AVS - Grouting Practice

31st IGS Annual Lecture
Development in Design & Execution in Grouting Practice
Dr. A.V. Shroff

Professor-Emeritus, M.S. University, Baroda
Dr. A.V. Shroff was born on 19th March 1942. He
was graduated in Civil Engineering from M.S.
University of Baroda in the year 1964. After finishing
postgraduation in the year 1966, he had obtained
Doctoral degree in the field of Civil Engineering in
the year 1972. He underwent post-doctoral training
at London, U.K. under YSE Research award of the
British Council during the year 197677.
His association with teaching, research and
consultancy in the field of Water Resources and
Geotechnical Engineering is of 39 years. He worked as a Head of the Applied
Mechanics Department of M.S. University from the year 1991 to 1996. Up
to June 2004, he was in foremost position of a Senior Professor in the
Faculty of Technology and Engineering and worked as in-charge of R & D
Post Graduate Center of Geotechnology. He held the prestigious positions
of Syndicate and Senate member of M.S. University of Baroda during the
year 20022004. He was honoured by the All India Council of Technical
Education, New Delhi, which offered him Professor-Emeritus Fellowship.
During 200204, he was the national President of the India Geotechnical
Society, New Delhi.
His fields of specialization are Foundation Engineering, Grouting Technology
and Geosynthetics for Water Resources applications. He rendered yeoman
services in the development and implementation of fundamental concepts
of Environmental Geotechnology and Geotechnical research-based water
management. His consistent efforts in his fields of specialization resulted
in the establishment and functioning of Applied Research and Development
Center of Geotechnical Engineering in M.S. University, which has been
extending assistance to many field organizations in the country. He is
instrumental in organizing many national seminars and workshops on issues
related to research in Grouting, Geosynthetics, Reinformed Earth,
Environmental Geotechnology & Seisimic effects. He has done pioneering
work in the computer-aided measurement system for radial consolidation
of soft clays using prefabricated vertical geodrains. He made outstanding
contribution in the areas of Steel Fiber Reinforced Shotcreting Technology
used for stability of Power House Tunnels.
Dr. Shroff guided five Doctoral Dissertations and 85 Dissertations of Post

Graduate Students. Author of more than 152 technical papers contributed
to National & International Journals and conferences besides books on
Grouting Technology in Tunneling and Dam Construction and Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. Dr. Shroff is actively involved
in linking academic institutions, universities and research organizations for
joint efforts in solving problems of the water resources sector and
construction industry through research & consultancy projects. He visited
USA, U.K. Japan, Singapore, and Iran to study centrifuge modeling for
earth and rockfill dams, jet grouting technology and electronic monitoring
of grouting plants. He carried out various research/consultancy projects
sponsored by CSIR, UGC, HRD, AICTE, MOWR, New Delhi and Ministry
of Energy of Iran along with private industries and remained on the panel
of experts in those organizations.
The Indian Science Congress honoured him by inviting him to deliver the
prestigious Platinum Jubilee Lecture in 1979. In recognition of his
outstanding research and development contributions in the field of Water
Resource and Energy, the Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi
presented him the CBIP Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Centenary National
Award in the year 1997. He received the IGS Kukelman National Award for
outstanding life-time achievement in the field of geotechnical engineering.
He was honoured recently as an Honorary Fellow of the Indian
Geotechnical Society, New Delhi. He was one of the recipients of the
Diamond Jubilee award of IGS, New Delhi. He is, at present, honoured by
the position of Adjunct Professor at autonomous DD University, Nadiad,
Gujarat. He is on the panel of experts of ropeway committee and Sardar
Sarowar, Narmada Nigam, Government of Gujarat, Gandhinagar.
ABSTRACT
DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN
GROUTING PRACTICE
A.V. Shroff
Permeation and Jet grouting can control ground water seepage through and
below the structure and can increase the stability of soils/ rocks against any
structural load during and after construction while, compaction grouting can
densify surrounding weak mass and/or uplifting the settled structure. Today,
India is on the verge of take off for using new grout materials & techniques with
more confidence after having had used them in several field trials and also
through concerted theoretical understanding coupled with laboratory studies. The
paper focuses attention on the process of development and understanding that
has been generated in India and elsewhere over the last one and half decade
highlighting the research conducted at M S University, Baroda, Gujarat.
Paper includes design and characterization of suspension-cement based
conventional grouts along with newly developed micro fine grouts & grouted
mass with reference to rheology and strength aspects under static and dynamic
loadings. Long term compressive and tensile strength with creep measurements
and Cyclic Behaviour of MC grouted sand under cyclic undrained load for
liquefaction, fatigue life and damping ratio measurements have been dealt with
including apparatus developed & typical results and their performance in the
field.
Use of newly developed triangular chart for design of chemical and cement
based grout mixes & their field performance are worth pursuit. Some of the new
patterns of grout holes with reference to site geology, volume of mass to be
treated and kinematics of rig are designed and implemented for (i) curtain,
consolidated blanket below dam (ii) strengthening of top, sides & bottom of
tunnels (iii) seepage control during shaft sinking operation are discussed. Newly
developed TPC (Time-Pressure-Consumption) concept synonymous with GIN
(Grout Intensity Number) has helped in the assessment of the behavior of grout
holes during grouting operation. Computerization of grouting plant with soft
wares and pick ups along with readout station can perform effective monitoring
of permeation/ compaction/Jet grouting.
Execution problems and methods of remediation along with control of
production parameters at various grouting sites in India and elsewhere of
Permeation/Compaction and Jet grouting are described. Conformation of
proposed method of remediation at some project by Centrifuge Modeling and
numerical methods using 3-D model are also presented.
The paper concludes with suggestions that India must adopt innovative
techniques to help Grouting to emerge out as an industry of its own right.
Key Words: Cement, Chemicals, Micro Fine Grouts, Liquefaction, Grout
Curtain, Consolidation/Blanket Grouting, Triangular Charts, Grout Hole
Patterns, Computerized Monitoring, Execution Problems, Remediation,
Permeation, Compaction, Jet Grouting.
DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE
DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN

GROUTING PRACTICE*
A.V. Shroff**
y involvement in Geotechnical Engineering has been from the beginning

of my career at M.S. University of Baroda since 1964, when I joined the
premier institute as a Faculty member. During the last few years, at M.S.
University of Baroda, the base has been established in the area of Grouting
Technology on suggestion of late Prof. Piyush Parikh; Shri J.F. Mistry, Ex.
Secretary, WRD, Gandhinagar; Dr. C.D Thatte, Ex. Member secretary, Central
Water Commission, Delhi. A number of research scholars, M.E, M. Tech & Ph
D students who have worked with me and carried out research/projects in the
area of Grouting Technology. Most of the research findings are in the published
from in the in the journals/conferences in India and abroad which has been
compiled, as the publication of Book on Grouting Technology for Dam
construction & tunneling, Consultancy Services, which have been extended for
projects in India and some at abroad have initiated for publication of second
edition of book published by M/s. A.A. Balkema, Netherland.
Considering the overall contribution during the last 35 Years by me and assisted
by co-workers & colleagues, I have chosen the topic: Developments in Design
and Execution in Grouting Practice for this IGS Lecture/Presentation.
Scope of Presentation
1.
Design & Characterization of suspension and solution grouts Along with

new micro fine grouts with particular reference to Rheology and strength
aspects under static and dynamic loadings.
2.
Optimization of field grout mixes and pattern of grout holes for various
applications along with computerized Grouting Plant and monitoring.
3.
Execution Execution and Remediation by Permeation, Compaction & Deep

mixing (Jet grouting) along with monitoring & performance at some
grouting projects in India & abroad.
INTRODUCTION
In the context of ground engineering the term grouting is used for the process of
pressure injection of setting fluids into pores and cavities. The process is widely
used in the construction of tunnels, shafts and dams for the purpose of either
reducing percolation or increasing the mechanical stability in water-bearing soil
or rock. If a useful engineering purpose is to be achieved, the sealing and
strengthening actions must extend a considerable distance into the formation, and
it is, therefore, general practice to inject the grout into a special array of
boreholes drilled into the rock or the soil.
*
**
31st Annual Lecture delivered at IGC-2009

Professor Emeritus, M. S. University, Baroda, India
INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL
Current grouting methods are effective in sealing cavities and both coarse and
fine fissures in rock, and in sealing pores in granular materials typical of all soils
short of clays and very silty sands. With the development of high-pressure
pumps, cement grouts came to predominate, and they were frequently associated
with the sinking of mine shafts. Local clays modified by peptizers were being
used in earth and rock-filled dams constructed in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s
these techniques reached their peak. By this time, bentonites, either natural
content or treated Montmorillonite clays, had come into use, and the property of
such materials to form stable and impermeable gels with the ability to penetrate
medium-to-fine sands had been utilized for seepage control by cutoff, upstream
blanket with relief wells. In certain ground conditions, e.g. boulder clays and in
earthquake-prone areas, grouted cut-offs have attractions.
By 1910 Francois refers to the then current existence of grouts based on sodium
silicate in combination with other reacting chemicals, and uses such materials as
preliminary injection to improve the penetration of subsequently injected cement
gouts. However, the development of a particular silicate grouting technique by
Joosten in 1925 greatly advanced the application of grouting, particularly for the
strengthening of controlling gravel formations. The practical difficulties of
controlling the rate of gelling of sodium silicate solutions led to two distinct
methods of injection, generally known as single-shot and two-shot processes.
In the late forties, Robert E. Lenihan, a mud jacking contactor in Long Beach,
California (USA), stated using zero slump soil-cement grout pumped through
pipes driven to various depths to lift structures. Working empirically, the basic
technique termed has compaction grouting is developed for spacing grout bulb
injections effectively to compact a low density soil mass. Graf, 1969 and
Mitchell, 1970 distinguished compaction grouting and penetration grouting. It
consists of intruding a mass of very thick consistency grout in to the soil, thus
both displacing and compacting it. Thus, its use is nearly always limited to soils
and usually of low compaction. Brown and Warner, 1973 used this technique to
stabilize the soil under residences and light commercial building, however it has
been extensively used to stabilize foundations of large structures including even
bridges and culverts and the ground under the tips of piles.
The in situ deep mixing of stabilizers with soft soils to form columns, walls grids
or blocks in the foundation has been developed and applied extensively in civil
engineering practice since the 1970s. The two type of mixing methods, namely
deep mechanical mixing (DMM) and high-pressured Jet-grout mixing have been
the used under deep ground conditions. The method of application range is
shown in Fig.1. The Deep Mixing Method-DMM uses slurry state or dry powder
state stabilizer. Originally, the process ejected the grouting material itself at a
pressure of 200 bars to cut soil and fill, but it was capable of obtaining an
improved body only 0.5 meters in diameter. Both methods rapidly spread
nationwide in the 1970s. By 1990, creating a much larger improved body became
a primary concern and a variety of approaches were tested to achieve this.
Fig. 1: Application Range-Grouting Methods

APPLICATION AND FUNCTIONS
During construction, grouting can control ground water flow and can increase the
stability of granular soils beneath existing structures, thus reducing lateral
support requirement. After construction, grouting can be used to reduce machine
foundation vibration and to eliminate seepage through crack/joints and pores.
Many underpinning and anchoring processes have also employed grouting
successfully. In a nutshell the basic functions as shown in (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Functions of Grouting

(a) Permeation or Penetration: Here the grout flows into the soil voids or rocks
seams with only minimal effect on the original structural arrangement.
(b) Compaction or Controlled Displacement: In this situation the grout remains
more or less intact as a mass and exerts pressure on the soil or rock to
compact and thereby densify the weaker zones of the nearby areas and/or
uplifting the structures to minimize the settlement.
(c) Hydro Fracturing or Uncontrolled Displacement: When the grouting

pressures are greater than the tensile strength of the soil or rock being
grouted, the latter material fails, and the grout rapidly penetrates into the
fractured zone, thus, lenses of nearly solid grout are project into densified
regions of the in situ soil or displaced rock masses.
TYPES OF GROUTS
Two classes of grouting materials are generally recognized: (i) suspension-type
grouts and (ii) solution-type grouts. They are used for both impermeation and
strength. They develop the strength and sealing ability when the cement hydrates
and cures into a system of interlocking crystals. Water: cement rations are in the
range of 0.5:1 to 5:1. The lower the water: cement ratio, the grater the strength of
the stabilized mass. Many types of chemicals (solution) grouts have been
developed for injecting fine sands & coarse silts. The more familiar are silica gel,
aminioplast, phenoplast, acrylamide, chrome lignin, vinyl polymers, epoxy and
polyurethane etc.
Fig. 3: Effect of Dispersion/ Flocculation: Blockage

In order that grouting results be good, it is evident that the injector has to choose
the grout most suitable to the problem (viscosity, setting time, strength), but it is
also necessary to know how to distribute it in the soil. For this, it is necessary to
make a correct choice of: (i) Grout hole equipment (ii) Distance between grout
holes (iii) Length of injection passes (iv) Number of grouting phases (v)
Grouting pressure and pumping rate. Time-Pressure consumption data during
grouting is very useful for assessing the behavior of a grout hole. A
computerized electronic monitoring system for colleting, processing, and storing
data compiled during cement grouting work is a unique method of analysis after
and during grouting. The efficacy of a grouted mass in terms of degree of
impermanence achieved and strength of the grouted foundation is of paramount
importance.
GROUT MIX DESIGN
The success of the grouting is dependent on selection and type of grout materials,
grout mix design and suitable grouting techniques.
Classification
Broadly, grouts are classified as particulate course grouts and watery low viscous
fine grouts. The major functional difference between them is that the
penetrability of the former is a function of particle size relative to the size of
pores or cracks to be grouted in addition to its initial viscosity, while for the
latter, it is a function of initial viscosity and gel time.
Engineering Classification
The engineering classification is based on grout characteristics and its
engineering performance. It includes not only the flow and strength
characteristics of grouts, but also the strength and permeability of the grouting
mass due to its interaction with the grout. Engineering classification and its
subdivision based on grout characteristics are given by strip chart (Bell, 1957).
Rheological Classification
Rheologically, particulate and fine chemical grouts are classed as granular
Binghamian and non-granular Newtonian grouts respectively, based on their
initial viscosity. The flow curve for a Newtonian grout is a straight line that
passes through the origin; for a Binghamin gout it makes an intercept with the
shear stress axis, which is commonly referred to as the yield value about
120 N/mm2. It is required to overcome it for maintaining uniform flow Fig. 4.
Penetrability of Grouts in Relation to Formation Material
In particulate gouts, the limits of injectibility are decided from the groutability
ratio, in addition to its initial fluidity, while in Newtonian fine grouts these limits
are mainly a function of their initial viscosity and gel time.
Fig. 4: Yield Value of the Grout-DST Plot

Coarse Grouts
The groutability ratio reveals that the size of the grout particle and the size of
opening or pore spaces of the mass to be grouted should be in such a proportion
that blockage and filtering of the grout can be minimized. It can also occur at low
viscosity of these grouts which tends to gravitate towards the bottom space of
passage. Rough and adhesion between passage and particles will decide the
blockage criteria (Fig. 5).
Various workers have suggested particle size criteria based on D15, D10 sizes of
foundation material and d85, d95 sizes of grout material. The following criteria
exist for limits of particle size for effective grouting:
(i) D15/d85 should be between 5-24 (Kravetz, 1958) or should be at least 16
(King and Bush; 1961) or should be greater than 25 (Johnson, 1958; Karol,
1960; Mitchell, 1970).
(ii) The diameter of the grout particle must not be more than 1/10th of the D10
size of the soil (Bell, 1982).
(iii) The soil pore should be three time the diameter of the grout particle to
avoid blockage by bridging (Raffle and Greenwood, 1961).
(iv) True Binghamian grouts such as clay, cement, bentonite or bentonitecement, can be successfully grouted in a formation having a permeability of
more than 103 cm/sec and a specific surface area of particle greater than
101 cm and its effective size (D10) greater than 0.5 mm (Terzaghi, 1936;
Cambefort, 1957; Glossop, 1962; Skempton, 1963).
(v) In the of rock grouting, the size of fissure should be three time greater than
the diameter of grout particle for an appropriate groutability ratio (Mitchell,
1970).
(vi) The usual cement particle size limits the penetration of cement grout to
fissures in rocks of less than 160 micron width unless fracturing pressures are
used (Littlejohn, 1982).
(vii) To avoid filtering of grout material from the void space, the ratio between
D10 and d95 should be more than 6 (Kravetz, 1958).
From the experimental study of (Shroff, Joshi, 2005) penetrability of newly
developed micro fine (MC) cement-grouts in different sand gradations, it is
found that D15 / d85 >40 (D for sand & d for MC).
Criteria presented above provides only guide lines because of heterogeneity in
pore, crack & fracture sizes of alluvium/rock & swelling characteristic of some
grout materials (Shroff, Joshi, 1994) nevertheless it controls upper & lower
limits of size of grout particles & the size of discontinuity of formation to be
grouted. At the same time it guards against washing out of injected grout from
the grouted formation.
Fine Grouts
Grout viscosity is one of the important factors in regulating the movement of
grout injected into a porous formation. The penetrability of various chemical
grouts in relation to soil grain size is shown in Fig. 5. Pure chemical solution
such as acrylamides, aminoplast or phenoplast & MC grouts are recommended
for very fine soil characterized by d10 less then 0.02 mm and a surface area of
less than 1000 cm1 (Shroff, 1994). Caron (1982) ascertained that rock cracks
less than 0.1 mm wide can be grouted with chemical grouts in cases where
cement cannot be injected.
Fig. 5: Penetrability of Various Grouts

DEVELOPMENT OF GROUT MIX
Ideal Frame Work Approach
Grout systems are usually developed within the framework of ideal properties,
wherein the designer should employ the ingredients of the grout in such a way
that fluidity and strength are balanced along with various physical properties.
These ingredients should consist of proper specifications to identify quality.
The Conceptual Frame Work Approach
Shroff (1990) proposed this approach for chemical grout system based on
proportion of molecules of ingredients in a unit cell of resultant ideal gel. The
First step is to determine the desired general properties of the resultant gel (e.g.,
rigid, semi-rigid, flexible, linear, highly cross-linked etc.) Next, a conceptual
framework is developed. This is an idealization of an actual molecule formed in
a given chemical grout system. It is most representative molecule for the system
that can be visualized. From this a unit cell, the smallest repeatable unit in the
polymer structure is defined. This allows the relative per cent of each chemical to
be determined. Finally, appropriate chemical species are substituted in a unit cell,
again based on the desired general properties of the resultant gel. In spite of the
apparent disparity between the different unit cells of all the grout systems
described above, they all have something in common (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6(a): Mode of Network &

Structure-Grouts
Fig. 6(b): Gel structure: MC Silica +

Formamide, PU & Colloidal Silica
Grouted Sand
Equivalent Weight Approach

The equivalent weight approach (Shroff et al., 1990) involves the balancing of
equivalents of reactant chemical species in the system. The equivalent of their
respective reactive radicals is then listed. Knowing the molecular weight of a
chemical, its equivalent weight is determined Adding the equivalents of chemical
of components of one group gives the equivalents of chemical components of
another group, necessary for a balance reaction to take place. Multiplying the
equivalents of one basic chemical by its equivalent weight gives the actual
weight of it that should be used.
Testing Set-ups
In designing a coarse grouse grout mix, the conventional framework approach is
utilized by balancing time viscosity by Brookfield viscometer (j) and time
strength as measured by vane shear, Triaxial compression test or servo loop
material testing system (MTS) (k) along with physical measurements such as
specific gravity (b), water retentivity (d), bleeding potential (g), gel time, fluidity
by Marsh cone (a), penetrability& washout test (h) along with turbidity of
leached water from grouted mass to access interaction of set grout with
discontinuity of formation (Fig. 7). Also Fig. 7 display slump value test (i), true
permeation test (l), filter press (m) and creep test set up, (n) Horizontal flow
meter (e), capillary viscometer (f).
Fig. 7: Various Laboratory Set-ups for Permeation, Compaction & Jet Grouting
For chemical grouts, the additional tests: PH value, syneresis, toxicity,
measurements by fish mortality test are required to be performed.
Since the grouting is carried out under pressure particular for jet grouting, the
grout is subjected to hydrostatic pressures; this test has been developed to study
the bleeding of grout under pressure Fig. 7c (Shroff, 2005). The schematic
10
presentation is given in Fig. 7. In compaction grouting consistency is measured

by slump test and fluidity by horizontal flow meter and filter press (Fig. 7m).
Interaction of Grouts with Void Space or Discontinuity
The possible microstructures resulting from the interaction between the set grout
and ground are: (a) Set grout fills the pores and adheres to the surface of the void
space, having completely displaced the ground-water. (b) Set grout only coats
the surface of the space, leaving water to occupy most of the pore volume.
Alluvium or rock, set grout and water [as shown in Fig. 8(a)] are each continuous
in three dimensions. A substantial part of the original permeability may be
retained after treatment. Accumulation of grout at points of contact and
interfaces under the influence of surface tension may give strength (c) Pores are
filled by a grout with poor wetting ability for the pore surface, or by one which
has formed only a weak bond and has undergone subsequent syneresis. The
water film thickness remains low around the grain contacts. (d) Grout nodules
loosely held within the pores may reduce permeability, so long as they are not
themselves displaced by ground-water flow or by washout gradient of the
reservoir water level of the dam in Fig. 8(b). This type of interaction is always
avoided.
Fig. 8a: Interaction of Set Grout with Void/Discontinuity of Alluvium or Rock
Fig. 8b: Washout Gradient against Grouted Curtain
11
CEMENT BASED GROUTS (SUSPENSION GROUTS)

Cement grouting is the most important and the most widely used method in the
construction industries for reducing the mass permeability and/or increasing the
strength of natural formations.
Neat Cement Grouts
The production of a durable, satisfactory cement-based grout is dependent on the
water: cement ratio for fluidity control, the rate of bleeding (less than 5%) for
making stable grout, and subsequent ultimate strength of the grout. (Mistry and
Shroff, 1980)
The stages of gelation of cement grout after mixing is dormant, setting and
hardening. Neat cement grout in the early stage of injection is controlled by
viscosity, but in the later stage may be controlled by shear strength. Hydro gel is
formed by hydration of the calcium silicate present in cement. Tricalciumaluminate is found to increase the strength or consistency of the paste. Water:
cement ratio between 0.6 and 5 gives a grout with sufficient fluidity (Marsh cone
viscosity: 28 to 42) to be pumped and after injection cement content to act as a
strengthening medium.
Stress strain relation of neat cement grout is shown in Fig. 9. A One day and
seven day stress-strain curve for thick and thin mixes shows distinct
characteristics. More per cent strain is required to reach a peak value as w:c
increases. The one-day compressive strength: 10.5 kg/sq. cm at 0.6 w:c drops to
1 kg/sq. cm at 2 w:c, thereafter, a marginal drop is observed. The seven-day
compressive strength increases from 9.8 kg/sq. cm at 2 to 18.9 kg/sq. cm at 0.6
W. In brief, a grout mix having a water : cement ratio of 2 W bears distinctive
characteristics, below which it exhibits higher viscosity, more yield value, lower
flow value and more short-term strength up to seven days, and above which, i.e.,
in all thinner mixes, the reverse is true.
Fig. 9: Stress-Strain Relation-Cement Grout
12
Cement with Bentonite as Admixture

Two per cent bentonite by weight of cement markedly decreases the amount of
solids settle in cement grout due to the thickening caused by complete swelling
of the bentonite, which absorbs lime and alkalis leached from the cement.
Bentonite helps in cracking flocs of cement, penetrating small voids increasing
grouted area and preventing settlement of particles, making the cement dense and
impermeable. Marsh funnel viscosity of cement grout with bentonite appreciably
increases the funnel viscosity of the slurry. It lowers the strength by 50 to 70 per
cent in thinner grout mixes while in thicker ones the strength is reduced by only
25 per cent.
Cement with Fly Ash as an Admixture
The fly ash markedly decreased the consistency at a constant water: Cement-fly
ash ratio. Fly ash with OPC provided a grout of lower viscosity than with special
cement. Neyveli fly ash reduces gelation time, afflux time, bleeding and seven
days unconfined compression strength. Fig. 10 shows the time-viscosity
relationship of grout having fly ash as a replacement of 20 per cent cement and
water: solid (0.8 cement + 0.2 fly ash) ratio of 1.
Fig. 10: Stress-Strain Relation-Cement Fly Ash

Cement with Chemical Admixtures
Calcium lignosulphonate as a water-reducing admixture on cement suspensions
separates particles, promoting penetration in a given crack with grout of lower
water: cement ratio. Bleeding can be reduced somewhat and setting time
increased. Ten per cent volume of micro air bubbles produced by an airentraining agent can reduce strength up to 50 per cent. Accelerators do not
13
significantly alter the rheology of a cement paste at an early age. The quicker
stiffening of an accelerated paste may result in higher viscosity at a later stage.
Figure 11 shows time viscosity relation of cement with various admixtures
Shroff and Shah (1992).
Sodium silicate as an admixture slows long term strength while calcium chloride
accelerates the short geletion. Accelerators display time-viscosity curves which
exhibit high viscosity at any time for a given water: cement ratio. The water
reducer shows linear Binghamian in the low stress range compared to neat
cement while the accelerators remain non-linear Binghamian in the same low
stress range. Accelerators show early strength build up and visoelasticity
compared to neat cement while water reducer gives consistent delay in stress
build up. The grout with accelerators remains elastic for higher peak stress
compared to neat cement (Figure 12) Shroff et al., 1992. Sodium Silicate
exhibits high compressive strength compared to neat cement. It is higher by 21,
49 and 25 percent over that of neat cement at 7, 28 and 90 days respectively.
Fig. 11: t- Relation of Cement with Admixture
Fig. 12: qc-Time Relation Cement + SS, CaCl2

Addition of Methyl Methacrylate in neat cement grout increases its initial
fluidity reducing bleeding potential, reducing gel time. The general nature of
14
time viscosity relationship indicates gradual increase of viscosity initially, and

rapid increase after zero displacement (ZD) time Fig. 13. (Shroff, 1992)
Optimum content of Methyl Methlacrylate 2% show compressive strength =162
Kg/cm2, while E=395 Kg/cm2 of neat cement increases to 2600 Kg/cm2 with
MMA (Figure 14) and tensile strength = 18.4 Kg/cm2 of cement grout (w : c =1).
Table 1 shows optimum per cent of admixtures based on conceptual frame work
approach: (Shroff, 1992).
Use of Azo-bis-isobutylnitrite and Benzoyal Peroxide to the neat cement grout
containing optimum amount of MMA further accelerate the reaction, as well as
increase long term strength (Shroff et al., 1992).
Table 1: Optimum % Admixture to Cement Grout (Shroff et al., 1992)
Admixture
Fluidiser
Sodium silicate
Sodium aluminate
Calcium lignosulphonate
Trataric acid
Sugar
Calcium lignosulphonate
Optimum dosage, %
cement weight
0.52
1% + 1.2% Benzoyal
Peroxide or
AIBN*(1.2)
0.53
0.53
0.20.5
0.10.5
0.10.5
0.20.4
Expander
Aluminum Powder
0.005-0.02
Filler
Fly ash
0.8c + 0.2 Fly ash
Antibleeder
Bentonite
Aluminium sulphate
2.0
5.0
Accelerator
Retader
Chemical
Calcium chloride
Methyl Methal Acrylate
Fig. 13: t- Relation-Neat Cement with MMA
Remarks
Accelerates set and
hardening
Accelerates set
Accelerates set
Also increases
fiuidity
Two times UCS,
Effective water
reducer
UP to 15%
expansion
Reduce afflux time
and bleeding with
same long tern
strength
For making mix
dense and stable
Fig. 14a: - Relation: Cement +

MMA
15
Fig. 14b: Sand Particle Interaction

with Chemical Grout. Magnification:
230X
Cement Sand Grouts

Various sand cement ratio (2.5:1, 2:1, 1.5:1) and water cement ratio (0.9, 0.8,
0.7) are tried to get the desired flow value and strength. Initial viscosity of sand
cement grout is sixty times the initial viscosity of neat cement grout for the same
water cement ratio. Addition of small percentage of triethanolamine (TEA)
reduces the set time and bleeding potential as well as it improves flow and
strength properties. Grout mix consisting of cement: sand ratio 1:1 shows three
days compressive strength of 127.59 Kg/cm2, 198.97 Kg/cm2 and 183.15 Kg/cm2
on addition of 0.5 per cent, 1 per cent and 1.5 percent TEA respectively (Shroff
& Patel, 1987), indicating 1% as optimum amount. Water-reducing admixtures
are more effective in increasing pumpability and water retentivity than fly ash.
The use of a water reducing agent improves somewhat the water retentivity of
grout.
In Diversion tunnel project, Bias dam, India (1982) used a sand-cement grout for
sealing voids between the tunnel lining and rocks with sand:cement ratios
varying from 0.5 : 1 to 2:1 with w:c = 1. A mix containing sand: cement ratio
(s: c) 1.25 with w: c of 0.7 is used at Sardar Sarovar project for filling interface
contact between crown of concrete key plug and base rock, while grout with s: c
ratio of 2 with 0.78 w: c ratio are used at Kalindri dam project, Saurashtra,
Gujarat project for filling solution cavities of cavernous limestone. Also, during
perennial canal lining by ULO mat technique used at Ukai branch canal, Gujarat,
cement-sand grout along with 2% Bentonite and flyash (0.8 c + 0.2 flyash) is used.
Cement-Bentonite-Clay
Among the various grout mixes, proportions of bentonite : cement : water (1 : 0.5
: 8) have given good strengths of about 75 gm/sq. cm. to 300 gm/sq. cm. at
different time intervals of 1 to 7 days. Sodium silicate and monosodium
phosphate in 1:1 proportions improved workability increased strength from 20
gm/sq. cm. to 900 gm/sq. cm. and reduced gelation time from 5 hours to 48
minutes.
A hydro cyclone Fig. 15, which works on the centrifuge principle, was employed
to separate clay from the local Tadkeshwar soil at Ukai for designing an
economical stable cement-clay grout mix as shown in above table. Figure 16
shows viscosity-time curve of cement-bentonite grouts. Thixotropic bentonite gel
16
can be made irreversible by addition of sodium silicate. Also, rate of gelation and
final shear strength marked influenced by several concentrations. Sodium and
Potassium chloride induce volumetric expansion in Bentonite can seal and
reduce permeability.
Table 2: Various grout mixes used at Ukai and Daman Ganga Projects (Gujarat)
Shroff and Mistry (1980)
Clay
0.8
0.4
H.G.
Cement
Bentonite
Water
1.0
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.6
1
1
0.6
8
6
5
5
6
0.5
Fig. 15: Hydro Cyclone
+Peptizing
agent
0.1 to 2 %
2%
2%
2%
Sodium silicate
=1
Monosodium
phosphate
S/P=1
NPR
gm/cm2
1628
1804
2475
2060
1775
Washout Pressure
Average
(Kg/cm2)
reduction in
(hydraulicgradien) permeability,
%
2.45 (81)
7.14 (63)
2.8 (92)
2.45 (81)
2.75 (85)
99.03
1250
6.42 (90)
2350
2.9 (92)
Fig. 16: t- Relation of Cement-Bentonite

Grouts
CHEMICAL-BASED FINE GROUTS (SOLUTION GROUTS)

Shroff and Joshi (2003, 2006) introduced the use of sodium silicate silicate in
conjunction with other reactive chemicals along with micro fine cement based
grouts for strengthening sandy foundations and jointed & fractured rook
formations. Shroff, Amin and Shah (1988) and Shroff and Shah (1987, 1988,
1989) have done fundamental research on various chemical grouts employing
various precipitants with sodium silicate, chrome lignin, aninoplast, phenoplast,
acryl amide, epoxy resin, polyester resin and polyurethane grouts. Shroff and
Shah (1984) have studied the physico-chemical relation of new precipitants
17
along with basic chemicals. Sensitivity & toxicity of chemical grouts are tested
by lethal Dose (LD50) or fish mortality tests. Strength aspects have been
discussed by shroff and Amin (1982) and Shroff and Shah (1984, 1985) and
Shroff Amin (2005). Guide specifications were laid down for proper testing
procedure of chemical grouts by Mistry, (1964) Shroff and Shah (1983, 1987,
1988, 1992, 1995).
Sodium silicate
In silicate grouts, initial minimum viscosity of grout which can produce gel is by
SiO2: Na2O ratio of 3.9, having pH value 8.5 to 9.2 for a given dilution within
ideal frame work of gel time. Rate of reaction (gel time) and gel strength are
directly proportional to concentration of acidic or basic catalysts and silicates in
grout at constant temperature respectively. Various reactants (a) inorganic i.e.
acids and acidic salts (mainly sodium aluminate and sodium tetraborate (b)
organic (mainly formamide, ethyl acetate, silica fume (c) colloidal silicate
(mainly with potassium chloride) (Shroff et al., 2004) and acid silica sol
(Yonekura, 1997) are used for producing medium stiff, hard and very stiff silica gel.
A soft to medium stiff gel can be formed by neutralizing with weak acidic salts,
sulphate salts etc, by forming small chains of dense spherical aggregation of
polymerized silicic acid, while formamide, ethyl acetate, ethyl alcohol & acetic
acid form a hard gel that neutralizes sodium silicate by the saponification
process. Silica gel is resultant of the reaction obtained by the addition of bivalent
or trivalent cat ions, causing polycondensation that leads to a three-dimensional
network structure of highly coiled & interlinked.
Table 3: Sodium Silicate grouts with organic and inorganic precipitants
(Shroff et al. 1999)
Sodium Silicate
Inorganic
300 cc
260 cc
100 cc
Organic
70 ml
30 ml
30 %
50 %
30 %
Water
Precipitants
500 cc
900 cc
1750 cc
Sodium aluminate =13 gm

Sodium aluminate =17 gm
Phosphoric Acid = 20 cc
30 ml
60 ml
54%
9 cc (ethyl acetate)
10 cc (5 ethyl acetate + 5 Cacl2)
12.5% formamide + 1.5% Cacl2)
Silica fume (in slurry form with 50% solids)
5 ml ethyl acetate + 5 ml formamide.
60 ml
Sodium silicate is generally considered non-toxic and non-corrosive, and thus

free from health hazards and environmental effects (Caron, 1963). Bicarbonate
and phosphate gels have an almost insoluble framework that prevents the
passage of water, while in other gels the framework diminishes its importance
more or less rapidly. At time of equal gelations, it seems that sodium silicate has
a linear susceptibility that is independent of the type of reactant used. Lower the
gel time higher the gel strength. The gel strength of silica is almost independent
of the nature of the reagent added to promote gelation, but the stability of the gel
18
with the passage of time depends on the gelling agent. The short-term strength of
pure silica gel is inversely proportional to setting time, since setting time is
related to catalyst concentration, strength increases with increasing sodium
silicate. Factors affecting the syneresis of hardened gels are density of the grout
mix and environmental changes.
Shroff and Moghe (1980) studied the time viscosity and time-strength
relationship of silica gel developed by using phosphoric acid and sodium
aluminate ( Figs. 17 and 18). These grouts are used in curtain grouting at Girna
dam, Maharashtra, India.
Fig. 17: t- Relation SS Grout
Fig. 18: Time-Strength Relation-Silica

with H3PO4
It is found that 10.29 meq of HCl produces gel strength of 0.35kg/cm2 with
15meq sodium silicate. The gel time is influenced considerably by the amount of
sodium aluminate and to a lesser extent by temperature. Formamide helps
increasing rigidity compared to other precipitants.
Lower increase of viscosity of silicate formamide during limiting injection and
zero displacement compared to aluminate and phosphoric acid but higher
viscosity at gel time. Limiting injection, zero displacement and gel time of
aluminate are longer than phosphoric acid but shorter than formamide. It seems
that formamide remains watery for longer time for any stress range compared to
other precipitants (Fig. 19a). Grout with formamide precipitant produces highest
stress build up at gel time and also higher order transformation from semi
viscous-elastic compared to other precipitants. Shroff and Shah (1988) produced
a hard silica gel employing formamide and presented its interaction mechanism
with sand and used during box jacking operation for underpass below railway
track alignment to prevent raveling of sand towards portal at railway yard,
Baroda, India.
Fig. 19(a): t- Relation-Silica Formamide

Grout
19
Fig. 19(b): d- Relation Silica

Formamide Grout
Typical stress-strain curves of SF-grouted samples indicate that increase in peak

deviator stress with increase of time interval at any confining pressure reverting
time-strength relation of silicate grouted sand as strongly time dependent linear
elastic and time dependent plastic leading to rupture of solid material. Over the
range of pressure studied, the strength of each grouted soil giving c = 1.4Kg/cm2,
characterized by linear Mohr envelop with no significant change in frictional
angle (Fig. 19b.) Under Ground heavy water flow, flash-setting grout is
developed employing sodium silicate and a hardener containing a combination of
bisulphate, sulphate and bicarbonate.
Silica gel by formamide in dune sand gives qc = 38 Kg/cm2 for moist cured
sample. Clough et al. (1979) mentioned that as silicate content and confining
pressure increases peak strength & stiffness increase as well as failure becomes
more brittle and strains at failure get smaller (Fig. 20a). However, rate of
increase is strongly dependent on the amount of formamide. For long term
loading conditions, the grouting component of strength is subject to creep rupture
at load levels that are 50% of those defined as failure in rapidly loaded UCS test
(Fig. 20) Effect of curing time on unconfined strength is shown in Fig. 20(b).
Mixture of ethyl acetate and formamide in silica grout reduces setting time. The
adhesive shear and tensile strength of 50 kPa and 40 kPa are measured after
seven days and 28 days respectively by special apparatus fabricated for rock
grout interface testing. Stress-strain curve of compressive strength of grouted
sand (35kPa at 7days) is linearly elastic during initial stage transforms to elastoplastic leading to failure (Shroff, Joshi, 2004). Set- grouted sand mass imparts
cohesion of 96 kPa with no change in angel of internal friction and reduces
permeability 145 times giving adherent washout strength (AWS) of 246 kPa (82
hydraulic gradient) against washout forces. (AWS = 14.67 qc0.6 Where Qc =
unconfined compressive strength) (Joshi, Shroff, 2004).
20
Fig. 20(a): Stress Difference (kN/m2) vs.

Strain (%) Relation-Silica-Formamide
Grouted Sand
Fig. 20(b): qc-t Relation of

Silica Formamide Grout
Hoshiya et al. (1982) developed a silica gel using non-alkaline sodium silicate,
which is capable of solidifying in several seconds to several hours (Fig. 21). This
gel possesses a high strength because no water glass was left unreacted and all
the silicon dioxide was embraced in gelation to control the injected area,
therefore, the combination of both slow-set grout and flash-set grout is the most
effective.
Fig. 21: pH-Gel Time Colloidal Silica Gel

The gelling of the silicate solution imparts an artificial strength and stiffness to
the soil that provides it with additional resistance to deformation under loading
such that produced by shallow tunneling in an urban area.
Colloidal silica
It is produced by extracting alkali using ion-exchange resin. SiO2 leaching ratio
and syneresis or volume change is highest in inorganic reactants than organic
21
reactants and nil to minimum in case of colloidal silica (Fig. 22) Average
diameter of the particle is 10-20 nm. Time viscosity and strength study along
with microscopic gelation is shown in Fig. 23 (Shroff, Joshi 2004). Jellification
occurs at pH vale above 9.5 at optimum concentration 20 to 30 g/l potassium
chloride within 15 to 25 minutes, while with 35 g/l potassium chloride flash set
is at w : c = 2. Increase content of KCl has prominent effect on yield value and
viscosity. Ten days vane shear strength of inorganic & UCS of organic reactants
give 67 kPa & 162 kPa while colloidal silica gives 165180 kPa for w: cs = 2.
For grout w : cs = 1, after 45 days the UCS = 340 kPa with KCl = 30 g/l, while
peak deviator stress after 45 days reaches to 700 kPa with w : cs = 0.5 at
confining stress 196.2 kPa and Kcl = 30 g/l. Cohesion ranged from 59 to 150 kPa
with no much variation in f Fig. 24. UCS of grouted sand exhibits increase of 60
to 65 per cent with decrease of w: c ratio: 2 to 0.5, Kcl concentration and curing
time. Peak deviator stress of 711 kPa at 45 days with confining stress 196.2 kPa
is observed in grouted sand compared to 415 kPa of organic reactant. Grouted
and raw set-grout samples follow Mohr-Column failure criteria. Cohesion range
from 60 kPa to 130 kPa with little change in f for grouted sand sample.
Adherent wash out strength 430 kPa of colloidal silica (Threshold hydraulic
gradient: 198) which is 1.75 time with organic reactant while 1.8 times with
inorganic reactant.
Fig. 22(a): SiO2 Leaching vs. Days
Fig. 22(b): qc vs. Time of Colloidal

Silica
Fig. 23: Time-Viscosity Relation of Colloidal Silica Grout along with Progress in
Gel Development
The gel net work of colloidal silica grout is formed by polymerization and
condensation of silanol radicals on the surface of colloids. During initial time
after mixing hybrid silica sole is formed while nearer to LI time gelling by
bridging K + occurs in hybrid silica. During final jellification, formation of
22
closer and harder potassium silicate with hybrid silica gel forms. Pile of spherical
colloids will be connected close and harder potassium silicate in hybrid silica gel
increasing strength of grouted mass (Fig. 23, 24).
800
Unconfined / Triaxial
compression test results
Deviator stress in kPa
700
600
500
400
300
200
Unconfined
Confiningl pressure = 98.1 kPa
100
Confining pressure = 196.2 kPa

0
0
10
12
Axial strain (%)
Fig. 24(a): Stress-Strain Characteristics

of Raw Colloidal Silica Grout W:C=0.5,
KCl-30 g/l
Fig. 24(b): Mohr's Stress Circle of

Raw Colloidal Silica Grouts
(W:CS=0.5, 45 days curing)
Long Term Behaviour (Durability)

The acid silica sol grout had lower initial strength which increased with time
until about 200 days. The strength then decreased slightly with time but
nevertheless maintained about 75% of peak strength after 1200 days. In colloidal
silica grout, strength constantly increased with time and after 1000 days it is four
times the initial strength proving to be strongest amongst all solution grouts
(Fig. 25).
Fig. 25: Long Term Behavior of Stabilized Sand with Silica Grout and Structure
Long term permeability test on stabilized sand under the hydraulic gradient of
50 (5N/cm2) for a long time remain stable and impermeable state upto 3000 days
in organic reactants. In case of colloidal silica they remained impermeable state
for even 10 years or more.
Lignosulphonate
It is known that soluble lignousulphite mixed with dichromate becomes a firm
gelatinous mass. The increase or decrease in setting time is controlled by a
higher of lower pH value, adjusted by acid or alkaline salts (Moghe, Shroff,
1980). A lignin gel is produced by reacting it with a catalyst and accelerators.
23
Fig. 26 portrays the time viscosity relationship of grout mix 1 (lignin +

dicromates): 4 to 5 parts water. Caron (1963) reported curves of equal strength
and time- viscosity relationship for this grout.
Fig. 26: t- Relation Lignin Dichromate Grout

Urea Formaldehyde-UF (Aminoplast)
When it interact in aqueous media in the presence of acid, condensation
polymerization proceeds by a steady chemical combination of small molecules
into macromolecules, developing a chain network; as the reaction proceeds the
viscosity of the solution steadily rises and ultimately a set mass is formed (Fig.
27a). MERI (1979) produced a hard gel by condensing urea and formaldehyde in
the presence of dilute acid along with acryl amide powder and a catalyst to
activate the desired hetero polymerization that would evolve a gel having a
compressive strength of 55.37 kg/cm2 and a tensile strength of 5.5 kg/cm2.
Shroff, Shah and Bendale (1985) evolved an insoluble stiff gel with minimum
syneresis by reacting urea- formaldehyde with a catalyst, admixtures and fillers.
Shroff and Shah (1988) produced a UF gel by employing oxalic acid and
proposed a new concept that of the chelate complex, wherein the metal ion of
alluvium, or rock links up with the UF gel.
Fig. 27(a): t - Relations UF Grout
Fig. 27(b): TimeStrength Relation UF

Grout
24
Raw gel is insoluble in water and grouted mass remains intact under water
submergence. It develops high resistance to washout forces making mass less
permeable to water. Grouted mass shows increase in strength with increase in
confining pressure (Fig. 27b). The injection of grout into sand is observed to lead
to a material that adds cohesion component in addition to original friction
component of the sand.
Rate of reaction and gel strength are directly proportional to concentration of
oxalic acid and urea-formaldehyde respectively. Mathematical model as
suggested (? = exp {0.015 (s)0.4/D}) accounts all the rheological changes of UF
grout system, which follows reasonably time viscosity curve. New interactive
chemical process of double order condensation in presence of melamine ion of
alluvium to be grouted and non-metallic ion of oxalic acid help increase the
strength of grouted mass.
Table 4: New UF Mixes Designed & Developed by Shroff and Shah (1995)
Urea
formaldehyde
30 cc
55 cc
50 cc
50 cc
catalyst
Water
1.5 cc
100 cc + 0.5 gm
oxalic acid Urea + 1.5 gm
Malamine + 0.5 gm
Copper Sulphate
5 cc H3PO4 200 + 4.0 gm
Sodium Aluminate
10 cc
200
H3PO4
5 cc HCL 200 + 3 gm Sodium
Aluminate
Row gel
UCS
3 Days
qc=2.9
kg/cm2
Grouted sand UCS &

f , sd
Adherent
strength
3 Days
28 Days
1.1 kg/cm2 3.4 kg/cm2 1.95 kg/cm2
1kg/cm2
0.98 kg/cm2
0.65 kg/cm2
0.55 kg/cm2
1.75 kg/cm2
1.65 kg/cm2
Resorcinol Formaldehyde-RF (Phenoplast)

Phenol and resorcinol with formaldehyde polymerized with acid (3 ml
hydrochloric acid) or alkali (3 gm Sodium hydroxide) catalyst; give an
instantaneous non-toxic gel at 33 C with pH value 1.7. Bell (1975) studied the
influence of gel time of catalytic concentrations of hydro gel of polyphenolic
polymer with formaldehyde in the presence of ferrous sulphate or sodium
dichromate at several temperatures.
Watery initial viscosity of 2 cP facilitates injection of grout in fine cracks and
voids of sizes 0.1 mm or less, where cement or other chemicals are not workable.
Time-viscosity relationship obtained from DS-T (Shear rate-shear stress-time)
plot reveal abrupt transition from sol to gel unlike silicates and aminoplast grouts
(Fig. 28a). The grout has controlled jellification time under moist condition and
practically non-toxic.
Base catalyst gives 2.5 times more strength of raw gel & grouted sand compared
to acid based catalyst. Mass has adherent strength of 2.10 kg/cm2 against wash
out forces. Fish life study of washed out water from grouted mass has given the
percentage mortality and BOD value within the range of effluent water. Grouted
25
sand exhibited qc = 6.5 kg/cm2 at 7 days and deviator stress, s d value = 10.25
kg/cm2 at confining pressure of 21 kg/cm2. Strength of each grouted fine sand
characterized by linear Mohr envelope showing cohesion = 2 kg/cm2 with least
variation in f value (Fig. 28b). The reaction of resorcinol with formaldehyde
under alkaline conditions produces hydro gels which fill the pore space of
granular soils. The resultant product may be regarded as a matrix of set grout
densely filled with sand. Acidic RF grouts were used successfully for grouting
the Woolwich and Reading beds at Blackwell Tunnel in UK. The alkaline RF
gouts used in grouting deep rock for mine shaft sinking at North Yorkshire.
Fig. 28(a): t- Relation of Chemical Grouts
Fig. 28(b): d-t Relation RF

Grouted Sand
Polyurethane
Hydroxyl group (pu1) is reacted with an isocynate to from urethane gel.
Isocynate componate is qasi- prepolymerised by mixing hydroxyl compound
(OH) with excess amount of isocynate (NCO) in the ratio NCO/OH = 4:1 to
reduce toxicity and efficient reaction (Shroff, 1992). Increase in hydroxyl
compound-pu1 with constant volume of 10cc and 20 cc of prepolymer-pu2
increased the strength. Blowing agent, methyl ethyl ketone and adipic acid
improves the strength property of grout system.
With initial watery viscosity, polyurethane grout is injectable in fine cracks,
joints and voids of sizes 0.1 mm or less (Fig. 29a). Unlike the other chemical
grouts, this grout possess the characteristics of expanding into the voids of a soil
mass or crevices of the rock mass after jellification and producing strong grouted
mass. Polyurethane grout has controlled gel time (30minutes) with high gel
strength. It is observed that though 20 % of water in 1:1 ratio gives maximum
strength of 1.53 kg/cm2 and gel time within limit, but 70% of water can be
26
considered as economical mix giving optimum strength of 1 kg/cm2 and gel time
within specified limit of 30 mnt. Raw gel and grouted mass are insoluble in
water.
An elastomer coupling of gellified foam in void spaces of grouted mass develops
consistent compressive & tensile strength and resistance against any wash out
forces. It is observed that grouted sand give nearly same compressive and tensile
strength. Dry cured submerged sample shows comparable higher compressive
and tensile strength than moist and saturated submerged cure sample. The
respective compressive strength values are respectively: 3.15kg/cm2,
2.037kg/cm2 and 1.18kg/cm2. Also the study of dry cured submerged sample by
extension test with confining pressure of 0.07kg/cm2 exhibited ultimate tensile
strength of 3.71kg/cm2. (Fig. 29b)
Apart from the use of polyurethane as soil penetration grouting, many other
possibilities exist to use polyurethane in reinforced earth construction, reduction
of machine foundation vibrations, Geotextile construction, pipe jacking operation
and other geotechnical engineering applications.
Fig. 29(a): t- Relation of PU

Grouts
Fig. 29(b): qc-Time Relation of PU Grouted

Sand Grout Proportion PU1:PU2:Water
Epoxy
Epoxy resins have often been used for various problems in civil engineering
works in India, during the last decades. The sealing of cracks (Koyna, 1968;
Konar, 1971; Hirakud, 1976) in concrete structures, plugging if leaks in
hydraulic structures and bonding of fresh concrete to hardened concrete are the
main applications.
The epoxy gel is developed by interacting chemical compound derived from bisphenol-A with epichlorohydrin and catalyst or hardener consisting of amines and
polyamides. As per the requirement, the resultant jellified mass, either rigid,
elastic or elastoplastic can be cultivated by proportioning resin, hardener and
water component. The time-viscosity relationship shows that the initial viscosity
27
drops to 50 per cent up to 12cp, thereafter increases to semi viscous limiting

stage transferring suddenly to gel stage at about 35 minutes (Fig. 30a).
Fig. 30(a): t- Relation of Epoxy Grouts
Fig. 30(b): Compressive & Tensile

Strength
The higher initial viscosity is attributed to the formation of primary micro gels of
0.5 micrometer to 1 micrometer, which grow into secondary micro gels
interacting with each other before the onset of physical gelation immediately
after mixing. At a critical concentration the secondary micro gels (10
micrometers) pack together abruptly to form and gel mass having a high crosslinked density that explains the typical time-viscosity curve.
A mix having resin: hardeners ratio 2, gives compressive strength of 662.8
Kg/cm2. 775.36 Kg/cm2 and 800.12 Kg/cm2 at 1 hour, 14 days and 21 days
respectively (Fig. 30b). Stress-strain curve indicates that peak stress increases
with increases of curing time reverting strength-time relationship of epoxy set
mass as strongly time dependent. Two categories basically identified, mainly
time dependent linear elastic and time dependent non-linear elastoplastic leading
to brittle failure. High pressure Tri-axial test gives cohesion value of 450
Kg/cm2.
Considering the above time-viscosity and strength behavior, the grout is selected
for injection purpose consists of optimum ratio of resin: hardener. Viscosity of
50 cp is desirable for cracks of the order of 0.15 mm. It is observed from the
metamorphic and igneous group of rock specimens vein lets, bends & minor
fractures (Fig. 31) that adhesion over discontinuation and cracks by epoxy grout
always exceed the strength of the rock. Rupture always occurs through the rock
and never through bonded crack.
Rock Joints of Basalt and sand stone specimens having single and multiple joint
configurations are grouted. The test results on wet surfaces also showed that
significant strength could be developed across joints by bonding them with these
epoxy resin grout.
A suitable injection gun is developed for grouting epoxy in rock sample in metal
box 10 cm 10 cm 10 cm (Shroff, Amin, 1990).
It infers from universal compression test on raw set mass that peak compressive
strength of 1500 kg/cm2 and residual strength of 1450 kg/cm2 with initial tangent
modulus of 50000 kg/cm2. Tensile strength measurement gives 120 kg/cm2,
elongation 10.2% and water absorption as 0.21%.
28
Fig. 31: Compressive Strength: Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks (kg/cm2)

Table 5: Strength data of Epoxy grouted igneous and sandstone jointed rocks:
Rock type
Basalt:
Sand stone
Bhuj)
Configuration
of joints
*
**
***
Compressive
strength of rock
with out joint
kg/cm2
712
712
116
Tensile strength
of rock without
joint
kg/cm2
51.05
61.05
20
Compressive
strength after
bonding joint
kg/cm2
712
712
150
*Joint configuration at 54.8, ** joint configuration at 75, *** Joints at 180 & 75
Special Laboratory Tests

Mix Viscosity and Pot Life: The flow cup test is relatively simple in which
viscosity is determined from the time of efflux of fluid at room temperature.
29
Penetration Test: It involves estimation of pressure and the time required for an
epoxy mix of known viscosity to travel through the gap of known width and
length.
Bond Strength Under Tension: Once the sealing system is set, the grout system is
injected through the inlet nipple using a small syringe. The specimens are then
left undisturbed for curing for 7 days. Tensile testing machine is used to evaluate
bond strength of epoxy grouted with concrete or rock. For underwater
applications the gap between the prisms is grouted underwater so that the water
in the gap is replaced by grout system.
Flexure Test: These cracks are then grouted by epoxy system under study. The
grouted rock cracks are then tested under flexure mode.
Pressure Bearing Capacity of the Sealing System: After a curing period of 7
days, water under pressure is injected in the gap which is grouted through the
hole provided in one of the cubes. Water pressure is then gradually increased till
failure of the sealing.
A trial field injection was made with the above resin grout mix (Shroff, Amin,
1990). It is found that, it provides better bonds to moist rock and has more
flexibility than other chemical grouts to accommodate movement before bond or
shear failure occurred and has shown lower volumetric shrinkage during curing.
The stratascopy inspection at the site has indicated that larger cracks and smaller
cracks are appeared to be filled up and interacted properly with epoxy grout.
Acrylamide
The acrylamide grout is developed by polymerizing the monomers acrylamide
and methylene-bis-acrylamide in about 90:10 proportion with the requisite
amount of the catalyst, ammonium persulphate (0.5%) and the accelerator,
triethanolamine (25% in 75% water diliution) and inhibitor potassium
ferricyanide (KFe = 0.05%) (Shroff, Shah, 1995). Although the grout exhibits
good penetrability, with a constant low viscosity during the induction period and
better gel control with adequate strength, it can be dangerous and toxic if certain
basic safety and handling precautions are not observed.
A new low toxic Acrylate based grout is developed (Shroff,1999) having long
term stability, employing the non-toxic catalyst calcium hypochlorite, exhibiting
higher initial viscosity, requiring a one-hour gel time and possessing a lower
strength than the above grouts.
CRACK GROUTING
Shallow cracks (extending up to about 60cm depth) can be grouted by grouting
through surface nipples/surface entry ports (SEP) and only in the remaining
depth of crack the grouting through inclined drilled hole (IDH) method is
employed. Fig. 32 (a) shows two types of nipples and their fixing details. After
sealing the cracks, the surface is sealed by cutting v notch. Horizontal cracks in
D/s wall of inspection gallery of Konar dam Fig. 32 (b), Damodar valley
corporation, u/s top corner of drainage gallery of Koyna dam, Hirakund dam
wherein these methods are used successfully.
30
Fig. 32(a) : Nipples and v Notch

Details
Fig. 32(b): Crack Grouting at Konark

Dam
Micro Fine Cement Based & Slag Based Grouts

These grouts can be used for following applications: Dam curtain grouting,
Foundation consolidation, nuclear waste secondary containment, Hazardous
waste, plume stabilization, preventing heave and boiling condition in cofferdams,
Water sealing during tunnel construction, pipe insertion work, dam bottom ducts,
reservoir bottoms, preventing seepage in river embankments in fine sands to
coarse silt where cement grouts are impenetrable.
These grouts are prepared indigenously by grinding OPC and for blast furnace
Slag in ball mill to a required specific surface area of particle (5000 to 8000
cm2/gm). The special measurements are particle size analysis by blain air
permeability, Laser particle size analyzer and true permeation under gravity.
MICRO FINE CEMENT DUST GROUTS (MCD)
Superfine cement is used at various Dam sites of Gujarat particularly in curtain
grouting at Sardar sarovar project. MCD grouts are developed having fines: 8115
cm2/gm with particle 50% grain size 13 m. Gel time with 1% dispersant
(Naphthalene sulphonate) varies 60 to 120 min. at 0.6 to 4w:c ratio can be further
reduced to 30 to 100minutes with 1% sodium silicate along with decrease in
bleeding potential. It is observed that MCD grouts possess consistence lower
initial viscosity compared OPC grouts (Fig. 33).
Fig. 33b shows UCS & initial E value of MCD gel which is higher at all w:c
ratio when compared to OPC. The cohesion imparted to grouted sand with OPC,
& MCD are 70, 125 kPa respectively. It is resisting threshold hydraulic gradient
of 260 against wash out forces subjected to grouted sand.
qcMCD = 1.33qcOPC
Time in Days
Time lapsed (min)
Fig. 33 (a): t- Relation MCD, OPC

Grout
31
Fig. 33 (b): qc-Time Relation OPC,

MCD Grout
SLAG BASED MICRO FINE CEMENT GROUTS

(Group-1) Grouts (MC-I, MC-II & MC-III) are developed by adding 25%, 50%
& 75% Slag to 75% 50% & 25% OPC respectively in various proportions of
solid to water in presence 1% Naphthalene sulphonate as a dispersants. (Group2) only Slag MC grouts along with chemical activators 0.1% to 2% in various
proportions of water to solid ratio in presence of 1% Sulphonated melamine
formaldehyde dispersant are designed. Chemical activators employed are
carbonate & floride of sodium & potassium, and Sodium sulphide (NAF),
further, (Group-3) the grout consisting of 25% OPC & 75% slag (MC-III) is
activated by above chemicals in the concentration of 0.02% to 0.1% to improve
its performance in presence of above dispersant, as well as in (Group-4) MC-III
grouts, Sodium silicate are mixed as component 1:1 proportion- MC:SS & also
MC_III is mixed with 1, 2 & 3% of bentonite (MC-bentonite)and Silica fume 4,
12 & 20% (MC-SF) as admixtures to improve its grouting performance.
Group-1
Time-viscosity and Time-Strength: MC-II remain watery- Newtonian longer
time (100 min) compared to 60 min in case of MC-I at same w:s ratio, & grout
MC- III solidify slowly at 200 min compared 150 min in MC-I. MC-I grout
(75%OPC + 25% Slag) seems to be ideal with respect to initial & gel time (Fig. 34).
The stress-strain curves for all neat grouts indicates elastic-plastic behavior with
maximum failure strain of 4.66%.For grouts prepared from 75% OPC +25% slag
showed maximum UCS of 6315kPa after 90 days of curing at w:c = 0.8 which
decreased to 2587 kPa at w:c = 5. For grouted sand these strength are 3768 kPa
at w:c = 0.8 and 96 KPa at w:c = 5. For slag + OPC grouts higher per cent of slag
gives better strength of grouted sand for low w:c and higher per cent OPC gives
better strength for high w:c ratio (Table 6).
Triaxial compressive strength of slag+OPC grouts are tested with confining
pressure of 100 kP and 200 kPa. 50%OPC +50% slag gives highest deviator
32
stress (5860kPa) with cohesion 1050Kpa amongst various water cement ratio
(0.8 to 5) for any OPC and slag variation. In MC-I & MC-III of grouted sand it is
observed that there is no much variation in ? value (40 to 45).
Fig. 34: t- Relation MC-I, MC-II
Fig. 35. t- Relation-Slag with

Activators
Fig. 38 shows indirect tensile strength vs. time relationship. MC-I grout gives
higher indirect tensile strength (3275kPa) among other variation of slag with
OPC and w:c ratio (Table 6). It is observed that maximum deviator stress of
triaxial compression strength is about 1.61.9 times indirect tensile strength.
Group-2
Time-viscosity of only slag with activator-NAF (0.1%) tends towards ideal curve
remaining watery up to 60 min & thereafter rate of viscosity increases
immediately after limiting injection 140 min leading to solid mass (Fig. 35).
When only slag grouts are considered with chemical activators, three days
strength ranged from 127 kPa to 990 kPa whereas 90 days strength are in the
range of 1995 kPa to 8029 kPa. For grouted sand, slag with 0.1% NaF activator
has 33% more strength at 90 days with w: c = 0.8 and 240% more strength with
w:c = 0.5 compared to slag with OPC grouts (Fig. 37). Amongst the alkaline
activators with slag, 0.1% NaF is found to be best activator.
Slag with 0.1%NaF gives highest flexural strength (6279Kpa) amongst other
reactants while activator o.1% K2Co3 gives higher indirect tensile strength of
3343 Kpa which is almost the same value of NaF activator. In slag with alkaline
activators UCS is 1.3 times flexural strength (Table 7).
Group-3
The pattern of T-? curves of MC-III with activators remain same irrespective of
any w:s ratio giving initial time 50 min and gel time 240 min (Fig. 36) In the
33
third group of grouts (MC-III) i.e. 75% slag + 25% OPC which is found to be
weak, 0.1% activator is added. 3-days strength of grouted sand ranges from
130kPa to 1020kPa for variation of w:c 5 to 0.8 and respective 90 days strength
are in the range of 2017 kPa to 8278 kPa. For the same grouts, strength of neat
grout ranges from 5412 kPa to 18379 kPa for variation of w:c = 5 to 0.8 after 90
days of curing (Fig. 39). Considering strength of grouted sand after 90 days of
curing, MC-III + 0.1%NaF is found to be the best grout amongst all slag based
grouts. For all the slag based grouts strength of grouted sand is found as high as
at 4050% of neat grout in majority of cases when grouted in loose sand.
(Table 8).
Fig. 36: t- Relation for MCIII+ React.
Fig. 37: qc-Time Relation-Slag with Activator

MC-III grout with 0.1% NaF gives highest indirect tensile strength (4369kPa) as
well as flexural strength (6827kPa) amongst other variable with w:c = 0.8 at 90
days. In this case UCS is 1.2 times flexural strength with w:c ratio 2 at 90 days.
(Fig. 40a)
Slag with sodium activator gives higher cohesion value and ? value compare to
MC-III at any water cement ratio.
34
Fig. 38: Indirect Tensile StrengthTime Relation of MC-I, II and III.
Fig. 39: Indirect Tensile Strength-Time

Relation of MC-III with Reactant
Fig. 40(a): t- Relation of MC +

Bentonite Grout
Fig. 40(b): t- Relation of MC-SF

Grout
Group-4
MC-SS as component grouts and MC + Bentonite & MC+ Silica fume (SF)
admixture (Shroff & Joshi, 2005):
Time viscosity relationship: MC grout with silica fume (Fig. 40b) and bentonite
(Fig. 40a) additives reflect pseudo plastic behavior with deflection of flow curve
increases towards shear stress axis with progress of time. Time viscosity curve of
MC-SF grout remain towards viscosity axis compared to that of MC-bentonite
showing elastic dominancy while bentonite curve shows more zero displacement
and gel time.
Time-strength relationship: Stress-strain curve of MC bentonite and MC-SF
grout illustrate more elastic-plastic behavior. Increase of % bentonite and silica
fume content shift the stress-strain curve towards strain axis and peak stress and
corresponding strain decreases. Also MC-bentonite and MC-SF grout offer
residual stress to some extent for further increase of strain. MC with bentonite
and silica fume grouts exhibit elastic-plastic failure unlike neat MC grout.
MC-SF failed samples indicate more towards elastic failure tending to elasticplastic failure while MC-bentonite samples exhibit more towards plastic failure.
Cohesion and -value decreased with increase of bentonite/silica fume content.
Cohesion decreases continuously (19% drop with W:C = 2) with addition of 1 to
35
3% bentonite while -value decreased to 17% at W:C = 2 and 59% with W:C
= 5. When SF content increased from 4% to 20% cohesion reduces 33% with w:c
= 2 and 55% with w:c = 5.
UCS of MC with SF grouted sand shows increase with curing time while MC
with Bentonite, though it is increasing with time but remain less than MC-SF and
neat MC grout (Table 9).
Bentonite addition hampers the process of hydration of MC grout. The increase
in unconfined strength or peak deviator stress up to optimum silica fume is due
to pozolonic activity of silica fume.
MC with sodium silicate (MC-SS): In MC-SS, UCS of 60%ss increases from
60kPa @ 1day to 680kPa at 28 days with w:c = 5.
Specific gravity and time of extraction decreases with increase of w:c ratio and
decrease of silicate content. Gel time of MC-SS grout is within few seconds
which can be lengthen up to 30 min by adding 1 to 3% phosphoric acid (by wt of
MC). The grout is most stable with minimum bleeding in very lean mixes. Depth
of true permeation increase with increase of permeability of sand, W:C ratio and
decrease of SS content.
Time-viscosity relationship: Viscosity of MC-SS grout increase with increase of
time, % SS concentration and decrease of W:C ratio. Time-viscosity curve of
MC-SS grout is extreme left of the cement based grouts. The addition of
phosphoric acid (PA) shift these curves towards right side showing distinct
behavior conforming to ideal grout as compared to OPC, MCD and MC grouts.
(Fig. 41a)
Fig. 41(a): t- Relation of MC-SS Grout
Fig. 41(b): qc-Time Relation of MC-SS

Grout
Time-strength relationship (Fig. 41b): Sudden increase of unconfined

compressive strength and E-value up to 7 days, thereafter it remains constant in
thin mixes and increases gradually in thick grouts. The unconfined compressive
strength of MC-SS grout is 4211 kPa with 0.8W at 80% SS concentration after 3
days of curing (Fig 41b). The above values for neat MC grout are below 1000
kPa which indicates early high strength gain due to addition of sodium silicate in
MC grout.
36
*days, Na2CO3- Sodium carbonate, K2 Co3- Potassium carbonate, NaF- Sodium fluoride, KF- Potassium fluoride, Na2S- Sodium sulphide
Table 7: Effects of Alkaline Reactants on Ground Granulated (Microfne) Blast Furnace Slag Grouts (Shroff, Joshi, Sinroja, Patel, 2006), Group-2
Unconfined Compressive Strength, kPa
IndirectTensile
Slag+
Opt
Flexural
Adherent
Reactants
%
Strength, kPa
strength
washout
kPa
strength,kPa
Raw gel
Grouted sand (RD=30%)
Grouted sand
Grouted
Grouted
sand
sand
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W 2W 5W
2W
5W
3*
90*
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
90
90
90
90
7
Na2CO3
0.1
1319 14663 1233 12514 1110 11122 373 5943 193 5433 127 4019 2708 2591 2080
4036
700
K2CO3
0.1
1356 14707 1203 12614 1097 10991 575 6184 198 5822 148 4943 3343 2657 2335
4916
835
NaF
0.1
2101 16126 1923 13515 1717 12303 591 8029 464 7835 447 5917 3029 3014 2007
6279
790
KF
0.1
2152 18255 2068 15450 1411 11809 522 8016 497 7315 476 5965 2839 2627 2138
5468
817
Na2S
0.1&2 1947 9629 896 13776 1006 5348 990 4375 573 5912 479 1995 2474 2109 1313
1794
660
NaOH
5
825
4615 185 2449 290 2915 180 2400 -1184 575 1510
-
36
Table 6: Effects of per cent OPC on Ground Granulated (microfine) Blast Furnace Slag Grout (Shroff, Joshi, Ghrisma, 2005), Group-1
Flexural
IndirectTensile
Adherent
Proportion
strength
slag+OPC
Strength, kPa
washout
strength,kPa
kPa
Raw gel
Grouted sand
Grouted Grouted sand
sand
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W 2W
5W
2W
5W
3*
90*
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
90
90
90
90
7
25%+75% 3685 8156
1022 4665 615 2611 516 3661 308 1196 296 986 3275 1594 50%+50%
1050 5036 883 3978 650 2527 2955 1380 75%+25% 1060 15935 626
8124 418 4800 1060 4810 575 2100 108 361 450 260
125
810
37
Table 8: Effects of Reactants on 75% Slag+ 25% OPC Grouts (Shroff, Joshi, Ketki, 2007), Group-3
Opt
%
IndirectTensile
Strength, kPa
Flexural
strength
kPa
Raw gel
Grouted sand
Grouted
sand
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W
2W
5W
0.8W 2W 5W
2W
3*
90*
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
3
90
90
90
90
90
Na2CO3
0.1 1336 14869 1164 12761 1121 9368 1396 6015 195 5498 131 4059 3520 3302 825
4519
K2CO3
0.1 1373 14928 1215 2791 1109 11123 581 6258 200 5886 150 4998 2989 2682 797
5020
NaF
0.1 2206 16641 2020 13907 1802 12343 621 8278 488 8070 469 6066 4369 4146 1439
6827
KF
0.1 2217 18379 2180 15238 1430 11927 538 8138 507 7389 480 6025 4185 3902 1046
6117
Na2S
0.1 2205 9797 1087 7135 1033 5412 1020 4441 596 2516 492 2017 2842 2790 811
1981
S.S
0.1% 1236 13435 1069 11639 965 9574 494 5507 176 5298 130 4248 4021 3858 955
4480
*days, Na2CO3- Sodium carbonate, K2 Co3- Potassium carbonate, NaF- Sodium fluoride, KF- Potassium fluoride, Na2S- Sodium Fluoride
Adherent
washout
strength,kPa
Grouted sand
5W
7
490
660
513
547
509
722
Table 9: MCIII+SS as component & MC with Bentonite & Silica fume admixture (Shroff & Joshi, 2005), Group-4
C:SS$ =1:1
MC +
Bentonite &
Silica Fume %
as Admixtures
0.8W
7*
Bentonite
1
Bentonite
2
Bentonite
3
Silica fume
4
Silica fume
12
Silica fume
20
sodiumsilicate 20 2225
Sodiumsilicate 80 5500
28
2950
4900
6500
6780
Raw gel
2W
5W
7
28
7 28
3250
1900
2400
400
2000
380
4810
4075
4250
2750
4000
1480
2400 2250
2200 3150
2300 2850
458
2500 4150
820

0.8W
2W
5W
7
28
7
28
7 28
0.8W
sd
C
2200
3400
4500
3300
5000
8100
7500
7500
54
55
55
50
3800
4800
5500
3350
1200
1800
2000
2400
1800
2000
2200
3110
820
920
950
1120
Triaxial compression test kPa

28 days
s 3 =196.2
Raw grout
2W
5W
sd
C
f
sd
C
f
8200 600 62 1900 360 51
5100 550 55 1175 110 34
5000 490 51 660 130 21
8225 750 61 7400 560 61
7250 500 56 6100 490 58
5750 700 61 3500 250 53
3300 505 43
4200 491 50
4500 600 46 825 150 26
4750 1005 40 680 220 25
Grouted sand
0.8W
sd
C
f
4500
7250
6550
4400
955
1090
1175
-
37
SS$ = Sodium Silicate; Adherent wash out strength of MC-III with 20% SS grouted sand at w:s=2 is 660kPa,while at w:s ratio 5 give 171 &231 at 40% and 60% SS
38
49
48
-
75% slag+
25% OPC+
reactants
38
Peak deviator stress at 7 days, with 40% SS increases from 665 kPa to 6529 kPa
as W:C ratio decreases from 5 to 0.8. For 2W grout at 7 days, it increases from
3204 kPa to 4186 kPa as % SS increase from 20 to 80% (Table 9). MC-SS
material follow Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.
Cohesion of raw MC-SS grout increase at faster rate up to 7 days and increases
gradually or remain constant afterwards. Per cent increase from 0 to 3 days is
about 70% and between 7 to 28 days it is 21%. value of raw MC-SS ground
ranged from 25 to 55. The increase in value between 3 to 7 days is 15-25%
and between 7 to 28 days, it is 0 to 15%. -values are 35 and 55 for 2W and
0.8W grouts.
More content of sodium silicate help shifting stress-strain curves towards stressaxis of MC-SS grouted sand. MC-SS grouted sand exhibit average E-value of
443 MPa when grouted with thick grout while average value of 162 MPa for
thinner grouts. Strength of MC-SS grouted sand increase with curing time and %
SS concentration (Table 9). MC-SS grouted sand exhibits 1.5 time strength than
MC grouted sand.
After 7 days of curing, cohesion of 0.8W grouted sand with % SS = 20, 40 and
60 is 675 kPa, 970 kPa and 1050 kPa respectively. Increase in cohesion from 7 to
28 days is around 7 to 41% while % increase in cohesion from 3 to 7 days is
between 24 to 35%. SS component impart cohesive bond bridging between
micro cement flocs while MC contributes overall stiffness of MC-SS matrix.
-value of MC-SS grouted sand ranged from 37 to 49. MC-SS grouted sand
resist the threshold hydraulic gradient of 236 (660 kPa) against washout forces
with W:C-2 and 20% SS concentration.
CREEP STUDY
New Creep test setup is developed for grouted sand mass and to study the creep
behavior of MC grouted sand with W:C ratio 2 and MC-SS grouted sand with
W:C ratio 5 and 60% SS concentration (Shroff, Joshi, 2004).
Fig. 42: Creep Study with Mortar and

Normal Concrete
Fig. 43: Creep Study with MC-SS and

only MC Grouted Sand
39
The rate of increase of creep diminishes with progress of time. The creep of MC
grouted sand lower than 40% load of UCS is 0.00148 after 12 days which
remains constant up to 17 days. After that, fewer than 70% load of UCS;
additional creep up to 42 days is 0.00119. At the end of the test, the specimen is
deformed up to 0.62 mm. The specific creep is 7.22 107 m2/kN (under 40% of
ultimate load) after 12 days.
Creep increases continuously for MC-SS grouted sand up to 42 days but the rate
of increase of creep diminishes with progress of time. The creep of MC-SS
grouted sand is more compared to that of MC-grouted sand. MC-SS grouted sand
specimen shows initial strain of 0.002375 on loading and creep is 0.00345. At
the end of test, the specimen is deformed up to 0.699 mm. The specific creep is
1.53 106 m2/kN after 42 days. Creep of MC or MC-SS grouted sand is 3 to 6
fold that of ordinary concrete/mortar (sand-cement grout).
RHEOLOGY AND STRENGTH ASPECTS UNDER DYNAMIC
LOADINGS-SOLUTION GROUTS
The cyclic behavior, estimation of the fatigue life of grouted sand with 50%
sodium silicate, 40% water, 5% formamide and 5% ethyl acetate (by volume) is
useful in Earthquake & machine foundations applications.
Damping (attenuation) characteristics combined with stiffness characteristics
have significant potential to reveal considerably more information about grouted
sand. The logarithmic decrement method was used to evaluate internal damping
of grout and grouted sand. S-N-P(s- stress level, N -number of cycles to failure,
P- probability of failure) relationship to ensure better predication of the fatigue
life of grouted sand is used in probabilistic analysis. The McCall model based on
a nonlinear relationship between maximum stress level Smax and the logarithm of
number of cycles to failure Nf. In addition, the probability of failure P is
introduced as a third variable.
The Relation Between Smax Nf and P
L = 10-aSbmax(log Nf)c, where L = 1 P = probability of survival: Sbmax =
maximum applied stress expressed as a fraction of the static compressive
strength (max/c) and ; a, b, c = material parameters. It was observed that almost
all of the experimental data were within the probability of failure of 50 and 90%.
Stress-Strain Relation
To fully understand the performance of grouted sand under cyclic loads, a
complete record of the changes in the stress strain characteristics is required. The
major properties of concern are the variation of cyclic strain, secant modulus and
damping ratio with the number of cycles at different stress levels. The test results
selected for this analysis had a 50% probability of failure. It should be noted that
confinement did not have any effect on the shear strength of grouted sand under
the conditions tested. The typical stress-strain record for cyclic tests on a grouted
sand specimen (cured for Tc = 28 days) loaded to a maximum stress level of Smax
= 0.75, under a confining pressure of 3 = 207 kPa, is shown in Fig. 44. It is
therefore concluded that actual failure was assumed to occur at the time when the
40
maximum stress recorded decreased from the initial preset value (max). Hence,
in this case the number of cycles-to-failure was indicated as Nf = 1,673.
Fig. 44: - Hysteresis Relation for

Silicated Sand at Stress Level 0.75
Fig. 45: Variation of with no of

Cycles for Silicated Sand at Stress
Level 0.9
Hysteretic Characteristics
The loading branch of the stress-strain relationship, which was originally convex
toward the stress axis, becomes concave upward after the first loading cycle and
continued to maintain the same shape until the last few cycles before failure.
This is typical silicate grouted sand specimens loaded to stress levels lower than
Smax = 0.90. For stress levels equal to or higher than 0.90, the loading branch of
the stress-strain curve remains convex toward the stress axis until failure.
Grouted Sand failed below an axial strain of 3%.The variation of axial strain &
secant modulus with cycles at high stress level characterized in three stages:
(Fig. 45) In the first stage, between 5 and 10% of the number of cycles-to-failure,
the strains increased with the number of cycles at a decreasing rate. In the second
stage, between 10 and 75% of the number of cycles-to-failure, the strains
increased at a constant rate. The third stage is identified by the said increase of
strains up to failure. The strain values at the initiation of failure in cyclic tests (at
N/Nf = 0.75-0.9) are very similar in magnitude to the strain at peak stress under
static loading conditions.
Secant Modulus
The secant modulus Emax determined as the slope of the straight line joining the
maximum and minimum points of the hysterias loop, decreased in three stages as
observed for the axial strains. The ratio of the secant modulus E max to the initial
tangent modulus Ei versus the life-cycle ratio N/Nf is presented in (Fig. 46 a).
The modular ratio varied between 65 and 75% of the initial modulus. At low
stress levels (no failure) the secant modulus remained in the range of 7580% of
the initial modulus, even beyond 100,000 cycles.
AL is defined as the area between the loading and unloading branches of cycle
and expresses the loss of dissipation of energy. The secant area As, defined by
the area between the loading branch and the secant, serves to quantify the
deviation of the stress-strain relationship from the linear path. With increased
number of cycles, the hysteretic area AL was <0.005 kPa for grouted sands
(Fig. 46 b).
Fig. 46(a): % Reduction in Esec with

Life Cycle Ratio for SilicateGrouted Sand
41
Fig. 46(b): Variation in As and AL

with N for Silicate Grouted Sand
Damping Ratio
Damping ratio, commonly expressed as D%, is often used in geotechnical
engineering as a measure of attenuation or energy dissipation. The damping ratio
is defined as the ratio of the energy dissipated per cycle of harmonic excitation in
a certain volume to the peak elastic energy stored in the same volume and is
expressed as (Richart et al. 1970). D = AL/4Ar, where Ar = area of triangle
OAB as show in Fig. 46(b) (insert). The damping ratio during the first few
hundred cycles varied between 2 and 4% and increased with the increase in the
number of cycles.
LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL OF SAND GROUTED WITH AND
MICRO FINE CEMENT (MC) & MC WITH CHEMICAL GROUTS
(SHROFF & JOSHI, 2004)
Soil liquefaction during earthquakes can cause severe damage to all types of
overlying or buried soil structure systems.
Among the treatment methods used for reduction of liquefaction potential,
chemical grouting may be the most effective in cases wherein the soil to be
treated is difficult to reach, as in the case of soils under existing foundations
(Maher, Ro and Welsh, 1994).
The undrained cyclic test results were used to evaluate the effect of grouting on
the potential for initial liquefaction (i.e. pore pressure generated equals confining
stress and effective stress becomes zero) and cyclic mobility by measuring the
cyclic stress ratio and number of cycles required to reach initial liquefaction and
5% strain cyclic mobility. There are basically two approaches in the literature for
defining liquefaction (1) flow failure liquefaction and (2) initial liquefaction and
cyclic mobility.
1.
Both sodium silicate and acrylate polymer grouts (with concentrations

ranging from 20 to 60% in the grout solution) increase the resistance of sand
to both initial liquefaction and 5% cyclic mobility. The increase was three to
six folds with sodium silicate and two to four fold with acrylate polymer
respectively.
2.
Addition of microfine cement (MC), MC-SS, MC+bentonite and MC +

silica fumes grouts. In water cement ratio ranging from 3:1 to 5:1 caused the
42
sand to experience no initial liquefaction at 5% cyclic mobility for the

ranges of stress ratios and cycle numbers tested. The standard vibration
triaxial compression testing machine is used for the investigation. Fig. 47 (a,
b) shows the results for sand grouted with MC-SS grouts with one day and
three day curing time which shows less susceptibility to liquefaction with
increase in percentage of SS and decrease in w.c. ratio sand samples grouted
with MC grout and MC+SF grout were completely resistant to liquefaction
and were rock hard even at one day curing and could not be liquefied. The
susceptibility of sand decreases with increase in curing time since the grout
has gained more strength.
The fracture surface in HCP containing slag suggested that crack propagated
preferentially through the C-S-H and calcium hydroxide. The fracture toughness
accompanied with instantaneous fracture was probably dependent on mechanical
properties of hydrates. While, the fatigue behaviors was mainly dependent on the
property of C-S-H.
Liquefaction flow failure in grouted sand, a higher load or excitation is needed to
push the sand over the peak of the undrained stress-strain curve and reach
steady state levels. Cyclic resistance ratio(CRR) at W:C = 10 is above 0.4 of
virgin sand indicating safe state of grouted mass after 1 day and 3 days curing
period.
Fig. 47(a): Liquefaction Potential for

Grouted Sand1 Day Strength
Fig. 47(b): Liquefaction Potential for

Grouted Sand3 Day Strength
CRR vs W:C Ratio with Bentonite

Fig. 48 show that for same W:C ratio and cycle number, as bentonite
concentration increases, CRR decreases, though CRR remains higher than that of
pure sand. At low and high % of bentonite, in very thin grout exhibit about 0.65
and 0.57 cyclic resistance ratio respectively during strong ground motion (N =
30). With W:C ratio of 10 and 3% bentonite minimum CRR of 0.54 is observed
while at W:C = 2 with 1% bentonite maximum CRR of 0.83 is observed when
samples cured for 3 days.
43
Fig. 48: Liquefaction Potential of Grouted Sand (1 day strength) and of Pure
Sand
MC-SS Grouted Sand
The pattern of the curve indicate that irrespective of % SS concentration, initially
CRR reduces significantly with little change in cycles required for liquefaction
which alter wards become gradual. At 30 cycles, CRR values are above 0.6 at 1
day and 3 days curing time which indicates safe state of grouted mass with
reference to liquefaction. Compared to pure sand, the cyclic strength of MC-SS
grouted mass is more than 3 times after 1 day curing time.
As % SS concentration decreases, CRR decreases for same W:C ratio. The cyclic
strength of grouted mass increases by about 10 to 15% as % SS concentration
increased from 20% to 80%. This increase in strength is attributed to bridging of
sand particles with network of silica gel preventing any contraction of sand mass.
Time History of Cyclic Loading
Under high frequency and relatively high cyclic resistance ratio, pore pressure
increased suddenly and pore pressure ratio reached to 1 quickly in pure sand.
Immediately, initial liquefaction and 5% axial strain occurred simultaneously.
While MC bentonite grouted specimen took quite longer time (210 seconds) and
MC-SS grouted specimen took maximum (350 seconds) in the entire three
specimen under consideration to reach initial liquefaction (Fig. 49).
44
(a)
Typical time history of
cyclic loading for
specimens containing sand
only
(b)
cyclic loading for MCbentonite grouted sand
(c)
cyclic loading for MCSS grouted sand
Fig. 49: Typical Time History of Cyclic Loading

Design of Grouted Factor of Safety and Improvement Index of a Soil at
Gandhidham, Kutchchh Area, Gujarat (Hospital Building)
Soil data: moderately stiff uniform fine sand deposit, other input data:
earthquake magnitude of 6.5 on Richter scale with 5 km distance from seismic
energy source, input peak horizontal ground acceleration, amax = 0.998 m/s2
(from Gandhidham meteorological laboratory), Unit weight of saturated sand,
= 20.2 kN/m3, Depth below ground level, z = 5 m.
Stress reduction factor computed as Sd = 1-0.00765 z (refer paper T L Tyoud et
al., 2001), therefore Sd = 0.9617
o = h = 20.2 5 = 101 kPa, 0 = h = 10.2 5 = 51 kPa,
Induced-CSR (Cyclic stress ratio) = 0.65 (amax/g)/( o/0)Sd , g = gravity
= 0.65 (0.998/9.81) (101/51) 0.9617
= 0.1259
From Seed & Idriss Table, equivalent initial liquefaction cycle (Ni equi) at
earthquake magnitude of 6.5 is 8.33
CRR value from cyclic triaxial test on virgin uniform sand = 0.251 (Fig. 48) for
equivalent cycles of 8.33.
Applying correction factor, Cr = 0.642 for effective confining pressure 400 kPa,
corrected value of CRR,
CRRc (Corrected Cyclic Resistance Ratio) = 0.251 0.642 = 0.161
Factory of safety = CRR/CSR = 0.161/0.1259 = 1.28, this is low, which is
required to be increased.
45
When same soil grouted with MC-SS grout with W:C =5 and SS = 20% after one
day, CRR increased to 0.81 at 8.33 cycles (Fig. 47.a). Applying same correction
factor Cr = 0.642,
CRRc = 0.642 0.81 = 0.52
Grouted factor of safety after one day curing = 0.52/0.1259 = 4.1
And improvement index = CRRc after grouting /CRRc before grouting
= 0.52/0.161 = 3.23
Factor of safety with respect to liquefaction increased from 1.28 to 4.1 with
improvement index of 3.23, when pure sand is grouted with MC-SS grout.
When same soil grouted with MC-bentonite grout with W:C=5 and
bentonite=1% after one day, CRR increased to 0.99 (extrapolated value) at 8.33
cycles (Fig. 48).
CRRc = 0.642 0.99 = 0.635
Grouted factor of safety after one day curing = 0.635/0.1259 = 5.04
and improvement index = 0.635/0.161=3.94
Factor of safety with respect to liquefaction increased from 1.28 to 5.04 with
improvement index of 3.94, when pure sand is grouted with MC with 1%
bentonite grout.
In brief, the danger of liquefaction in grouted sand is too remote as set grout fills
the pores and adheres to surface contact of void space which displaces the pore
water imparting cohesive component.
Cyclic Plate Load Test
For sand grouted with MC (w:c = 5), the ultimate load intensity obtained from
load settlement curve that after 28 days of curing is 50kPa which 4.67 times in
dry sand and 5.53 times that of 30% saturated sand. In grouted sand (MC-W:C =
2, 14 days curing) Ei, En & Cu increased from 44.4kPa/mm, 77kPa/mm,
65200KN/m3 at dry sand to 50kPa/mm, 93.3kPa/mm and 90000KN/m3
respectively, which gives improved Ei ratio, En ratio and Cu ratio equal to be
1.31, 1.21 and 1.44 respectively. (Fig. 50 (a, b))
Fig. 50 (a): Static cyclic plate load

test results on dry sand (RD = 40%)
Fig. 50 (b): Static cyclic plate load test

results on dry sand (RD = 40%, MC grout,
W:C=2 curing time = 14 days)
46
OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERATIONS ALONG WITH THEORETICAL

IMPOSITIONS
The flow of grouts in the pore space of the soil or any discontinuity of rock is
resisted by drag at the interface between the grains and the fluid. This drag is
proportional to the viscosity of the grout, mean flow velocity in pore space, its
geometrical characteristics, tortuosity of alluvium (Soil structure) and Rock
Geology.
The theoretical works of Maag and Raffle, 1961 relate the pumping pressure,
density and viscosity of grout, rate of injection, permeability of soil and
geometry of the flow. The expression is t = (n/3khr) (R3-r3), where R = radius
of the grout front after time, t; r = radius of injection pipe (sphere of origin);
n = porosity of soil; k = permeability of soil; = ratio of viscosity of grout to
that of water; h = piezometric head in the grout pipe which can be related to the
pumping pressure and the density of grout. The above formula is limited to that
situation wherein the grout front is far from the injection point.
Gal. of grout per meter depth
Vaughan et al. (1963) stated that the flow rate under a differential hydraulic head
is directly proportional to the (fissure width)3 and inversely proportional to the
viscosity of the injecting fluid. For a uniform flat rock fissure of width b
penetrated by a hole of radius r and connecting with an open reservoir or sink at
a radial distance R from the hole, the estimation of flow rate q either for grout
flowing through a fissure into the formation: q/H = (wgb3)/6(log R/r), Where,
g = acceleration due to gravity, w=density of water, = viscosity of injected
fluid, and H=differential hydraulic head. When fissure merges with open
structure or multi connected fissures and joints flow is largely determined by
b3/. The flow resistance of chemical grouts in fissured rock by a parameter is
dependent on the characteristic width and mean spacing of the fissures. Shroff
et al. (1987) Computed the radius of penetration of grout from data on its
consumption and studied the effect of flowing water through stratification and of
short gel time on shapes of stabilized mass (Fig. 51 (a, b, c)).
Radius of grout spread (Inch)
Fig. 51 (a): Penetration Relation
Fig. 51 (b, c): Shape of Grouted

Sands
Further, Shroff and Shah (1992) studied the flow interaction of grout along by
injecting through layered sand samples having different permeability, density
and stage length. To achieve a uniform stabilized mass while grouting from top
47
to bottom or from bottom to top, the optimum stage length should be maintained.
Fig. 51(a, b, c) also depicts a non uniform stabilized mass having two spherical
bulbs with no grout in between. A spherical model of the injected mass, stating
that upon injection the grout appears to flow progressively into the soil, with
fresh grout displacing the older grout towards the exterior of the grouted mass.
The analytical approach of spherically radiating displacement flow is as follows:
If the grout has reached a radius R at time t, the volume flow rate Q is related to
the hydraulic head h at the source of radius r by:
h = (Q / 4k) [ (1/r 1/R) + (1/R)]
where is ratio of grout viscosity to that of surrounding ground water. If the
void ratio of the soil is e, the time for grout to reach a radius R is given by:
t = (er2/kh) [/3 (R3/r3 1) (-1)/2 (R2/r2 1)]
The specific value of t can be found from Fig. 52 (a) in which kht/er2 versus R/r
for three values of viscosity ratio is given.
Fig. 52(a): Penetration Time on

Viscosity Ratio
Fig. 52(b): Grout Flow PatternUniform/Layered
Optimization of Penetration Rate for Grouts

At the later stages of injection, by which time the grout-water interface has
moved well away from the injection hole, a much simpler and yet reasonably
accurate estimate of penetration rate can be made using the reduced coefficient
KG in place of the conventional water permeability coefficient k. Flow rate : q/H
= 4kGL/g, where g depends upon cell dimensions and extent of confinement
of the aquifer. g = 2 \log(L/a) is for uniform ground and g = {2L/(L2-4a2)}
[log {L + (L2 4a2)}/2a] is for stratified aquifer. (Fig.52 (b)).
Criteria of Blockage
For soils that are not uniformly graded, a useful estimate of the condition for
blockage by a particulate grout can be gained by applying the Kozeny
relationship: R = (8k/wgn) to find diameter 2R of the average pore passage,
where is viscosity, k permeability, w density of water, g gravity and n the soil
porosity. If the average pore diameter is taken as equal in size to the 100 m
48
particle of cement, positive blockage can be expected on this basis for a soil
permeability of 102.5 m/sec.
Consolidation of Clay Gauge Material
The volume of grout injected after time t, i.e., volume of water displaced from
the voids to consolidate the soil is given by V= (Uo U)mv x 4r2dr, (limit of
integral is from o to a) Where V = volume of water expelled (equal to volume of
grout injected), a = radius of sphere of influence, Uo = injection pressure, mv =
volume compressibility of the soil, U = pore water pressure as a function of time
and position within the sphere, r = radius of sphere of influence between 0 and a.
Integration of equation governs the rate at which consolidation can occur. This
approach was adopted for compressing silt or clay existing in karstic lime stone
at Kharun III River at Iran. Also it is helpful in jointed rock with gauge material.
Hydro Fracturing by Grouting
The values of hydro-fracture pressures in terms of their magnitudes and
orientations are being actively investigated. Theoretically, they can be
determined by the relation: Pf = v(1+sin ), where Pf = hydro-fracture
pressure, v = effective vertical stress, = Poissons ratio and = angle of
shearing resistance (Fig. 53a).
Relation:
Pf = (qr/2k) (gVg/H x Vw) (log r/r) ,Where Pf= hydro-fracture, lb/ft2
qr = rate of grout flow; g = unit weight of grout, lb/ft3;
k = permeability, ft/sec; vg = viscosity of grout, cP;
vw =viscosity of water, cP; H = thickness of zone being grouted, ft;
r = radius of zone being grouted, ft; r = radius of grout hole, ft.
Time Viscosity Equations
Shroff and Shah (1977) developed a theoretical concept and suggested a
modified power model law for the viscosity of a grout at any time after mixing to
any stage of permeation in the formation. The free volume of the liquid grout
changes with time either in a gradual fashion or instantly; the viscosity must
necessarily mirror the change of free volume at any time (Shroff and Shah 1977).
Power model ? = s/Dn = shear stress (s)/shear rate(D).
This power model will not follow the entire curve of time-viscosity, as the total
behavior from liquid to gel of a grout system consists of various rheological
changes. Shroff and Shah (1988) putforth the mathematical model. Viscosity of
grout ,?g = exp (0.013){(S)0.395/D}. The above equation accounts for all the
rheological changes in a chemical grout system and follows the time viscosity
curve reasonably well.
Mechanical Requirements of Grout
The grout pumped into fissures has to fulfill certain mechanical requirements in
order to be suitable for consolidation or tightening. The allowable average
49
compression stress p as found by Prandtl for a perfectly plastic medium with a

cohesion c in a fissure of length l and width e will be equal to p=c[(/2)+(l/2e)],
as l/e is always large, even very small cohesion values suffice for the grout to
resist high compression stresses (Fig. 53b).
Fig. 53(a): Hydrofacture Pattern
Fig. 53(b): Allowable Compressive

Stress
Fig. 53(c): Resistance against Water Head

Similarly, the resistance against being pushed out by the water head (Fig. 53c)
was found Mandel to be: q = 2c(l/e) (for purely cohesive grout) an q = (c/tg)
(ek.l/e-l) (for medium with cohesion c and internal friction ) With k = 2tg2 (cot
+ + /2).
In a fissure with a large value of l/e, even a very poor grout is able to resist high
hydraulic pressures.
A smooth grout-filled fissure may be solicited to a shear yield at = C + p . t . g
. ,where C and are either the values of the grout itself or of the contact plane
between the grout and the rock (Fig. 54(a)). It is evident that a consolidation
grouting which has to confer to the rock mass a high shear strength, must be
done with resistant grout, generally based on cement. This is not absolutely
necessary, however, if the fissures are rough and well indented, so that the shear
strength is furnished by the rock (Fig. 54a).
Flow Equation of Grout through Rock Fissures
Contrary to the grouting of loose soil, where the volume of grout flows through
voids of largely varying sections, in rock grouting the mix flows essentially
50
through fissures(Fig. 54b). Baker derived pop = (6?Q/e3) (log r/ro) +

3Q2/20g2e2)(1/ro2 1/r2),
Where, po = pressure in borehole of radius ro, p = pressure at distance r
? = coefficient of viscosity, Q = flow rate, = density of the mix
The first term allows for the pressure loss due to friction, and second term due to
the modification of kinetic energy in radial flow.
Fig. 54 (a): Contact Plane: GroutRock
Fig. 54 (b): Grout Flow in Fissure of

Constant Width
Assume that at a distance r (radius of action) the pressure p = O, and obtain for a
given fissure and grout type, a diagram of the type given in Fig. 54c, which has
to be slightly modified for greater values of Q when the laminar flow changes
into a turbulent one. The phenomenon of widening the fissures by hydraulic
pressure makes the quantitative interpretation of water test very difficult.
The setting time of grouts must meet the time needed for injection,
corresponding to the design spreading radius. The spreading radius of grout R in
cm can be evaluated by the Jiacai et al. (1982) formula:
t = [1.02 10-7? (R2 r2) log R/r] / (p po) b2
Where; t = time needed for injection, min; ? = viscosity of grout, cP;
R = spreading radius of grout, cm; r = radius of grouting hole, cm;
p = pressure in the grouting hole, kg/cm2;
po = hydrostatic pressure of the grouted water in the water bearing fissures,
kg/cm2; b = thickness of the fissure, mm.
51
Fig. 54(c): Pressure-Flow Rate Relation

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN OPTIMIZATION OF GROUT
HOLE AND TECHNIQUE
An explanation/description of each factor has been given to assist the field
engineer engaged in a particular grouting project with respect to orientation,
spacing, when to start the grout mix, types of field techniques to be used,
precautions to be undertaken during grouting, decisions regarding stage length,
use of grout cap etc.
Spacing of Open Joints
Open joints may be widely or closely spaced. More grout holes will usually be
needed than for wide spacing. In widely spaced joints, just the primary hole
serves the purpose of grouting. In closely spaced joints, the sequence of grouting
may require not only a secondary hole but even tertiary and quaternary holes in
extreme cases. When joints or cracks are uniformly distributed, one may initially
double the spacing, and then reduce it as per the requirements seen from water
testing (Houlsby, 1982). If the gouge material in the seam or fault plane is
clayey, it is essential to wash it out by a calculated dose of chemical dispersant
under pressure and then grout with a cement sand mortar to avoid sliding of the
dam due to shear failure of the clay gouge (Parikh & Shroff, 1978) or squeeze it
by pressure grouting (Shroff, 2003) Kadana Dam Gujarat.
Size of Open Joints
Joint openings wider than 2 mm (Fig. 55) enable the grout to penetrate easily,
although if they are very wide, such as 6 mm, the grout might penetrate so easily
that proper tightening up to refusal requires inhibition of excessive travel by
using multiple applications of grout. A thick trial grout mix might also serve the
purpose. In wider openings a coarser grout mix, such as sand cement, might help.
52
The use of chemical admixtures in a cement grout or Newtonian (watery) resin

grouts might solve the problem of limits of injectability. Theoretical imposition
earlier will provide clue to fissure width and viscosity of grout.
Fig. 55: Geological Considerations in Optimization of Grout Holes and

Technique
Direction of Open Joints
The direction of open joints influences the orientation of the grout holes and the
possibility of rock movements during grouting. Joints which dip between about
30 to 60 degrees are easily intercepted by vertical holes and are less liable to
permit rock movements than those of near horizontal or near vertical dip. The
latter require inclined grouting holes. The optimization of orientation of grouting
holes with respect to dip and strike direction of bedding plane will be discussed
later on. In addition, the direction of open joints may also influence the
techniques of grouting to be adopted as well as the decision regarding
permissible grout pressures.
Rock Strength
In the case of weak or weakly embedded surface slabs liable to movement during
grouting, precautions against rock movement become necessary. This is apt to
slow down the grouting and involves intensive placement of holes. In such cases,
in addition to grouting, the provision of rock anchors at various spacing provides
excellent assurance against rock movement.
53
Rock Soundness
When holes collapse frequently during or after drilling, the upstage method is
totally unsuitable. Only downstage methods without packers or, in extreme
cases, circuit grouting will serve the purpose. If there are many surface cracks in
the rock, stand pipes help to control surface leaks. A grout cap helps to improve
the grouting by reducing the surface leaks.
Rock Stresses
The stress in rock is usually of tectonic origin and can be severe in massive
strong rock. The strain energy released can frequently project the detaching rock
away from the bedrock and leave rebound joints that are open up to a few
centimeters. The grouting practitioner needs to be able to recognize the presence
of stressed rock because of its predominant effect on grouting procedures. The
other extreme is the soft, intensely cracked foundation of the type which has
already relieved stresses itself and will present no difficulties on this score during
grouting.
Uniformity
Uniformity of the foundation assists in the layout of grout holes whereby they
can be evenly spaced and all drilled at the same inclination. Irregular jointing,
variable rock type, intrusions, faults etc. may require the holes to be at various
inclinations and weak features may need especially intensive grouting.
Proneness to Piping
If the material in joints is liable to be removed by seepage, the grouting may
need to be more intensive than otherwise to virtually eliminate seepage in the
piping-prone areas.
The above considerations are only the commonly observed. There are many
others and vigilance is necessary in finding them before grouting is undertaken to
enable a grout design that is intelligent and appropriate.
Geological investigations
The following information should be obtained and shown in either a topographic
or geologic scheme to optimize position and orientation of grout holes. (a)
boundaries and contacts of the different geologic units to be treated, (b) altitude
(dips and strikes) of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, (c) prominent joint
system, their spacing, opening and character of the material of infilling if any;
location and altitude of prominent faults, shear zones faults etc. (d) lines of
geologic cross section and (e) location and logs of drill and auger holes,
exploration tunnels and shafts.
Geophysical methods may be used with advantage to locate boundaries between
different elements of the sub rocks. Rotary drill cores are also a useful source of
information.
54
DRILLING
The types of drilling used for grout holes include (i) percussion (wet only), (ii)
rotary-diamond bit and roller bit (tricone) and (iii) bits-wagon drill. (Fig. 56a).
(iv) Drilling bit of RPT (Fig. 56b).Cased hole drilling is effective for installing
grout holes ranging in depth from 7.6 m to 36.6 m. The method negated the need
of drilling the suspension fluids and protected the borehole from washout and
fracture pressures. The drill bit is mounted on eccentric coupling so that drill
hole is expanded during rotation of the bit to the external casing diameter of
100cm. The drilling bit of rotary penetrating test (RPT) is set-up at a point on the
boring rod and measures the cutting resistance during rotary penetration. The
choice of drilling method is mainly dependent on the types of cuttings produced.
Suitable drills include: Percussion-using extension steel (with rope threads or
similar), crawler-mounted wagon and long-hole drifter, hand-held. Rotary- using
blast hole or plug diamond bits, 2 or 3 wheel roller bits and various types of
small diamond drills, usually with screw feed, mounted on standpipe grip stands,
tripods, mining bars etc.
Fig. 56(a): Wagon Drill Bits
Fig. 56(b): Drill Bits-RPT, Circulating System
Hole Size
Percussion3.75 cm is the smallest permissible size holes larger than 6.35 cm
are undesirable but permissible.
RotaryEX size 3.81 cm diameter is the smallest practicable size, normally for
diamond bits holes larger than BX 6.03cm diameter are excessively
expensive for diamond bits-roller bits should be approximately 5.08 cm in
diameter.
Drilling through boulders necessitates different biting with a special frame
having shorter rods and appropriate casing. For percussion drilling through a
restricted place, Fig. 57 particularly in the gallery, small rotary drill rigs with a
55
short stem are recommended. A recovery ratio near 1.0 usually indicates good
quality rock. RQD of 0.750.9 and more indicates good to excellent rating of
rock.
Compressed air is the principal mover of all the mechanical contrivances used
for drilling, such as a jack hammer, drifter etc.
A casing is required where the clay thickness exceeds 10m followed by rock
head to permit the insertion of a plastic standpipe. The ODEX eccentric
overburden drilling method is adopted for such field situations Fig. 57 (b).
Fig. 57(a): Drilling Through

Restricted Place
Fig. 57(b): ODEX Drilling System
Fig. 57(c):Drilling Robot

Experience is using the wagon drill Fig. 56a compared to jack hammer or a
diamond drill showed it was very rapid and cheap.
Digital Drilling Parameter Recording
It consists of fitting drilling rig with sensors and recording the reaction of
machine versus drill depth with data acquisition station in order to print diagrams
56
comparable to a core log. Subsequent developments have been affected hardware

(new pickups, new readout station) and software (new approaches) to data
processing expert system Fig. 57d. Boring robot can now control the drilling
accuracy, execute rod changing and record and organize the drilling & geologic
data viz. rock strength, fracture size, etc.
Fig. 57(d): Strata Determination by Expert

System from Logs
Fig. 57(e): Drilling with Air

Flushing to Prevent Fracture
These innovations have revolutionized the old drilling parameter technique

which is increasingly appearing as a means of in situ soil characterization.
Recorded parameters offer many advantages: measurements are continuous. The
remarkable progress in soil surveys (Seismic tomography and new method of
instantaneous logs) will be used in monitoring grouting. Drilling mud is used
mainly for cooling and lubricant drill bit and string along with stabilizing the
bore wall.
Development of a New Method by Using Double Tube and Percussive
Drilling Machine: (Fig. 58 a)
In methods using conventional narrow grouting tubes and rotary drilling
machines, problems have been increasingly arising with drilling speed and
precision.
In conventional method, after drilling, string rod is removed and grouting pipe is
inserted in drilled hole after washing, while in rotary percussive double tube
method (RPDM), drilling, washing the hole and grouting are carried by same
doubled tube, which can save a considerable amount of time (4.5 times faster)
and energy.
Rotary Percussive Double Tube Method (RPDM): It consists, three types of tools
swivel, double tube, and equipment for the tip of the drill and set the following 6
items as targets: (1) The double tube should have a maximum outer diameter of
57
about 80 mm. (2) The outer tube should be the main conveyor of impact force.
(3) The inner tube should be able to resist the force of impact without suffering
any damage. (4) The double tube should be able to be installed and removed
mechanically, in the same way as conventional percussive single drilling rods.
(5) The main liquid and hardener of the chemical grout should be sent
independent of one another to the tip of the grouting tube. Even at high grouting
pressure, there should be no leakage or contact between the separate flow
channels. (6) The drill tip equipment should be able to discharge water for
drilling and during grouting, chemicals. It should also be able to use existing drill
bits.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 58 (a, b): Percussive Double Tube Method

Initial concept and problem points: First, shock absorbing materials were
installed at two places, i.e. where the swivel and double tube meet and where the
tip equipment and double tube meet, to relieve and absorb the impact to the inner
tube during borehole drilling. In the new version as suggested (Shroff, 2005) a
spring was attached to each of the inner tubes to keep the shock to all materials
in the inner tube to a bare minimum shock during impact. In addition, the
connecting section was strengthened by revising the method for bonding
materials using conventional adherents so that the bush and shoe would weld
together. Furthermore, adjusting the sliding length of the inner tube to 20 mm
helped to improve the safety factor involved in shock reduction. Procedure used
with this method is shown in Fig. 58.
Drilling Water Controlling System (Pressure Balance System)
When drilling with rotary percussion drills using drilling water, the water that
contains spoils must be brought up by high artesian pressure underground to the
58
work area where it is exposed to atmospheric pressure. Needless to say, the

pressure difference makes it difficult to constantly control with valve operations
the amount of water to bring up. The pressure balance system is installed as
shown in Fig. 59.
Fig. 59: Pressure Balance System to Control Pressure Difference

It consists of pressure tanks around the drilling site, keeping the pressure inside
the tanks identical to the artesian pressure of the under ground by air control
valve. The purpose is realized by returning drilling water directly to these tanks.
The dividers installed in the tanks to make drilling water overflow so that earth
and sand will be separated. The water is then pumped out automatically by the
level sensor and solenoid valves. The system is attached to water cut-off
apparatus attached to drilling casing as shown in Fig. 60b. In order to keep the
artesian water from back following, a clonen bit system with check valves can be
adopted (Fig. 60a).
Fig. 60 (a, b): Clonen Bit System with Check Valve and its Attachment to
Drilling string
59
GROUTING IN RELATION TO LUGEON VALUE

One Lugeon (1 lit/m of hole per minute at 10 bars pressure) is the degree of
permeability encountered in those nearly tight foundations, which require almost
no grouting. Ten Lugeon warrant grouting for all most all types of dams. One
hundred Lugeon are encountered in heavily jointed sites with relatively open
joints.
Water Testing
Water testing before grouting has the purpose of indicating the permeability at a
given stage (or hole). It helps in determining the starting mix and whether any
special measures are necessary.
Fig. 61(a): Interpretation of Water Test

Result
Fig. 61(b): Water Test Set-up
It also indicates the effect of previous grouting of closure sequences. Water

testing is not usually required after grouting. Water test pressure = 1 bar (15 psi),
(1.05 kg/cm2); Test time 15 minutes comprising 3 to 5 minutes per run. The
water test measures the amount of water taken in each of the three 5 minute runs.
The general arrangement of a water test set-up is shown in Fig. 61(a), water
testing is preferably carried out downstage with single packers rather than a
double packer in a hole which has been previously drilled to full depth
Fig. 61b. The length of the test stage is usually about 6 m. Fig. 61a shows the
method for assessment and suggests the particular Lugeon value to be adopted as
most representative for the test.
New Developments: The Lugeon values for the stage can be calculated from the
electronically acquired data chart flow rate versus pressure curve recorded on the
xy plotter, as the gradient of the plot is proportional to the Lugeon permeability,
the shape of the xy plot indicates the various flow patterns as described by
60
(Shroff, 1999). The gradient of the xy plot at the higher pressure stages is used
to calculate the Lugeon value.
Some techniques have been reported in the literature for Lugeon test, such as the
air pressure test (Kayakin et al., 1985), the free oscillation test (Aidel and
Krauss-Kalwait, 1985), and the radioactive tracer dilution method (Monev et al.,
1985). Whereas the air pressure test is limited to special circumstances, the other
two tests seem promising and need further development.
OPTIMIZATION OF FIELD GROUT MIX FOR ALLUVIUM
There are certain considerations to be observed in the use of cement bentonite
grout for alluvial grouting; in general, the quantity of bentonite or clay which can
be incorporated in a mix is dependent for the purpose, it is to be used.
Triangular Chart for Cement-Bentonite ( Suspension)Grouts
Considerable economy in cement consumption per unit volume of grout mix can
be realized, particularly when the final strength is of secondary importance. A
cement bentonite grout for impervious grouted mass should contain hardly more
than 175kg of dry material for 1 m3 grout and 300 kg of dry materials for
moderate consolidation resistance (20 kg/m2).
Fig. 62: Chart: Cement-Clay/Bentonite
Fig. 63: Chart: UF Grout
To determine the field utility of a phosphate and silicate solution in bentonite

slurry, the mixes shown in the triangular chart (Shroff, Shah, 1999) depicted in
Fig. 62 can be consulted.
In the Figure 62: a unstable suspension settles; b temporarily stable
suspensions settle before setting; c clay cement gels of low compressive
strength; d free-flowing stable and pump able suspensions; e stable putty like
suspensions and f solid unworkable mixes, normally powder. A weak cement
bentonite grout with 10 per cent bentonite, 2.5 per cent cement and 87.2 per cent
water (1 B : 0.25 C : 8.72 W) falls in zone d of the triangular chart, and
constitutes a free flowing, stable and the pump able grout. The strength of the
61
grout can be increased by adding sodium silicate and monosodium phosphate in

the proportion of 1:1.
Triangular Chart for Chemical (Solution) Grouts
Triangular chart of Aminoplast Grouts (Shroff, Shah, 1999): Within the frame
work of gel time and stability, in this triangular chart, one side of the triangle
consist of Urea-formaldehyde percentage from 0 to 30, other side is considered
for the catalyst percentage which ranges from 0 to 30, and remaining side shows
water dilution accounted from 70 percent to 100 percent. Various zones of grout
mixes are shown in Figure 63.
Zone (a): It consist of stable grout mixes with high gel strength range from 0.15
to 1 kg.sq.cm, having gel time below 10 minutes. Zone (b): Grout falls in this
zone having good stability, medium gel strength in the range of 0.05kg/sq. cm to
0.1 kg/sq.cm having gel time between 10 to 15 minutes. Zone ( c): It contains the
grout mixes which exhibits little low stability with low gel strength ranged from
0.005 kg/sq. cm to 0.05 kg/sq. cm having gel time between 10 to 20 minutes.
Zone (d): Grout mixes of this zone produce unstable soft gel with gel time
between 20 to 35 minutes. Zone (e): These zones shows grout mixes which are
unworkable produces non homogenous gel or soft individual separate nodules at
long time. Zone (f): The addition of catalyst in the grout system of this zone
produces quick jellification within 1 to 2 minutes.
Similarly triangular Charts for optimization of other chemical grouts & various
physical properties of Cement Bentonite are designed (Shroff, Shah 2002).
OPTIMIZATION OF TRIAL GROUT MIX FOR ROCK GROUTING
Past experience and review during grouting are important for selection of mixes
for an actual job. The process of deciding w:c ratios to be used for each grouting
application involves the followings:
The starting mix based on information obtained from water testing carried out in
the grout hole together with geological information such as size of joint opening,
orientation etc. and experience from earlier holes. The majority of site
experience has indicated that the w:c ratio 2:1 is usually suitable; obvious
exceptions are (i) for relatively fine cracks such as 0.08 mm or less having
permeability less than or equal to 5 Lu. Start the mix with w:c ratio 3:1 instead of
2:1; (ii) for usual crack dimension 0.1 to 12.5 mm having permeability between 5
and 30 Lu, use w:c ratio 2:1; (iii) if the cracks are fairly wide such as 12.5 mm to
25.4 mm having permeability more than 30 Lu, Start the grouting with mix
having w:c ratio 1:1 instead of 2:1 and (iv) if the cracks are very wide such as
25.4 mm or more, start the grouting with mix having w:c ratio 0.8:1 or thick.
Often, however, crack sizes encompass such a wide range or are unknown and
hence the above guidelines are of little assistance. In such cases, if experienced
advice is not available, site tests may be under taken in accordance with the
following flow chart.
62
Flow Chart for Optimizing a Starting Mix

Steps: start with a representative group of holes with cement grout w:c 2:1, then,
assess the results as follows:
How did the grout take in the first fifteen minutes?
Did it generally compare with the water taken in the water test?
Were the grout takes:
Less than the water take? YesGrout was too thick. Try
a thinner mix next time
NoThis mix is suitable Try it again
More than water takes? Grout was too thin. Try
a thicker mix next time
OPTIMIZATION OF FIELD TECHNIQUES OF GROUTING
For curtain grouting (i.e. to form a relatively deep barrier to the passage of
water through a foundation), holes are usually grouted in stages by one of the
following methods.
Stage Grouting MethodDown stage
Downstage without Packer: In this method, grouting is done through the lower
open end of the grout pipe in short stages of 1 to 2 m starting with the top of the
grouted zone. The process involves repetition of a sequence of operations
comprising drilling through the length of each stage and grouting followed by
redrilling (Fig. 64b). This low output is observed in this method.
Fig. 64(a): Upstage Method
Fig. 64(b): Down Stage Method
Downstage with Packer: In this method, rubber packers are used which expand
on pressure to about five to six times the diameter of the hole. Hence, grouting is
facilitated in a particular zone by fixing packers on the top and bottom of it. This
method facilitates the washing and grouting of seams at a particular level with
the desired pressure established within permissible limits. Grouting thus becomes
more effective than in the case of stage grouting. The addition of packers to the
downstage method is rarely warranted. The downstage method with packers has
one special advantage however, it delimits plastering of the walls of the borehole
which extends to the successive stratum to be grouted (Houlsby, 1983).
63
Stage Grouting MethodUpstage Method

In this method, grouting is done through the casing which is driven to the bottom
of the hole (Fig. 64a). The casing is withdrawn a short distance and grout is
injected through the open end into the cavity left by the casing as it is raised. The
process is repeated up to the entire depth. Grout leakage may occur along the
grout pipe as some disturbance around the tube cannot be avoided when the
grout pipe is pulled up. So it is difficult to treat the soil layers individually (IS:
4999-1978). The upstage method is useful in homogeneous strata, open gravel or
boulders. In sites prone to rock movement, it is almost impossible to carry out
grouting using the upstage method as the grout persistently travels upwards at
high pressures through the as yet un-grouted upper stages. In sites where holes
might collapse quickly, upstage grouting is definitely impractical.
Technique for Washing Out Grout Holes
Grout holes are washed out after drilling to ensure a clean hole for grouting.
Washing out grout holes is also necessary in some methods grouting to prepare
them for another application or stage. Washout equipment shown in Fig. 65 is
with polythene piping, with an open steel tube washout bit at its lower end (IS:
60661971).
Fig. 65: Grout Hole Washout Equipment
64
Technique for Placing Packers in the Hole

Mechanical and inflated techniques of packer placement are common. A capstan
or similar screw device is screwed down against the inner grout tube, which
pushes the outer tube downward, causing the rubber packer to expand. In the
inflated technique, a soft rubber tube of approximately 1.5m length is clamped
tightly at both ends with a steel cone to protect the rubber tube. It is expanded by
means of compressed air, nitrogen or water at a high pressure, which makes the
soft rubber tube seat tightly against the rough walls of the grout hole.
Tube-a-Manchette (Sealed-in Sleeve Pipe Injection Method (Fig. 66)
In this system of grouting, a hole 12.5 cm to 15 cm diameter is drilled in the
ground and a 6 cm diameter pipe with a circumferential row of holes at 30 to 33
cm is lowered inside it. These holes are covered with tightly fitting rubber
sleeves. The 6 cm diameter pipe, called the tube-a-manchette, is sealed into the
outer hole by a brittle clay-cement grout as the outer casing pipe is withdrawn.
Grouting of the alluvium is then carried out from the bottom upwards through a
smaller interior grout pipe lowered into the 6 cm diameter pipe. The inner grout
pipe has rubber packers 30 cm apart which fit the 6cm diameter tube-amanchette tightly and isolate a particular circumferential row of holes in the
latter for grouting.
Fig. 66: Tube Manchette Grouting

Method
Fig. 67: Chemical Packer Grouting

Method-CPI
When the grout is pumped in through the inner pipe, its pressure expands the
rubber sleeve and cracks the brittle grout to escape and fill the voids in the
surrounding soil. Thus, both the problems of supporting the hole while
permitting the grout to flow into the soil and of using packers are solved. This
method is generally best suited to alluvial grouting. Though the procedure is
65
expensive compared to other alternative methods of seepage control, this method

enables grouting in any desired sequence.
Chemical Packer Injection (CPI) Method
For the purpose of attaining complete permeation, CPI method is devised.
(Hoshiya et al. 1980, Shroff, 1999). A compound grout in which formation of a
quick-setting chemical packer by a short gel time grout and permeation by a
long-gel-time chemical grout are combined through a double pipe rod is applied
in one continuous process. The short gel-time grout (gel time of several seconds)
acts as a packer by solidification of the voids and coarse particle layers around
the grouting pipe, and that the long-gel-time grout serves for permeation
grouting. Development of this injection process utilizing the gelation
characteristics of a non-alkaline silica solution has enabled application of a
compound injection in a simple operation. Shroff (2008) developed dual mode
grouting method as shown in Fig. 67 where in a shorter gelling time zone acting
as a cover against leakage of permitting grout following underneath.
Simultaneous Drilling and Grouting Method: As discussed earlier it allows for
injection during rotary drilling. At a predetermined distance, the drill rod is
withdrawn and grout is injected into the soil or material through a separate drill
rod. The process continues from the top downward. It is only suitable for
pervious, granular soils.
OPTIMIZATION OF PATTERN, ORIENTATION AND DEPTH OF
GROUT HOLES
A mathematical solution to the problem of orienting grout holes in the optimum
direction with respect to formation, strike and dip for grouting a rock formation
was devised by Singhota. The solution consists of a set of equations obtained
with respect to the bedding plane, considering its interaction in the XY plane,
YZ plane and XZ planes, and evolving an equation for optimum inclination of
grout hole with reference to a canyon profile.The variation of ( + ) and are
shown graphically for different values of strike and dip. (Ref. Shroff & Shah,
1999). Where ( + ) is inclination of plane of grout hole, is inclination of
Canyon profile to the horizontal, is inclination of plane of grout hole normal to
the x-z plane with Canyon profile and is inclination of plane of grout hole with
Canyon profile.
Consolidation Grouting
When the purpose is consolidation, the holes are arranged in regular patterns
over the entire surface area required to be strengthened and the depth is
determined by the extent of broken rock as well as the structural requirements
regarding the deformability and strength of the foundation.
The choice of pattern of holes for consolidation grouting depends on whether it
is necessary to wash and jet the hole systematically. When washing has to be
carried out, a hexagonal pattern (Fig. 68) is preferable as it allows for flow
reversal. When systematic washing and jetting is carried out to remove all soft
material in seams, it is generally not necessary to use primary and secondary
66
systems of holes (IS: 6066-1984). When it is desirable to test the efficacy of

consolidation grouting by comparing the grout absorption in primary and
secondary holes, a rectangular or square pattern (Fig. 68) of holes is preferred
(IS: 6066-1984). This is generally the case when the joints are irregular and
relatively free from in-filling or it is not necessary to remove the material filling
the joints.
Fig. 68: Typical Profile of Curtain Grout Holes and Pattern of Grout Holes
The most common difficulty experienced in consolidation grouting is surface
leakage. It is therefore customary to pipe through the required height of concrete
or masonry and carry out the grouting after the rock permits use of higher
pressures so that even the smaller seams can be grouted effectively.
Curtain Grouting
In curtain grouting the purpose is impermeance; the grout holes are arranged in a
series of lines to form a curtain approximately perpendicular to the direction of
seepage. The depth of holes is dependent on design considerations as also on the
depth of pervious rock and the configuration of zones of relatively impervious
strata. For grouting with cement 38mm holes have been in common use. In long
holes, the diameter at the top of the holes may have to be larger than the final
diameter at the bottom of the hole to facilitate telescopic observations or to allow
for the wear of the bit.
Single-line Grout Curtains: In this type of curtains, it is customary to drill a
widely spaced system of primary holes, subsequently followed by secondary and
tertiary holes at a progressively smaller spacing Fig. 69a. The initial spacing (of
67
primary holes) usually varies between 6 m to 12 m based on the geological

conditions and on experience. Percolation tests should be carried out in a few test
holes to ascertain whether further grouting of the area is necessary, or whether
secondary or tertiary treatment is required. In addition to the systematic grouting
of primary, secondary or tertiary holes, if may be necessary to drill and grout
additional holes for treatment of peculiar geological features, such as faults,
shear zones and weather rock seams.
Multiple-line Curtains: In rocks with a wide range of size of openings, cavities
and discontinuities, which are also irregularly distributed, multiple line curtain is
optimize selection for better seepage control. It consists of outer lines which are
drilled and grouted initially with thicker grouts. After completing the grouting of
the outer holes, the intermediate line or lines of holes may be drilled and grouted
at comparatively higher pressures with thinner grouts. Grouting of the outer
rows, which is carried out initially, facilitates confinement of the grout and thus
ensures effective subsequent treatment of finer cracks at higher pressure through
the central row or rows of holes. Fig. 69b. Check hole, generally at the inter
section of the diagonal formed by the square, rectangular or parallelograms. As a
rule, the drilling of secondary holes in any zone of foundation should not be
taken up until the grouting of primary holes is completed. In multiple-line
curtains, the relative sequence of outer and inner rows should also be strictly
followed. In the split-spacing or closer method, the sequence is as shown in
Fig. 70(b). If further check holes are necessary, then these will be along a line
formed by a point joining the intersection points of these diagonals, as shown in
Fig. 70(b). In such cases, the grouting will be done as if for 3 rows (Mistry,
1988, Shroff 1999).
Fig. 69 (a): Single Line of Grout HolesCurtain
Fig. 69 (b): Pattern of Holes-Three

Rows Staggered with Equal
Spacing/Square Pattern
The typical patterns of the grout holes drilled at Ukai dam in Gujarat, India are
shown in Fig. 69(b) (Mistry, Shroff, 1977). The grouting pattern adopted
included: (i) three rows staggered with equal spacing in the outer rows at 6m and
half-spacing in the central row, (ii) three rows staggered with equal spacing at 6
m and (iii) three rows with a square pattern and equal spacing of 4.2 m. The
68
distance between each row in (i) and (ii) was 1.5 m while in (iii) 2.1 m was
adopted. The sequence of grouting adopted is depicted in Fig. 69b. It can be seen
that the square pattern with a check hole at the centre (Fig.70a) was more
effective than the staggered pattern (Fig. 69b).
Fig. 70(a): Sequence of Grouting-Grout

Curtain
Fig. 70(b): Two-Row with Split

Spacing
Position of Grout Curtain

The type of dam exerts a strong influence on the optimal position of grout
curtains occasionally; special geological considerations warrant a departure from
the standard position or may warrant relocation of the dam to fit the grouting
location. The standard positions for grouting curtains are at an embankment dam
with an earth core (or of the homogeneous type) a curtain, if used, should be
located upstream of the core axis, but not so far upstream that an insufficient
length of the impervious fill foundation remains between it and the stored water
influence (Houlsby, 1983).
The usual positions, ranging from a vertical curtain at the axis to a steeply
inclined one commencing one-third of the way between the axis and the
upstream toe of the dam. In a gravity dam, both are commonly drilled from a
gallery within the dam. Some arch dams likewise make use of a gallery for this
purpose. In small Arch dam grouting is carried out from the rock before concrete
placement. At an arch dam the curtain must pass through that part of the
foundation which remains more or less compressed during the flexure cycles of
the dam.
Depth of Grout Curtain
The depth of a curtain is determined from considerations of the seepage
characteristics of the foundation. When the fissure pattern is so erratic that no
rational analysis is possible, the depth in rock is often established by empirical
procedures, such as depth equal to 0.5 H to 1.5 H or 0.33 H + C, Where H = head
on foundation and C is a constant equal to 25 feet (7.5m) in sound rock and 35 ft
(10.5m) in fissured rock.
Blanket grouting with curtain: In blanket and curtain grouting for seepage
control beneath dams on rock foundations, usually the depth of holes for blanket
grouting is one fourth of design depth of curtain (6 to 12 m). Grout pattern
typically used in fractured rock where upper surface is highly fractured is as per
sequence shown in Fig. 69a with a difference that if Primary P hole-depth is
D, where , D is design depth of curtain then secondary at 0.75 D, Tertiary at
0.5 D and Quaternary hole at 0.25D (Shroff 2003). Conventional closure pattern
69
for curtain drilling and grouting is followed (Fig.70a or b) (Shroff, 1999). Post
grouting permeability should be 1/100 th of original permeability.
Optimization of Grout Curtain Dimensions-Cut off efficiency
Quantitative Estimation of cut off Efficiency Based on Piezometric Measurement:
Cut-off effectiveness may be assessed quantitatively in terms of the head
efficiency. Head efficiency Eh = h/H, where H = the difference between RWL
and TWL or GWL at the d/s toe or piezometric level in foundation at the d/s toe;
h = the difference between the piezometric level in a foundation just u/s and d/s
of the COT bed. The piezometric level at the d/s toe ideally should be at such
level as to ensure a safety factor of, say, 2.5, against blowout, boiling or heave.
Analytical Estimation Based on Flow Efficiency: The efficiency of an imperfect
cut-off can be defined by the ratio Eh = 100(Qo-Q/Qo)(%), where Q = discharge
per unit length through imperfect cut-off and Qo = discharge that would have
taken place had there been no cut-off. Zero efficiency means the cut-off is
completely ineffective, while with an efficiency of 100%, there is no flow of
water through the cut-off. The smaller the ratio of B/D, the greater the effect of
the width of the cut-off efficiency, where B = width of the cut-off and D =
thickness of the previous stratum below the dam. The value of the ratio B/D for
earth dams is usually large and hence, if the cut-off below the dam is to be
reasonably effective it has to be fairly wide.
Efficiency by Loss in Head Method: The loss in head due to the cut-off,
expressed as a percentage of the total loss in head across the dam, was used as
the measure of cu-off efficiency. For the two dimensional problem, the loss in
head beneath the dam may be considered in the zones: (1) Upstream zone of
essentially parallel flow, of length L1-- head loss H1; (2) cut-off zone of length
L2 parallel flow - head loss H2; (3) Downstream zone of essentially parallel
flow of length L3 -head loss H3; k permeability of the material forming the
pervious layer and k1 the permeability of the grouted cut-off, both assumed to be
isotropic, then the efficiency with respect to loss in head, h is equal to.
Eh = l /{l + (k1/k)} [B/L2 (1 + 0.88 D/L2)], numerical values can readily be
inserted to indicate the magnitude of cut-off efficiencies likely to be encountered
in practice.
Efficacy of Cut-off: Consideration should be given to the effect of mainly three
variables-depth of penetration, degree of imperfection and thickness of the cutoff. The degree of imperfection is defined by the ratio of cut-off permeability
(k1) to the foundation permeability (k). The installation specification (represented
by k1 or k) required to achieve a specified level of performance becomes less
demanding as the thickness of the cut off is increased. The interdependence of
the cut-off parameter B/D and k1/k2 is therefore clearly apparent.
Comparisons: Compared to the first method, Eh gives only an approximate
assessment since the quantity Qo can not be directly established; one has to rely
on flow measuring devices positioned downstream of a dam in assessing the
quantity Q. Contrarily Eh is directly determinable on the basis of field
piezometric data.
70
Cut-off Effectiveness Based on d/s Blowout or Heave: Perhaps the measurement

of uplift pressure upstream and downstream of the cut-off would be a more
convenient method for expressing the efficiency of a cut-off in terms of its direct
measurement. The magnitude of the maximum uplift gradient at the landward
side of the dam and the factor of safety F against uplift failures can be calculated
as the ratio of the downward forces acting on a column of soil to the upward
forces: D(G-1)/H(1+e), h/D = i, exit gradient at the toe, where D= depth of
pervious foundation, h= head loss across cut-off measured at dam/foundation
interface at d/s.When a weighted filter, loading berms, relief well are used, the
factor of safety with respect to heave is increased because the total stress is
increased whereas the pore pressure remains constant. Normally, the factor of
safety should be at least 2.5 to allow for the uncertainty in predicting piezometric
heads at critical points.
OPTIMIZATION OF GROUT HOLES FOR TUNNELS AND
UNDERGROUND OPENINGS (Fig. 71 (a, b, c, d))
(a) Fan array from successive heading (b) Parallel array from surface (c) Inclined
array of grout holes from pit (d) Staggered array of grout holes (e) Fan array
below footing for underpinning existing foundation
Fig. 71(a, b, c, d): Different Patterns of Grout Holes for Tunnel Stabilization
71
Fan array from Successive Headings

A fan type pattern of grout holes was so designed as to ensure the penetration of
the grout mix in the space along each tunnel tube. To ensure the proper
intersection of fissures the spacing of grout holes was so selected that the stage
distances were not larger than 2 m. Similar pattern is used in subway crown and
sides in Karchiya yard reaching to Reliance Petro-chemical complex, Vadodara,
Gujarat.
Parallel Array from the Surface
Vertical pattern of grout hole are used for the Prague subways in order to
eliminate problems of settlement of structures. Different grouts were used in
different soil strata. The pressure of grouting about 35 per cent of the grouted
volume of original soil.
Inclined Array of Grout Holes
During the construction of the Delhi Metro, it is recommended inclined grout
holes to intercept the inclined layer of pervious zone above the tunnel. The case
is discussed later on part-III.
Staggered Array of Grout Holes
Grouting is from the street level as well as from within the rail road tunnel.
Surface holes can be arrange in two staggered rows on each side of the tunnel,
spaced 1.5 m transversely and longitudinally, and a 38 mm diameter pvc pipe
with grout ports spaced 0.75 m vertically can be inserted in the hole. The grout
holes drilled from within the tunnels is generally of 51 mm diameter and fitted
with 32 mm diameter pvc pipe. The tunnel holes are arranged in grout fans,
with fans spaced 1.5 m longitudinally along the railroad tunnel and likewise
drilled to crown level or into the residual soils. Fig.71 (c). Any chemical grout
with a stiff gel can be used. Similar pattern of holes is used at Baltimore Ohio
rail road tunnel. Fan array below footing for underpinning existing foundation.
OPTIMIZATION OF GROUT HOLES DURING SINKING OF SHAFT
In tunnel grouting, to prevent caving often only half circle need to be grouted to
solidify an umbrella above the excavation. In shaft grouting, complete circle
must generally be grouted either for strength or water cutoff for seepage control.
The low viscosity grouts in zones of high static ground water pressure as well as
the use of two- row grout pattern are the optimal requirements Fig. 72(a).
Grouting pattern with holes on 1.2 m centres with a volume of grout to provide a
1.5 m stabilized diameter on even numbered holes and 1.2 m stabilized diameter
on odd numbered holes. Holes (were not vertical) were drilled with radial dip of
1 in 10 and spin of 20o Generally three series of grout holes radially at different
radial distance from sump is carried out with different grouts to prevent heavy
seepage from fissures of rock at some level from ground level during of shaft
sinking, Fig. 72(b) (Shroff, 2006), enveloping of three series of set grouts help
prevent seepage with properly grout design.
72
Fig. 72(a): Shaft Grouting

Pattern
Fig. 72(b): Shaft Grouting Pattern with

Stages
GROUT PRESSURE
Various Imperial Concepts
Allowable Injection Pressure = Overburden above the section being grouted
(Grundy 1957, North American Practice)
Allowable Injection Pressure = psi per foot of overburden (Lippard 1958)
Allowable Injection Pressure = 4 times overburden (Italian Dam Practice)
Allowable Injection Pressure = 5 times overburden (Europian Practice)
Allowable Injection Pressure = P/h = (1 + c / h) cot if horizontal planes are
the dominant planes of weakness Zaruba et al. (1962).
Indian Standard Practice
It is always advisable to begin with a low initial pressure, say 0.1 to 0.25 kg/cm2
per meter of overburden, and build up pressure gradually.
Control of Pressure: It can be exercised by adopting the following means singly
or in combination: The results of trial grouting, along with observations of
upheaval by an uplift gauge. Fig. 73 (a) may be used as a guide, subject to
verification by trial grouting. Pressure limits can be decided by analysis of the
results of cyclic percolation test. Limiting pressure can be decided by continuous
review of the trends of pressure and the rate of intake during grouting operations
along with observation of leaks and movement of uplift gauges.
73
Fig. 73(a): IS Guide For Grout Pressure

Australian Practice
The well known rule of thumb of 1 psi per foot depth is usually a happy
compromise for average to weak rock. Pressure can be doubled for sound rock
(Houlsby, 1983).
Fig. 73(b): Hydrostatic Aspect of Grout Pressure
Figure 74a has been adapted with an upper limit of 150 psi (10 bars) applied for
average conditions. The hydrostatic aspects of grout pressure are explained by
Houlsby (1981) as shown in Fig. 73b. The critical injection pressure would be
given by P = Pe + whw The common specification of 1 lb/in2 per foot depth
applies to a material with no tensile strength and a principal stress ratio of unity.
The pump cannot exceed the overburden pressure unless the material has some
cohesion. The existence of stratification, jointing, and changes in tensile strength
74
with depth can be considered. Fig. 74b,c depict diagram of the drop in pressure
with distance from the grouting hole in the fissure & it reduces to zero towards
the end of the influence zone. Since no useful approach can attempt to account
for all these factors, the most reliable method for finding the allowable injection
pressure will be based upon field tests.
Fig. 74 (a): Maximum Permissible Grout

Pressure Australian Practice
Fig. 74 (b): Grouting with Unstable

Grout (c) Enlarged View of Falling
Grout Pressure
Such tests are discussed in a subsequent section. The hydraulic fracture test is a
useful method for determining the allowable grouting pressure if fracture is to be
avoided.
GROUTING PLANTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
The mixing plants and delivery systems for suspension and solution grouts differ
mainly in their storage and mixing configurations. A typical cement suspension
grouting plant is shown in Fig. 75.
The basic items of a grouting plant and their functions are as follows: (Fig 76 a,
b, c)
(a) Mixer to mix the grout ingredients and then discharge them to
(b) Agitator-top stir the grout and keep it ready for the pump
(c) Pump-which draws the grout from the agitator and pumps it through a
(d) Circulation line-which commences at the pump, leads to the grout hole and
then discharges unused grout back into the agitator
(e) Control fittings-located at the grout hole, these control the injection rate and
pressure so that the hole can be regularly bled of water and thin grout.
75
Fig. 75: Layout of Grouting Plant

For all the three types of grouting, drilling methods, the depth of holes, grouting
pressures and mixes might vary but the grouting equipments and techniques
remain the same.
On very large relatively small jobs, the individual items can be combined into a
single compact unit. Automated, computer controlled and monitored equipment
is economically feasible in large scale projects (Fig. 76d).
Fig. 76(a):
Agitator
Fig. 76(b):
Colcrete Mixer
Fig. 76(c):
Groutpump
Fig. 76(d): Portable

Grouting Plant
Grout mixer
The basic differences between a high speed and paddle mixer are the rotation
speed and the type of mixing impeller; high speed mixers operate at 1500 to
76
2000 rpm while paddle mixers usually rotate relatively slowly at about 100 rpm
or less. The paddle mixer uses a stirring action while the high speed mixer uses a
violent shearing motion in conjunction with a vortex wetting each cement grain
promoting through hydration. The resultant grout is commonly called colloidal
& can penetrate well. High speed mixing is an essential requisite for obtaining
effective cement grouting in rock. There remain, however, applications where
the paddle mixer is superior, such a compaction grouting, where the mix is so
thick that instead of being stirred, it has to be chopped.
Colcrete Mixer (Fig. 76(a)) is the most commonly used mixer in India. Being
manufactured in India, this mixer has a major price advantage.
Grout Agitator
During the period between the time of grout mixing and the time it enters the
pump, it must be agitated continuously to prevent setting. This is accomplished
by an agitator sump between the mixer and the grout pump. An agitator sump is
usually a cylindrical tank (Fig. 76(b)) approximately 1 meter high and 0.75 m in
diameter. Within the tank is an agitating mechanism consisting of a vertical shaft
to which horizontal blades are connected, which revolve at 30100 rpm.
Pumps for Cement based Grouts
In a Helical rotor pump, rotation of chrome plated rotor within double internal
helix , resilient stator provides pulse free flow of grout. Duplex & Triplex pumps
have less pronounced pulsation. For some application an accumulator is used to
smoothen the output still further.
Hydraulic Pumps: These types of pumps are best suited for foundation grouting
works for they have the following advantages: They have independent control of
pressure and flow. They can be set at a predefined pressure and the output
pressures exceed 100 bars.
Chemical Grout Pumps
Metering System: Figure 77 presents Flow Monitoring device a line diagram of
the major components of a chemical grout metering system along with
instruments to indicate actual discharge flows from each pump and a pressure
actuated shut off system to prevent in advertent over pressuring of the formation.
Glass tube flow meters or computerized flow monitoring device (Shroff, 2004)
are used on the discharge end of each pump to give constant readings of
discharge volumes. Metering is accomplished by adjusting the pump outputs to
the desired values or ratios. For electrically driven pump units, similar controls
are available to shut off and restart the motor. More sophisticated mix/metering
equipment (Fig. 77) should be used to allow the resin and hardener elements to
be pumped separately to the injection nozzle or to special mixing heads. There is
another metering system, rated at 6gpm and 400 psi (28 kg/cm2). Motive power
is air, monitored by a pressure controller.
General Observations on Grout Pumps: For applications involving the injection
of fissured rock, such a curtain grouting on dams or contact grouting program in
tunneling, there is a distinct preference for ram type pumps. It is believed that the
77
pulsating flow characteristics mentioned above give better results by allowing a

longer period of injection in fine fissures before eventual refusal.
Portable Grout Plants: (Fig.76d): A grout plant essentially consists of a grout
mixer, agitator tank, and a grout pump. These are minimum required components
mounted on a single skid or a trailer or a truck as per requirement. Other
additional components include a weigh batching unit, automatic real time
recorder, etc.
Grout Valves
For pressure above 200 psi (14 kg/cm2) lubricated plug cocks can be used while
for below 14 kg/cm2 the Saunders type valves are in common use. For chemical
grouts, valves and fittings should be of stainless steel on the discharge side of the
catalyst pump. On the suction side, plastic valves and fittings (compatible with
the catalyst) may be used.
Standpipe Fittings with Manifold: Standpipe fittings are used for controlling the
grout pressures at the hole, measuring the grout pressures, closing off the hole
temporarily when grouting is completed.
Fig. 77: Computerized Metering System
78
Upheaval Gauge
Under high pressure the foundation has a tendency to heave upward. While
grouting is in progress continuous observations are taken on nearby casing pipes
(which extent to the rock below) and concrete blocks prepared for the purpose
and grouting immediately stopped if any upheaval is observed. The allowable
upheaval is 5 mm in earth dams, while 0.25 mm for the formation of masonry/
concrete dam. Fig. 78(a) Computerized upheaval guage is shown in Fig. 78b.
Fig. 78 (a): Upheaval Gauge-Dam
Fig. 78 (b): Computerized Upheaval

Gauge
MONITORING AND EFFICACY OF GROUTING

Refusal Criteria
Refusal is considered to have been reached when the intact grout at the desired
limiting pressure is less than 2 liter/minute averaged over a period of 10 minutes
and the pressure greater than 3.5 kg/cm2, or a liter/minute when the pressure is
below 3.5kg/cm2.
Grout Project Control Curves: (Soil or Rock Response to Injection)
During injection, the flow rate of a properly mixed grout should be constantly
monitored and plotted against the grout pressure to understand what is happening
below ground. Typical response curves of flow rate versus pressure and flow rate
versus time are shown in Fig. 79(a). By means of such curves, one can follow on
a particular job how the soil or rock is responding to the grout being injected.
(a) For permeation or penetration grouting, the flow-rate versus pressure and
flow rate versus time curves are parallel to each other (resulting in a nearly
linear pressure versus time response) at flow rates which depend upon the
porosity of the soil or the sizes of the crack openings in the rock to be
grouted. The flow rate, of course, always decreases with time since the voids
are being gradually filled with the grout.
79
(b) For compaction or controlled displacement grouting, the response is very

similar except that generally lower flow rates are to be expected. These rates
decrease with time as the in-situ formation being grouted becomes densified
within the limits of the equipment and grout being used.
(c) For hydro fracturing or uncontrolled displacement grouting, the responses
are markedly different than for the other two functions. Here a pressure is
always arrived at where the tensile strength of the soil or rock fails and a
lens of grout shoots into the vacated space.
Fig. 79(a): Response of Soil or Rock to Injection: Permeation, Compaction,

Hydrofracturing
Time Pressure Consumption Graph:(TPC Diagrams) Fig.79 (b)
The behavior of a hole has been classified in six broad categories based on timeconsumption and time-pressure data (Mistry, 1988, Shroff, 1999).
Interpretation of standard curves:
1. Consumption drops and pressure remains constant after peak. After reaching
the maximum pressure, a few minor cracks might open out which are again
filled up. The pressure curve is approximately parallel to the time axis while
the consumption at the nearly constant pumping energy goes on decreasing.
This is the ideal pair of curves.
2. Pressure increases and consumption remains constant after peak. This pair of
curves shows that the pressure slightly falls due to opening of the cracks.
After filling in the cracks, the pressure rises and the rate of consumption
remains constant. If the rate of consumption is within permissible limits, the
grouting may be stopped. If the pressure achieved is more than specified, the
operation may be continued at a suitably reduced pump speed. This is also an
ideal pair of curves.
3. Pressure and consumption remains constant after peak. At the peak pressure,
the grout continues to ravel in the cracks unchecked. In this case the grouting
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operation may be stopped after injecting a certain quantity of grout, say 50 to

75 kg of cement/meter. The injected grout left to set. Grouting may then be
resumed after a lapse of about 48 hours, when the cracks will have been partly
sealed by the setting grout.
Fig 79(b): Time-Pressure-Consumption (TPC) Monitoring Diagrams-Behaviour

of Grout Holes
4. Pressure and consumption rise to some value and then fall rapidly. This pair of
curves indicates the opening out of new cracks at peak pressure. On filling of
these new cracks, the pressures and consumptions remain constant throughout,
indicating that at the second peak pressure the grout travel is continuing
uncontrolled. In this case also, the grouting operation may be stopped after
injecting a certain quantity of grout and then resumed after 48 hours.
5. After a rise in pressure to a certain value, the pressure remains more or less
constant, while the rate of consumption goes on rising. This pair of curves
reveals abnormal behavior in the hole. They indicate that there may be leakage
of grout through natural strata or along the hole or some upheaval in the rock
strata. Immediately on locating the leakage point, it should be plugged by
excavating a small pit around it an filling this with lean cement/concrete. If
there has been any upheaval; grouting should be stopped forthwith and
grouting resumed after 48 hours with pressure sufficiently reduced.
6. After reaching to a certain value, the pressure quickly drops while rate of
consumption remains constant. It also shows abnormal behavior of hole.
There may be leakage of grout through natural strata or along the hole or same
upheaval in rock strata. The procedure outline in (5) should be followed.
GIN (Grouting Intensity Number) Process
GIN is a grouting method for rock as suggested by Lombardi et al., 1993. This
method is based on modeling the rock by the FES system (fissured elastic
saturated rock system). In this model, the rock body is characterized by joint
opening in the direction perpendicular to the principal discontinuities, and by the
81
effective stress field at these discontinuities. This makes it possible to represent

the permeability of the rock to be grouted by the spacing and properties of these
fissures and the general state of stress. The GIN method defines a number, called
the Grouting Intensity Number, which is the end of injection pressure multiplied
by the injected grout volume, its dimension is energy. This co-efficient is
proportional to the energy employed in grouting the rock. When the GIN
coefficient is kept constant during grouting, grout penetration is steady and the
volume in open fissures is automatically limited, while the pressure can rise in
finer fissures that are harder to penetrate. GIN indicates that limit pressure is
lower when the volume of unset grout injected is large. Fig. 79a shows GIN limit
(pressure * volume) curves.
Fig. 79(c): GIN Limit Curves

(Pressure* Volume Curves)
Fig. 79(d): Time Pressure

Consumption Relation Per Unit
Time & Depth
From grouting field practice, it seems that time parameter is very significant
while considering pressure-grout consumption relationship. New TPC (TimePressure-Consumption) number/system: (Shroff et al., 2004). Time-PressureConsumption diagrams during grouting is conceived by Mistry 1985 and further
modified by Shroff (2004) bears several important features of grout hole
behavior and time-viscosity and time strength study of Newtenion & Bingamian
grouts and grouted alluvium or rock mass suiting to permeability or lugeon value
of rock or alluvium.
TPC Number is devised form field study at several grouting sites. It is defined as
a number, called time Pressure-Consumption (TPC) number which is injection
pressure during or end of injection pressure at that time multiplied by injected
grout (Volume) at that time its dimension is of grout power (energy) (Pressure
* volume/time) kg. m. per unit time & unit depth of hole. This co-efficient is
proportional the power (energy) used in grouting the rock or alluvium at that
time. This may vary as per joints fissures orientation and their width in rock and
tortuosity of grout flow in alluvium. When TPC value is reached, grouting is
completed satisfying refusal criteria. When TPC is remaining constant during the
grouting, grout penetration is steady and the volume in open fissures is
automatically limited, while the pressure can rise in finer fissures that are harder
to penetrate, if one crosses this number, the hydro fracture (Upheavel) may
82
initiate. It signifies adverently that a limit pressure and limit volume must be
with reference to rock jointings or pore size.
The various curves of TPC are discussed earlier. A typical 3-D diagram is as
shown in the Figure 79d.
New Grouting Process
Micro Fine Grouting along with newly devised TPC system author has put forth
micro fine grouting process. Micro fine process consists of grouting the soil in a
single operation with very thin mix comprising micro fine cement, or colloidal
Silica components which combine with the in situ soil to form hard set mass.
Time-viscosity and Time strength study of above grouts are co-related to TPC
number which is discussed earlier.
DAM GROUT DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM (Fig. 80. a,b,c,d)
It consist of flow and pressure detection unit, flow and pressure recorder unit,
data processing unit, Daily report preparing unit along with grout mixer and
grout pump.
Fig. 80(a) Dam Grout Data Processing System-Computerized Grouting Plant
Fig. 80 (b): Daily Report

Preparing Unit
Fig. 80 (c): Flow and

Pressure Detection &
Recorder Unit
83
Fig. 80 (d): Data

Processing Unit
Flow and Pressure Detection Unit

This control system is designed to return the injection flow when it pressure or
flow rate exceeds the limit values in order to avoid any dangerous effects on the
base rocks or structures.
Features:
Drastic reduction in weight (28 kg) than conventional one.
Ceramics are used for materials of the return valve head and sheet so that
abrasion resistively has been much improved.
Throttle can be made arbitrarily on either one of bore hole side or return side
of the return valve so that flow control in low flow rate has become easier.
The mixer is able to be installed either a higher or lower position than the
entrance of a borehole, dependent on the lay of the site.
The return valve is easily decomposable by the use of a one touch coupler so
that overhaul is easy to be made.
Data Processing Unit

Features:
Rapid and reliable data management is possible and directions for operation
are possible.
Real-time calculations and displays of PQ curve and Lugeon-value are

possible at the construction site.
Daily Report Preparing Unit

Features:
Generation of operation instructions.
Immediate generation of a stage daily report a daily/weekly/monthly data

table etc.
Rapid generation of various statistical tables such as correlation, probability

etc.
Generation of various analysis diagrams including Lugeon maps.
84
Software Developments: Fig. 81 a, b, c, d

Saphyr-Water tests
Enpasol-Reconnaissance
Castaur -Drilling pattern design

Computerised worksheet
Sinnus 3E-Grouting control
Computerised grouting data
Chairloc-Job analysis
Design is controlled by Castaur Software
Design tool for most efficient grout hole pattern (From surface, shaft or tunnel
face) with reference to:
Geometry of volume of ground to be treated
Kinematics of drilling rigs,
Site congestion, obstacles, hole spacing to suit ground.
Castaur input is provided by other software in the package.
Soil survey data from ENPASOL,
Permeability from SAPHYR.
Output is in digital form, for direct input into SINNUS 3E.

SINNUS 3E: Grouting Control and Logging
Control
Screen displays graphs, bar charts and numerical values of parameters from
2.16 grout pumps
Controls grout flow
Controls grout pressure
Stops pumps on reaching refusal pressure, set, volume, empty pipe, etc.
Controls stage re-grouting.
Logging
Records pump, borehole, stage and mix numbers, injection time, mean grout
flow, volume, final pressure, cause of stoppage, etc in all, more than 30
parameters per stage.
Records grout flow, pressure and volume vs time.
Post-grouting Analysis = CHAIRLOC (Fig. 81 C2)

Chairloc prepares job reports by analyzing grouting data from SINNUS 3E.
85
Sorts Data
Displays data in graphic from (colour coding)
Runs multi-criterion analysis for quality control
Calculates re-grouting required.
Sensors (on each Grout Line)
FLOWMETER: Continuously meters flow, cumulative volume and empty

pipe.
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER: Continuously monitors pumps or grout head

pressure.
ARCSINNUS (For each Pair of Lines) Provides
Acquisition of grout flow, pressure and volume 100 times per second.
Regulation of pump speed to keep flow and pressure within set limits.
Communication with control unit 3 times per second:

-
Receives new flow and pressure settings, maximum or stop pump

pressure.
Despatches grout flow, volume, pressure and claquage pressure data.
ARCSINNUS is also important in testing sensor and power supply integrity.

CONTROL UNIT (216 grout lines)
Comprises:
At 486 computer:
-
Monitors set values;
Communicates with ARCSINNUS:
Sends settings for regulation,
Receives grouting data
Stores data on hard disk
Operates monitor, keyboard and apringer.
21 Panoramic monitor screen,
Special SINNUS ergonomically designed keyboard,
Printer for immediate shift report production
Inverter protection against power failure and hiccoughs.
Data is exchanged between SINNUS 3E and CASTAUR/CHAIRLOC by

diskette. (Fig. 81 C1, C2).
86
1.
Flow regulation: If actual pressure less than set pressure, then flow
regulation normal.
2.
Pressure regulation, if pressure exceeds set pressure, then, flow setting

lowered to control pressure. If pressure still rises to PMax, thenpump
stops (Fig. 81d).
3.
If pressure drops back below set pressure, thenflow regulation controlled

by flow setting.
The real time display of grout pressure versus flow rate is of great assistance
because the pressure can be increased monotonically provided the xy plot
remains linear or the pressure increases faster than the flow rate (turbulent flow).
The limiting pressure desired is just prior to the hydraulic fracture, which
appears as a line almost near parallel to the flow axis on the xy plot. Grouting
Engineer can control injection pressure to 80 per cent of the fracture pressure for
normal injection by this system. Moreover, interpretation of the time plot of the
flow rate record on the two channel chart recorder allows the grouting engineer
to determine the required grout mix. A list of suppliers manufacturing such type
of recorders are as under, Altas Copco, Haeny, Ciolcrete Eurodril.
Fig. 81 (a): Control Desk, Grout Pumps

and Acquisition Systems
Fig. 81 (b): Control Unit:

ARCSINNUS
Fig. 81 (c1) CASTAUR (c2)

CHAIRLOC Software-Flow Pattern
Fig. 81 (d): Flow Rate and Pressure

Regulation
Automatic Injection Pumps

Usually hydraulically operated pumps can be used and controlled using
computers along with a automatic recorder and can be coupled using an
intelligent pro logic controllers to totally automate the entire grouting process.
Computerized Weigh-Batching
For mixing operation, computerized weigh batching is used. Usually cement is
supplied in silos and transported to the mixer using a screw type of feeder. The
87
mixer is mounted on electronic load cells and can measure the quantity of water
and cement added. This helps in rapid and accurate mixing in the required
proportion.
Purulia Pumped Storage Project (West Bengal Electricity Board)
The project involved drilling and grouting of upper dam, lower dam and
penstocks. A peak rate of 48 stages per day was achieved using 12 automatic
grout plants, and 6 automatic self recording gauges.
EFFICACY OF GROUTED MASS (Fig. 82a, b)
Consideration should be given to the effect of mainly three variables-depth of
penetration, degree of imperfection and thickness of the cut-off. Some new
methods with compensatory accuracy and ease have been devised. Notable
amongst them are (i) radioactive tracer, (ii) earth probing radar and (iii) crosshole acoustic system.
Fig. 82(a):Deep Water Isotope

Current Analyzer
Fig. 82(b): Pulsed Bore Hole Radar
H-Hoist, CE- compass & electronics,

SD-scintillation detector, IT-isotope
tank, P-power supply, T-tripod
Radioactive Tracer
It is possible to inject readily absorbable radiotracers through a tube inserted near
the bottom of reservoir. The accumulation of adsorbed tracers at any point on the
bottom is proportional to the amount of water which passed through that point.
The detectors are deployed at points where seepage water has emerged. The
electronic recorders give the number of isotopes collected at such points. If the
grout curtain is watertight, the number of isotopes collected at a certain point will
be less. A deep-water isotope current analyzer (DWICA) may be used for
discharging isotopes, as shown in Fig. 82.a. It consists of a central isotope tank
and is associated with a number of scintillation counting detectors placed
peripherally around it. The entire device is lowered into the water by means of a
hoist and measures both the direction and the velocity of currents. The
limitations in leakage investigation is the quantity of seepage.
88
Borehole Earth Probing Radar System (Fig. 82b)

The system to be used for grout monitoring is the trans illumination mode in
which the transmitter and the receiver are in separate boreholes. The operation of
trans illumination radar. With the transmitter continuously sending pulses to the
receiver, both are raised keeping them at the same level and recording the
received signal and the depth of the two instruments continuously. The radar
signal will be greatly attenuated, since most grouting materials are excellent
absorbers of electromagnetic radiation. Areas which are poorly grouted will
permit more of the signal to pass through the receiver. Now, quantitative
assessment of the grout between two boreholes at any given level has become
possible (Shroff et. al. 2008).
Acoustic Cross-hole Shooting System
It is based on profile of acoustic velocity of the medium between two boreholes
as a function of depth. Since acoustic velocity is a function of E/ (where E =
elastic modulus and = density of medium). Acoustic profile where a wave may
travel indistinctly a curve path helps in assessing primarily the stiffness of the
grouting medium, it may be desirable to use both systems to obtain the best
possible indication of location and character of the grouted zone. Radar and
acoustic velocity are techniques by which the grouting effort may be evaluated
independent of the grouting operation itself.
GENERAL CONSIDERATION OF PERMEATION, COMPACTION &
DEEP MIXING (JET GROUTING)
Three injection modes of grouting are possible as shown earlier in Fig. 2 of
part-I. Permeation grouting in which the low-viscous grout fills soil pores. There
is essentially no change in the volume or structure of the original ground. This
type of grouting can generally only be used in soils coarser than fine sands and in
fissured rocks. With displacement grouting, in which a stiff suspension-type
grout fills soil pores and compressing the surrounding ground, up heaving often
occurs in this technique. With encapsulation grouting, the slow set grout
naturally penetrates the fragmented ground or ground fractured hydraulically
under high grouting pressure and surrounds intact chunks of soil.
Recently, the newly developed Navi-Drill double packer method was successful
in increasing the depth to 100 m. The drilling accuracy of this self-drilling
machine is under 1/500. Drilling of the bore hole, of which the diameter is 15 cm,
was done using a self drilling and drill head rotating system. During the drilling
period, mud slurry was used to support the wall of the bore hole. This technique
will be applied to improve the area around the shaft for the deep shield machine.
DEEP MIXING METHOD (JET GROUTING) TECHNOLOGY
The in situ mixing of stabilizers with soft soils to form columns, walls, grids or
blocks in the ground has been developed and applied extensively in civil
engineering practice since the 1970s. This method is abbreviated as DMM. As
stabilizing materials, quicklime was used initially, but now Portland cement is
more popularly in Japan used in both slurry state and dry powdered state. The
89
two types of mixing methods, namely, deep mechanical mixing (DMM) and high
pressured grout mixing (Jet Grouting) have been developed for mixing with
stabilizer under deep ground condition. These are shown schematically in Figs.
83.a,b.
Jet Grouting Technology: The latter technique termed as jet grouting, was first
developed in Japan in the late 70s and was introduced for the first time in India
in 1983. In jet grouting the soil is mixed in-place, with a stabilizing mixture
under a very high nozzle pressure. By using this technique, it is possible to treat
a wide range of soils and even weathered rocks by use of a simple cement grout
mixed in place with soil particles under very high nozzle pressures of even up to
300400 kg/cm2.
Fig. 83(a): Deep Mixing Method
Fig. 83(b): Jet Grouting Method
90
Advantages of the systems are wide range of soils that can be successfully
treated, capability to obtain Jet-grouted columns of consolidating soil with
diameter ranging from 60 to more than 200 cm by using small diameter drilled
holes, (usually 100 to 140 mm), capability to overpass pre-existing foundations
boulders, rocky layers and use of light weighing and small sized drilling rigs in
small working areas. Main applications of the method are underpinning,
diaphragm walls, tunnel consolidation, bottom plugs, slopes consolidation,
impervious Cut-offs, diaphragm walls gaps and break-in and break-out for TBM.
Jet grouting 1 implies the use of single fluid (the grout) as a fracturing medium
and stabilizing agent, when single phase system is adopted.
Jet grouting 2is the double fluid consists of the simultaneous high-pressure jet
injection of grout and air. In the process, the in-situ soil structure is broken up
completely by the very high-pressure grout jet, assisted by an enveloping air jet;
the air jet increases the cutting radius and improves the workability of the soil
grout mixture.
Jet grouting 3 means the use of 3 fluids, air and water as the fracturing and
washing media and grout as the stabilizing agent, when three phase system is
used. In Jet grouting 3, soil is cut by cutting action of air-water jet from upper
nozzle (4mm dia), at pressure of 300 to 400 kg.cm2 and removed by water flow
and is simultaneously replaced by cement grouting lower nozzle (7 mm dia) (at
40 kg/cm2) pressure. This system is known as the three phase (air, water and
grout) procedure (Fig. 83. b.)
In three phase jet grouting process, the monitor, which comprises a triple phase
fluid drill pipe, conveying three process elements of air, water and cement grout,
is lowered in to predrilled hole.
There are two nozzles (Fig. 83. b) one above the other, separated by a spacing of
500mm. Generally, the cutting action of jet is effective, up to a distance of 1.5m
from the nozzle. The high pressure jetting grout in-situ soil structure breaks up
and pushes out the destroyed materials through the annular space between the
rods and the borehole while the grout mixes with part of the disturbed soils. The
soil cement mix sets after some time to form a stabilized pile with nominal
diameter of about 6001400mm.
In brief, the jet grouting technique aims at treating the unstable stratum, by
replacement of weaker materials with stronger materials, to enable the same to
bear the overburden on the top, by arch action transferring the loads to stable
supporting media.
Comparisons: For grout injection rates above 500t/m, the triple-fluid system can
from large diameter columns with less spoil generated than when the single-fluid
system is used. The excavating efficiency of the triple-fluid system is sensible
because the airlifting action of the compressed air/water cutting jets assists in the
removal of cuttings from the drill hole, though per cent out flow generated is
more (60%) than in single system (50%), facing less handling problems.
The unconfined strength versus depth data plotted in Fig. 84.a indicates that the
single-fluid system results in higher strengths than the other two jet grout
91
methods. Below 6m, the single-fluid system produces soil Crete comparable to
structural concrete (400 kg/cm2). The triple-fluid creates the second strongest
soil crete (150300 kg/cm2. The double-fluid system produces the weakest soil
crete with most strength between 75 and 150 kg/cm2.
Jet grouting is usually applied below the water level. Direct jetting in water
results in significant attenuation and does not make sense, accordingly. In an
actual work, a longer cutting reach is the vital concern. Surrounding a water jet
with a cylindrical film of air has proved the solution to lowering the attenuation
of jetting power.
Because the shear force at the wall for a two-phase fluid is smaller than for a
single-phase fluid, the momentum also becomes smaller and as a result, the jet
can excavate farther. Both jet pressure and flow rate similarly affect soil cutting.
Deep Jet Grouting in Clay: During Jet grouting in marine clay (more than 35 m)
to form a slab, the production process is separated in two phases. The first is
cutting the clay by modified double system (super jet) with a grout of low
cement content and afterwards filling the volume with a grout of high cement
content which will satisfy the requirement of column with high strength in the
treated soil
The permanent back flow of spoil (waste slurry) & its viscosity should be
monitored to prevent heaving or settlement of the adjacent buildings.
Theoretical Considerations
Jet cutting is predominantly affected by the nozzle characteristics. Subsequent
research at M.S. University, Baroda, India made it possible to publish a general
nozzle specification based on the following: (1) The nozzle should be made of
the hardest material possible, e.g. tungsten carbide. (2) The internal surface
should be mirror-finished. (3) The contraction angle should be 13, as shown in
Fig. 84.b. (4). The straight portion should be 2.5 to 3 times as long as the nozzle
diameter.
Fig. 84 (a): Soilcrete Strength for

Three Jet Grouting System
Fig. 84 (b): Effect of Nozzle Shape on

Performance
92
A nozzle satisfying the above conditions can maintain good efficiency. The
upper stream condition towards the jetting nozzle is also of vital importance for
achieving ideal jetting performance. Fig. 85.a describes the jet structure.
Both the experimental and theoretical results verify that the length of the straight
portion generating a laminar flow in the upper part of the nozzle, significantly
affects the jet performance. Specifically, L/D should exceed 50.
New Concepts: A new concept was introduced in which two water jets are
aligned to collide with each other and then artificially diffused to attenuate the
kinetic energy which would otherwise continue.
Fig. 85 (b): Collision Jet for Soil

Cutting
Fig. 85 (a): Mechanical, Jet

Combined Method
Fig. 85 (c): Jet Structure
By diffusing the kinetic energy of the jets, the concept succeeded in controlling
the reach of the jets within the desired distance of improvement. The principle
concern of conventional methods was only to enlarge the improved body, not to
improve homogeneity which is dependent on the characteristics of the soil.
Because two jetting streams always cross at an exact point, (Fig. 85.b) the grout
front constructs a nearly straight configuration as if within a virtual formwork.
The many diamond shapes formed by intersection stream lines promise a better
mixing of soil with cement slurry. Auxiliary equipment has been specially
developed to generate a highly focused flow (Shroff et al., 2007). The research
includes that simply increasing jetting energy along will not always prove
successful in meeting improvement goals, because increasing the cutting reach
and acquiring an exact diameter and homogeneity are dependent on principles of
fluid dynamics.
93
A combination of mechanical and jet mixing is recently introduced in practice

along with collision of jets. Fig. 85.c illustrates the concept of this method. The
apparatus has grout nozzles at the tips of the mixing blades. The combination of
mechanical mixing and dual colliding jet technology subsequently became
practicable. Fig. 85.c shows the conceptual drawing. Utilization trend of jet
grouting based on SPT indicated the following:
% Utilization Trend
SPT
25.9
3<N
19.5
100 < N 150
10.0
50 < N 100
14.5
30 < N 50
Identification of Column Diameter: A mechanical measuring device developed at

M S University,Gujarat using screw jack operation of the two arms at depth has
been used to identify a column diameter of 1.5 m. The patented device developed
by Keller Gundbau consists of precise hydraulic operation of the two arms. The
hydraulic cylinder with scale on the surface operated by hand pump in such a
way that the piston rods of the measuring arms will be extended which is read on
the scale of hydraulic cylinder and reaching to the column wall. The maximum
diameter which can be measure is 4.2 m at any depth up to 1% accuracy.
Case 1: Jet Grouting in Tunnel Construction Weak Overhead Crown
Materials
South Eastern Railways (S.E.R.) have undertaken the work of laying a 164 km
single track connection Koraput and Rayagadha in Orrisa State. The tunnel has a
diameter of 6.09 m in heading portion and overall height of 6.606 m and total
cross section area of 41.57 m2.
Execution Problems: Work of excavation in benching portion commenced at Ch.
361, the material lying above the crown, started collapsing into the tunnel and a
chimney formation took place above the tunnel. A pit of almost 10m diameter at
top and a depth of 6-8 m were formed above the crown of the tunnel. There was
heavy ingress of water into the tunnel from this pit. The tunnel was filled up with
mud, boulders and soft rock which had fallen from the pit. Cement grouting was
attempted to tackle the problem, but this did not prove successful.
The material above the crown of the tunnel was predominantly soil overburden,
consisting of hard/dense sandy clay/clayey sand, which used to get fully
saturated with ground water during the monsoon. At ch. 151, the material
overlying the crown of the tunnel, was almost entirely made up of completely
and highly weathered rock. When the ground got saturated with water, with
water table just 4 m below ground, these formations yielded, resulting into
puncturing of the crown portion of tunnel and causing a mud flow carrying with
it approximately 3500 cum of debris. The maximum ground subsidence at this
location was approximately 912m.).
At Ch. 671, when the first controlled blast was taken, a heavy collapse
accompanied by mudflow and ingress of water was experienced. This bent the
steel ribs provided earlier and 10 to 15m high cavity was developed above the
crown of tunnel.
94
Drilling Machinery: Drilling rig, called Casagrande C-6 rig is a self contained,
track mounted, hydraulic drilling rig, which can be easily maneuvered in all
types of ground conditions. At this site, 115 mm diameter boreholes were drilled,
using special type drill rods with male female joints and tricone roller bottom
bits, using a T-150 power swivel. The drilling was done at rate between 80 to
100 rpm.
Fig. 86 (a): Jet Grouting Treatment Ch. 151
Fig. 86 (b): Jet Grouting Treatment Ch.

361
Effectiveness of Jet Grouting (Fig. 86.a & 86.b): Vertical or inclined drilling and
jet grouting have effectively stabilized the unstable strata in tunneling work,
which were anticipated to be hazardous were properly treated in advance, by jet
grouting and later on no problems were faced during the excavation of tunnel in
these stretches. Whenever jet grouting treatment was given, excavation of tunnel
face was carried out by using hand held jack hammers, allowing a 2m clearance
on either end of treated portion.
Case: 2: Tunneling in Soft Ground Using Shield and Jet Grouting: Sinking
of Shield in Soft Ground
Eastern Railways have constructed 17 km of underground railway known as
Calcutta Metro. The job required construction of Underpass beneath the 6
existing railway tracks (Fig. 87.a) without disturbing the traffic. Two tunnels of
5.1 m inside diameter (one for up-line and other for down-line) were to be
constructed for this purpose.
Execution Problems Encountered: After construction of 30 m length of up line
tunnel, construction progress was hampered on account of very soft nature of
strata. Due to soft clayey silt, the shield started sinking in soft ground underneath
and could not be maneuvered. At this stage, the shield nose dived by 87 cm and
it was very much in excess of specified tolerance limit of 50 cm (Fig. 87.b).
Further construction of tunnel was then suspended. It was decided, to use jet
grouting technique to stabilize ground conditions, by strengthening the soft
95
clayey silt beneath the base of tunnel, by mixing it with cement slurry introduced
by jet grouting.
Fig. 87(a): Schematic Arrangement

for Carrying Out Jet Grouting
Fig. 87 (b): Jet Grouting in Operation at

Site
Jet grouting was carried out from outside the tunnel. For this purpose, jet
grouting rig was kept on the railway embankment and inclined holes were drilled
up to required depth. After completion of drilling only 2 to 3 m portion of
borehole, the tunnel was jet grouted below the base.
Spacing between centers of adjacent drill holes was kept between 50 to 60 cm.
Diameter of each jet grout column was of order of 1.5 m2.0 m by orienting the
drilling direction properly, the jet grout columns were so formed that, they were
more or less touching each other and formed a composite envelope beneath the
base of the tunnel. Jet grouting was done using single phase process i.e. water
cement slurry only. Cement consumption varied between 300400 kg/m of jet
grout column. After treating a length of 8-10m, excavation in that portion, was
carried out using blade shield unit. By providing jet grouting beneath the base,
the nose diving tendency was totally restricted and tunnel shield could be
maneuvered in correct alignment.
Case 3: Jet Grouting for Well Foundation at Jogighopa Bridge
Well foundation on sloping rock strata: A major rail-cum-road bridge was
recently completed across river Brahmaputra connecting NH31 at Jogighopa
with NH37 at Pancharatna (M.P.). These wells were sunk up to 67m depth in the
river bed through predominantly sandy/silt strata.
Execution Problems (Fig. 88.a): At locations 17 & 18, however, a hard rock
stratum was existing at a depth of 40m and that too in a steeply sloping
condition. Scour during the floods is expected up to the rock strata and as such
the wells were not likely to have any passive resistance from the overburden.
This necessitated a very special and innovative design in order to rest the
foundation uniformly over sloping rock strata and stabilizing it against
tremendous horizontal force of about 5000 MT.
Among various alternatives jet grouting was selected as to be the most optimal
solution in view of its inherent advantages of geometric flexibility and costeffectiveness.
96
Execution of Jet Grouting: As the jet grouting operation took place below ground
with practically no direct control, it was necessary to introduce redundancy in the
layout of columns by providing overlapping. The gap between cutting edge and
rock was sealed by two rings of overlapping columns as shown in Fig. 88.b.
Specialized Equipments: The following specialized equipments were mobilized,
Drill rig with all control attachments, High pressure Haliburton pump, Diesel
driven, Specialized drill rods and other accessories, Cement grout and bentonite
mixers and Borehole survey instrument.
Fig. 88 (a1): General Arrangement of Well

No. 17 & 18
Fig. 88 (a2) Layout of Jet Grout

Columns
Working Platforms: For overcoming problems posed due to water depth and
current, specially designed working platforms had to be provided for carrying out
the jet grouting operations.
Working Parameters: During drilling: Bentonite pumping pressure = 820 bars,
Air pressure = 2.5 to 4.5 bars, Bentonite slurry Sp. Gr. = 1.031.06, Rotational
speed of drill rods = 50rpm. Drilling with bentonite slurry was preferred.
During Jetting: Air pressure = 6 bars, Grout pressure = 360380 bars, Rotational
speed of drill rods = 12 rpm, Retraction speed of drill rods = 2225 cm/min.
Special Features: Due to the large depth of 40m, drilling accuracy was a crucial
parameter on this project. Drilling was done in a manner which minimized the
risk of deviation from the desired location by accurate survey. The exact location
was surveyed using a special inclinometer. After surveying, jetting was started.
Grout pressure of about 360 bar was used for cutting the soil and forming jet
grout columns up to the desired height.
Case 4: Jet Grouted Cutoff Below Cofferdam
In construction of Omkareshwar Hydroelectric Project (520 MW) an effective
curtain is provided to prevent seepage water from river bed getting into the dam
97
seat. Riverbed material consisted of large size boulders. When most of the
techniques were not either suitable or cost and time effective, it was decided to
follow the technique of formation of jet grouted columns for cut off below the
cofferdam (Fig. 88b).
To mobilize the equipments and make a cutoff wall for cofferdam by using Jet
Grouting Column (JGC) method having length of 1169.00 m. Each jet grout
column is 1200mm diameter with center to center spacing of 1000 mm between
two JGC having 14m depth from the top of the soil strata.. Hence, total 1168
number of JGC to be done. For this project Bi-Fluid system was followed.
Jet grouted elements correspond to the volume of soil eroded and cemented from
a single borehole. When rotating and simultaneously translating the erosive jet
stream in the borehole with constant speeds, a column is formed having the
shape of a cylinder in homogeneous soil.
Fig. 88 b Layout of Jet Grouted Column as cut off for D/s coffer dam
In heterogeneous ground, with obstacles, the jet grouted column obtained has an
irregular shape, because of the resistance opposed by the soil to the jet erosion
and the parameters of execution. When jetting in sandy soils, the jet around
material is like a cement mortar.
Execution problems during excavation of works:
1.
It is advised to use bi-fluid grout system to avoid chocking of two nozzles

(3mm size) in which high pressure cement grout is pumped through monitor.
2.
When there used to be tight space around the jet monitor, the air got returned
towards compressors, resulting in the stoppage of air supply. This problem
was solved by installing non return valves in the air line to stop the back
flow of air.
During pre drilling, Rotex N-116 bits and also 152 diameter steel casing pipes or
drilling with Odex bits using Panthar Hammer and 141.2 mm steel casing pipes
were resorted to.
Pre-Drilled Holes Filling: After the pre-bored holes were filled up with cement
bentonite (1 : 0.5) the drilling rig was setup at the hole location for the re-drilling
of the hole and for the final soil treatment with the high pressure jetting. The drill
rig will need to have a jetting trestle of about 20 to 22 m to permit the JET2 drill
98
string to be totally mounted on the machine. Vertical Accuracy is checked with

angle spirit level being short jet column.
Steps Followed: Pumping in the jetting line with a mixture constituted of water
and cement in a W/C ratio of 1:1, upon confirmation of toe level, the valve is
opened for jet grouting. High pressure grout jets horizontally from the nozzles in
an air envelope. The jet grouting monitor is raised and rotated at the designed
rates according to the operation parameters. Simultaneously, the air and cement
grout at the design pressure is injected into the surroundings soils. The jet grout
column is formed at the monitor.
As the monitor is raised, the column is form upwards until the designed cutoff
level is reached. The grout jetting pressure, the rotational speed and withdrawal
rate will be adjusted according to the in-situ conditions. The cement grout will
flow through the jetting hoses, the cement swivel head, the internal pipe of the
JET2 drill string and will go out in the soil at velocity of about 250 m/sec. The
air will start reaching the soil from specific air nozzles placed around the cement
nozzles. Following the above proposed geometrical design, we had good overlap
of the jetting columns to obtain a continuous cut of wall (Fig. 88.b).
Jet Grouting Control: During jet grouting, the pressure of respective fluid, grout
flow rate, air pressure, the withdrawal and rotational speed was monitored
closely. The withdrawal rate could be monitored by using a roller fixed on to the
mast and stopwatch. The nozzle level could monitor by the movement of a
marker on the rod against a reference ruler. As the injected cement displaces the
alluvium soil, the alluvium soil is pushed out from the borehole. The sludge was
transported to and stockpiled in designed temporary sludge pit near the jet
grouting area and was disposed accordingly.
Special equipments: Drilling Rig, Soil Mech. SM 400, High pressure jet grout
triplex pump, Mixer plant -Techniwell, compressor for Air supply.
Case 5: Jet Grouted Columns at Intake Well and Caisson Junction at
2 600 MW Mahan Thermal Power Plant, Madhya Pradesh, India
A circular intake well, a part of 2 600 MW power plants at Madhya Pradesh is
designed to draw water for generation of electricity. From the center of reservoir
water is to be brought through channel to this intake well. A pump house is to be
erected on this intake well. The depth of intake well from ground level to cutting
edge is 30 m below bed level and from reservoir level it is 33 m. The bore log
data indicates fine sand up to 7 m from river bed level and black/white quartz for
next 10mt, below which highly fragmented fractured rock (Fig. 89).
Execution Problems: Design considerations suggests that there will be over
tuning of intake well towards reservoir side, so as a remedial measure a
rectangular caisson is designed to provide passive resistance to intake well.
Water from reservoir flows in channel to intake well through sluices made in
caisson. The stress concentration study by FEM & Photo elastic model of the
junction of caisson and intake well has revealed that the stability provided by
caisson to intake wall is insufficient in providing full passive resistance against
over turning and to take care of the critical stresses generated during the
99
maximum water flow from caisson to intake. Generation of this critical stress at
junction may be due to reversal of hydrostatic stresses at the junction point, also
simultaneously it adds to overturning stresses acting towards the reservoir which
may create adverse condition (Fig. 89).
Observations of the model testing by centrifuge model set up at GERI as
confirmed the above considerations at the junction of intake well and cassion.
Further it seems that there can be leakage of water depth wise, partly from the
cassion and partly from the well.
Solution of the Problems: For the solution of these problems the various
alternatives viz;
(i) Grouted sand fill at junction of well and caisson,
(ii) Constructing interconnected ring of 50mm diameter pipes keeping nearer to
well steining and caisson box
(iii) Jet grouted columns all around the junction.
Among various alternatives, jet grouting is to be selected to be most optimal
solution in view of inherent advantage of geometric flexibility and cost
effectiveness.
Fig. 89: Jet Grouted Columns for Strengthening In-Take WellCassion Junction
The experience of double raw jet grouted columns at Jogighopa Bridge will be
useful for the work.
Two rows of jet columns overlapped with one another to act as barrier against
seepage and capable of withstanding over tuning moment of well towards
reservoir side. Design calculations worked out from the over tuning forces
indicated that total number of jet grouted columns required are 20 nos. on east
side & 20 nos. of west side of well caisson-intake well junction. Spacing and
100
number of jet columns are based on design considerations of resistance against

over tuning moment of well.
Main operational parameters that were fixed as a result of the trials were the
rotational and retraction speeds of the drill string during jetting, water cement
ratio and pumping pressure. The main working parameters during field
operations can be the same as mentioned earlier: On a average 4 to 5 bore holes
could be jetted per day of ten effective working hours. For the execution of jet
grouting column the specialized equipments suggested are the same as Jogighopa
Bridge. A structural steel cantilever platform is suggested erected over intake
well for carrying out the jet grouting operations.
Case 7: Movements Associated with Jet Grouting and Mitigation Measures
Basement excavation, thickness of jet grout layer and monitoring instruments for
Post Centre (Fig. 89).
Fig. 89: Layout of Basement Excavation, Jet Grout Layer, Monitoring

Instruments
As a process of jet grouting involves the cutting of soil by a mixture of water and
air and the placement of grout, all under high pressure, there is a tendency for the
adjacent soil to be displaced away from the grouted zone. This displacement may
have some adverse effects on the retaining walls, adjacent soils, and nearby
structures if it is not properly controlled. Results of study indicate that the use of
a temporary casing outside the grout pipe would substantially reduce ground
movements.
Execution Problem Encountered: The grouting was performed using water
injection, grout injection, and compressed air pressure of 40 to 45, 8 to 12, and
0.7 to 1.0 MPa, respectively. The adopted water flow rate was 60 to 70 l/min
while the grout flow rate was 80 to 90 l/min. Rod withdrawal rate was 110 to 125
mm/min and rod rotation rate was 8 to 9 rpm. The grout was prepared using
water cement ratio of 1:1 with cement content of 750 kg/m3. The production
101
grouting caused the 0.8 to 1.2 m thick adjacent retaining diaphragm walls to
move between 9.7 to 36.4 mm, away from the jet-grout area as shown in Fig.
90a, causing significant +BM and -BM (Max.787KNm/m). The grouting also
caused the soil next to the diaphragm walls to move back by up to 54 mm (Fig.
90b). Soil heave behind the walls, induced by production grouting ranged from 2
to 24 mm, with the majority less than 10 mm which has tilted MRT station Viaduct columns to 20 to 90 sec and caused the column to settle.
Fig. 90(a): Lateral Soil Movements

Next Diaphragm Walls
Fig. 90(b): Effect of Jet Grouting on

Lateral Wall Movements
Mitigation measures: The use of temporary casing during jet grouting would
ensure the borehole stability and provide effective path for waste slurry to reach
ground surface. The use of temporary casing together with properly selected
grouting operation parameters would substantially reduce ground movements
caused by the jet grouting.
Case 7: Comparison of the Effectiveness of Deep Soil Mix Columns Using
2-D and 3-D FEM
Slip Descriptions: Topography and Ground condition: The slip discussed
occurred in State Highway 11, in Himachal Pradesh. It was a road slip which
occurred in a section where the road has been constructed on a natural valley
feature. The upper slope of the valley above the road is hummocky and shows a
number of head scarp, creep and slump features. The area below the failure is
highly vegetated with trees and bush, with the lower flanks of the valley also
containing houses. Bore hole logs indicate that the sub surface condition consist
of soft to firm silt clay sandwiched between fine to coarse grained gravel and
firm to stiff silt clay. Mudstone/sandstone forms the bedrock.
Failure Mechanism (Fig. 91a): Site observations suggest that the failure is likely
to have resulted from a circular slip, which has probably been induced by
saturation of the slope during a heavy rainfall event. Creep movement was noted
below the toe of the slip, which would have contributed to the failure to some
102
extent. A secondary deeper block failure was suspected to be responsible for the
crack adjacent to the road centerline.
Table 10: Strength properties of soil/rock
Soil/Rock
Fill
Backfill
Soft firm clay
Silty clay
Mud stone
C, kPa
0.0
2
5
30
2000
Degree
30
30
28
30
30
E, mPa
12
20
25
50
1000
The slip is approximately 50 m long in the longitudinal direction.

Jet Grouting Column Assessment (Fig. 91b): Once the actual slope failure is
successfully simulated, deep soil mixing columns are introduced into the model.
The columns are modeled as soil using volume elements. Typically the design
unconfined compressive strength of a deep soil mixing column is about 1.5 MPa.
In reality, the achieved strength is much higher in most cases.
Fig. 91(a): Slip on the Shoulder on

the Road
Fig. 91(b): Parameters Used in the

Model
Fig. 91(c): 3-D Output-Deviator

Stress Hardening Soil Model (Col.
spacing 2.5m)
Fig. 91(d): 3-D Output Principal Stress

Direction Mohr-Coulomb Model (Col.
spacing 2.5m)
In 2D models, the column has been modeled using a replacement ratio method in
out of plane direction. The columns are modeled together with the surrounding
soil as a block of composite material. This takes the column spacing into account
by assigning appropriate average composite properties.
103
The 3D model uses the design properties of the deep soil mixing column as
input. The columns are positioned in such a way that a block of improved soil
bounded by the columns is created in the pavement and the slope below the road.
Two rows of 0.3 m by 0.3 m columns are installed and the lengths of the
columns are 5.0 m and 6.0 m. Our research focus on the behavior of columns for
the following scenarios:
Variation on column spacing i.e. 0.6 m (2 times diameter spacing), 2.5 m (8
times diameter spacing) and 4.0 m (13 times diameter spacing) in the
longitudinal direction (parallel to road). The 2.5 m spacing is the practical
maximum spacing we have adopted based on field observations of completed
projects.
The effect of soil model used in the assessment i.e. Mohr Coulomb Soil Model
and Hardening Soil Model.
Results: The output of Plaxis analysis with regard to factor of safety and shear
stress acting in column are given in Table 11.
Both models 2D & 3D given a similar failure mechanism as shown in Figure
91c, d & FS = 1.1 & 1.2 respectively. The shear stress mobilized by the columns
are determined from the deviator stress given in the Plaxis output. In 2D models,
this needs to be converted to an equivalent shear stress as the columns have been
modeled as a block of composite material instead of an individual column as in
the case for 3D. The conversion is based on the assumptions that the shear stress
taken by each column is proportional to the stiffness of surrounding soil and
takes into consideration of column spacing. This aspect needs to be refined to
maximize the effectiveness of the columns.
Discussion: Factor of Safety: The computed factor of safety in 3D models are
lower than 2D models by 5% to 7%. As in 2D model the effect of stress
distribution for different column spacing have not been taken into account. For
this problem a spacing of 2.5 m is the maximum and probably a closer spacing
would be more beneficial in reality.
Table 11: Comparison of Factor of Safety Using Plaxis 2D Version 8.2 and Plaxis 3D
Tunnel Programme
Column Spacing (m)
max = Max Shear
stress ( kPa)
Pre-existing Case
0.6
2.5
4.0
2D
1.10
1.54
1.53
1.54
Factor of Safety (FoS)

Mohr Coulomb
Hardening Soil Model
3D
2D
3D
max
max
max
max
1.21
1.10
1.19
142
1.55
70
1.53
111
1.54
64
326
1.45
73
1.52
252
1.45
54
388
1.43
70
1.51
287
1.44
50
Shear Stresses in Column: 2D models show significantly higher shear stress

compared to 3D model above because the shear stress in 2D model is the
equivalent shear stresses acting in columns which is calculated using the
equivalent stiffness assumption whereas the shear stress in 3D model is the
actual stress determined from the finite element analysis.
104
Mohr Coulomb models show higher shear stresses in the column in comparison
to Hardening Soil Model, if E of the Mohr Coulomb model is equal to E50 of the
Hardening Soil Model (Fig. 91c,d). However, the impact of the columns being
stiffer than the surrounding soil modifies the stress regime and hence the actual
stiffness, making the direct comparison more difficult.
Dry Slope versus Wet Slope: The ground water is approximately 2.0 m below
road embankment. Comparison between the modified dry model and the original
saturated model confirms a similar failure mechanism on the embankment slope
for both models. On the saturated model, a deeper secondary failure mechanism
is noted. The reported factor of safety for both models however are the same
since the main failure is on the slope. It is noted that installing deep soil mixing
columns have increased factor of safety by 20% to 40%.
Modeling versus Reality: The column spacing of 2.5 m was adopted in the final
design. The calculated shear stress significantly increases between the 0.6 and
2.5 m spacing and then appears to level out suggesting that the 2.5 m spacing
design appears to be close to the threshold spacing for grout effect.
The remedial work has performed satisfactorily and has undergone events of
heavy rainfall without developing any signs of further instability in support of
the design adopted.
Conclusions: This study clearly demonstrates the 3D effects of soil column
interaction. For closer column spacing of 0.6 m (two column diameters),
interaction becomes more dominant, and 2D and 3D results coincide. At wider
spacing, the 3D effect dominates, and the 2D results may not be reliable.
There is a need to understand the interaction of deep soil mixing columns with
surrounding soil mass. Columns need to be designed so that they create an
arching effect, and change stress distribution. Such change in stress distribution
should be readily visible in model output and should in most cases be reflected in
computed factors of safety. 3D effects of column interaction play a key role in
the field performance of deep soil mixing columns in road remedial work.
COMPACTION GROUTING TECHNOLOGY
Definition: Compaction grout is a silt sand grout, with or without Portland
cement and/or aggregate, pumped with a maximum (50 mm) 2 inch slum,
preferably one inch (2.54 cm) or less slump, characterized by high internal
friction and minimal plasticity, injected into the soil under pressure to form a
mass of grout that radially displaces the surrounding soil without hydro fracture
and damage to adjacent structure or permeation of the soil (Fig. 92.a)
Range of Applications
Compaction grouting has been successfully used in most types of soil, and to a
deeper depth. Injection into saturated clays is dependent upon their ability to
drain, however, and very slow injection rates are usually required. This increases
the amount of time required to perform the work, as well as the cost and often
limits its use. The procedure also has limited effectiveness in clean, course, sands
and gravels. Sequence of compaction grouting as shown in Fig.93).
Fig. 92(a): Concept of Compaction

Grouting
Fig. 92(b): Grout Material

Preferred Gradation
Fig. 92(c): Correlation-Slump & Flow

Table
Fig. 92(d): Compaction Bulb
105
Fig. 93: Sequences of Compaction Grouting

The work is virtually always done in stages, that is only a few meter of the grout
hole are injected at any one time. The staging can be from the top down
(downstage) or from the bottom up, (upstage). The upstage method is the fastest
and most economical, and thus, the most frequently used, especially for deep
injection. For shallow work (less than about 4.5 m) working downstage has the
distinct advantage that each injected stage provides additional restraint, and
106
containment for those that follow, whereas upstage injection is nearly always
accomplished in one continuous operation. When working downstage, each stage
is allowed to harden before the next one is drilled and grouted.
Grout holes are usually spaced on a grid of 1.8 to 3.6 m although closer spacing
is occasionally used. Alternate primary holes should be injected before the
intermediate secondary holes. Where inclined holes are used they should
generally be not more than about 20 degrees, off vertical.
Travel Index
One measure of regularity of the obtained grout mass is the Travel Index, (TI) of
the grout. The TI is the maximum radial travel of the grout from the point of its
injection, divided by the minimum radial distance to a grout-soil interface, and is
thus representative of the grouts propensity to remain in a controlled mass and at
the intended location. Grouts with a low travel index (less than about 3) remain
in relatively symmetrical masses that have clear interfaces with the surrounding
soil. Travel indices (Fig. 92d) exceeding five however, virtually assure hydraulic
fracturing of the soil.
In addition to the grout Rheology, the rate of injection must be carefully
controlled. While it will vary with the individual soil, it will most often fall
within a range of 0.027 to 0.216 m3 (1 to 2 ft3) per minute. Excessively high
injection rates also result in loss of control of the grout and hydraulic fracturing
of the soil.
In those instances where only a small amount or even no cementation is desired,
another fine material such as hydrated lime or a pozzolana can be used in place
of cement.
Field Applications
The greatest use of compaction grouting is in connection with the repair of
settled buildings and other structures. The process also is used for site
improvement prior to construction of new as well as under existing structures,
such as for mitigation of the liquefaction potential of soil during earthquakes.
Theory of compaction grouting
The potential conical shear failure surface will be inclined at an angle, , of
about 60 to the horizontal;
po = [h{(h/a)2+3(h/a)tan+3tan2}/3tan2] [1+2(1-sin)cos(180-+)}/cos cos]
in which = total soil bulk density, po = the maximum allowable grouting
pressure one can equate the upward force exerted by the grouted mass to the total
weight of the truncated cone of soil plus the downward shearing resistance
(calculated from Mohr-Coulomb criterion) of soil along the potential failure
surface (See Fig. 94.a). It can be seen that design curves, such as those in Fig,
94.b, offer a very convenient means of predicting the order of magnitude of the
maximum allowable grouting pressure in actual compaction grouting since the
and h values are normally available. As for the diameter of the grouted mass, 2a,
107
this can be estimated by measuring the volume of grout that has been pumped in
(Graf, 1992).
Rational analysis indicates that the soil immediately adjacent to the grout bulb
becomes dense due, to spherical bulb cavity of radius R i expanded by uniformly
distributed internal pressure p. The pressure reaches and ultimate value Pu, the
cavity will have a radius, Ru and the plastic zone around the cavity will expand
to a radius Rp.
_______
Rp/Ru = 3Ir/(1+Ir)
Where Ir = E/2(1-)(C + qtan) = G/S, quantity Ir is introduced as Rigidity
index which can be represented as the ratio of shear modulus G of the soil
surrounding bulb to its initial shear strength, S = C + q tan. (Shroff, Shah, 1991).
Fig. 94(a): Ground Stresses Under Compaction

Grouting
Fig. 94(b): Maximum

Allowable Grouting Pressure
The maximum compaction is achieved in the model analysis up to R/r ratio of

3.8; moderate compaction achieved up to R/r ratio of 6.3 and it diminishes
onwards, where R is radial distance from injection pipe of radius r.
Grout mix
In order to assure quality grout with a low TI, it is important to carefully control
the grain size distribution of the grout. An envelope of acceptable aggregate
distribution is provided in Fig. 93.(b). The aggregate is usually mixed with about
10% cement and just enough water to result in a very stiff mortar-like
consistency.
The key to compaction grout is the silty sand grouting material. Clays add
plasticity that may lead to hydro fracture; the clay content should be less than 1%
to assure minimal plasticity. Silts are necessary to give the required water
holding consistency that allows the grout to be pumped. The silt content is
normally limited to 10% to 25% of the sand but can be as high as 35% if the silts
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are coarse. 25 mm slump or less is desirable otherwise it may result in hydro

fracture. One to three sacks of Portland cement per cubic yard (0.73 m3) of mix
are used which is more than adequate for most purposes.
Compactable Soils
Any soil that can be compacted by the squeezing of air or water from the voids
with the grout pressures developed may be compacted using compaction grout.
Equipments
The key to the design is a chopping pug mixer that provides through and
uniform mixing of the plastic materials and a feed system to the piston pumps
which effectively shuts off air-sucking channels. Most often, hydraulic piston
pumps modified to achieve grout pressure of 7 to 11 MPa (70 to 112 Kg/cm2).
Remote monitoring and recording along with computer controlled equipments
are available for this work. The cost of that equipment is coming down and its
reliability is improving.
Placement of Injection Points
Injection points have usually been placed by drilling inside and ahead of a
3.8 cm or 5 cm pipe while simultaneously driving the pipe. When conditions
allow, a modified wagon-drill is used. Otherwise, a jack hammer is often
utilized. Another method frequently used is to drive the point with an air
hammer. One other method is to drill the point in while simultaneously pumping
grout. With depth, the effective radius of compaction of a grout bulb
substantially increases so that the final grout point layout might be similar to Fig.
95a. Another variation frequently used is angularity (inclination) of the grout
points so as to grout beneath a structure without going through it (Fig. 95b).
Fig. 95(a): Grout Point Positioning w.r.t.

Depth
Fig. 95(b): Angulation of

Grout Points & Bulbs
Radius of Compaction
Rational analysis and field observations indicate that the radius of compaction at
each bulb is a function of:
(1) The restraining pressure of the soil (Fig. 94.a) which is: (a) The weight of
the inverted cone of soil above the bulb (b) The shear strength along the
shear surface of the restraining cone of soil.
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(2) The weight of structure above the grout bulb. When even a small amount of
lift is made, it may involve up to 50% of the weight of the entire structure
when the lift is made at one small area of the structure (Fig. 94a).
(3) The surface area of the grout bulb (total radial force) directly proportional to
about the 2/3 power of the volume.
(4) The grout pressure at the bulb.
Lifting of Structures
Controlled lifting of structures with compaction grout can be accomplished under
almost all soil conditions. Many structures have been lifted in soft clays. The
limiting weight that can be lifted using compaction grouting has not yet been
demonstrated. Structures have been lifted more than 0.5 m with compaction
grout. Machinery foundations including pier & pile supported have been leveled
to within 1.5 mm.
Laboratory & Quality Control Field Tests
It can be by nearly continuous observation of the mix at the mixer with frequent
slump tests (Fig. 7) & the apparent shear strength of grout by custom
penetrometer. M S University, Baroda, India had fabricated a special cone &
horizontal flow meter that is directly related to the slump. Slump value is
correlated to value of horizontal flow meter (Fig. 92c.)
Rheological parameters such as initial shear strength and plastic viscosity should
be measured routinely to classify the fluid properties of the grout. Flow through a
5.08 cm hole at a 0.067 m3/min pumping rate, the pressure drive of about 0.07
Kg/cm2 open ended; that is pretty good grout. A filter press, (Fig.7 m of part-I)
has the advantages of allowing much bigger pressure to be applied, and of being
easily standardized. The test is same as squeeze test.
The degree of compaction in the field can be controlled by the following
parameters, depending on the requirements.
Evaluation of the automatically recorded process parameters by means of a

software
Deformation measurements at site surface or structure
Soundings (CPT, SPT) before and after the compaction grouting process
M4-print out depth, pressure and grout volume are continuously recorded
and shown on a time axis. Alternatively, recordings can be drawn on a depth
axis.
Performance: The results of the relative deeper injections are better consistent
than those of the relatively shallower ones. In this regard, it should be mentioned
that the injections into soils shallower than about 4.80m were associated with
significant upward displacement of ground surface. These displacements are
reported elsewhere (Yamaguchi et al. 2000). On the other hand, no significant
changes of ground surface elevations were observed due to the deeper injections.
The depth of 4.8 m is the critical depth for the injected piles. The gradually
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improving correlation while going deeper around the depth of 4.80 m is

explained by the gradual transition from the shallow mechanisms to the deep
ones. The overburden pressure and shear strength of overlying soils are the main
factors governing the shallow injections.
Careful application of the technique has resulted in such fine work as leveling
heavy machine foundations to within 0.15cm. Concentrated loads such as 45 t
thrust blocks for large diameter pipes have been lifted as much as 22.86 cm.
Case 1: Compaction Grouting for Correcting Building Settlement
During the construction of the underground works to adjacent 4-storey buildings
A and B, which were founded on spread footings at a depth of 1m, suffered from
settlements of 20 mm to 44 mm. Figure 96a shows the position of building A and
the outline of the underground station. Settlement Fig. 96b of the buildings was
mainly attributed to diaphragm walling and excavations adjacent to buildings.
These construction activities induced loosening effects to the adjacent soil mass.
Compaction grouting was then carried out at both buildings to reduce the
settlements which would otherwise cause detrimental effects to the building
structures.
Grouting Procedures: At each column 4 grout holes, with series number of i, a,
b and c, were installed and injected sequentially. According to the sequence of
grouting, grout hole i is the primary, a and b are the secondary and c is the
tertiary. The grout pipes were formed by drilling and reaming 100 mm outer
diameter steel casings to depth of 5 m to 7 m. Grout holes i were inclined at 12
and grout holes a, b and c was at 15 from the vertical. Figure 96a shows the
positions of the grout holes. Grout injection was conducted at 0.5 m intervals
between depth of 8 m and 3 m, working progressively upward from the
maximum depth of the grout hole. Injection quantity was measured by counting
the number of the piston strokes. The rate of injection was about 42.5 liter/min.
The peak pressures were recorded. For every cubic meter of grout material the
mixture was composed of 320 kg per gravels, 1040 kg silty sand, 160 kg cement
and 425 to 526 kg water. The slump ranged between 30 mm to 40 mm.
Results of Grouting: A criteria for injection for grout holes a, b and c was revised
to limit the peak pressure to 3.5 MPa instead of 4.5 MPa to avoid heave of 26 to
30mm as recorded. Totally 268 and 90 bulbs were injected beneath 9 columns
and 3 columns at building A and B, respectively.
Ground Response: Settlement readings has indicated that uplifting of the
columns were induced when the grout bulbs at or above 4.5m depth of the
nearest tertiary grout holes c were being injected. Although, the injection
quantities and pressures are similar between each grout holes at depths between 5
m and 3 m. The maximum heave induced at column 7 was 24 mm. The
inclinometer profiles indicate that the maximum lateral displacement of 17 mm
was mainly attributed to the injection of grout holes 6i and 7i, which were
distanced 3.0 m and 1.8 m from the inclinometer casing respectively.
Soil Densification along with Lifting Up: Meanwhile the average peak pressure
for the tertiary grout holes c were 20% higher than those for the secondary grout
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holes a & b. These comparisons indicate that stiffer soil conditions had been
achieved by compacting grouting. The soil densification effects are further
supported by the results of inclinometer observations. The ratio between radial
displacements to bulb radius represents the radial strain caused by compaction
grouting. The radial strain response to grout holes i was about 2 time of those
response to grout holes c.
Fig.96(b): Settlement Prior to Grouting
Fig. 96(a): Layout of the Buildings

with Grout Holes
Fig. 96(c): Lateralground Displacement
Zone of Influence: Zone of influence of compaction grouting is about 6 times the

radius of the grout bulb (Fig. 96c). The vertical extent is also about 6 times the
radius.
Case 2: Rectification of an Inclined Elementary School Building at Latur at
Maharashtra, India
It is an elementary school building inclined as the result of uneven settlement
caused by the earthquake. The building is a two story reinforced concrete
structure constructed on a direct foundation. The foundation structure and
location of compaction grouting are shown in Figure 97a.
Execution Problems: A maximum uneven settlement of 68mm had occurred as a
result of the earthquake. The ground at the location is a ground fill of
miscellaneous soil, mainly comprising clay and gravel (5 to 8 m) as well as
coarse sand and gravel (1 to 5 m). Figure 97b shows a boring log with SPT-N
values, and a typical compaction grouting cross section. The objectives of the
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grouting operation were to make effective use of the lifting effect as well as to
achieve ground improvement, so the work commenced at the foundation
footings.
The Grouting Plant: The mixing of the materials and pumping are carried by
grouting plant. As the grouting operation is normally carried out indoors,
adequate covering with vinyl sheeting was necessary. Two types of grouting
sequence are used, one is the sequential grouting method from bottom to top and
the other is grouting progressively from top to bottom. The choice of method
depends on the grouting objectives and prevalent conditions.
Fig. 97(a): Foundation-Grout Holes

Position
Fig. 97(b): Boring Log, Grout Bulbs
Fig. 97(c): Rectification Results
Fig. 97(d) Grout Quantity vs. Correction
Sequence of Compaction Grouting

+ Installation of the Grout Pipe: The grout pipe is either installed by means of a
drill rig or a vibro hammer, depending on the soil and on the treatment
requirement.
+ Compacting Grouting: The grout paste is prepared in the mixing plant and
pressed into the soil by means of a custom-built grout pump. While gradually
pulling or penetrating the grout pipes, individual intersecting grout bulbs are
consecutively formed, thus creating column shaped structural elements.
+ Staged Compaction: In order to achieve a uniform compaction of the soil, the
injections are at first executed in a large primary grid, and may be compacted
further by means of a secondary grid.
Result after Compaction Grouting: Figure 97c shows the values of settlement
before and after rectification. The settlement was rectified to within + 7mm. The
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rectification work period was about one and a half months, and 42 columns were
formed using a total volume of 160 m3 of grout. Figure 97d shows the relation
between grouting quantity and amount of correction achieved.
Case 3: Compaction Grouting for Alleviation of Settlement and Tilting of
Roadway Retaining Wall
Shortly after construction, post-tensioned twin-tee concrete retaining walls, with
toe pressure in the range of 115 to 140kPa, supporting the main line of interstate
road through Bhuvneshwar, Orissa Glenwood canyon, began to settle and tilt.
Typical soil profile along with retaining wall with backfill is shown in the Fig. 98 a.
Fig. 98(a): Retaining Wall with Roadway with Bore Log
Fig. 98 (b, c, d): Triangular Stress Distribution with Spherical, Cylindrical &
Grout Pressure Distribution Respectively
Execution problems: Monitoring of the movement with level and inclination
surveys indicated erratic and inconsistent, but progressive settlements of over
35 cm occurring over approximately three years out of which 80% of which
would occure in upper 6m under a 4.5 m wall and fill surcharge. By comparison
of the wall, stress distribution to the radial variation of compactive force applied
114
by a grout injection it was determined that a single line of compaction grout

injections in the toe area of the walls would provide sufficient densification to
alleviate the ongoing settlement damage. The greatest pressure is exerted in the
toe area with pressure near zero at the heel of the footing. The stress distribution
beneath the footing has been evaluated based on elastic theory. A graphical
representation of the stress distribution under the retaining wall foundation is
shown in Figure 98.b. The spherical and cylindrical grout pressure distribution
are shown in Fig. 98c and Fig. 98d actually the stress induced will be somewhere
in between. The actual degree of improvement within these zones will vary, soil
densification is not exactly proportional to stress.
Design: The compaction grouting program initially called for compaction
grouting by the top down method in a single row of injection points at the toe
of the wall. Spacing between injection points was set at 1.5 m for reasons of
symmetry. This allows two injection points per panel and would provide a means
for leveling if heave was to occur during an injection.
The grout stages were kept to 1 m or less to limit the potential for uncontrolled
movement. The cutoff criteria for each stage were based on a pressure limit
(4 MPa). This criterion was specified as a maximum grout take of .08 m3/m at
690 kPa minimum pressure. A maximum pressure criterion was included for
reasons of safety and equipment limitations. The monitoring included both
pressure and volume measurements, as well as, survey monitoring of the walls
and several culverts near injection points. The grout injection program was
staggered in a pattern of alternating primary and secondary holes. The primary
holes were injected first to act as reaction for the grouting of the secondary holes.
Grout Mix: The grout mix consisted of sand, cement, fly ash, and water in
approximate proportions 12:2:3:8 by weight with 2.54 cm slump PI less than 10
and more than 30% passing 75 micron sieve. A retarder (59 ml) was added to
each 0.76 m3 of grout to retard the set. Monitoring wall panels and footing with a
string line limited movement to specified values.
Results: A total volume of 443 m3 of grout was injected in to 230 drill holes at
27 to 4 mPa pressure averaging grout volume 18 m3/m hole. The compaction
grout thus represents 8.2% of the compacted soil volume.
Initial void ratios of 0.75, grouting have reduced the void fraction by 11%. In the
upper 2.4 m and lower 3.7 m grout volumes represent 4.5% and 10.7% of the
compacted volume respectively. No significant settlements have been reported
since the completion of the project.
Case 4: Compaction Grouting of Overburden Soil above Tunnel Alignment
in Karstic Lime Stone Region
The SMART tunnel was constructed through Kuala Lumpur Limestone. The
tunnel of 12 m diameter located between 10 m to 16 m below existing ground
level. The TBM bored almost entirely within the rock mass. Under some
conditions, the soil overburden10 to 16 m is arched around the cavity (slump
zone) and a quasi-stable condition is persisted for years (See Fig. 99a). The
occurrences of ground subsidence and formation of sinkhole in soil overlain to
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karsted lime stone are frequently associated with construction activities i.e. when
the ground water is lowered; rock/soil is removed or triggered by vibrations.
Objectives: The objectives of compaction grouting works were mainly to reduce
ground water lowering and minimize disturbance to the very loose soil
overburden by compaction using thick mortar grout.
Drilling: For overburden compaction, this was typically at 3 m c/c with a 2 3
m grid. Where grout takes was high, treatment points were added at appropriate
distance.
Materials: The grout material comprised of stiff mortar grout which was mixed
at batching plant and delivered to site. Typical slump suitable for soil
compaction is less than 100 mm.
Fig. 99(a): Treatment of Cutter Head

Cross Location
Fig. 99(b): Pre & Post Grouting SPT

Value
Compaction process: The stiff mix is pumped into the soil under high pressure of
10 to 20 bar until a pre-determined termination criteria is met. The overburden
soil was treated as the grout pipe was withdrawn in steps upwards of 0.5 m with
an injection rate 100 l/m. The end product is a homogeneous grout bulb or series
of linked bulbs, formed near the tip of the grout pipe as the pipe is withdrawn in
steps. The grout bulbs formed compacts the surrounding ground by displacing
loose soil and closing voids existing within the soil (without causing hydro
fracture). Pre and post grouting SPT N values are shown in Fig. 99b. The
displacement ability of the compaction bulbs also raised the subsided ground
surface, thereby remedying any previous ground settlement.
Compaction Grouting Termination Criteria: Grouting at each step (depth) was
terminated when one of the following criteria was achieved:
(i) Surface ground heave was observed exceeding prescribed limit
(ii) Refusal of further grout flow at pre-determined pressure (e. g. overburden
stress + line losses + 510 bars)
(iii) Volume of grout exceeded pre-determined volume.
116
PERMEATION GROUTING TECHNOLOGY

Permeation grouting is the longest established and most widely used grouting
technique. In soils, the procedure involves permeating and filling the soil pore
spaces, without any significant disturbance to, or movement of, the individual
soil grains.
It has been discussed earlier that, to obtain and adequate level of water tightness,
two criteria must be met; viscosity must not exceed 5cp and powder grain size
must be limited to 12 m. The mathematical model discussed earlier simulates
the propagation of the grout into the porous ground and aids determination of the
required Rheology (viscosity) and strength of the grout & grouted mass.
Standardized operating methods have been developed to determine the optimum
composition of the grout mix with reference to the structure of the ground which
has been discussed earlier.
Case 1: Seepage Control by Grouting During Sinking of Operation Shaft at
LPG Underground Storage Project
LPG Underground Storage Project work consists of mainly of construction of the
Access and Operation shafts linked with cavern construction for gas storage
module. Deeper depth location of storage module (190 m below GL) of LPG
may be due to its light weight compared to overburden weight of geomass.
Hydro Geological Conditions: It is revealed that prominent lineament is passing
through the site and extends towards East side (sea) between West side of hill of
the project site and hill of south-west side. Generally, Lineaments/geological
structures (such as folds, faults and joints) control the ground water flow. On
disturbance to existing aquifer due to construction activity of shaft led to loss of
hydro static balance of discontinuities in general and formation of tortuous
continuous channels in particular. The triggering of seepage and gushing out of
water through garnet foliated gneiss, is characterized by three sets of joint-subvertical foliation joint, vertical joint and sub-horizontal joint in the vicinity of
shaft from 26 m to 37 m. In general, the RQD is very low having Lugeon value
of 4 at this level. It can be identified to be handling with care with reference to
seepage inflow and instability in excavation of shaft.
Grouting in the Access Shaft for Arresting Heavy Seepage at el. 26 m: Corelation of core recovery, RQD, joint/m, degree of weathering, foliation
direction, and Lugeon measurement at various depth of various bore holes near
the shaft location help access the grouting scheme depth wise consisting of
pattern of grout holes, grout material and procedure to be adopted.
Provision of Relief Well: Provision of relief wells (Fig. 101) with semi circular
manifold at above identified locations as shown in figure may help in advance in
releasing pressure of gushing inflow of water which would have been helped in
producing equilibrium conditions at -26m and in future to other locations of
weakness of rock. In this system by percussive drilling and grouting is carried
out by double tube without withdrawing drilling string, thereby time taken by
replacement of grout pipe is saved. Grout cover no.1 is made effective from
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sump location-1 by 32 equally spaced grout holes and grout cover no. 2 from
sump location 2 consists of two rings 48 equally spaced grout holes (Fig. 101).
Fig. 101: Installation of Relief Well with Semicircular Manifold to Release

Seepage Pressure
Double Tube Grouting Method under Artesian Pressure of Seepage by a Pressure
Balance System: Total system consists of pressure balance system as shown
earlier in Fig. 59a of part-II, clonen bit with drilling casings (Fig. 59b), packing
between the drilling casings and the grouting pipe, water cut off apparatus (Fig. 60).
Drilling Machine: The main part of the drilling machine is separated from the
hydraulic power unit, and made it as small as possible for easy transporting and
operation in narrow shafts. The machine is a multifunctional one designed solely
for drilling so that it can be directed easily to the operating point and can respond
to various drilling directions, including vertical, horizontal and diagonal. The
drifter has sufficient drilling ability and has back hammer function. The power
source is approximately 70KW.
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Access Shaft Periphery Cement Grouting for Rock Fracture System: As grout
injection rates are dependant upon the connectivity of rock fracture system with
grout holes, careful selection of primary holes to be grouted can result in
significant savings of overall time and costs of project. In this case, selection of
most appropriate hole(s) for the initial injection helped achieve the most rapid
seal of inflow area, thus appreciably shortening the overall grouting operation
times.
Grout 1: While treating with foliated gneiss under water table used double fluid
silica sole based cement suspension grouts with short gel to long gel time. 200
liter liquid A (100 liter silica sole + 20 liter sodium silicate + 3.5 liter
hardening agent + 76.5 liter water) is mixed with 200 liter liquid B (80 kg
cement + 3 kg hardening agent + rest of water). Hardening agent of liquid A
was 6-% dilute sulphuric acid while for liquid B it is sodium bicarbonate. For
suspension grout, a pump with a capacity of more than twice the suction capacity
was used to avoid the clogging in the pipe line or a suction port.
Grout 2: Gel times should be controllable to time as short as several seconds to
avoid dilution by rapidly moving or large quantities of water. Filling of large
spaces is accomplished by using expansive foaming type polyurethane grouts.
Remedial Grouting Covers adopted for Encountering any Seepage at Higher
Depths: (Fig.102): Further the correlation of RQD, Lugeon value and joint
(crack) intensity has established the location of an aquifer. Stable cement based
silica soil grout discussed earlier can be limited to the relatively large inter
connected cavities such as passages and to fissures and open joints greater than
200 microns in width. Finer fissures and almost all inter granular porosity as well
as porosity left out in first stage grouting (C and D1 series) required
chemical grouting or micro fine cement based sodium silicate grout for A, B
and D2 series. The main components of both types of grout can be pumped
down to the shaft and mixed at bottom with reactive chemicals. The grout is then
injected as a single solution. The grout hole pattern comprised a primary rings of
32 holes and an inner secondary ring of 16 holes. After injection of certain
quantity of cement a simultaneously inflow to four central test holes are required
to be carried out. The last grout cover not only helped in preventing the inward
flow but also reduced any seepage through first grout cover. The shaft can be
excavated and further sunk and eventually to 190m through weak fractured
rocks.
Case 2: Curtain and Consolidation Grouting at Arch Dam site, Iran
Karun III hydroelectric Project is located on Karun River in Khuzestan province,
Iran, 28 km away from Izeh city. It is a double curvature thin concrete arch dam
having height 205 m and length 388 m with crest width 5.5 m and base width
29.5 m. Fig. 103. Dam site located in limestones, dolomites and mudstones of the
Asmari and Pabdeh Formations. There is a clear alteration of weaker, more
easily erodible beds (marlstones and marly limestones) and stronger, more
resistant beds of lime stones in the Asmari Formation. Local faulting
immediately upstream from the dam site in the right bank, as well as crossing the
dam foundation at the left bank are located.
119
Fig. 102: Access Shafts Periphery Cement with Chemical Grouting in Various
Stages
Fig.103 location of Curtain Grout
120
Foundation Geology is Described as Follows: jointed limestone, clay infilling on

joints, clay on slicken sides planes; faulted limestone; closely fractured and clay
rich areas; karstic cavities generally clay filled; de-calcified bodies (altered weak
limestone); dilated jointed areas; weathered limestone
Design Analysis of an Arch Dam: The dam is founded totally on the Asmari
limestone just downstream of the Asmari/Pabdch contact. On the left bank there
is a massive thrust block transmitting forces from the dam into the rock. Initial
design shaping and stress analysis was performed using the ADSAS computer
program based on the trial load method. Final design analysis, including the very
important dam dynamic response to earthquake loading, was carried out with the
finite element computer program AEDAP.
Remedial Measure at Left Abutment: The left abutment of the arch dam requires
local treatment. Unfavorable orientation of a major fault, sheared bedding plane
joints in combination of very large downstream oriented dam forces at this
elevation (651 to 700) make necessary to excavate some more rock, and most
other remedial works like concrete key plug (longitudinal & transvers directions)
along low lying fault. Due to the high degree of jointing and the presence of clay
filled joints, the extend and care of this work is important for a satisfactory
deformation behavior of the dam without local cracking or joint opening. After
excavation of this area backfilling with the concrete and create a resistance in
shear zone along the fault is carried out. A three dimensional FEM was prepared
to check stress distributions in the rock mass and effectiveness of the purposed
remedial measures.
Remedial Measures at Right Abutment: At the right abutment between els. 650 to
730, frequency of clay in filled joints is high degree of karstification is
significant and the compressive strength of the rock is low. This rock shall be
treated. Several options are possible. Excavation in stages to reach acceptable
rock quality in depth and backfill it with concrete in different stages so as to
form an arch to transfer the load to stronger beds of lime stone. This complete
solution provides best abutment condition of the completed structure but the
impact on costs and schedule.
Consolidation & Contact Grouting: These are planned in blocks 11 to 15 at just
below & adjacent to dam seat (Fig.104b). The grouting will be carried out by
drilling & grouting a series of fanned shaped holes from the down stream toe of
the dam & from inside the gallery of the dam at el 651 m. (Fig. 104a). Pumps of
approved design capable of thick sanded mix and deep hole inclination
measuring equipments are used.
Fig. 104 (a): Consolidation &

Contact Grouting
121
Fig. 104(b): Foundation Blocks
Grout Materials: Cement grout will be used. The following grout additives are
required: (1) Accelerator (i.e. Calcium chloride or approved equivalent). (2) An
approved super-plasticizer. (3) Thickener (i.e. sand as specified) (4) Bentonite
admixtures shall not be used for consolidation grouting.
Quality Control of Grout Materials: Rigorous quality control of grout mixtures
was observed. Accurate batching of grout mixture, grout consistencies are to be
expressed as the ratio of water/cement by weight. Marsh cone viscosity testing is
carried out at least 5 times per shift at each grout mixing plant. Laboratory
testing of typical grout mixtures to determine representative specific gravity as
specified.
Grout Hole Layouts: Grout holes will be drilled in fans as shown in Fig. 103c.
The fan layouts consist of primary fans spaced at 3 m; secondary fans spaced at 3
m, (between primary fans); 35 to 37 holes per fan; grout hole inclinations of 0 to
80 degrees from vertical; hole lengths of 26 m to 47 m; holes collared in the el
651 m gallery and at the downstream toe of the dam.
Drilling and Grouting Sequence: Grouting used the 'Closure sequence" method.
Series "A" fans is drilled and grouted before Series "B" fans. Work must be
completed on at least 5 Series. "A" fans before the first Series "B" fan can be
started. Within each primary and secondary fan, drilling and grouting shall
follow split spacing methods.
Series 1: Drill and grout every fifth hole in the fan pattern, Series 2: Drill and
grout holes to split space series 1, Series 3: Drill and grout all remaining holes to
split space series 1 and 2 holes.
Grouting Procedures: The grouting was in accordance with the Technical
Specifications and conformed to the following.
The contractor shall use a closure take of 50 kg/m of cement. Additional holes
will be needed in areas where this closure take is exceeded in the final split space
holes of secondary fans. In general the contractor has used upstage grouting for
most of the work. Down-stage grouting is carried out in areas of very high takes
or where holes experience frequent water loss or artesian flow during drilling.
A stage length of 5 m is used during the initial stages of grouting. This is
increased to 10 m, as instructed in upper areas of the fans where takes are
122
negligible during the later stages of grouting. More precise criteria for the use of
10 m stages will be developed as grout take data becomes available.
Contact grouting of the concrete/rock interface is carried out during the final
stage of grouting in each hole. The packer is set in the concrete about 1m above
the concrete/rock interface for this stage of grouting.
Drilling and Testing of Grout Holes: At least two cored grout holes and water
pressure testing along with drilling accuracy is done as per the codal provisions.
Grouting Pressures: Recommended grouting pressure criteria is 0.3 kg/cm2/m of
vertical depth and minimum pressure maintained 4 Kg/cm2 for holes drilled into
base of dam and minimum pressure 2 kg/cm2 maintain at holes drilled adjacent
to dam foundation.
Grout Mixes: Each grout stage is water pressure tested prior to the
commencement of grouting. This will consist of the 5 minute single pressure
"Abbreviated" test specified. Thickening steps followed are: C:W - 1:2, 1:1,
1.5:1 and 2:1 for L < 10, L between 10 to 20 and L > 20 respectively.
Grout Refusal: It occurs when no measurable injection occurs after a 15 minute
period using the maximum grout pressure of the grout stage. When this has
occurred, the grout pressure is maintained for a further 15 minutes in order to
"Pack" the grout.
Curtain Grouting
Factors and Characteristics of Design: The factors which have determined the
design of grout curtain are (a) a 180m head will exist across the dam and
spillway structures. (b) The Asmari Limestone is Karstic and is locally riddled
with solution cavities. (c) Ground water levels in the abutments are low. (d) The
lower limit of practical rock grout ability is about 2 Lugeon. (e) The presence of
silt/clay filled voids. The design included following characteristics: (i) ties in to
Pabdeh formation in the left abutment. (ii)terminates in the asmari formation in
the valley bottom and ridge abutment. (iii) there are nine galleries and two shafts,
most grouting is to be carried out from galleries located at elevations 850, 795,
771, 711, 651 and 621 m. (iv) in asmari, triple line grout curtain to 75m depth
from the base of the dam in areas of high take and single line grout curtain
elsewhere. (v) single line grout curtain in Pabdeh. (vi) grout pressure should be
equal to/or greater than induced pressures from the planned reservoir.
Objectives: The curtain grouting at the Karun III dam site is designed to provide
a watertight barrier to prevent seepage of water through the rock mass around the
dam, with purpose to displace as much of the infillings as possible, and to
replace these material by cement grout & to confine and compress the erodable
silt clay material filling in the joints, bedding planes and Karstic voids.
Grouting Parameters: The general grouting parameters used to date are as follows:
Pressure grouting in the range of 0.3 bars/meter. Original with a maximum

pressure of 20 bars below 60 depth.
Multiple grout mixes, starting at 2 : 1 water : cement ratio by weight.
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Stage grouting in 5 meters length intervals.
Upstage grouting method whenever possible; downstage grouting in high

take zones.
The spacing of 8 meters for holes of series 'A', as a start for the split spacing
method is appropriate.
Split spacing method for B, C, D and E series holes. Closet hole spacing is
thus 0.5 m to date.
Acceptance Criteria: The general acceptance criteria for completion of a line of
grouting is as follows: Split space the drilling pattern until grout takes of less
than 50 kg/m are achieved in the final series of hole. Permeability of less than 3
Lugeon units must be attained in check holes.
Triple Line Grouting Triple line curtain is strongly required at Karun III because
the significant amount of joints and bedding planes in filled with silt-clay
material. As previously noted, one of the main objectives of the pressure
grouting is to confine and compress the silt-clay material in the discontinuities
and voids. The only way to achieve this objective is by using a triple line
approach in order to 'encapsulate' the clay bearing rock. Where grout takes more
than 600 kg/m.
It is planned to drill the middle line last and inject it to a stable grout with higher
pressure than the previous u/s & d/s lines. In this concept, the higher pressure
will be used to compress the clay seams in the centre of the curtain. Cement
grout from centerline will travel in between the external lines ensuring that all
the spaces are filled with higher pressure. The grout holes will be oriented so as
to cross in all directions any type of joints and bedding. These procedures will
make an efficient grout curtain.
In addition to the above criterion, it was decided that triple line curtains would
extend for a minimum of 70 m from the portals of the galleries.
For saving cost of drilling, RQD values & Lugeon depth wise are compared &
where ever primary takes are less than 600kg/m two line grout curtain are
recommended.
Use of "Grouting Intensity Number (GIN)" method, was proposed to decrease
the time of grouting operations as the water test is omitted in this method. TPC
system is used to control behavior of grout holes during injection.
Case 3: Grouting of TBM Diversion Rock Tunnel at Seymareh Arch Dam &
Hydro Power Plant at Iran
The Seymareh dam is located on the Seymareh river, west of Islamic Republic of
Iran, approximately 700 km south west of Tehran. Diversion system: u/s & d/s
Coffer dams and two diversion tunnels (870 m length) with 10.5 & 8.3 m
diameter.
Site Geology: According to the bore hole logs the weak limestones sections
(Possible cavernous sections) are detected as rock falls. Those sections are
moistly concentrated at elevation between RD 550 and RD 650m, i.e. the
existing river level. Only the boreholes in the river bed (HM-22, HM-23 and
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HM-25) indicate some possibility of karst features, or crushed rock mass 4.5m
below the bottom of the gorge. At that elevation cavities are filled by clayey and
sandy material.
A three phase grouting system was developed under change order to fulfill the
requirements. This consisted of:
Face grouting through probe holes drilled ahead of the TBM
Supplemental Grouting behind the TBMs but proior to final lining

installation
Formation Grouting through the final cast-in-place concrete lining.
Water springs were principally associated with faults of rock type boundaries
consequently; few 65m wide grout zones were initially identified at geological
features with the upper and lower Asmari lime stones to prevent inflow of water.
Face Grouting: Original contract requirements included probing ahead of the
TBM face to determine ground water inflow potential and direct grouting when
probe hole inflows exceeded 175 l/m per 30 m of probe hole. In the grout zones,
grouting was carried out when inflow exceeded 7 l/m per 30 m. Each TBM was
equipped with 2 fixed hydraulic Boart rotary drifters above spring line and a
third drill was temporarily mounted below spring line. These were subsequently
supplemented with rotary percussive drills in the karsted limestone.
Cutter head limitations reduced the available grout pattern to 4 horizontal holes
drilled through cutter head buckets. To achieve desired grout travel, a fine
ground slag cement referred to as micro fine was used except during major takes
where type III Portland cement was used. Often Type III would meet with
pressure refusal and a switch to micro fine cement would result in significant
grout take in the same hole. Volumetric water/cement ratios of 1.5:1 to 3:1 were
mixed and pumped at the face to pressure refusal of 3.5 bar above hydrostatic
head. Verification holes were repeatedly drilled and grouted until the 7 l/min per
30 m of hole criteria was met. Face inflow was generally less than 35 l/m per
1.2 m (4) shove during excavation through the grouted zone.
Fig. 105(a): Supplemental Grout

Holes
Fig. 105(b): Ground Water Inflow v/s

Time
Supplemental Grouting Prior to Tunnel Lining: In order to meet the ground

water discharge limits, a supplemental Grouting program prior to final lining was
developed and implemented .This involved drilling rings at 2.4 m spacing of six
radial holes each 3.6m long and 50mm in diameter (Fig. 105 a). Each hole was
subsequently grouted with either micro fine or Type III cement through
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mechanical packers at the hole collar. Refusal criterion was zero take at 14 bar.
Additional holes were added to the pattern holes to target specific fissures and
inflows as required. With relatively open fissures in the lime stone, grout takes
per hole would often exceed 100 sacks (13.6 kg, each) of micro fine, prompting
implementation of a volume criterion of 30 sacks of micro fine to determine a
switch to Type III cement.
Fig. 105(c): Pattern Showing the

Location of the Grout Nipples in Tunnel
Cross Section
Fig. 105(d): Details of Grout

Nipples
Formation Contact Grouting through the Tunnel Liner: Despite face and
supplemental grouting efforts, a formation contact grouting program was
developed to create a low permeability annulus around the tunnel. Radial ring
patterns, on 2.4 m centers consisting of eight 3.6m long holes are planned. After
the concrete lining of the diversion tunnels had attained sufficient strength, grout
holes 40 mm diameter Fig. 105c were drilled with percussion type rock drills
through the 75 mm diameter pipe nipples Fig. 105d already embedded in to the
rock so as to expose the contact between rock and the concrete for effective
grouting. As per supplemental grouting, micro fine cement will be pumped to
similar refusal criteria to further reduce annulus permeability. Formation
grouting with the final liner in place is anticipated to be even more effective in
reducing the permeability than that achieved in the supplemental grouting Fig.
105b. Tunnel lining strains will be monitored by strain gauge arrays to confirm
the adequacy of allowable grout pressure.
Case 4: Foundation Treatment of Turbo Generator Unit Description of the
Machine Foundation
Foundation of Turbo set 9K78 (1 75 MW KLTPS Extension, stage 2, Unit
3-TG, Gujarat) is a reinforced concrete frame structure consisting of bottom slab
and of the frame structure i.e. columns and upper slab. Foundation bottom slab is
supported directly on the bed rock on level (-) 5.50m, slab dimensions in plan (-)
15.50 8.30 m and its thickness (-) 2.00 m. Structure upper slab is supported on
six columns supporting upper slab with three transverse and two longitudinal
beams (Fig. 106.a).
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Fig. 106(a): Turbo Generator

Foundation
Fig. 106(b): Vertical Displacement vs

Frequency
Fig. 106(c): Measurement Points on Plan
Fig. 106(d): Seismographic

Measurements
Immediately after installation of Turbo generator, the operation exhibited

adverse behavior. To define scale of foundation and bearing pedestals
displacement it has become necessary to perform series of leveling
measurements with the use of precise leveling method. Measurements covered at
several point at bearing pedestal, periphery of top deck slab, bearing casings at
upper slab and at floor of lower plate (slab) of the foundation.
Foundation Level measurements and velocity and amplitude measurement are
taken on various measuring points with respect to fixed reference point in
operating and static conditions.
From the above analysis of level difference measurements and amplitude
measurements, it seems that base slab (Raft) and columns of TG III foundation
experiences moderate level difference during static conditions and notable
amplitude difference during dynamic conditions.
Generator and Turbine details: Max. RPM 3000/min, 50 Hz.
Concrete slab foundation: Weight of base slab 640 T, thickness of base slab
2 m (Fig. 106a).
Design Criteria: The principal criteria to be stipulated are in terms of ratio of
operating frequency and natural frequency as well as the dynamic responses at
127
bearing levels of the machine. The general guidelines are followed as per codal
provisions. i.e. /n should be 0.8 or 1.2; max in vertical motion 0.02 mm,
in horizontal motion 0.04 mm;
The contact pressure transmitted to the soil should be within the allowable soil
pressure. Usually 50% of the dynamic load is added to the static loads to
calculate the contact pressure.
FEM Analysis: The dynamic response of base slab has been analyzed using finite
element models and results have been used to bring out the versatility of the
analysis for a vast range of situations. A modified version of the SESOL was
used in this computation scheme. The program can handle many cases of loads
simultaneously. For rocks with joints with depth dependent elastic modulus,
amplitudes of vibration reduce at small frequencies whereas at higher mass and
frequency ratios effect of non- homogeneity is significant in comparison to the
soils with constant elastic modulii. The nonlinearity in elastic modulii
considerably reduces the amplitudes of vibration at smaller frequencies. With a
decrease in mass ratio, the resonant frequency of the system increases. Similarly,
the amplitudes of vibration at resonance increase with decreasing mass ratio. An
integrated computational procedure has been developed to solve the problem
eliminating the need for an assumed interface stresses at the foundation rock
interface. In this model a large domain is discretized, resulting in a large system
of dynamic equilibrium technique called Lanczos vector transformation. An
efficient profile (variable band width) scheme has been utilized for storing large
system matrices.
Various Methods of Decreasing Vibrations of Existing Raft Foundations (Base
Slab): Counter balancing of exciting unbalanced loads implored by turbo
generator, Chemical grouting of soils, Structural measures, Dynamic vibration
dampers.
Rock grouting has resulted in an increase in the rigidity of the base and
consequently in an increase in the natural frequencies of the foundation-rock
system. This method is very effective where natural frequency of the foundation
rock system on a non-stabilized soil are higher than operating frequency of the
machine, which is usually the case. An increase in rigidity will increase still
further the difference between the frequency of natural vibrations and the
frequency of the machine, consequently the amplitude of foundation vibrations
will decrease.
The method can be applied without a prolonged interruption in the working turbo
generator. The limits of stabilized zones of jointed rock and their shape are
determined by the character of the vibrations, about on axis passing through the
centroid of the base contact area, then it satisfied to stabilize the rock near the
foundation edges, perpendicular to the plane of vibrations and it is not necessary
to stabilize the jointed rock under the entire foundation. Depth of stabilized zone
is determined from dynamic bulb of pressure concept not less than 2 m in any
case.
The vibration measurements on a turbo generator foundation indicated that the
natural n for a rotational motion in the foundation was approximately 3500 rpm,
128
while the operating frequency was approximately 3000 rpm. With the machine
thus operating at near resonance, a solution of the problem appeared to lie in
changing the natural frequency of the system, since the operating frequency
could not be changed (Fig. 106c). The amplitude of these vibrations were considered
sufficient to cause fatigue in cracking of the joints of the rock and a reduction in
the life of the bearings in the compressor. In addition the vibrations were being
transmitted through the rock in tern to the joints material-micaceous silt.
In order to perform the grouting operation for changing the natural frequency,
the holes were drilled at each end of that portion of the foundation, where the
horizontal motion of the turbo generator was causing the rocking motion in the
foundation. After drilling these four holes through the concrete foundation, a
grouting tube along with surrounding casing was lowered to a depth of
approximately 2.4m. Colloidal sodium silicate at 10 per concentration and
having 50 Sodium Silicate: 50 Water : 30 g/l kcl (hardener) with initial viscosity
of 5 Cp. With UCS = 400 N/mm2 at 7 days.
Under cyclic behavior of grouted joints executed damping ratio between 2 to 3%.
Grouted rock failed below axial stain 3% under high stress level of cyclic
loading. The variation of axial strain and secant modulus with increase in
number of cycles characterized by three stages as described earlier.
The epoxy grout was forced into the interface between the floor slab and rock in
order that the contact between these surfaces would be complete.
The seismographic measurements made before and after grouting shown in
Fig. 105d. The effect of grouting of this vibrating rock mass proved to be
extremely satisfactory from the point of view of plant operation and less
expensive than modification of the foundation.
Case 5: Impervious Barrier for Cross Passage at BC-24 Section of Delhi
Metro Project
General Information on the Project:
Cross passage is proposed at 9 different locations, connecting two main tunnels
of the Delhi Metro Rail alignment (Fig. 107). Each main tunnel width is 7m and
these two tunnels are separated by a clear spacing of 15 m. The width of the
cross passage is 3 m, which makes its dimension as 15 m long by 3m wide.
Owing to high ground water table, it is proposed to construct a barrier to arrest
any seepage of water into the cross passage. One such option under proposal is
used of micro-cement grouting.
Sub Surface Information: Ground Level: 209.287 m; Ground Water Level:
201.687 m; Tunnel Centre level: 194.424 m; Permeability between 14 to 16 m
below ground level: 4.12 104 cm/s.
Borehole No. ABH-13:
Ground Level: 209.948 m; Ground Water Level: 201.198 m; Tunnel Centre
level: 189.483 m; Permeability between 17 to 19m below ground level : 1.59
10-4 cm/s.
129
From the details of both the bore hole supplied by client it seems that from the
depth of 2 m to 9 m loose to medium dense sandy silt exist which has average
permeability 2.85 10-4 cm/sec having average SPT-N value: 7 to 24.
Fig. 107(a): Cross Passage at BC 24 Delhi

Metro Rail Corporation
Fig. 107(b): Results of Grout

Injection-Flow Pressure Relation
on Chart Recorder
Requirement of the project.

1.
Anticipated percentage reduction in seepage in this type of soil by grouting
2.
Success of use of micro cement grouting
3.
Approximate expected micro cement consumption (in kg/m3 of soil)
4.
Approximate spacing of points to achieve the desired results.
Owing to shallow water table (3m from ground level), the heavy leakage in cross
passage and maintained can triggered. The grouting program with fan shafted
hole was designed using CASTAUR CAD program. By using CHAIRLOC
software, the fan position with each hole spacing (1.5 m are plotted on colour
diagrams showing either grout quantities or pressures. Fan orientation kept 250
with vertical at centre staggered to 50 extreme fan on both sides of Tunnel as
well as at middle cross passage of 3 m width is planned. Computer interpretation
of grout flow and pressure gave an accurate data of grout taken by the different
strata. TPC graphical interpretation has helped decided maximum and minimum
pressure along with rate of flow in the grouting hole. SINNUS software system
can be used for TPC digital recording.
Inclined grout holes as shown earlier in Fig. 71c of part-II were recommended to
intercept the clayey sandy silt (SPT-N = 7 to 14) and clayey silt k = 4 10-4
cm/sec in modified to 6.2 10-7 cm/sec. about 64% seepage can be reduced at
194.42 level while at tunnel centre level 189.48 level, it was 63.6%. Primary
grouting can be made effective by employing Portland cement and secondary
was micro fine cement with 2% dispersant along with 30% sodium silicate. The
expected cement and MC consumption at level 194.42 are 28 kg/m & 14 kg/m
respectively, while 189.48 level, 26.78 kg/m and 27.08 kg/m respectively.
130
Case 6: Curtain Grouting and Treatment of Unconformity Zone at Almatti

Dam on Krishna River
The present case study deals with providing grout curtain of Almatti Masonry
dam on Krishna river, Karnataka from Block No.1 to 52. Besides curtain
grouting thus case study also deals with the treatment of weak zone
(unconformity zone) of thickness up to 6 m which was existing in the foundation
from Block No. 45 to 52 below the joint of base granite rock and overlying
quartzite foundation. The single line grout curtain of permeability less than 3
Lugeon has been effectively formed below the foundation despite of very poor
strata having maximum pre-grout permeability of 90 Lugeon.
Grout Curtain: (Fig. 108 a) (1) Single line grout curtain with primary holes
spaced at 3 m c/c and secondary or tertiary holes till desired permeability is
obtain. (2) Depth of grout Curtain = 0.5 H, where H is Hydraulic Head from
foundation. (3) Permeability Limit of Grout Curtain < 3 lugeon. (4) Drainage
Holes: Depth of Drainage hole 0.75 of depth of Grout curtain & Spacing of holes
3m c/c. The location of grout curtain and drainage holes is shown in Fig. 108.
In Section I: From Block No. 1 to 30, rock was very hard and abrasive in nature
pre-grout permeability is normal and ranging from 3 Lu to 24 Lu. Drilling
Primary at 3m c/c were taken up first. Secondary holes were drilled at 1.5 m c/c.
Grout pressure in various stages are as follows: (a) Ist stage 10 m 3.5 kg/cm2
(b) IInd stage 10 to 20 m 6.5 kg/cm2 (c) IIIrd stage 20 to 30 m 10.0 kg/cm2.
The consistency of grout has been taken from 1:10 to 1:1 cement to water by
weight. The results reveals that permeability values have become within
permissible limit (less than 3 to 5 Lu) in all the blocks from 1 to 30.
In Section II: 19 holes were drilled by core drilling practically at 15 m c/c from
Block No. 31 to 44. Grouting of primary and secondary holes were completed,
test hole was taken one in each block. After secondary hole grouting Lugeon
value found to be 11.36 in second stage.
In Section III: From Block No. 45 to 52. A weak zone (unconformity zone) (Fig.
108) lying between Quartzite and the basement granite on the right banks has
been established. A typical type of yellow soil weathered as well as fused
formations have been observed practically in every bore hole.
Fig. 108: Grout Curtain and Drainage Holes through Drainage Gallery and
Unconformity Zone and Its Treatment at Block 45 to 52
131
Thickness of this unconformity zone is varying from 0.5 m to 6 m thickness.

Core recovery = 10 to 25% and Lu. 20 to 90.
The work of curtain grouting was taken up in these blocks, in the similar method
as in the earlier blocks. The primary holes are taken up 3.0 m c/c initially.
However, in most of the primary holes artisan conditions are met with and jets
are rising upto the roof of the gallery. In primary holes, the maximum
permeability to the tune of 90 Lu was found in stage VII in a hole in a Block
No.51, and the maximum grout intake was 3200 kg in this stage.
After completion of primary holes drilling and grouting, secondary holes drilling
and grouting were taken up at 1.5 m c/c i.e. between the already done primary
holes. The maximum pre-grout permeability of 78 Lugeon was observed in a
hole in Block No. 48. However pre-grout average permeability of 22 Lugeon was
recorded. The Dam Safety Review Committee recommended to take up tertiary
holes in between the primary and secondary holes in these blocks, and to take up
grout holes up to basement granite. It was observed that Lugeon value has come
down well within limit. The transverse gallery has been provided in Block No.
45 for treating the geological faults existing across the dam. The DSRP
recommended to drill grout holes along the fault line in the transverse gallery
and grout them to effectively treat the major fault. As per the recommendations,
two lines of grout holes along the fault zone are provided in the transverse
gallery.
Case 7: Heavy Seepage Control at Old Railway Tunnel near Thane on
Mumbai-Hawra Route
Physical Details and Location: The 1.2 km long and around 92 years old railway
tunnel is located near Thane Railway Station on busy railway route MumbaiHawra. Tunnel is approximately 10 m in width and 1.6m height and installed
with down as well as up line tracks. (Fig. 109a) The tunnel parsik is made around
during the year 1916 and from than standing without any major instability
problems. However around 150m tunnel length towards Mumbai end is having
heavy water seepage problems after Mumbai flood seems to be seasonal. This
portion is brick lined both in roof as well as in wall and approximately 0.45 m
thick lined thickness is observed through man hole during inspection.
Also, the attempts have been made by CIMIR, Nagpur to control this water
seepage problem by carrying out grouting in the wall and roof during the last 2
years.
The rock mass consists of compact and jointed basaltic rock. The rock mass in
this tunnel could be classified as moderately jointed with essentially three regular
joint sets with a random joint set. The basaltic rock is black in colour and
resistant to weathering because of their hard and compact nature. Flow of ground
water through the joints is more pronounced in the rainy season which was
increasing the seepage of ground water into the tunnel mostly towards Mumbai
end. Over the years, seepage of water in the roof/wall through joints and surface
cracks has been reported.
The grouting work are proposed to be carried out during day season. The water
testing of the holes were carried at interval of 150 m to ascertain in-situ Luegeon
132
valve of rock. Trial grout mix was decided based on comparison of grout intake
and water intake in the hole.
Pattern of grout hole as shown in Fig. 109 b1, b2 b3 are followed one from the top
of overburden rock at crown and other horizontal from inside tunnel and third
towards junction between wall and crown. The pattern was design as per dip and
strike direction of joints of the rock. Using CHAIRLOC software and Singota
analytical work. Grouting holes from top-downward in 15 15 meter @ 3.0 m
c/c are planned to be grouted in a Fan shaped sequence as shown in Fig. 109b1,
b2 & b3 with primary hole extreme end and then secondary hole 1.5 m c/c inbetween primary hole grouting is designed.
Fig. 109 (b1): Grout Holes from Top

of Overburden Rock at Crown
Fig. 109 (b2): Grout Holes

Horizontal from Inside Tunnel
Fig. 109(a): View of Mumbai Howrah

Railway Tunnel
Fig. 109 (b3): Grout Holes from

Junction between Wall and Crown
from Pit
After percolation test if seepage is not in within permissible limit then tertiary
hole is to be made. Cement bentonite grout in primary hole and cement based
silicate in secondary and sodium silicate with formamide and calcium chloride in
Tertiary hole are recommended.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
A number of grout materials are available and new materials are on the horizon.
More innovations are required in many fields: binding agent, process, operation
and apparatus. We need more innovations for both higher cost effectiveness and
higher performance in comparison with the conventional grouting technology.
133
The specific mechanical properties of each grout that are important factors in the
selection of a grout for a specific job include mechanical permeance,
penetrability and strength. Similarly, the chemical properties include chemical
permeance, gel time control, sensitivity and toxicity. Following points are the
subject for future investigation. (1) expansion of yield stress/ yield locus (2)
transition of failure criteria under residual strength (3) change of permeability
with time (4) hardening and erosion for a long curing duration (5) relation
between consolidation and effects of cementation.
The ratio of viscosity of grout to that of ground water, time viscosity
relationships and the radius of the grout front are interdependent. Change of pore
size of widening of fissures are the main features of hydro-fracturing when
increasing grouting pressure. An analytical determination of the optimum
orientation of a grout hole for a given geological bedding plane should be a
prerequisite. Further experimental and analytical research efforts as well as field
measurements are required to investigate the characteristics of treated soil and
improved ground behavior more accurately and to conduct more economic
design.
Ground water contamination by grouting chemicals is more serious. Ultra fine
particles below 4 and has very low viscosity, excellent penetrability, strength
and durability. Several field applications of Micro-fine grouts in India and
abroad have proved the efficiency of these new innovated grouts in the fine sand
and silts in place of chemical grout in static and dynamic conditions. In this case
durable grout and precise injection methods are very important and in near future
this application is thought to increase. However, there are still many problems to
be investigated on dynamic interaction of the improved ground and soft soil
stability and lateral displacement under large lateral forces and so on.
There is scope for improvement in drilling technology and for geological
investigations aimed at a higher percentage of core recovery with minimal
disturbance. A correlation needs to be developed between the type of drilling
method to be selected and the type of rock. For a soft rock, the possibility of
using a 5-bar nominal pressure may be considered a worthy modification of the
Lugeon test. Optimization of alluvial grout mixes by triangular charts provides a
ready Reckoner for various basic properties directly required for an ideal grout.
In selecting a trial grout mix for rock grouting, a flow chart based on water and
grout intake seems to provide excellent optimization.
The selection of grouting techniques relies mainly on repetitive experience and
on personnel options. Though new injection methods are available, the tube-amanchette technique is best suited for grouting alluvium. The pattern and depth
of the grout hole are governed primarily by the design requirement and the
nature of the rock. The piezometric level relating to the dam foundation interface
is the real measure of cut-off efficiency. Lower pressure permeation and critical
pressure to hydraulic fracturing can be used for different purposes. Research is
further needed to work out optimum pressure, correlating it with the radius of
penetration, joint thickness and viscosity/strength of the grout mix.
The successful execution of compaction grouting requires through investigation
and engineering analysis combined with continuous control of the actual work.
134
Innovation in conventional upheaval test to determine the range of allowable

pressures for grouting might be necessary. It is imperative to provide careful
control of the injection and maintain good records, in order to ensure optimal
results. The technique is bound to receive ever-expanding usage and lead to
improved understanding of the engineering mechanics of injection. The
understanding of the consistency and the modulus of soil and the grout is
extremely important.
For cement grouts a hydraulically driven pump provides an excellent volumepressure relationship with no pulsation. For most chemical grouts, proportioning
pumps with the metering system are recommended to give the necessary degree
of control over the components of a grout system.
Electric monitoring of cement pressure grouting with time-pressure-consumption
provides a powerful tool for the evaluation of the behavior of grout holes during
grouting. The most important advances still awaited concern in-situ monitoring
to follow the progress of the grout through the ground and detect any flaws due
to non-uniformity of the soil or rock.
Case studies have shown that there is, apparently, no unique grout material, or
process, or technique universally applicable to every project. The design and
methods of grout injection for varying situations have likewise yet to be
established. Emphasis has been laid on how accurately grouting process are
controlled, but gaining expertise in persuing quality results has been often
ignored in grouting work in India. Although, the grouting industry in India,
continues to adopt innovation at a very low rate in accordance with current
trends. India must create and apply more innovate technique in order to help
grouting emerge as an industry in its own right.
Many civil engineering problems have to be solved while construction is in
progress. When the feasibility of using other methods is too cumbersome
alternative grouting technology finds its place. The environmental pollution
caused by diffusion of grout in ground-water during grouting methods using
certain chemicals should be checked.
The trial field is really essential for the correct execution of the jet grouting. In
very soft cohesive soil the problems are related to excess pore pressure generated
during execution of jet grouting which can cause heave and hydraulic fracturing
when clogging of backflow occurs. In all cohesive soils, large volumes of back
fluids must be disposed of and this causes environmental concern. Along with
reduction in spoil or waste products resulting from the work, the promising new
field in its application is treating industrial wastes.
Attention is also being focused on the use of DMM as a liquefaction
countermeasure as well as development of new material combinations and
admixtures will be required along with real-time monitoring that would enable
prediction of the final treated soil quality.
There is a tremendous volume of laboratory data but encouragement in writing of
comprehensive collations/syntheses of already published data is essential. It is
increasingly clear that India is the World leader in many aspects of the treatment
135
and improvement of soft soils in particular, but developments in the fields of Jet
Grouting, Deep Mixing and Fast-Set Chemical Grouting with minimum
environmental impact are the requirement of the present time.
I conclude with words of Karl Terzaghi:
Man can choose how to use technology and by intelligent use can protect the
environment without relinquishing progress.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Faculty of Technology and Engineering, M.S. University of Baroda,
Vadodara provides the ideal ambience for academic and research activities. I
have been most fortunate in being one of the faculty members of Applied
Mechanics Department of this outstanding Institute. The author gratefully
acknowledges the books, journals and proceedings of conferences for their use in
the preparation of the manuscript.
The research reported in this lecture would not have been possible without the
enthusiasm and active support extended by my past doctoral student Dr. D.L.
Shah, Dr. Nitin Joshi, Dr. H.J. Shah and my present doctoral student Shri Manish
Shah and research fellow Shri Vishal Arekar along with many Masters students
too numerous to mention by name. Prof. K.R. Biyani, Prof. R.M. Bhagia, Prof.
A.K. Shah, Smt. Padmini Giri and Shri Lalit Thakur have joined me in pursuing
this exciting research Whole hearted support and uninhibited sharing of thoughts
of Prof. Dhananjay Shah and Dr. Nitin Joshi is warmly appreciated. Late Prof.
Piyush Parikh, Shri J.F. Mistry & Dr. C.D. Thatte have been a source of
inspiration in this venture. Prof. N.M. Patel, Prof. S.C. Patodi, Prof. Sarad Joshi
and Prof. Bhuvan Parekh have provided along with other colleagues an
environment conductive to academic excellence.
The enthusiastic support, I received from Mr. L.V. Ashara, Ex. Director & Chief
Engineer; Mr. H.P. Pandya, I/C Chief Engineer, Vigilance; Mr. K.L. Dave, Joint
Director and Mr. P.A. Santwani, Senior Scientific Assistant at the Gujarat
Engineering Research Institute, Baroda & and Dr. A.K. Dhavan, Ex. Director
and Mr. Morari Ratnam, Director, CSMRS, New Delhi and Late Dr. J.M. Sirke,
CWPRS, Pune and Mr. Patil B. N. & Kaprea B. S., Ex. Joint Director, MERI,
Nasik; Mr. Manoj Garnaik, Project Manager, L&T, EC Division,
Visakhapatanam have greatly facilitated in disseminating the research output
through various workshops/seminars.
Thanks are also due to Dr. V.S. Raju, DGM & Mr. Harikrishna, GM, Keller
Ground Engineering India Pvt. Ltd; Dr. Manishkumar, GM & Dr. Basarkar,
DHM, ITD Cementation (I) Ltd.; Dr. N.V. Nayak, Ex. Executive Director,
AFCON Infrastructure Ltd.; Mr. M.V. Dharap, Sr. Vice President, & M.U.
Zatkar, DGM, Gammon India Ltd.; Mr. Ramesh Kulkarni, MD, Kulkarni
Associates, Pune; Mr. V.T. Ganpule, MD, Sterling Foundations, Mumbai for
sharing many thoughts and valuable suggestions.
The research work has been possible by the undaunted supoort, I have received
from various quarters of M.S. University of Baroda and Financial support from
AICTE, CSMRS, Ministry & Water Resources, CSIR & UGC, New Delhi. The
136
author is thankful to the AICTE, New Delhi for their offer of Emeritus
Fellowship.
In addition, the organization that have extended my participation in their projects
include Prof. Abdolha Ghazvinian, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran, Ministry of
Energy, Islamic Republic of Iran; Dr. RYOZO Yonekura, Prof. Emetrus, Tokyo
University, Japan; K. Ramchandran, GM & D.A. Subramaniam, Sr. V.P., Project
Head, Essar Const. (I) Ltd., Hazira; Lignite Thermal Power Corporation, GEB,
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd., Gandhinagar.
Through their painstaking efforts and meticulous work Mr. P.C. Gandhi, Mr.
Vasant Kadam, Late Mr. Suresh Dagdu, Mr. Yogesh Pawar and Mr. Ashok
Parmar have made it possible in execution of research and in collecting many
thoughts and put them in presentable shape. Thanks are due to Mr. Jayesh Shah
who carefully typed a manuscript.
My special thanks to my wife, Mina for all encouragement and sacrifice, love,
affection and forbearance.
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31st IGS Annual Lecture

Development in Design & Execution in Grouting Practice

Dr. A.V. Shroff

Dr. Shroff guided five Doctoral Dissertations and 85 Dissertations of Post

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN

y involvement in Geotechnical Engineering has been from the beginning

Design & Characterization of suspension and solution grouts Along with

Execution Execution and Remediation by Permeation, Compaction & Deep

31st Annual Lecture delivered at IGC-2009

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

Fig. 1: Application Range-Grouting Methods

Fig. 2: Functions of Grouting

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

(c) Hydro Fracturing or Uncontrolled Displacement: When the grouting

Fig. 3: Effect of Dispersion/ Flocculation: Blockage

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

Fig. 4: Yield Value of the Grout-DST Plot

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

Fig. 5: Penetrability of Various Grouts

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

Fig. 6(a): Mode of Network &

Fig. 6(b): Gel structure: MC Silica +

Equivalent Weight Approach

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

presentation is given in Fig. 7. In compaction grouting consistency is measured

Fig. 8a: Interaction of Set Grout with Void/Discontinuity of Alluvium or Rock

Fig. 8b: Washout Gradient against Grouted Curtain

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

CEMENT BASED GROUTS (SUSPENSION GROUTS)

Fig. 9: Stress-Strain Relation-Cement Grout

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

Cement with Bentonite as Admixture

Fig. 10: Stress-Strain Relation-Cement Fly Ash

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

Fig. 11: t- Relation of Cement with Admixture

Fig. 12: qc-Time Relation Cement + SS, CaCl2

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

time viscosity relationship indicates gradual increase of viscosity initially, and

0.8c + 0.2 Fly ash

Fig. 13: t- Relation-Neat Cement with MMA

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

Fig. 14a: - Relation: Cement +

Fig. 14b: Sand Particle Interaction

Cement Sand Grouts

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

Fig. 15: Hydro Cyclone

Fig. 16: t- Relation of Cement-Bentonite

CHEMICAL-BASED FINE GROUTS (SOLUTION GROUTS)

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

Sodium aluminate =13 gm

Sodium silicate is generally considered non-toxic and non-corrosive, and thus

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL

Fig. 17: t- Relation SS Grout

Fig. 18: Time-Strength Relation-Silica

DEVELOPMENT IN DESIGN AND EXECUTION IN GROUTING PRACTICE

Fig. 19(a): t- Relation-Silica Formamide

Fig. 19(b): d- Relation Silica

Typical stress-strain curves of SF-grouted samples indicate that increase in peak

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL