Chapter9:FrequencyStabilityand
Control
Fall2011
Meetingdemandwithgeneration
Largeandslowchanges(24hr)inpowerdemandaremetby
unitcommitment
Mediumandrelativelyfastchanges(30min)inpowerdemand
aremetbyeconomicdispatch.
Smallandfastchanges(seconds)aremetbyautomatic
generationandcontrol(AGC)tomaintain
Frequency
Tielinepowerexchange
Powerallocationamongthegeneratingunits
Generationcharacteristic=sumofspeeddroopcharacteristics.
Turbinegeneratorcharacteristics
Thesystemhastheabilitytocompensateforpowerimbalance
atthecostoffrequencydeviation.
Alargeinterconnectedsystemhasanalmostflatcharacteristic
(i.e.,alargedeviationinpowerdemandresultsisaverysmall
frequencydeviation).
Theturbinegeneratorcharacteristicshasbothalowerlimitand
anupperlimit(seecurvebelow).
Theunitthatreachesitslimit(i.e.,withnospinningreserve)
doesnotcontributetoanincreaseinpowerdemand.
Influenceofturbineupperlimitandspinning
reserveallocationongenerationcharacteristic
Thegenerationcharacteristiccanbecomenonlinear(orpiece
wiselinear)ifsomeofthegeneratorsreachedthemaximum
powerlimits
Systemfrequencypowercharacteristics
Inasystemwithalargenumberofgenerator,thepiecewise
linearcurveappearssmooth(seefigurebelow).
Linearapproximation:
atmaximumpower,thedroopT tendtoinfinity.
Loadvariationwithfrequency:
KL:frequencysensitivitycoefficientofpowerdemand
Increaseinsystemdemand
Anincreaseinsystemdemandiscompensatedby
Anincreaseinturbinegeneration(attheexpenseofa
reductioninfrequency)
Adecreaseinsystemload(duetodropinfrequency)
Stiffness exactvalue
difficulttodetermine
Example0
Anisolatedandunregulated60Hzpowersystemconsistsoftwo
generatingunitthatserveaload.Assumeabaseof500MVAand
thefrequencysensitivitycoefficientsofthegeneratingunitsand
loadare:K1 =100pu,K2 =50pu,KL =1.8pu.Nowasuddenincrease
inpowerdemandofP=0.2pu occurs.Determinethesystem
operatingfrequencyandthepowercontributionfromeachunit.
Primaryfrequencycontrol
Primaryfrequencycontrolistheactionofturbinegovernors
duetofrequencychangeswithoutchangingPref setting.
Astheloadincreases,spinningreserveisreleasedfromfast
regulatingunitswhichhavespeeddroopcharacteristicswith
deadzones(seeexamplesbelow)
Unitswithlargerdeadzones
areactivatedonlyduring
largedisturbances
Secondarycontrol
Toreturntotheinitialfrequency,thegenerationcharacteristic
muchbeshiftedbychangingPref settingintheturbine
governingsystem.
Inanisolatedpowersystem,automaticsecondarycontrolcan
beimplementedinsomeunits(byaddingasupplementary
controlloopasshownbelow)inadecentralizedway.
Inaninterconnectedsystemwithanumberofcontrolareas,
centralizedsecondarycontrolisnecessary.
AGC
Inaninterconnectedsystem,eachcontrolareahasitsown
centralregulatortomaintainfrequencyatthescheduledlevel,
andbalancebetweengeneratedpower,areademand,andtie
lineinterchangepower.
frequencybiasfactor
AreaControlError(ACE)
Participatingfactors:
AGC
ZeroingAGCcanbeachievedintwoways:
Zeroingbotherrors(moredesirableoutcome)
Achievingacompromisebetweentheerrors
inthelattercasewhichmayhappenofthecontrolarea
exhausteditsreserves,themissingpowermustcomefromthe
neighboringnetwork(aviolationofthenoninterventionrule).
Topreventpowerswingsbetweencontrolareas,scheduled
changesintielinepowerflow,rampingthatlastaround10min
isoftenused.
AGCasamultilevelcontrol
Synchronousclocksbasedonsystemfrequencytendtobuildan
errorduetofrequencydeviations.Theseerrorsareeliminated
occasionally(onceamonth)bychangingthefrequencyreference
value.
Tertiarycontrolis
associatedwith
generatorscheduling
viaeconomicdispatch
Exampleoffrequencyrecoveryfollowingageneratoroutage
Sampleoffrequencydeviationsinalocalsystem
Responseofapowersystemtopowerimbalance
Considerthesystembelowwithtwoidenticalgenerators.The
disturbanceconsistsofthedisconnectionofonegenerator.
Refertothepredisturbanceequivalentcircuitintheleftfigure.
StageI:rotorswings
Effectofdisconnectionofoneofthegenerators:
Systemreactanceincreases
Mechanicalpowerdrops
StageII:frequencydrop
Theshareofanygeneratorinmeetingthepowerimbalance
dependssolelyonitsinertia,andnotonitselectricaldistance.
Afterfewrotorswings,allgeneratorswillslowdownatthesame
rate.Ingeneral,
Hence,
For the case of the network to the left,
StageIII:Primarycontrol
Theoperatingfrequencyofthesystemisdeterminedatthe
intersectionpointof
and
Importanceofspinningreserve
Spinningreservecoefficient:
(R numberofunitsoperating
belowtheirlimits)
Ifallunitshavethesamedroop,
then,
and
frequencydrop:
FrequencyCollapse
Forlargefrequencydeviations,thelinearityofgenerator
frequencypowercharacteristicisnolongervalid.
Intheleftfigurebelow,points isstable,whilepoint uisunstable
(shadedareiscalledareaofrepulsion).
Intherightfigure,thesystemwasoperatingwithlowsinning
reservewhenalossofageneratoroccurs.Thesystemtrajectory
enterstheareaofrepulsionthusresultinginfrequencycollapse.
Underfrequencyloadshedding
Inaninterconnectedsystemwithashortageintielinecapacity,
theonlywaytopreventfrequencycollapsefollowingalarge
disturbanceistoemployautomaticloadsheddingusing under
frequencyrelays.
Loadsheddingisimplementedinstagesstartingwiththeleast
importantload.
Firstshedactivatedatpoint3,followedbythesecondshedat
point4
StageIV:Secondarycontrol
Inthisfinalstage,theAGCisactivatedtocorrectthetielineflow
andfrequencydeviation.
Inanislandedsystem(withnotielines),thecentralregulators
transmitscontrolsignalstoparticipatinggeneratingunitsto
increasetheiroutputpower(i.e.,shiftthegeneratorcurve
upwardinincrements) seefigurebelow.
StageIV:Secondarycontrol
Inreality,theinertiawithinthepowerregulationprocess
ensuressmoothchangesinpower(insteadofzigzag lines).
StageIV:secondarycontrol
attheendofStageIII,eachgeneratorcontributestothepower
imbalance.InStageIV,thecontributiontopowerimbalanceismade
onlybythoseunitsparticipatingincentralcontrol.
Importanceofspinningreserveisillustratedinthefigurebelowfor
differentspinningreservecoefficients(r).Inhere,thedisturbance
consistsofloosinggenerationequalto10%oftheloaddemand.
Incases1&2,thefrequencyreturnstoitsreferencevalue
Incases3&4,thefrequencycollapses.
1:
2:
3:
4:
r = 16%
r = 14%
r = 12%
r = 8%
EnergybalanceoverstagesI,II,IIIandIV
Initially,theenergyshortfallisproducedbyconvertingthekinetic
energyoftherotatingmassestoelectricenergy(areas1&2).
Thereductionofkineticenergycausesadropinfrequencywhich
activatestheturbinegovernorprimarycontrolsothatthe
mechanicalenergyisincreasedbutatalowerfrequency(area3).
Secondarycontrolfurtherincreasesthemechanicalenergyto
generatetheadditionalrequiredelectricenergyandtoincrease the
kineticenergyoftherotatingmasses(area4).
Variation of mechanical power
provided by the system
Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Considertwosystems(A&B).Assumptions:
Ptie isflowingfromAtoB(i.e.,PTB <PLB)
PowerimbalancePo occursinsystemB.
TheinfluenceoftheAGCduringthefirstthreestagesisignored.
StageIofthedynamicsmaybeobtainedbyusingtheequalarea
criterionwithsystemAactingastheinfinitebusbar.
Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Initialoperatingpoint1(operatingatnegativepoweranglew.t.System
A)
SystemBlosesgenerationequaltoPo.Thisforcesthesystemtomove
frompoint1to2thento3.Kineticenergyinbothsystemsisusedto
coverthelostgeneration.
SinceMA >>MB,thelostpoweralmostentirelycomesfromthetieline.
Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Thefrequencydropisdeterminedby
where
TheAGCofbothsystemswillnowinterveneinstageIV:
with
Hence,
Example(9.2)
Caseofinsufficientregulatingpower
IftheavailableregulationpowerinsystemBislessthanthe
generationloss,thensystemAmustintervenetocoverpartofthe
lostpower;hence,itscentralregulatorissubjecttotwoerror
signals:
withthetielinepowersatisfyingthepowerbalanceofsystemB
Thefinalsteadystateerrorsignalsaregivenby
Since,
and
SkipSection9.6 FACTSDevices