Giannetti George
Danielle Sheppard
Rose Bertin
Course
EDID 6503 Instructional Design Theories, Models and Strategies
2
Abstract
This paper looks at the collaboration of three prospective instructional designers in creating a working
instructional model which would be implementable across three secondary schools located on two Caribbean
islands. Three instructional models which were initially designed for the respective schools were remolded into
a new model called SPADEER, where each letter in the model name provides descriptions of the model. The
components are Students, Planning, Analysis, Execution, Evaluation and Reflection. SPADEER was inspired by
the cyclical design of the Kemp Model and the simplicity of the ADDIE Model. The components are
interdependent with the focus emanating from Students who are at the heart and the primary focus of this
student-centered instructional model. This model allows for the implementation of various instructional
strategies and approaches. Although SPADEER was initially conceptualized for use at All Saints, Ciceron and
East Coast Secondary Schools, it has applicability for any learning environment.
Profile of Teaching Staff at the All Saints Secondary School- Taken from Staff Attendance
Gender
Graduate
Non-Graduate
Senior
Master
Total
Teacher Teacher
Trained
Untrained
Trained
Untrained
GA1
GA
TT
UT
Male
Female
12
14
26
56
Total
20
14
32
73
17
Profile of Teaching Staff at the All Saints Secondary School- Taken from Staff Attendance
Having such wide diversity of students, educators at the institution are constantly faced with the
challenge of catering for the learning needs of all the students, which has escalated with the advent of universal
secondary education. In the past students would be required to sit entrance examinations to gain scholarships to
government owned secondary educational institutions, however that practice has been abolished are just
required to write their assessment and placement exams. This has caused the size of the institution to grow
tremendously where instructors would often find themselves with a class size of over 30 students which makes
it difficult at times, to ensure that students get the attention that is needed. Since students are now just placed
into a secondary school in their zone they would come with varying learning difficulties, where because of lack
of experience and sometimes training on the part of the instructor to handle these types of learners, students are
left behind in instruction which creates a gap in learning.
Within the organization there are a few instructional strategies that are utilized. These are used because
of the diversity of subject disciplines that are offered to the students, and to facilitate the effective delivery of
the curriculum. One method that is used frequently by all of the instructors at the educational instruction is the
direct instruction method. Luke (2014) outlined that this method of instruction allows for clear explanation of
Description of the work environment for Rose (The Ciceron Secondary School)
The Ciceron Secondary School was deemed, at the time of opening in 1993, as the Flagship of
Secondary Education on the island because of the plan for the integration of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) into the Technical Vocation Programme and the first ever pilot of the Modular Approach to
education on the island. Prior to the opening of the School in 1993, some of the teachers who were recruited to
teach at the school were selected and sent to Paxton/Patterson in Wisconsin, USA. There we received training
over a three (3) week period on the use of various modules on classroom technology learning systems.
The website of the Paxton/Patterson institution indicates that in 1990, it became one of the first
companies to provide classroom technology learning systems and provides learning systems which engage
students with problem-based, real-world technology. The programs concentrate on STEM Education, Health
Science Careers, Family and Consumer Sciences, and Architecture and Construction. Twelve modules were
Table 2
Profile of Teaching Staff at the Ciceron Secondary School
Gender
Graduate
Non-Graduate
Total
Trained
Untrained
Trained
Untrained
Male
11
Female
21
Total
15
11
32
The Instructional Model which best describes the work environment in the first two to three years of the
operation of the School was modular instruction, based on the collaboration with Paxton/Patterson outlined
above. Modules are self-contained, self-instructional packages, with learning dictated by each student based on
his/her individual needs and ability. A module can cover either a single aspect of subject matter content or a
grouping of content elements forming a discrete unit of subject matter or area of skill (Ali, et al. 2010).
However, after the first two to three years, the use of the Modular model diminished and the Direct
Instruction model best describes the work environment presently. This conclusion was arrived at based on my
own observations as a teacher at the institution from 1993, as well as feedback received from the School
Principal and other colleagues in interviews conducted on which model best describes the work environment at
the Ciceron Secondary School.
In the Direct Instruction model, the teacher imparts knowledge or demonstrates a skill. The Model uses a
teacher-centered approach to help students understand organized bodies of knowledge. Teachers use advanced
organizers at the beginning of a lesson to preview and structure new material, linking it to students' existing
network of organized and interconnected ideas and relationships (Tarver, 1999).
Instructional strategies used in the work environment
Direct instructional strategies are largely teacher-directed, where teachers tell the students the concept or
skill to be learned and then lead them through instructional activities based on behaviouristic learning
principles, e.g. getting students' attention, reinforcing correct responses, providing corrective feedback,
practicing correct responses (Tarver, 1999).The work environment is characterized by teacher structured lessons,
following a sequential approach, with the teacher in control of the content, activities, and lesson pacing.
Teachers monitor student understanding and provide feedback. Specific instructional strategies used in my work
environment include methods such as: lectures, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, practice and drill, and
demonstrations.
Description of the work environment for Giannetti (The East Coast Secondary School)
Matrix showing the most commonly used Instructional Strategies currently implemented at East Coast
Secondary School
instructional strategies
Subjects
Agricultural
Science
Biology
BT
Constructio
n
B T Woods
Chemistry
Clothing &
Textile
E.D.P.M
English A
Englisg B
Food &
Nutrition
French
Geography
Health &
Family Life
History
H S Biology
I.T.
Integrated
Sci
Mathematic
s
Office
Admin
Physical Ed
Physics
P.O.A.
P.O.B.
Social
Studies
Spanish
Technical
Drawing
Theatre Art
Discussi
on/
lecture
note
taking
drill &
practi
ce
experime
nt
projec
t
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
quiz
grou
p
wor
k
role
play
stimulatio
n
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
LECTURE
STUDENT ACTIVITY
ASSIGNMENTS/ HOMEWORK
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Instructional Strategies
All three schools have a heavy emphasis on the teacher centered approach to instruction in particular the direct
approach to instruction. Reigeluth and Carr-Chellmen (2009) highlights, that this approach makes use of various
strategies of instruction such as the drill and practice, lectures, guided discovery, rote learning and demonstrations,
which were all incorporated into the teaching and learning process at the institutions. From the variety of teacher
centered instructional strategies outlined in Reigeluth and Carr-Chellmen (2009) as well as on Driscoll (2014), the All
Saints implemented strategies that include: direction instruction, guided discovery, hands on learning and rote
learning. At the Ciceron Secondary teachers make use of advanced organizers which Driscoll (2014) notes is
important for learning since it allows instructors to link previous knowledge to new information being taught. In
addition to advance organizers the instructors at the institution make use of didactic questioning and explicit teaching
in the learning process. While note taking, quizzes, role playing simulations and projects were strategies often
implemented at East Coast Secondary.
New Combined Instructional Model
Description of new model
The previous educational institutions all implemented instructional models that catered for the teacher
centered approach to instruction. It was believed that this method of instruction allowed teachers the opportunity to
complete their curriculum in the time frame given by the examination council. When the institutions merged the
instructional designers felt that the continuous use of teacher oriented instruction would not meet the educational
needs of the learners. Therefore a new instructional model called the SPADEER was designed to facilitate effective
instruction within the organization. The SPADEER instructional model was designed using similar structures,
principles and tenets of the Kemp instructional design as well was the ADDIE model. The model followed the
circular design as of Kemp and ADDIE model designs since this sequence does not follow a strict linear sequence
16
Students
At the center, as a constant reminder that this is a student centered instructional model, and that each
component must emanate from the students is the student or learner element of the design. Every student has a
history, a point of view and experiences that influence how he or she learns. Etmer and Newby (1993) noted that the
cognitivist theory of learning is more concerned with how readily learners assimilate information. That is how new
information can be meshed with existing information. The behaviourist is focused on pre-testing to determine at what
level learning should begin and the constructivist postulates that learners build personal interpretation of the world
based on individual experiences and interactions (p. 63). It is apparent that irrespective of the learning theory that the
instructional designer is a proponent of, the importance of the learner cannot be overstated or overrated. There must
be a distinct focus on the student or learner in order for instruction to be successful.
Planning
In everything that is done, it is important to plan effective and efficiently for success. Therefore it was
deemed necessary to ensuring that this area was added to the model. The planning component is concerned with
setting the time line for the implementation of the other components of SPADEER and as proposed by Crawford
(2014) in creating an authentic learning experience. Here, most of the macro-planning takes place. This would include
schemes of work for the term, selection of topics, and selection of subject content. In this stage every effort must be
made to ensure that all the teachers have bought-into the SPADEER model. Teacher professional development
workshops may be required to familiarize teachers with the new model and its implementation. Pentecost, Langdon,
Asirvatham, Robus and Parson (2012) noted that instructor attitude concerning pedagogy change and instructional
modification can influence the success of the implementation of the new model. Consultation with major stakeholders
would be strongly encouraged in this component. Students input during the planning stage would significantly
contribute to the authenticity of the learning experience and allow them to take ownership of their learning since they
were part of the process.
Analysis
Evaluation
The application of both summative and formative evaluations is administered. The summative assessment is
used to determine if the specific learning outcomes or objectives have been achieved. These are usually administered
to students at the end of a topic or a cycle. Formative assessment should be used to provide feedback on the
effectiveness of the various components of SPADEER and effectiveness the entire model. The results of these
assessments are not merely to determine if students have obtained the necessary knowledge and skills, but also to
evaluate the effectiveness of the instructors and the success of the instructional model.
Reflection
In this step in the process instructors would have the opportunity to reflect on the model in particular the
various instructional strategies and method of execution. After the reflection process, instructors would be able to restrategize if the instructional strategies used did not fully meet the needs of the students, or did not allow for effective
instruction and delivery of the curriculum. This step will aid in ensuring that effective teaching and positive learning
outcomes are attained. Danielson (2007) postulated It is through critical reflection that teachers are able to assess the
effectiveness of their work and take steps to improve it (p. 92). Having this step in the model is important as it
would provide the instructor with the opportunity to take a comprehensive look on what was done and make
adjustments to facilitate the improved performance of the learners.
Instructional strategies that will be afforded in the new model
The introduction of the SPADEER model into the new combined institution would allow for the
implementation of student friendly teaching, since the entire model is designed around the instructional needs
of the student. Reigeluth and Carr-Chellmen (2009) noted that when student centered teaching approaches are
used in the instructional process, it provides opportunities for learner to make the learning experience their own.
role play
simulation
projects
guided discovery
debates
collaboration
laboratory experiments
experiential learning
games
microworlds
competitions
workshops
My Reflection -Rose
My experience with developing a new instructional design model with my group members was very
interesting and rewarding. We started out by creating an action plan, and decided to use Skype and Google docs to
collaborate on this project. As we continued to work on the project, we developed a personal and social relationship
with each other, getting to know more about each other as individuals. Working with the group was a great
My Reflection - Giannetti
In retrospect I see the value of the activity of creating a new model by working collaboratively with my fellow
members of Team Architects. We were able to merge together three distinct and separate models into one cohesive
instructional model which we aptly named SPADEER. The first letter of each component or stage was used to create
the acronym, where the components are Students, Planning, Analysis, Design, Execution, Evaluation and Reflection.
Whether it was serendipity or by design, it happened that each team member was a teacher at a secondary
school, which greatly worked in our favour as the task of merging the three models into a single instructional model
was seamless and effortless. This is not to say that SPADEER is exclusively designed for secondary schools. As a
26
References
Ali, et al. (2010). Effectiveness of Modular Teaching in Biology at Secondary Level, Asian Social
Science Vol. 6, No. 9; Canadian Center of Science and Education
Akbulut, Y. (2007). Implications of two well-known models for instructional designers in distance
education: Dick-Carey versus Morrison-Ross-Kemp. Turkish Online Journal of Distance
Education, 8(2).
Carr-Chellman, A. (2011). Instructional design for teachers: Improving classroom practice. New York:
Routledge Taylor and Francis
Crawford, R. (2014). A multidimensional/non-linear teaching and learning model: teaching and learning music in an
authentic and holistic context. Music Education Research, 16(1), 50-69. doi:10.1080/14613808.2013.812627
Danielson, C. (2007). Enhamcing Professional Practice: A framework for teaching (2nd Edition).
Virgina: The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Driscoll, M. (2014). Psychology of Learning for Instruction Third Edition. England: Pearson
Education
Ertmer, P. & Newby, T. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: comparing critical features from an
instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4): 50 - 72. Retrieved from:
http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/9431/mod_resource/content/1/Ertmer-Newby-beh-cog-const.pdf
Forest, E.(2014). The ADDIE Model: Instructional design. Retrieved from:
http://educationaltechnology.net/the-addie-model-instructional-design/
Giles, M. (2013). The Kemp ID Model. [Slideshare]. Retrieved from:
http://www.slideshare.net/lindamgiles/kemp-id-modelpresmgiles-16411696
Keesee, G. (2014) Instructional Approaches. Retrieved from:
http://teachinglearningresources.pbworks.com /w/page/19919560/Instructional
%20Approaches
Luke, A. (2014). On Explicit and Direct Instruction - Australian Literacy Educators
Association. Retrieved from: http://www.alea.edu.au/documents/item/861
McNeil, J. D., & Wiles, J. (1990). The essentials of teaching: Decisions, plans, methods. New York:
Macmillan.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kemp, J. E., & Kalman, H. (2010). Designing effective instruction.
John Wiley & Sons.
Pentecost, T. C., Langdon, L. S., Asirvatham, M., Robus, H., & Parson, R. (2012). Graduate teaching