp.159170.
Miller E.A. et al. (2004). Compaction Grouting Test Program for Liquefaction
Control, ASCE, Jr of GGE, Vol. 130, No. 4, pp. 355.
Mistry, J.F. (1988). Important Aspects of River Valley Projects. Mahajan Book
Distributors, Amdavad, Gujarat, India, Vol. 2.
Miyamoto, T. (1996). Differences of p-q and p-t curves from pressure loss of
sleeve grouting equipment. Proc. IS-Tokyo 96, IInd Int. Conf. Grouting and
Deep Mixing, I: 195-201.
Morihara, N. et al. (1996). Application of jet grouting to join shield tunnels,
Proc. IS-Tokyo 96, IInd Int. Conf. Grouting and Deep Mixing, I: 325-329.
Nayak N.V. and A.U. Ponde. (1994). Soil Tunnelling for Metro rail at Calcutta,
Proc. Workshop Tunnelling India 94. CBIP, pp. 23-25.
Nayak N.V. (1993). Stabilization of Tunnelling Strata by Jet Grouting. Seminar
Proc. Vol. 1, VJTI, Mumbai. Pp. 45-55.
Nitin Joshi and A.V. Shroff. (2007). Experimental Model Study on Influence of
zone of grouting under Strip loading. 13th ARC Vol. I Part-II, pp. 997-1000 Dec.
2007.
Patricia M. et al, (2007). Full Scale Field Testing of Colloidal Silica Grouting for
Mitigation of Liquefaction Risk, ASCE, Jr of GGE, Vol. 133, pp. 186.
Peter P. et al, (1999). Effect of dilution and contaminants on Sand Grouted with
Colloidal Silica, ASCE, Jr of GGE, Vol. 125, No. 6, pp. 461.
Poh T.Y. (2003). Movements Associated with Jet Grouting and Mitigation
Measures. 12th ARC, Leung et al. (eds) World Publishing. Pp. 529-532.
Raju V.R. and Yee Y.W. (2006). Grouting in lime stone for SMART tunnel
project, Malaysia. Int. Conference on Tunneling and Trench less Technology,
March 2006. Kaulalumpor, Vol. 1 pp. 1-22.
139
140
141
Shibazaki M. (1996). State of the art grouting in Japan. Proc. IS-Tokyo 96. IInd
Int. Conf., Grouting and Deep Mixing, II: 851-868.
Takahashi, N. et al. (1996). Development of a new method by using double tube
and percussive drilling machine. Proc. IS- Tokyo 96. IInd Int. Conf., Grouting
and Deep Mixing, I: 215-221.
Thakur, L.S. Dr. D.L. Shah, Viral Padhiyar, (2009). Design and Characteristics
of Sodium Silicate Grout. IGC 2009, Guntur.
Tanner B. and Charles H.D. (2004). Finite Element Analysis of Time Domain
Reflectometry Cable-Grout-Soil Interaction. ASCE, Jr of GGE, Vol. 130, No. 3,
pp. 231.
Terzaghi, K. 1936. Opening discussion. Proc. 1st Int. Conf. SMFE. Publ. Com.
JCSMFE, 3: 180-182.
Thomas P. and Doerendahl K. (2006). Quality Assurance in Jet Grouting for a
deep sealed slab in Amsteadam. Ground Improvement, 2nd Edition, edited by
Hoseley M. P., Kirsch, London. pp. 150.
Wong H. et al, (2000). Effect of Jet Grouting on adjacent ground and Structures,
ASCE, Jr of GGE, Vol. 126, No. 3, pp. 247.
Yonekura, R. (1996). The developing process and the new concepts of chemical
grout in Japan. Proc. IS-Tokyo 96. IInd Int. Conf., Grouting and Deep Mixing,
II: 889-901.
Youd T.L. et al, (2001). Liquefaction Resistance of Soils, ASCE, Jr of GGE,
Vol. 127, pp. 297.
Yueying Bian et al. (2008). Experimental investigation of grouted Helical Piers.
Jr. of GGE, ASCE, Sept. 2008. Vol. 134 No. 9.