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The Living Cell

Compound Microscope, circa 1751

Microscopy and Amoeba

proteus

Leeuwenhoek & his first microscope

Compound Light Microscope

oculars
(eyepieces)

stand
coarse focus
fine focus

objective lenses
stage
condenser
field lens
(light source)
illuminator control

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Microscopy and Cheek Cells

Terminologies Used in Microscopy

Virtual or Floating Image the image of an object seen in the
microscopic field.
Microscopic field the bright circular illuminated area as seen
through the ocular eyepiece where the image of the specimen
is viewed.
Numerical Aperture the measurement of the ability of the
condenser and the objective lens to gather light. The higher
the magnification of the objective, the larger is the numerical
aperture.
Objective
Scanner
LPO
HPO
OIO

Magnification
5X
10X
40X
100X

Numerical Aperture
0.10
0.25
0.65
1.25

Resolving Power ability of the lens to clearly separate or

distinguish two points of two lines individually in the image. It
is determined by the shortest wavelength of visible light and
maximum numerical aperture.
Parfocal refer to the objectives and eyepiece where
practically no change in focus has to be made when one
objective is substituted for another.
Refraction the bending of light rays away from the objective
lens when light passes from the glass of the microscopic slide
to the air.
Depth of focus pertains to the thickness of the object that
may be seen at one time under focus. It increases with a
decrease in the numerical aperture and magnification.
Magnification the ratio of the apparent size of an object as
seen through the microscope and the actual size of the object.

Focusing the adjustment of

the distance between the
objective lens and the
specimen when a clear image
of the specimen is seen
through the eyepiece. The
specimen is said to be in focus.
Working Distance the distance
between the front lens of the
objective and the top of the cover
glass when the specimen is in
focused. The higher the
magnification, the shorter is the
working distance.

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Orientation
Actual
position

Apparent
image

Frog gastrula, saggital section; arrow

indicates yolk plug

Direction of
movement

Magnification
Final magnification
using a simple lens
system (e.g.,
dissecting
microscope

40x

100x

400x

40x

100x

400x

Apparent
direction
down

Same images:
Final magnification
using a compound
light microscope

up

left

right

Sizes of Living Things

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Estimating Number of Objects Per Unit Area

Stomata from
leaves of
Japanese privet
(Ligustrum
japonicum)

Measuring with an Eyepiece Reticule

Determine width of a Spirogyra filament

Reject

Accept

Count: 13 stomata in field

(4 overlapping stomata
accepted, 3 rejected

Before lining up

Accept

Reject

Lined up on specimen

Estimated 13 divisions at 20 m/division gives width of 260 m

Resolving and Reporting Dimensions

Sketches of Chlamydomonas reinhardi cell with paired flagella

Image as it might
appear with resolution
to the nearest 10
nanometers

Length can be
estimated as 4.1
divisions

Image as it might
appear in a light
microscope with
total magnification
400x

Length appears to
be nearly 5
divisions

Cork cells observed by R. Hooke (1665)

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Cell Theory

Proponents of the Cell Theory

A unifying concept in biology

Originated from the work of biologists Schleiden
and Schwann in 1838-9
States that:
1. All organisms are composed of cells
- German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838
- German zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839

2. All cells come only from preexisting cells

Schleiden

Virchow

Schwann

- German physician Rudolph Virchow in 1850s

3. Smallest unit of life

Cells are the structural and functional units of life

Two distinct groups of cells exist
Prokaryotic cells
Simple and small
Bacteria are prokaryotic

Eukaryotic cells
Possess organelles separated by membranes
Plants, animals, and fungi are eukaryotic

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Shapes of Bacterial Cells

Escherichia coli

22

Organisms and Cells

23

Amoeba

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Yeast

Neuron

Cyclosis in Plant Cells

Muscle cells, with their

nuclei stained blue and
communication channels
between cells stained red.

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The Fluid Mosaic Model

31

Phospholipid & Cholesterol

Molecules

32

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Energy-Related Organelles:
Mitochondrial Structure

33

Energy-Related Organelles:
Chloroplast Structure

34

Vacuole

Cell walls enclose and support plant cells

Plant, but not animal cells, have a rigid cell

wall
It protects and provides skeletal support that helps
keep the plant upright against gravity
Plant cell walls are composed primarily of cellulose

Plant cells have cell junctions called

plasmodesmata that serve in communication
between cells

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Anatomy of the Nucleus

Walls
of two
adjacent
plant cells
Vacuole
Plasmodesmata

Primary cell wall

Secondary cell wall
Cytoplasm

Plasma membrane
38

Fibers of the cytoskeleton

Nucleus

Nucleus

Actin subunit

Fibrous subunits
7 nm

Microfilament

Tubulin subunit

10 nm

25 nm

Intermediate filament
Microtubule

10

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Cilia and flagella move when

microtubules bend
Flagellum

Cilia

Cilia on cells lining the respiratory tract.

Undulating flagellum on a sperm cell.

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Nucleus, Ribosomes, & ER

Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary

Figure 4.9

47

48

12

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Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome
Plasma
membrane

Lysosomes are
digestive
compartments
within a cell

Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome

Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome

Plasma
membrane

Plasma
membrane

Food vacuole

Food vacuole

13

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Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome

Lysosome

Plasma
membrane

Digestion
Food vacuole

Lysosome

Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion

Lysosome

Digestion
Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion

Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion

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Apoptosis (Cell Suicide)

Between 50 billion
and 70 billion cells die
each day due to
apoptosis in the
average human adult.

A section of mouse
liver stained to show
cells undergoing
apoptosis (orange)

Fully developed foot of

mouse has separate fingers.

Histologic cross section of

embryonic foot of mouse
(Mus musculus) in 15.5 day
of its development. There
are still cells between
fingers. (Full development
of mouse lasts 27 days.)

Incomplete differentiation in
two toes (syndactyly) due to
lack of apoptosis

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When normal cells are

damaged beyond repair,
they are eliminated by
apoptosis (A). Cancer cells
avoid apoptosis and
continue to multiply in an
unregulated manner (B).

a.
l.

b.
c.

k.

j.

i.

h.

d.

g.

e.
f.

16

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A Cell is Like a City

17