DrTimAnderson

Ph:099219999Extn:8075
Office:WS307F

Introduction
Revisesomekeyconcepts
Identifytheuniquevocabularyassociatedwith

thermodynamics
Explainthebasicconceptsofthermodynamicssuchas
system,state,equilibrium,process,andcycle
Introducetheconceptofenergyanddefineitsvarious
forms
Discussthenatureofinternalenergy
Definetheconceptofheatandtheterminology
associatedwithenergytransferbyheat

TemperatureScales
Temperaturescalesarebasedonsome

easilyreproduciblestatessuchasthe
freezingandboilingpointsofwater:the
icepointandthesteampoint
Celsiusscale:commonlyused
temperatureunitsystembasedon
boilingandfreezingpointsofwater
Fahrenheitscale:inEnglishunitsystem
Thermodynamictemperaturescale:A
temperaturescalethatisindependentof
thepropertiesofanysubstance
Kelvinscale(SI):Kelvinscaleisthe
absoluteSItemperaturesystemthatyou
willbecomefamiliarwith

WilliamThomson
akaLordKelvin
www.todayinsci.com

Comparisonoftemperaturescales
Thereferencetemperatureintheoriginal

Kelvin(K)scalewastheicepoint,273.15K,
whichisthetemperatureatwhichwater
freezes(oricemelts)
Thereferencepointwaschangedtoa
muchmorepreciselyreproduciblepoint,
thetriplepointofwater(thestateatwhich
allthreephasesofwatercoexistin
equilibrium),whichisassignedthevalue
273.16K
Themagnitudeof1Cand1Kare

identical,theirstartingpointismerely
offset

Cengel:Fig221

TheZeroth LawofThermodynamics
Thezeroth lawofthermodynamics:

Iftwobodiesareinthermal
equilibriumwithathirdbody,they
arealsointhermalequilibriumwith
eachother
Byreplacingthethirdbodywitha
thermometer,thezeroth lawcanbe
restatedastwobodiesareinthermal
equilibriumifbothhavethesame
temperaturereadingeveniftheyare
notincontact

www.splung.com

Pressure
Pressure:Theforce(N)normalto

asurfaceexertedbyabody,per
unitarea(m2)
SIunitisPascals
Sometimesyouwillseepressure
expressedinbaroratmwhich
isderivedfromthepressure
exertedbytheatmosphere

www.hatstag.com

www.sneakerfiles.com

Pressure
Absolutepressure:Theactualpressure

atagivenposition.Itismeasured
relativetoabsolutevacuum(i.e.
absolutezeropressure)
Gaugepressure:Thedifferencebetween
theabsolutepressureandthelocal
atmosphericpressure.Mostpressure
measuringdevicesarecalibratedtoread
zerointheatmosphere,andsoindicate
gaugepressure
Vacuumpressures:Pressuresbelow
atmosphericpressure

PressureandPascalsLaw
Thepressureappliedtoa

confinedfluidincreasesthe
pressurethroughoutbythe
sameamount

ThearearatioA2/A1iscalled

theidealmechanical
advantageofthehydrauliclift

Cengel:Fig232

VariationofPressurewithDepth
Thepressureofafluidatrest

increaseswithdepth(h)(asa
resultofaddedweightwhere
thedensity=)i.eP=gh
Pressureinaliquidatrest
increaseslinearlywith
distancefromthefreesurface
Thepressureisthesameatall
pointsonahorizontalplane
inagivenfluidregardlessof
geometry,providedthatthe
pointsareinterconnectedby
thesamefluid

Thermodynamicsandenergy
Thermodynamics:Thescienceofenergy
Energy:Theabilitytocausechanges.
Conservationofenergyprinciple:energy

canchangefromoneformtoanotherbut
thetotalamountofenergyremains
constant
Energycannotbecreatedordestroyed
Thefirstlawofthermodynamics:An
expressionoftheconservationofenergy
principle
Thefirstlawassertsthatenergyisa
thermodynamicproperty

Cengel: Fig 1-3

Thermodynamicsandenergy
Thesecondlawofthermodynamics:

energyhasqualityaswellasquantity.
Actualprocessesoccurinthedirection
ofdecreasingqualityofenergy
Classicalthermodynamics:macroscopic
approachtothermodynamics.Doesnot
requireaknowledgeofthebehaviourof
individualparticles.Adirectandeasy
waytothesolutionofengineering
problems(Wearelookingatthis)
Statisticalthermodynamics:A
microscopicapproach,basedonthe
averagebehaviouroflargegroupsof
individualparticles(Notusedinthis
paper)

Cengel:Fig15

Thermodynamicsystems
System:Aquantityofmatterora

regioninspacechosenforstudy
Surroundings:Themassorregion
outsidethesystem
Boundary:Therealorimaginary
surfacethatseparatesthesystemfrom
itssurroundings
Theboundaryofasystemcanbefixed
ormovable
Systemsmaybeconsideredtobe
closedoropen

Cengel: Fig 2-1

Aclosedsystem
Closedsystemsalsoknownasa

controlmass
Aclosedsystemhasafixedamount
ofmass,andnomasscancrossits
boundary.However,energycanbe
transferredtoandfromaclosed
system
Thedashedlinerepresentsthe
systemboundary

Cengel: Fig 2-2

Anopensystem
Sometimescalledacontrol

volume
Itusuallyenclosesadevicethat
involvesmassflow
Bothmassandenergycan
crosstheboundaryofacontrol
volume
Controlsurface:The
boundariesofacontrol
volume.Canberealor
imaginary
Cengel: Figs 2-4 & 2-5

Propertiesofasystem
Property:Anycharacteristicofa

system
Propertiesareconsideredtobeeither
intensiveorextensive
Intensiveproperties:Thosethatare
independentofthemassofasystem,
suchastemperature,pressure,density
Extensiveproperties:Thosewhose
valuesdependonthesizeorextent
ofthesystem
Specificproperties:Extensive
propertiesperunitmass

Densityandspecificgravityas
properties
Densityisdefinedasmassperunitvolume
Specificgravityisdefinedastheratioofthedensityof

asubstancetothedensityofsomestandardsubstance
ataspecifiedtemperature(usuallywaterat4C,for
whichthedensityis1000kg/m3)
Specificvolumeisthereciprocalofdensity

Stateandequilibrium
Thermodynamicsdealswithequilibriumstates
Equilibrium:Astateofbalance
Stateistheconditionofasystemnotundergoingany

change
Inanequilibriumstatetherearenounbalanced
potentials(ordrivingforces)withinthesystem
Thermalequilibrium:Ifthetemperatureisthesame
A system at two different states
throughouttheentiresystem
Mechanicalequilibrium:Ifthereisnochangein
pressureatanypointofthesystemwithtime
Phaseequilibrium:Ifasysteminvolvestwophases
andwhenthemassofeachphasereachesan
equilibriumlevelandstaysthere
Chemicalequilibrium:Ifthechemicalcompositionof
asystemdoesnotchangewithtime,thatis,no
Thermal equilibrium
chemicalreactionsoccur

Thestatepostulate
Thenumberofpropertiesrequired

tofixthestateofasystemisgiven
bythestatepostulate:
Thestateofasimple
compressiblesystemis
completelyspecifiedbytwo
independent,intensive
properties
Simplecompressiblesystem:Ifa
systeminvolvesnoelectrical,
magnetic,gravitational,motion,
andsurfacetensioneffects

The state is fixed by two

independent, intensive properties
Cengel: Fig 2-12

Processes
Process:Anychangethatasystem

undergoesfromoneequilibriumstateto
another
Path:Aseriesofstatesthroughwhicha
systempassesduringaprocess
Todescribeaprocess,youshouldspecify
theinitialandfinalstates,aswellasthe
pathitfollows,andtheinteractionswith
thesurroundings
Quasistaticorquasiequilibrium
process:Whenaprocessproceedssuch
thatthesystemremainsinfinitesimally
closetoanequilibriumstateatalltimes

Processterminology
Processdiagramsplottedbyemploying

thermodynamicpropertiesascoordinatesare
usefulinvisualizingprocesses
Somecommonpropertiesthatareusedas
coordinatesaretemperature,pressure,and
volume(orspecificvolumev)
Theprefixiso isoftenusedtodesignateaprocess
forwhichaparticularpropertyremainsconstant
Isothermalprocess:Aprocessduringwhichthe
temperatureremainsconstant
Isobaricprocess:Aprocessduringwhichthe
pressureremainsconstant
Isochoric(orisometric)process:Aprocessduring
whichthespecificvolumeremainsconstant
Cycle:Aprocessduringwhichtheinitialandfinal
statesareidentical

Pressure-volume (P-V)
diagram of compression
Cengel: Fig 2-15

SteadyFlowProcess
Steadyimpliesnochangewithtime.Theoppositeis

unsteady,ortransient
Alargenumberofengineeringdevicesoperatefor
longperiodsoftimeunderthesameconditions,
andtheyareclassifiedassteadyflowdevices.
Steadyflowprocess:Aprocessduringwhichafluid
flowsthroughacontrolvolumesteadily
Steadyflowconditionscanbecloselyapproximated
bydevicesthatareintendedforcontinuous
operation
Duringasteadyflowprocess,fluidproperties
withinthecontrolvolumemaychangewith
positionbutnotwithtime
Understeadyflowconditions,themassandenergy
contentsofacontrolvolumeremainconstant

FormsofEnergy
Energycanexistinnumerousforms,theirsumconstitutesthetotalenergy,E

ofasystem
Thermodynamicsdealsonlywiththechangeofthetotalenergy
Macroscopicformsofenergy:Thoseasystempossessesasawholewithrespect
tosomeoutsidereferenceframe,suchaskineticandpotentialenergies
Kineticenergy,(KE):Theenergythatasystempossessesasaresultofits
motionrelativetosomereferenceframe.
Potentialenergy,(PE):Theenergythatasystempossessesasaresultofits
elevationinagravitationalfield
Microscopicformsofenergy:Thoserelatedtothemolecularstructureofa
systemandthedegreeofthemolecularactivity
Internalenergy,(U):Thesumofallthemicroscopicformsofenergy

Formsofenergy
PotentialenergyPE=mgh(J)
KineticenergyKE=1/2mV2 (J)
Totalenergyofasystem
Energyflowrate
Massflowrate

Cengel: Fig 3-4

WhatisInternalEnergy?
Internalenergyofasystemisthesumofall

formsofthemicroscopicenergies
Sensibleenergy:Theportionoftheinternal
energyofasystemassociatedwiththe
kineticenergiesofthemolecules
Latentenergy:Theinternalenergy
associatedwiththephaseofasystem
Chemicalenergy:Theinternalenergy
associatedwiththeatomicbondsina
molecule
Nuclearenergy:Thetremendousamountof
energyassociatedwiththestrongbonds
withinthenucleusoftheatomitself

Cengel: Fig 3-6

Moreaboutenergy
Thetotalenergyofasystem,canbe

containedorstoredinasystem,andthus
canbeviewedasthestaticformsof
energy
Theformsofenergynotstoredina
systemcanbeviewedasthedynamic
formsofenergyorasenergyinteractions
Thedynamicformsofenergyare
recognizedatthesystemboundaryas
theycrossit,andtheyrepresentthe
energygainedorlostbyasystemduringa
process
Theonlytwoformsofenergyinteractions
associatedwithaclosedsystemareheat
transferandwork

The macroscopic kinetic energy is

an organized form of energy that is
much more useful than the
disorganized microscopic kinetic
energies of the molecules
Cengel: Fig 3-7

HeatTransferandWork
Anenergyinteractionis

heattransferifitsdriving
forceisatemperature
difference
Energynotduetoa
temperaturedifferenceis
calledwork

www.essentialmall.co.nz

www.trademe.co.nz

Energytransferbyheat
Heat(Q)istheformofenergythatis

transferredbetweentwosystems(ora
systemanditssurroundings)byvirtue
ofatemperaturedifference
Energycancrosstheboundariesofa
closedsystemintheformofheat
Asystem,orprocess,inwhichheatis
not,orcannot,betransferredistermed
adiabatic(Q=0)
Thelargerthetemperaturedifference,
thehighertherateofheattransfer

Energytransferbyheat
Energyisrecognizedasheat

transferonly asitcrossesthe
systemboundary
Amountofheatenergy
transferredwhenheattransfer
rateisconstantisgivenby
.
Q( Joules) Q (Watts) t(seconds)

qisthespecificenergy(J/kg)

Somehistoryofheat
Intheearlynineteenthcentury,heatwasthoughttobeaninvisiblefluidcalled

thecaloricthatflowedfromwarmerbodiestothecoolerones
Kinetictheory:Treatsmoleculesastinyballsthatareinmotionandthus
possesskineticenergy
Heat:Theenergyassociatedwiththerandommotionofatomsandmolecules
Heattransfermechanisms:
Conduction:Thetransferofenergyfromthemoreenergeticparticlesofa
substancetotheadjacentlessenergeticonesasaresultofinteraction
betweenparticles
Convection:Thetransferofenergybetweenasolidsurfaceandthe
adjacentfluidthatisinmotion,anditinvolvesthecombinedeffectsof
conductionandfluidmotion
Radiation:Thetransferofenergyduetotheemissionofelectromagnetic
waves(orphotons)

Energytransferbywork
Work(W):Theenergytransfer

associatedwithaforceactingthrough
adistance
Arisingpiston,arotatingshaft,and
anelectricwirecrossingthesystem
boundariesareallassociatedwith
workinteractions
Heattransfertoasystemandwork
donebyasystemarepositive;heat
transferfromasystemandworkdone
onasystemarenegative
Poweristheworkdoneperunittime
(kW)

W
W
t
.

HeatvWork
Botharerecognizedattheboundariesofa

systemastheycrosstheboundaries.That
is,bothheatandworkareboundary
phenomena.
Systemspossessenergy,butnotheator
work
Bothareassociatedwithaprocess,nota
state
Unlikeproperties,heatorworkhasno
meaningatastate
Botharepathfunctions(i.e.,their
magnitudedependsonthepathfollowed
duringaprocessaswellastheendstates)

The 1st and 2nd state are the

same but the path taken is
different and so too is the
energy required

FormsofWorkandPower
Electricalwork W V
V
Electricalpower W
Mechanicalwork:two
requirementsforawork
interaction
elec ( J )

( volts ) ( amps )

t( s )

elec (W )

( volts ) ( amps )

theremustbeaforceactingonthe

boundary
theboundarymustmove

Work = Force Distance

Thefirstlawofthermodynamics
Thefirstlawofthermodynamicsstates

thatenergycanbeneithercreatednor
destroyedduringaprocess;itcanonly
changeforms(theconservationofenergy
principle)
Thisprovidesasoundbasisforstudying
therelationshipsamongthevarious
formsofenergyandenergyinteractions
Foralladiabaticprocesses(Q=0)between
twospecifiedstatesofaclosedsystem,
Energy converted from PE to
thenetwork(W)doneisthesame
KE, total energy conserved
regardlessofthenatureoftheclosed
Cengel: Fig 3-37
systemandthedetailsoftheprocess

Thefirstlaw examples
The work
(electrical)
done on an
adiabatic
system is equal
to the increase
in the energy of
the system.
In the absence of
any work
interactions, the
energy change of a
system is equal to
the net heat transfer.

The work (shaft)

done on an
adiabatic system
is equal to the
increase in the
energy of the
system.

Energybalancing
Thenetchange(increaseordecrease)inthe

totalenergyofthesystemduringaprocessis
equaltothedifferencebetweenthetotal
energyenteringandthetotalenergyleaving
thesystemduringthatprocess
Thework(boundary)doneonanadiabatic

systemisequaltotheincreaseintheenergy
ofthesystem
Theenergychangeofasystemduringa
processisequaltothenetworkandheat
transferbetweenthesystemandits
surroundings

Energychangetoasystem
Considerasystemwhereweexperienceinternal,

kinetic,andpotentialenergychanges

Nowifthesystemisstationarythen:

z2=z1 PE=0,v2=v1 KE=0soE= U

MechanismsofEnergyTransfer
Heattransfer
Worktransfer
Massflow
Aclosedmassinvolvesonlyheat

transferandwork
Theenergycontentofacontrol
volumecanbechangedbymassflow
aswellasheatandworkinteractions
ForacycleE=0,thusQ=W

W
Q

Revision
Thermodynamics:Thescienceofenergy
Property:Anycharacteristicofasystem
Closedsystem:fixedmass,energycanbetransferredtoandfrom
Opensystem:massandenergycancrosstheboundary
Equilibrium:Astateofbalance
Process:Anychangethatasystemundergoesfromone

equilibriumstatetoanother
Path:Aseriesofstatesthroughwhichasystempassesduringa
process
Steadyflowprocess:Aprocessduringwhichafluidflows
throughacontrolvolumesteadily