G R AM TI C A I NGLES A II UN LP

U N I T 1
H AN D O U T # 2

Sentence, Proposition, Utterance

What is a sentence?
1. Structural definition: Syntactically, a sentence consists of a subject and a predicate; categorially, a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
This is a traditional definition, based on the "structure" of the sentence. It is not necessarily the definition given by structural
grammarians. It would have to be completed by defining the sentence-defining terms: subject, predicate, noun and verb phrase. And
then, we would have to define the terms used in these definitions, and so on. This is Chomskys position, the whole grammar
is the definition of the sentence in a particular language. It leaves open the question whether we can or not define the sentence
as a universal category of language.
2. Notional definition: a sentence is a group of words which express a complete idea, presumably, a proposition (static or
dynamic) and a modality (cognition or volition).
Structuralists have critized this definition (a traditional one) for being subjective and unscientific. The term "idea" is difficult to
define because it is vague.
However, if we interpret an idea as a semantic unit which consists of a proposition and a modality, the definition becomes quite
acceptable.
3. Phonological definition: a sentence is an utterance with a definite intonation contour.
The attempt to define the sentence phonologically was made by structural grammarians, who identified language with speech. It fails
because there is no exact correspondence between sentence final intonation contours and the end of sentences, e.g.: if we say he
said he would come he didnt with a single intonation and a fall ondidnt.
4. Bloomfields definition: a sentence is an independent linguistic form, not included by virtue of any grammatical construction, in any
larger linguistic form.
This definition says simply that the sentence is the largest unit of grammatical description. Largest means highest in rank. We can
discuss the structure of the sentence in terms of clauses, phrases, etc, but we cannot talk about syntactic classes, roles, or distributions of
sentences, because the sentence does not operate (play a role) in any larger grammatical unit. We can talk about affirmative,
interrogative and negative sentences, but these are types of sentences, not syntactic or distributional classes. We can also talk about
statements, questions and commands, but these are different speech acts, not syntactic classes. The sentence cannot be put into any
distributional (or syntactic) class. Sentences are distributionally independent of one another.
Is the paragraph a grammatical unit?
No. It is a stylistic unit, not a grammatical one. We cannot set up rules to generate (or describe precisely) the structure of the
paragraph. We have to talk about cohesion and coherence, and these are matters of degree. Grammar deals with matters of yes or no.
The paragraph may be considered as a pragmatic unit. Pragmatics studies the use of language, performance, behaviour, utterances. We
have to keep in mind the difference between language (an abstract system) and its use (a communicative activity). The study of
language is linguistics proper (microlinguistics). The study of performance calls for an interdisciplinary subject (linguistics, sociology,
stylistics, etc). Sentences are described in grammar. Paragraphs and more extended texts, discourse, are discussed in pragmatics, in
discourse or text analysis.
A sentence is an abstract category. It has different levels of structure: phonological, grammatical and semantic. The different definitions
focus on the different levels.
Lyons: The relationship between observed (or observable) utterances and the set of grammatical sentences postulated by the
linguist in his description of a particular language is quite indirect. Utterances involve the use of language (performance). Sentences are
abstract, scientific constructions. They make up the language-system (competence). Utterances are the data of linguists. Sentences are part
of linguistic theory.
Sentences
*theoretical constructs
*hypothetical entities
*abstract

Utterances
*behaviour, activity, performance, actual facts
*things we say
*concrete vocal signals

*Saussureslangue
*precise, technical, theoretical term

*Saussures parole
*intuitive, pre-theoretical, observational term
*unique physical events

Sentence types

Speech Acts

declarative
interrogative
imperative

Statements
Questions
Commands

The linguist is not concerned with unique observational entities. He is interested in types, not tokens. Pragmatists are interested in
utterances, which are tokens of the same type. "Type" means there is some structural or functional identity by virtue of which we
recognize their sameness.
In describing a language, the linguist constructs a model, not of the actual language behaviour, but of the regularities manifest in that
behaviour. He constructs a model of the language-system.
Lyons distinguishes between:

Text-sentence:

a sentence that can be uttered

the product of a bit of language-behaviour (utterance)
it may be complete or incomplete

System-sentence: a sentence as an abstract, theoretical entity.

a construct in the linguists model of the language-system
complete by definition
in correspondence with grammatically complete text-sentences
Lyons defines text as any connected passage of discourse (spoken or written)
Gramar & Semantics
system-sentences
Declarative
interrogative
imperative, etc

Pragmatics
utterances
statements
questions
commands, etc.

Gramatical structures

communicative speech act

The characteristic function (use) of a declarative sentence is to make a statement (to inform someone of something).
The characteristic function, or use, of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question.
The characteristic function, or use, of an imperative sentence is to express a command (or request).
But this correspondence is not always held: questions may be asked by uttering declarative sentences, e.g.: I want to know...; commands
may be given by uttering interrogative sentences, e.g.: why dont you ...?
The utterance of a sentence is understood to mean the production of a text-sentence.

SEMANTICS.A coursebook.by James Hurford& Brendan Heasley

Semantics: basic definitions
Semantics: the study of meaning in language.
Speaker meaning: is what a speaker means (i.e. intends to convey) when he uses a piece of language.
Sentence meaning (or word meaning) is what a sentence (or words) means, i.e. what it counts as the equivalent of ... in the
language concerned.
Theory is a precisely specified, coherent and economical framework of interdependent statements and definitions
constructed so that as large a number as possible of particular basic facts can either be seen to follow from it or be
describable in terms of it.
Sentence: neither a physical event nor a physical object. Conceived abstractly, it is a string of words put together by the
grammatical rules of a language. A sentence can be thought of as the IDEAL string of words behind various realizations in
utterances and inscriptions. A given sentence always consists of the same words, and in the same order. Any change in the

words, or in their order, makes a different sentence. A sentence can also be defined as a grammatically complete string of
words expressing a complete thought. Many times, non-sentences can be analysed as abbreviations of sentences.
Utterance: any stretch of talk, used by one person, before and after which there is silence on the part of that person. An
utterance is the USE of a particular speaker, on a particular occasion, of a piece of language, such as a sequence of sentences,
or a single phrase, or even a single word. It is a physical, ephemeral, unique event (it dies in the wind).
Proposition: that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs. The state of
affairs typically involves persons or things referred to by expressions in the sentence. In uttering a declarative sentence a
speaker typically asserts a proposition. The notion of truth can be used to decide whether two sentences express different
propositions. If there is any conceivable set of circumstances in which one sentence is true, while the other is false, we can be
sure that they express different propositions. *True propositions correspond to facts. False propositions, do not.
*One can entertain propositions in the mind regardless of whether they are true or false, e.g., by thinking them, or believing
them. But only true propositions can be known.
*In the definition we explicitly mentioned declarative sentences, but propositions are clearly involved in the meanings of other
types of sentences, such as interrogative and imperatives. Normally, when a speaker utters a simple declarative sentence, he
commits himself to the truth of the corresponding proposition, i.e. he asserts the proposition. By uttering a simple
interrogative or imperative, a speaker can mention a particular proposition, without asserting its truth. For example, in saying:
Greg can go, a speaker asserts the proposition that Greg can go. In saying: Can Greg go?, he mentions the same proposition but
merely questions its truth. We say that corresponding declaratives and interrogatives (and imperatives) have the same
propositional content.

Can be loud or quiet

Can be grammatical or not
Can be true or false
In a particular regional accent
In a particular language

Utterances
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Sentences
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* The same proposition may be expressed by different sentences.

* The same sentence may be realized by different utterances.
* Propositions cannot be said to belong to any particular language.

Propositions
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