Realization of Control Loops

Process Controllers
Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller
e
Error
P Controller
Kp
m
Controller
output
R1
e
R2
_
+
R3
-m
R3
_
m
+
Inverter
e
Error
P Controller
Kp
m
Controller
output
R1
e
R2
_
+
R3
-m
R3
_
m
+
Inverter
e
Error
P Controller
Kp
m
Controller
output
R1
e
R2
_
+
R3
-m
R3
_
m
+
Inverter
e
Error
P Controller
Kp
m
Controller
output
R1
e
R2
_
+
R3
-m
R3
_
m
+
Inverter
The controller output may be expressed as:

m = Kp .e
where Kp = R1/R2
and P = % proportional band = 100 / Kp
Realization of Electronic PID controller

(P, PI, & PD are special cases of PID)
1 t
de
m =K p e + 0 edt + TD
dt
Ti
where Ti = integral time constant
TD = derivative time constant
Realization of Electronic PID controller

(P, PI, & PD are special cases of PID)
1 t
de
m =K p e + 0 edt + TD
dt
Ti
where Ti = integral time constant
TD = derivative time constant
Or,
Kp
de
m=
K p e + edt + K pTD
Ti
dt
t
0
Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,
K p E (s )
+ sK pTD E (s )
M (s ) = K p E (s ) +
sTi
Or,
K p E (s )
+ sK pTD E (s )
M (s ) = K p E (s ) +
sTi
Kp
M (s )
= Kp +
+ sK pTD
sTi
E (s )
Or,
Or,
K p E (s )
+ sK pTD E (s )
M (s ) = K p E (s ) +
sTi
Kp
M (s )
= Kp +
+ sK pTD
sTi
E (s )
M (s )
1
+ sTD
= K p 1 +
E (s )
sTi
the transfer function of PID controller
Parallel Realization of PID Controller
Kp
proportional term
E(s)
Kp / sTi
integral term
s Kp TD
derivative term
M(s)
Circuit realization
R1
R2
v1
_
+
R3
CI
e
RI
v2
integral term
R3
CD
+
Inverting adder
RD
_
R3
proportional term
v3
R3
derivative term
Circuit realization
R1
R2
v1
_
+
R3
CI
e
RI
R3
proportional term
v2
integral term
R3
Inverting adder
RD
CD
_
+
v3
R3
derivative term
M (s ) = (V1 (s ) + V2 (s ) + V3 (s ))
Circuit realization
R1
R2
v1
_
+
R3
CI
e
RI
R3
proportional term
v2
integral term
R3
Inverting adder
RD
CD
_
+
v3
R3
derivative term
M (s ) = (V1 (s ) + V2 (s ) + V3 (s ))
Or,
R1
1
+ sRD C D
M (s ) = E (s ) +
R2 sRI C I
Circuit realization
Therefore, transfer function of PID controller becomes
M (s ) R1
1
= +
+ sRD C D
E (s ) R2 sRI C I
Here,
R1
Kp =
R2
Kp
1
=
Ti
RI CI
K pTD = RD CD
Circuit realization
Proportional and integral terms may be combined as:
R1
R2
CI
R3
v1
R3
0V +
_
+
From Derivative
ckt.
R3
E (s )
V1 (s )
+
=0
1
R2
R1 +
sC I
Circuit realization
Proportional and integral terms may be combined as:
R1
R2
CI
R3
v1
R3
0V +
_
+
From Derivative
ckt.
R3
E (s )
V1 (s )
+
=0
1
R2
R1 +
sC I
Or,
E (s )
V1 (s )
V1 (s )sC I
=
=
1
1 + sR1C I
R2
R1 +
sC I
Circuit realization
Or,
V1 (s )
1 + sR1C I
=
E (s )
sR2 C I
R1
1
=
+
R
sR2 C I
2
R1
=
R2
1 + sR C
I
1
1
= K p
1 + sT
Circuit realization
Or,
V1 (s )
1 + sR1C I
=
E (s )
sR2 C I
R1
1
=
+
R
sR2 C I
2
R1
=
R2
1 + sR C
I
1
1
= K p
1 + sT
Circuit realization
Or,
V1 (s )
1 + sR1C I
=
E (s )
sR2 C I
R1
1
=
+
R
sR2 C I
2
R1
=
R2
1 + sR C
I
1
1
= K p
1 + sT
Circuit realization
Or,
V1 (s )
1 + sR1C I
=
E (s )
sR2 C I
R1
1
=
+
R
sR2 C I
2
R1
=
R2
Where
1 + sR C
I
1
1
= K p
1 + sT
i
R1
Kp =
and Ti = R1C I
R2
A simple PID Controller with two op-amps

e
e
+
_
m
R1
RD
CD
CI
_
+
m
RI
Here,
Unity
gain
buffer
R2
RI + R2
e
e
equivalent
circuit
m
RD
m
R2
+
_
CD
RI
CI
+
_ m

e
e
+
_
m
R1
RD
CD
CI
_
+
m
RI
Here,
Unity
gain
buffer
R2
RI + R2
e
e
equivalent
circuit
m
RD
m
R2
+
_
CD
RI
CI
+
_ m

e
e
+
_
m
R1
RD
CD
CI
_
+
m
RI
Here,
Unity
gain
buffer
e
e
equivalent
circuit
m
RD
m
R2
+
_
CD
CI
RI
R2
RI + R2
The unity gain buffer amplifier is required to avoid the loading effect of
the feedback network
+
_ m
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
CI
RI
I1
+
m
_
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
CI
RI
I1
+
m
_
Loop equations:
1
I 2 RI
M (s ) = I1 RI +
sC I
0 = I1 RI + I 2 RI + RD +
sCD
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
CI
RI
In matrix form:
I1
+
m
_
Loop equations:
1
I 2 RI
M (s ) = I1 RI +
sC I
0 = I1 RI + I 2 RI + RD +
sCD
R
R
I
I sC
RI + RD +
RI
sC
I1 M ( s )
=
I 2 0
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
CI
RI
By Cramers rule:
I1
+
m
_
1
sC I
RI
I2 =
1
RI +
sC I
RI +
RI
M (s )
0
RI
RI + RD +
1
sC D
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
CI
RI
By Cramers rule:
I1
1
sC I
RI
I2 =
1
RI +
sC I
RI +
+
m
_
RI
Or, I2
M ( s ) RI
1
1
2
R
R
R
R
+
+
+
I
I
D
I
sC
sC
I
D
M (s )
0
RI
RI + RD +
1
sC D
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
CI
RD
CD
RI
I2
By Cramers rule:
I1
1
sC I
RI
I2 =
1
RI +
sC I
RI +
+
m
_
RI
Or, I2
M ( s ) RI
1
1
2
R
R
R
R
+
+
+
I
I
D
I
sC
sC
I
D
M ( s ) RI
E (s) =
( sCD )
I2
=
sCD
1
1 2
R
R
R
+
+
+
I
I
RI
D
sCI
sCD
M (s )
0
RI
RI + RD +
1
sC D
Circuit solution
Then, the T.F. becomes:
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
CI
RI
I1
+
m
_
1
1 2
RI +
RI + RD +
RI sCD
sCI
sCD
M ( s ) 1
E (s)
RI
Circuit solution
Then, the T.F. becomes:
e
e
+
_
1
1 2
RD
RI +
RI + RD +
RI sCD
sCI
sCD
M ( s ) 1
CD
+
=
m
RI
_
E (s)
RI
I1
I2
1 1 + s (T1 + T2 + RI CD ) + s TT
1 2
Simplifying,
=
sT

1 1
1 2
RI +
RI + RD +
RI sCD
M ( s ) 1 1 T1 + TsC
+I RI CD 1 sCD
2
=
=
+
+
sT
R
2
E ( s )
T
sT
I
1
1
CI
where T1 = RICI and T2 = RDCD
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
By substituting
CI
RI
I1
+
m
_
Or,
T1 + T2 + RI CD
A=
T1
C D T2
+
A = 1+
CI
T1
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
By substituting
CI
RI
I1
+
m
_
Or,
T1 + T2 + RI CD
A=
T1
C D T2
+
A = 1+
CI
T1
This expression of A presents the problem of interaction and hence,

the controller developed is called an interacting controller.
Circuit solution
e
e
+
_
m
RD
CD
I2
By substituting
CI
RI
I1
The T.F. becomes:
+
m
_
Or,
T1 + T2 + RI CD
A=
T1
C D T2
A = 1+
+
CI
T1
A simplified PID Controller with one op-amp

e
e
+
_
m
R1
RD
CD
CI
_
+
m
RI
Unity
gain
buffer
m
R2
e
e
equivalent
circuit
+
_
m
RD
CI
Original circuit with two op-amps

CD
RI
+
_ m
The unity gain buffer amplifier may be omitted if the resistances are chosen such that
(R
|| RD ) >> (R1 || R2 )
A simplified PID Controller with one op-amp

e
e
+
_
m
R1
CI
RD
_
+
CD
RI
m
R2
Unity
gain
buffer
e
e
equivalent
circuit
+
_
m
RD
CI
Original circuit with two op-amps

CD
RI
+
_ m
The unity gain buffer amplifier may be omitted if the resistances are chosen such that
(R
TD
adjust
CD
+
_
|| RD ) >> (R1 || R2 )
m
CI
R1 + R2
m
RD
RI
Ti
adjust
adjust
Final circuit with one op-amp
Desirable features of a Process Controller
Provision for providing a bias term

Provision for anti derivative kick

Provision for anti-integral wind-up

Output must be limited (saturation)

Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control

Provision for Local/Remote modes of operation

The controller output is
1 t
de
m =K p e + 0 edt + TD + bias
dt
Ti

1 t
de
dt
Ti
Bias may be properly adjusted for zero steady state error with P and PD
controllers, when load is constant. Proper bias can also ensure efficient
operation under start-up condition.

1 t
de
dt
Ti
Non-zero steady state error
P-control without bias

1 t
de
dt
Ti
P-control without bias
P-control with bias
Provision for anti-derivative kick

Derivative action may produce an unwanted kick at the controller output
when there is a step change in the set-point. This effect may be
eliminated if the derivative term is computed from the measured variable,
instead of the error (anti-derivative kick feature).

PD-control with derivative kick

PD-control with derivative kick
PD-control with anti-derivative kick
Integral action in PI and PID controllers may produce a large integral

error term when a non-zero error persists for a long time. Integration
action may be switched off to combat this situation, otherwise, a long
time may be required to come back to normal working range.
Integral action in PI and PID controllers may produce a large integral

error term when a non-zero error persists for a long time. Integration
action may be switched off to combat this situation, otherwise, a long
time may be required to come back to normal working range.
In some controllers, when the integral term is present, the integral

amount during Ti is summed with each pass through the calculation and
becomes the controller bias. This technique is known as automatic reset
and this is done to avoid long duration operation of the integral action
thus error due to drift etc. during integration may be avoided.
It is desirable to limit the controller output (say between 0% and 100%) so

that control valves or other final control elements may operate safely
within their working limits.
A change-over switch is normally provided for configuring the controller

as an automatic controller (AUTO) for closed loop operation or as a
manual controller (MAN) for open-loop operation.
A change-over switch is normally provided for configuring the controller

as an automatic controller (AUTO) for closed loop operation or as a
manual controller (MAN) for open-loop operation.
Manual command
MAN
Error
Controller
AUTO
Change-over
switch
Final
control
element
Actuating signal
Provision for Local/Remote modes of operation
A provision is made for the set point input, such that, the set point may
be changed either locally or from a remote link.
Electronic Process Controllers

Advantages
No transmission lag (as compared to pneumatic systems)

Advantages

Absence of dead zone due to friction or hysteresis in moving parts

Advantages

Capable of operating at low temperatures

Advantages

Capable of operating at low temperatures
Compatibility with other electrical components

Disadvantages
Prone to electrical hazards (in inflammable atmosphere)

Disadvantages

Analog integrators are not very reliable

Disadvantages

Analog integrators are not very reliable
Conversion equipments are necessary to interface pneumatic and hydraulic devices
Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier

Fulcrum
+
Set point
r
displacement
nozzle
x
Baffle
(or flapper)
Error
e
+
+
Cm
Measured
variable
(joint)
e = (r - Cm)/2
Restriction (orifice)
Constant pressure
air supply (Ps) (20 psi)
m
Output pressure (To control valve)
(Nozzle back pressure)

Fulcrum
a
+
Set point
r
displacement
nozzle
x
Baffle
(or flapper)
Error
e
Constant pressure
m
+
Cm
Measured
variable
(joint)
e = (r - Cm)/2
Power source
Set point
Measured
variable
+
Output

M (Nozzle back pressure)
Fulcrum
+
Set point
r
displacement
nozzle
x
Baffle
(or flapper)
Error
e
Ps
Constant pressure
m
approx. linear working

range
Typical 15 psi
values
3 psi
Pa
0
0.001" 0.002"
+
Cm
Measured
variable
(joint)
Typical
values
A typical curve relating nozzle back pressure
e = ( r - Cm)/2
x: change in baffle-nozzle separation.

m: change in back pressure.
Pa : the lowest possible pressure ( = ambient pressure).
Baffle-Nozzle
separation
to Baffle-Nozzle separation

Fulcrum
+
Set point
r
displacement
nozzle
x
Baffle
(or flapper)
Error
e
Ps
Constant pressure
m

range
Typical 15 psi
values
3 psi
Pa
0
0.001" 0.002"
+
Cm
Measured
variable
(joint)
Typical
values
Baffle-Nozzle
separation
e = ( r - Cm)/2
x: change in baffle-nozzle separation.

m: change in back pressure.
Pa : the lowest possible pressure ( = ambient pressure).
X = X`- x and M = M` + m, X`: baffle-nozzle separation with zero error and M`: output
pressure with zero error.

Ps
Typical
values

range
15 psi
3 psi
Pa
0
0.001" 0.002"
Typical
values
Baffle-Nozzle
separation

Ps
Typical
values

range
15 psi
3 psi
Pa
0
0.001" 0.002"
Typical
values
For approximately linear working range:

M = Kn X + C and M` = Kn X` + C, Kn being the slope
Baffle-Nozzle
separation

Ps
Typical
values

range
15 psi
3 psi
Pa
0
0.001" 0.002"
Typical
values
For approximately linear working range:

M = Kn X + C and M` = Kn X` + C, Kn being the slope
Subtracting, M - M` = Kn(X X`), i.e., m = - Kn.x
Baffle-Nozzle
separation
Fulcrum
+
Set point
r
displacement
nozzle
x
Baffle
(or flapper)
Error
e
Constant pressure
m
+
Cm
Measured
variable
(joint)
e = (r - Cm)/2
Under steady state condition, change in output pressure may be expressed as:
m = K n x , where Kn is the nozzle gain

Here,
a
x=
e
a +b
Fulcrum
+
Set point
r
displacement
nozzle
x
Baffle
(or flapper)
Error
e
Constant pressure
m
+
Cm
Measured
variable
(joint)
e = (r - Cm)/2
Under steady state condition, change in output pressure may be expressed as:
m = K n x , where Kn is the nozzle gain

a
x=
e
a +b
a
a
Thus,
,
K
is
called
the
amplifier
gain
and
m = K n e
=
K
e
K
=
K
n
a
b
+
a
+
b
Here,
Arrangement for mechanical set-point

and pneumatic measured variable
r
set point
(Screw)
e
Bellows
pneumatic
measured
variable Cm

r
set point
(Screw)
e
Bellows
Bellows
pneumatic
measured
variable Cm

r
set point
(Screw)
e
Bellows
Bellows
pneumatic
measured
variable Cm
Relay valve or pilot valve
The output pressure from the pneumatic amplifier is not suitable for driving the final
control element due to the presence of restriction in the air supply.
For this reason, a buffer stage, known as relay valve or pilot valve, is added at the
output to allow sufficient air flow at pressure m.
For this reason, a buffer stage, known as relay valve or pilot valve, is added at the
output to allow sufficient air flow at pressure m.
A relay valve may be direct-acting (positive gain) or reverse-acting (negative gain).
Direct-acting relay valve with a Baffle-Nozzle amplifier
Restriction
m
Air supply (Ps)

Vent
Relay valve (gain = 1)
e
Relay
Bellows
Relay output
m
m = - Kn.x
As the nozzle back pressure m increases, the relay output pressure also increases
Direct-acting relays
Bleed type relay

In all positions of the valve, except at the
position to shut off the air supply, air
continues to bleed into the atmosphere.
Bleed type relay

In all positions of the valve, except at the
position to shut off the air supply, air
continues to bleed into the atmosphere.
Bleed type relay
Non-bleed type relay

The air bleed stops when the equilibrium
condition is obtained, and, therefore, there is
no loss of pressurized air at steady-state
operation.
Reverse-acting relay
As the nozzle back pressure increases, the ball valve is forced towards the lower seat, thereby
decreasing the output pressure
Pneumatic Proportional Controller

Feedback bellows
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
b
e
Error
Restriction
air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)

Feedback bellows
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
Restriction
air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)
e
Error
The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as:
a b
=
( x)
e
Kb m
a+b a+b
where Kb is the bellows stiffness factor and m is the change in output pressure.

Feedback bellows
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
b
e
Error
Restriction
air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)
a b
=
x
( )
e
Kb m
a+b a+b
Now m = Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle
gain.

Feedback bellows
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
Restriction
air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)
a b
=
x
( )
e
Kb m
a+b a+b
gain.
e
Error
Block diagram of the controller
E(s)
a
a+b
++
-
-X(s)
b
a+b
Kn
Kb
M(s)

Feedback bellows
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
Restriction
air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)
e
Error
a b
m
e
Km
=
K n a + b a + b b
Thus,
a b
=
x
( )
e
Kb m
a+b a+b
gain.

Feedback bellows
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
Restriction
a b
=
x
( )
e
Kb m
a+b a+b
air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)
e
Error
a b
m
e
Km
=
K n a + b a + b b
Thus,
or
1
m
Kn
b a
+
Kb =
e
a+b a+b

gain.

Feedback bellows
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
Restriction
a b
=
x
( )
e
Kb m
a+b a+b
air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)
e
Error
a b
m
e
Km
=
K n a + b a + b b
Thus,
or
1
m
Kn
b a
+
Kb =
e
a+b a+b
if Kn is very high, then
1
0,
Kn

gain.

Feedback bellows
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
Restriction
air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)
e
Error
This gives
a
a+b
m
e =
=
=
e K p .e
bK b
b
Kb
a+b
where Kp = proportional gain =
a
bK b

Feedback bellows
a
a
b
+
m
e =
=
=
e K p .e
b
bK b
air supply (P )
K
b
(20 psi)
a+b
(Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
m
Restriction
e
Error
Simplified block diagram of the controller
E(s)
Kp
M(s)
a
bK b
Pneumatic proportional controller with a direct-acting relay
Feedback bellows
m
Controller output
m
(3 - 15 psi)
a
m
b
e
Error
Restriction
Relay valve (gain = 1)

Air supply (Ps)
(20 psi)
Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller

Feedback bellows
Derivative time
Restriction RD (Needle valve)
m
(output pressure)
CD
a
Baffle
Nozzle
air supply (Ps)
b
e
Error

Feedback bellows
Derivative time
m
(output pressure)
CD
a
Baffle
Nozzle
air supply (Ps)
e
Error
a
b Kb
=
X (s)
M (s)
E (s)
a+b
a + b 1 + sTD
where
Kb = Bellows stiffness factor,

TD = Derivative time
= RDCD, (assuming RD >> R),
CD = Capacity of the bellows.
(assuming RD >> R)

Feedback bellows
Derivative time
m
(output pressure)
CD
a
Baffle
Nozzle
air supply (Ps)
b
e
Error
a
b Kb
=
X (s)
E
s
M (s)
( )
a+b
a + b 1 + sTD
Now
M (s ) = K n X (s )
where Kn is the nozzle gain.

Feedback bellows
Derivative time
m
(output pressure)
CD
a
Baffle
Nozzle
air supply (Ps)
e
Error
M (s) a
b
Thus
=
E
s
(
)
Kn
a+b
a
b Kb
=
X (s)
E
s
M (s)
( )
a+b
a + b 1 + sTD
Now
M (s ) = K n X (s )
Kb
M (s)
+
+
a
b
sT
1

Feedback bellows
Derivative time
m
(output pressure)
CD
a
Baffle
Nozzle
air supply (Ps)
e
Error
a
b Kb
=
X (s)
E
s
M (s)
( )
a+b
a + b 1 + sTD
Now
M (s) a
b
Thus
=
E
s
(
)
Kn
or,
a+b
M (s ) = K n X (s )
Kb
M (s)
+
+
a
b
sT
1
1 b Kb a
+
M (s)
=
E (s)
K n a + b 1 + sTD a + b

Feedback bellows
Derivative time
m
(output pressure)
CD
a
Baffle
Nozzle
air supply (Ps)
e
Error
a
b Kb
=
X (s)
E
s
M (s)
( )
a+b
a + b 1 + sTD
Now
M (s ) = K n X (s )
M (s) a
b
Thus
=
E
s
(
)
Kn
or,
a+b
Kb
M (s)
+
+
a
b
sT
1
1 b Kb a
+
M (s)
Now,
=
E (s)
+
+
+
K
a
b
sT
a
b
1
D
n
K n >> 1,
1
0,
Kn

Feedback bellows
Derivative time
m
(output pressure)
CD
a
Baffle
Nozzle
air supply (Ps)
e
Error
a
b Kb
=
X (s)
E
s
M (s)
( )
a+b
a + b 1 + sTD
Now
M (s ) = K n X (s )
M (s) a
b
Thus
=
E
s
(
)
Kn
or,
a+b
Kb
M (s)
+
+
a
b
sT
1
1 b Kb a
+
M (s)
Now,
=
E (s)
+
+
+
K
a
b
sT
a
b
1
D
n
K n >> 1,
M (s) a
(1 + sTD )
E (s)
bK b
= K p (1 + sTD )
1
0,
Kn
a
bK b
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller

Integral time
Restriction (Needle valve)
RI
proportional
bellows
CI
positive
feedback
Integral
bellows
Error
negative
feedback
(output
pressure)
air supply (Ps)
R

Integral time
RI
proportional
bellows
CI
positive
feedback
Integral
bellows
negative
feedback
(output
pressure)
air supply (Ps)
R
Error
(assuming RI >> R and

same stiffness for both bellows)
a
b
b Kb
=
X (s)
E
s
K
M
s
+
(
)
(
)
M (s)
a
b
a
b
a
b
sT
1
+
+
+
+
i
where
and
Ti = Integral time
= RICI
CI = Capacity of integral bellows
Kb = Bellows stiffness factor.

Integral time
RI
proportional
bellows
CI
positive
feedback
Integral
bellows
negative
feedback
(output
pressure)
a
b
b Kb
=
X (s)
M (s)
E (s)
Kb M ( s ) +
a
b
a
b
a
b
sT
1
+
+
+
+
air supply (Ps)
R
Error
Hence,
1 b
a
=
X (s)
E
s
1
( )
Kb M ( s )
a+b
1 + sTi a + b
1
a
=
E (s)
1+ 1
a+b
sT
i
Kb M ( s )
a + b

Integral time
RI
proportional
bellows
CI
positive
feedback
Integral
bellows
negative
feedback
(output
pressure)
a
b
b Kb
=
X (s)
M (s)
E (s)
Kb M ( s ) +
a
b
a
b
a
b
sT
1
+
+
+
+
air supply (Ps)
R
Error
Hence,
1 b
a
=
X (s)
E
s
1
( )
Kb M ( s )
a+b
1 + sTi a + b
1
a
=
E (s)
1+ 1
a+b
sT
i
Now,
M ( s ) = Kn .X ( s )
Kb M ( s )
a + b
1 b
a
=
X (s)
E
s
1
( )
Kb M ( s )
a+b
1 + sTi a + b
Integral time
RI
proportional
bellows
CI
positive
feedback
Integral
bellows
negative
feedback
1 b
a
=
E (s)
Kb M ( s )
1
1+
a + b
a+b
air supply (P )
sT
i
R
and
M ( s ) = Kn .X ( s )
m
(output
pressure)
Error
Thus, assuming Kn >> 1, i.e.
1
0,
Kn
1 b
a
=
X (s)
E
s
1
( )
Kb M ( s )
a+b
1 + sTi a + b
Integral time
RI
proportional
bellows
CI
positive
feedback
Integral
bellows
negative
feedback
1 b
a
=
E (s)
Kb M ( s )
1
1+
a + b
a+b
air supply (P )
sT
i
R
and
M ( s ) = Kn .X ( s )
m
(output
pressure)
Error
Thus, assuming Kn >> 1, i.e.
1
0,
Kn
M (s)
1
1
a
=
1 +
= K p 1 +
,
E ( s ) bK b sTi
sTi
where
a
Kp =
bK b
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
e
Error
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
Error
b K b
a
X (s ) =
E (s )
a
b
a
b
+
+
1 + sTD
(assuming RI>>RD>> R)
M (s )
Kb
b
M (s )
+
a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
1
1
bK b
a
M (s )
(
)
E
s
a + b (1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )

a +b

Integral time
Restriction
RI
b K b
a
M (s )
X (s ) =
E (s )
a + b 1 + sTD
a+b
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
Kb
b
M (s )
+
a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )

(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
1
1
bK b
a
M (s )
E (s )
a + b (1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
a +b
Error
Now,
1
1
1 + sTi 1
=
1 + sTD (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )

Integral time
Restriction
RI
b K b
a
M (s )
X (s ) =
E (s )
a + b 1 + sTD
a+b
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
Kb
b
M (s )
+
a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )

(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
1
1
bK b
a
M (s )
E (s )
a + b (1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
a +b
Error
Now,
1
1
1 + sTi 1
=
1 + sTD (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
=
sTi
1 + sTi + sTD + s 2TiTD
1
1 TD
1+
+ + sTD
sTi Ti

Integral time
Restriction
RI
b K b
a
M (s )
X (s ) =
E (s )
a + b 1 + sTD
a+b
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
Kb
b
M (s )
+
a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )

(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
1
1
bK b
a
M (s )
E (s )
a + b (1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
a +b
Error
Therefore,
1
bK b
a
M (s )
(
)
E
s
X (s ) =
a + b 1 + 1 + TD + sT
a +b
D
sT T
i
i

Integral time
Restriction
RI
b K b
a
M (s )
X (s ) =
E (s )
a + b 1 + sTD
a+b
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
Kb
b
M (s )
+
a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )

(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
1
1
bK b
a
M (s )
E (s )
a + b (1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
a +b
Error
Therefore,
1
bK b
a
M (s )
(
)
E
s
X (s ) =
a + b 1 + 1 + TD + sT
a +b
D
sT T
i
i
Now,
M (s ) = K n X (s )

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
1
bK b
a
M (s )
X (s ) =
E (s )
T
1
a + b 1+
a +b
D
sT
+
+
D
sTi Ti
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
and
M (s ) = K n X (s )
Error
Therefore,
M (s ) a
1
bK b
M (s )
=
E (s )
Kn
a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT
a +b
D
Ti sTi

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
1
bK b
a
M (s )
X (s ) =
E (s )
T
1
a + b 1+
a +b
D
sT
+
+
D
sTi Ti
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
and
M (s ) = K n X (s )
Error
Therefore,
M (s ) a
1
bK b
M (s )
=
E (s )
Kn
a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT
a +b
D
Ti sTi
or,
1 bK
1
a
b
M (s ) +
=
E (s )
T
1
Kn a + b 1 + D +
a+b
sT
+
D
T sT
i
i

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
e
Error
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
1 bK
1
b
= a E (s )
M (s )
+
K n a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT a + b
D
Ti sTi

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
e
Error
R
Restriction
1 bK
1
b
= a E (s )
M (s )
+
K n a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT a + b
D
Ti sTi
Air supply (Ps)
as
K n >> 1,
1
0
Kn

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Error
1 bK
1
b
= a E (s )
M (s )
+
K n a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT a + b
D
Ti sTi
Air supply (Ps)
as
K n >> 1,
1
0
Kn
Therefore,
TD 1
M (s ) a TD 1
= 1 + + + sTD = K p 1 + + + sTD
E (s ) bK b Ti sTi
Ti sTi
where
a
Kp =
bK b

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
Error
TD 1
M (s ) a TD 1
1 + + + sTD = K p 1 + + + sTD
=
E (s ) bK b Ti sTi
Ti sTi
where
a
Kp =
bK b

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
Error
TD 1
M (s ) a TD 1
1 + + + sTD = K p 1 + + + sTD
=
E (s ) bK b Ti sTi
Ti sTi
where
a
Kp =
bK b
Here,
TD

Ti
imposes an interaction between integral and derivative operations of the controller. If

we choose Ti >> TD, the interaction reduces and the transfer function becomes
M (s )
1
K p 1 +
+ sTD
E (s )
sTi
the ideal relation of a PID controller.

Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CD
CI
RD
Derivative time
Restriction
(output pressure)
m
R
Restriction
Air supply (Ps)
Error
The controller gain becomes infinite when Ti = TD, if derivative time

restriction is placed in position (1).
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Process Control Systems by Shinskey

Automatic Process Control by Eckman
Principles of Process Control by Patranabis
Process Control by Harriott
Process Systems Analysis and Control by Coughanowr and Koppel
Process Control by Pollard
Chemical Process Control by Stephanopoulos
Modern Control Engineering by Ogata
Applied Process Control by Chidambaram

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Process Controllers

Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

The controller output may be expressed as:

Realization of Electronic PID controller

Realization of Electronic PID controller

Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,

Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,

Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,

the transfer function of PID controller

Parallel Realization of PID Controller

A simple PID Controller with two op-amps

A simple PID Controller with two op-amps

A simple PID Controller with two op-amps

where T1 = RICI and T2 = RDCD

This expression of A presents the problem of interaction and hence,

The T.F. becomes:

A simplified PID Controller with one op-amp

Original circuit with two op-amps

A simplified PID Controller with one op-amp

Original circuit with two op-amps

Final circuit with one op-amp

Desirable features of a Process Controller

Provision for providing a bias term

Desirable features of a Process Controller

Provision for providing a bias term

Desirable features of a Process Controller

Provision for providing a bias term

Desirable features of a Process Controller

Provision for providing a bias term

Desirable features of a Process Controller

Provision for providing a bias term

Desirable features of a Process Controller

Provision for providing a bias term

Provision for providing a bias term

Provision for providing a bias term

Provision for providing a bias term

Non-zero steady state error

P-control without bias

Provision for providing a bias term

P-control without bias

P-control with bias

Provision for anti-derivative kick

Provision for anti-derivative kick

PD-control with derivative kick

Provision for anti-derivative kick

PD-control with derivative kick

PD-control with anti-derivative kick

Provision for anti-integral wind-up

Integral action in PI and PID controllers may produce a large integral

Provision for anti-integral wind-up

Integral action in PI and PID controllers may produce a large integral

In some controllers, when the integral term is present, the integral

Output must be limited (saturation)

It is desirable to limit the controller output (say between 0% and 100%) so

Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control

A change-over switch is normally provided for configuring the controller

Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control

A change-over switch is normally provided for configuring the controller

Provision for Local/Remote modes of operation

Electronic Process Controllers

No transmission lag (as compared to pneumatic systems)