VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

Nicholas M. Short
As perceived from space, entire geomorphic provinces may look volcanic in origin (e.g., Columbia
Plateau in the Pacific Northwest section of the United States); in other provinces, volcanism may prevail
over a significant but usually spatially discontinuous fraction of the region (as in parts of the Basin and
Range province of the United States). The extent to which a regional landscape is controlled by
volcanism depends on: (1) the nature of the extruded materials (basic lava's tend to spread over larger
areas, producing landforms with more subdued slopes (1 to 50) than do silicic lava's (20 to 350); (2) the
distribution of vents and fissures; (3) the volume of outpourings, (4) the duration of volcanism, (5) the
age(s) of volcanic activity relative to the present and to associated stratigraphic units; and (6) the
intensity and stage of subsequent erosional activity. In some regions, volcanic outpourings were
confined to a limited time period, leading to flows that cap older nonvolcanic units. The resistance of
such volcanic rocks to erosion strongly influences the subsequent history of landscape development as
streams penetrate into the underlying more erodible bedrock, causing a distinctive assemblage of lavacapped hills and mesas (as, for example, in the western Siberian Platform of Russia, Figure 3-l).
Likewise, lava flows and/or thick tephra deposits that accumulate over larger areas may partially to
completely bury preexistent topography.

Figure 3-1. Landforms developed by erosion of

Permo-Triassic rocks capped by basaltic trap.
Area shown in this Landsat image (1097-044655;Oct 28, 1972) is part of the western Siberian
Platform drained by the Nizhnyaya Tunguska
river. Many hills are flat-topped, reflecting
control by the resistant volcanic members. The
Platform contains 750000 km2 of Mesozoic
flood basalts.

Most (about 82 percent) currently active centers of volcanism are concentrated on or near convergent
margins of continents and island arcs along plate boundaries within the Pacific Basin ("Ring of Fire").
Nearly 14 percent of the world's active volcanoes are located in the Indonesian Archipelago. Another 6
percent lie along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Africa, the Mediterranean, and Arabian Peninsula regions
account for 5 percent. The remainder occur at other plate boundaries within the ocean basins (e.g.,
Hawaiian Islands) or continental interiors (e.g., Yellowstone), generally where one or more subcrustal
thermal plumes (hot spots) have been identified or postulated. Although the subaerial distributions of
volcanoes now and in the past are intermittent in time and space, the ocean basins have experienced
continuous buildup of volcanic layers since at least the Triassic (and probably much farther back in time).

Where not covered by thin sedimentary deposits, the topography of the ocean floor is distinctly that of a
basaltic volcanic terrain, with shield volcanoes, ridges, cones, and rifts adding variety to an otherwise
rather even low-relief surface.
Most landforms identified as specifically resulting from volcanic action differ in two essential respects
from some of the other landform types treated in this book. First, volcanoes and their derivative
surroundings are primarily constructional during their active or formative stages. Second, most smaller
volcanic landforms tend to develop to their full extent more rapidly than many fluvial, tectonic, and other
landforms. The net effect due to this and to the high levels of volcanic activity in the last few million years
is that large parts of a terrain dominated by volcanism appear to be notably fresher or younger than
terrain of a different nature, including those adjacent to the volcanic field. In his textbook on
geomorphology, Von Engeln (1942) states:
"Volcanic force is endogenic and, as such, gives rise to constructional landforms. These may be so large
as to constitute geomorphic units of first importance. . . . The lesser volcanic features may be so
numerous as to give a distinct topographic aspect to wide districts (volcanic regions)."
In terms of the traditional (but now obsolete) Davisian sequence of erosional stages from youth through
old age, many volcanic forms seem to be young as now observed. While active, volcanoes are usually
built up (repaired) faster than destructional forces can reduce them because of replenishment of surface
cover by periodic (and often spasmodic) outpouring of materials. Between occasional eruptions, smaller
volcanoes covered with ash undergo conspicuous erosion in a matter of years. However, most volcanic
forms do not progress into maturity until the activity causing them has either ceased or been long
dormant. For some, this may happen catastrophically, as when parts of a structure collapse or are blown
asunder during caldera formation. Likewise, flows generally do not experience significant weathering or
removal until after the last flows or ejects have covered them. Surficial forms and features generated by
tephra deposits are commonly short- lived because of their ready erodibility. Volcanic structures attain
old age when much of their external protective covering has been stripped off, leaving a core of more
resistant rock.
Volcanoes develop from extrusion or expulsion of fluids, congealed fragments, and gases that collect or
distribute at or near the Earth's surface to produce a variety of forms, chief of which are conical, often
mountain-like structures, thin to thick piles of flow sequences, and sheets of airfall deposits of tephra
(fragmented particles of volcanic material). The forms are controlled in part by the mode or types of
volcanic activity. This ranges from quiet emission to explosive ejection, depending mainly on the gas
content and viscosity (related to composition) of the initial magma and resultant lava. The various modes
of eruption are identified by reference to an individual named volcano, a regional location, or (in one
case) a person (Pliny) associated with the type of activity, as summarized in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1
Types of Volcanic Eruptions*

Type

Characteristics

1. Icelandic

Fissure eruptions, releasing free-flowing (fluidal) basaltic magma; quiet, gas-poor- great
volumes of lava issued, flowing as sheets over large areas to build up plateaus
(Columbia).

2. Hawaiian

Fissure, caldera, and pit crater eruptions; mobile lavas, with some gas; quiet to
moderately active eruptions; occasional rapid emission of gas-charged lava produces
fire fountains; only minor amounts of ash; builds up lava domes.

Stratocones (summit craters): moderate, rhythmic to nearly continuous explosions,

3.
resulting from spasmodic gas escape; clots of lava ejected, producing bombs and
Strombolian scoria; periodic more intense activity with outpouring of lava; light-colored clouds (mostly
steam) reach upward only to moderate heights.

4.
Vulcanian

Stratocones, (central vents); associated lavas more viscous; lavas crust over in vent
between eruptions, allowing gas buildup below surface; eruptions increase in violence
over longer periods of quiet until lava crust is broken up, clearing vent, ejecting bombs,
pumice and ash; lava flows from top of flank after main explosive eruption; dark ashladen clouds, convoluted, cauliflower-shaped, rise to moderate heights more of less
vertically, depositing tephra along flanks of volcano. (Note: ultravulcanian eruption has
similar characteristic but results when other types (e.g.,Hawaiian) become phreatic and
produce large steam clouds, carrying fragmental matter.)

5. Vesuvian

More Paroxysmal then Strombolian or Vulcanian types; extremely violent expulsion of

gas-charged magma from stratocone vent; eruption occurs after long interval of
quiescence of mild activity; vent tends to be emptied to considerable depth; lava ejects
in explosive spray (glow above vent), repeated clouds (cauliflower) that reach great
heights and deposit tephra.

6. Plinian

More violent form of Vesuvian eruption; last major phase is uprush of gas that carries
cloud rapidly upward in vertical column for miles; narrow at base but expands outward at
upper elevations; cloud generally low in tephra.

7. Pelan

Results from high-viscosity lavas; delayed explosiveness; conduit of stratovolcano

usually blocked by dome or plug; gas (some lava) escapes from lateral (flank) opening
or by destruction or uplift of plug; gas, ash, and blocks move downslope in one or more
blasts as nues ardentes or glowing avalanches, producing directed deposits.

Variant of a Pelan eruption characterized by massive outpouring of fluidized ashflows;

8. Katmaian accompanied by widespread explosive tephra; ignimbrites are common end products,
also hot springs and fumaroles.
* Abstracted and modified from Chapter XII (pp. 305-31-) of Principles of Physical Geology by A.
Holmes, 2nd ed., Ronald Press, 1965, with additional data from Volcanoes: In History, In theory, In
Eruption, by F.M. Bullard, University of Texas Press, 1962.
Classifications of volcanic landforms are surprisingly sparse in the literature. Although textbooks and
source books (at least those in English) on volcanology (Rittman, 1962; Oilier, 1969; Macdonald, 1972;
Bullard, 1976; Williams and McBirney, 1978; Simkin et al., 1981) concentrate on mechanisms of eruption
and the petrology of products, they describe most of the large and small scale structures and surface
phenomena attendant to the volcanism. More recently, Williams et al. (1983) have developed a
geomorphic classification of Icelandic volcanoes. Bloom (1978) treats volcanic landforms in a separate

chapter early in his text book on geomorphology. He points out that volcanism can be treated naturally
from two viewpoints, either petrologically (including mechanisms of emplacement) or as a landform
builder. He notes that classifications are based on one or more defining parameters: (1) chemical
composition (and temperatures) of volcanic effluents, (2) state of the ejects released, (3) history of the
volcanic field, (4) shapes/locations of the vents/fissures, (5) nature of the volcanic activity, and (6)
characteristic landforms. Bloom erects a classification around two parameters: (1) viscosity (quality of
magma) and (2) size of the landform edifices (quantity of magma), yielding the types shown in Table
3.2 Many of these types are expressed pictorially in relation to their plutonic sources in Figure 3.
Table 3-2
Classification of Volcanic Landforms*

*Adapted from Bloom (1978), as simplified from Rittmann *1962), Tables 4 and 5.
Two other books place their prime emphasis on the volcanic landforms per se. These are:
C. A. Cotton, Volcanoes as Landscape Forms, 416 pp., Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.,
Christchurch, New Zealand, 1952.
J. Green and N. M. Short, Volcanic Landforms and Surface Features; A Photographic Atlas,
519 pp., Springer-Verlag, New York, 1971.

Cotton's book delves at length into development of volcanic landforms by both petrogenic mechanisms
and modifying geomorphic processes. Numerous worldwide examples are given, but an inordinate
number come from his home country of New Zealand. The Green and Short volume is primarily a
pictorial atlas with descriptive captions, but an introductory chapter by Arie Poldervaart succinctly
summarizes volcanic landform origin and history from the dual standpoints of emplacement and erosion
processes.

Figure 3-2.Schematic diagram

showing characteristic landforms
resulting from volcanic action at
the surface and their relation to
shallow intrusive activity in the
crust (in Press and Siever (1982);
adapted from R.G.Schimdt and
H.R. Shaw, U.S. Geological
Survey).

In his book, Cotton proposes grouping volcanic landforms into two first-order classifications, based on:
A. Lava Types = 1. Rhyolitic, 2. Andesitic, 3. Basaltic Landforms1 B. Fundamental Physiographic Types
= 1. Mountains, 2. Plateaus, 3. Plains, as constructed by volcanic materials. However, Cotton does not
formally organize the many landforms treated in his book into any specific classification. The author of
this chapter has developed a classification of sorts extracted from the chapter and heading sections and
some textual descriptions in Cotton's definitive work. The result violates to some extent principles of
scientific taxonomy in that these headings are of mixed character; certain ones refer to structures, others
to topographic features, and still others to phenomena or processes accompanying eruption.
Nevertheless, the classification as it appears in Table 3.3 (with several modifications from Green and
Short) is valuable as a listing of most common larger surface features attributable to volcanism. The
table also lists examples of each landform category from selected localities and singles out those
landforms (indicated by + ) known to be visible from space. (Others on the list, some now being
discriminable but not clearly identifiable, maybe added as higher resolution stereo sensors provide
improved imagery.) Some volcanic landforms exemplified in the space images are so large that they can
be easily seen, others nevertheless visible are much smaller (best seen under magnification), and many
occupy only a tiny fraction of the scene.
Table 3.3
Volcanic Forms and Features

Types of Surface Features

Selected Examples

Domes and Cones of Basaltic Lava

Basalt Cones +
Central and Fissure Vents
Flank Outflows of Lava +
Basaltic Lava Shield (small) +
Basalt Dome (shield) Structure +
Icelandic Spatter Cones
Scoria Cones

San Francisco Volcanic Field, Arizona

Haleakala, Hawaii
Mauna Loa, Etna
Skjaldbreidur, Iceland
Mauna Loa; Mauna Kea
Brfell, Iceland
Bdaklettur, Iceland

Lava Plateaus and Plains

Ignimbrite Plateaus +
Basalt Plateaus +
Fissure Eruptions +
Phonolite Plains +
Basalt Plains +

New Zealand; Yellowstone; New Mexico

Deccan, India; Columbia, NW U.S.; Drakensburg, South
Africa
Lakiggar, Iceland
Kenya; Dunedin; New Zealand
Snake River, Idaho

Lava Fields
Lava Tongues +
Ponded Lavas
Pahoehoe: Tumulis; Squeeze-Ups;
Pressure Ridges
Block Pahoehoe
Block aa
Block and Ashflows
Fire Fountains
Scoria Mounds (cinder cones)
Adventive Cones

Galapagos, Ecuador
Keanakakoi, Hawaii
Many
McCartys Flow, New Mexico
Mt. Vesuvius, Italy
Martinique; Merapi, Java
Hawaii
Stromboli, Italy; Teahuahua, New Zealand
Mauna Kea, Hawaii

Exposed Intrusive Features

Laccoliths +
Dikes, Sills +

Henry Mountains, Utah

Spanish Peaks, Colorado; others

Maars and Tuff Rings

Maars +
Ubehebes
Basaltic Tuff rings +
Diatremes +

Eifel, France; Lago di Nemi, Italy

Death Valley, California
Diamond Head, Hawaii; Mt. Gambier, Australia; Hverfjall,
Iceland
Hopi Buttes, Arizona; Kimberlites, South Africa

Rifts
Rift Valley +
Rift Liners +

Africa
MÝvatn Area, Iceland; Tarawera, New Zealand

Craters and Calderas

Craters +
Pit Craters

Mt. Ubinas, Peru

Nyirangongo, Kenya; Halemaumau, Hawaii

Calderas +
Glencoe
Krakatoa
Multiple
Erosion Calderas +

Mt. Vesuvius, Italy; Fernandina; Aso, Japan

Krakatoa, Indonesia; Aniakchak, Alaska
Dyngjufjll, Iceland

La Palma, Canary Islands; Mauritius; Banks Peninsula,

New Zealand
Viscid Lavas, Coules, and Tholoids
Convex Lava Flows
Cumulo Domes (Tholoids)
Obsidian Domes
Plug Domes
Spines

Ascension Island, United Kingdom; Mono Craters,

California
Mayor Island, New Zealand; Puy de Dome, France;
Tarawera, New Zealand
Mono Craters, California
Usu, Japan; Lassen Peak, California
Mt Pele, Martinique

Tephra Showers and Nues Ardentes

Vulcanian Ash Phase
Nues Ardentes (First Orders) +:
Plateau-Building (Ignimbrite Sheets) +
Nues Ardentes (Second Order)

Mt. Vesuvius, Italy1 Taupo, New Zealand; Katmai, Alaska

Mt. Pele, Martinique; Valley of 10000 Smokes, Alaska
Bishop Tuff, California; Yellowstone Park, WyomingMontana
Mt. Pele, Martinique; Santa Maria

Tephra-Built Stratified (with lava) Cones

Ash Cones +
Young Cones
Composite (stratified)Cones +
Multiple Cones +
Parasol Ribbing
Lahars (mudflows) +

Fujiyama, Japan
Vulcan, Italy; Rabaul, Papua, New Guinea; Paracutn,
Mexico
Merapi, Indonesia; Mayon, Philippines; Agua, Guatemala
Tongariro, New Zealand
Mt. Vesuvius, Italy; Paracutn, Mexico
Bandaisan; Balunggung, Indonesia

Erosion Features
Ravine Cuts (Barrancos) +
Planeze Stage of Dessection +
Necks and Plugs +
Erosion Caldera +
Eroded Dome
Lava Ridges (inverted Topography) +
Lava Palisades

Popocatepetl, Mexico
Cantal, France
Shiprock, New Mexico; Roche St. Michel, France; Hopi
buttes, Arizona
Huahine, Society Islands
Haleakala, Hawaii
Australia
Hudson River, New York

Some specific types mentioned in Tables 3-2 and 3-3 deserve further comment. Domical volcanic
landforms (exogenous domes) result from the comparatively high fluidity of basaltic magmas. Smaller
dome-shaped mountains, of the Icelandic type, have gentle lower slopes that may increase to angles of
20 or more toward the top. The much larger Hawaiian type (Plate V-10) has slopes around 1 to 3,
rarely exceeding 10. Individual edifices may have basal dimensions approaching 100 km on a side and
heights of 3 to 5 km. (The island of Hawaii is 400 km in diameter at its submarine base and reaches a
total height of 10 km.)
Flood basalt plateaus and plains (Plates V-5, V-7, V-20, and V-23) cover areas exceeding 10000 km 2.
While generally of low relief after the final eruptive emplacement of lava onto a thickening pile, the terrain

is affected by later erosion that produces notable relief characterized by benches and cliffs. This
landscape form is sometimes referred to as "treppen" (step-like).
Composite volcanoes or stratocones comprise one of the most distinctive of all landforms. They occur in
isolation (Mt. Etna, Plate V-16), in alignments (Kamchatka, Plate V-25), or in clusters, often numbering
more than 100 in a field (Andes, Plate V-14). Stratocones may begin as tephra rings and grow into larger
bodies (typically circular in plan view by repeated periodic episodes of eruption of both tephra (ash,
lapilli, and blocks) and lavas. These two types of effluents complement each other in building up a stable
structure. Outpourings of lava mix with fragmental ejecta to construct a reinforced conical landform
about a structural mainframe consisting of dikes, sills, and cone sheets. The main, usually central vent,
often topped by a crater at the surface, may also contain one or more endogenous domes (Plate V-8),
also known as tholoids, or may extrude a transient spine of congealed lava.
Many larger stratocones eventually self-destruct by some type of explosive eruption, often resulting from
introduced sea or ground water or melted snow, that succeeds in blowing away the peak and parts of the
framework (Plate V-24). Expulsion of great volumes of ejecta and/or withdrawal of melted rock from the
proximate magma chamber commonly robs the upper structure of support, leading to collapse and, at
times, additional explosive ejection of the fragmented materials. The large craters (>1 km in diameter, up
to 10 km or more) are termed calderas; if the rim of this great cavity remains intact, the caldera may fill
with water to form a crater lake (Plates V-6 and V-18). Ignimbrites expelled during these events may
spread over wide areas, as at the Yellowstone region in Wyoming (Figure 3.3), infilling more rugged
terrain to produce an aggradational plateau.

Figure 3.3. Mountainous and flatlands terrain

developed on ignimbrites, flows, and ash
deposits produced during Late Tertiary and
Quaternary volcanic activity in and around
present-day Yellowstone National Park in
northwestern Wyoming (landsat 1825-17294-7;
October 26, 1972).

A few added comments concerning the relevant volcanic features that can be recognized in the space
images (those taken both from satellites and by astronaut-operated equipment) shown in this chapter
closes the introductory section:
1.

For the most part, the scenes are mainly a mix of volcanic and other types of landforms. Plate
V-4, for example, shows the Pinacate Field in northernmost Mexico as an area of recently active

volcanism set apart from the Basin and Range structural landforms that dominate the scene. By
contrast, the entire image of the Afar in Ethiopia (Plate V-21) depicts a volcanic terrain
exclusively.
2.

The most common associations with volcanic landforms are those of tectonic/orogenic origin.
This is to be expected in as much as anorogenic volcanism is the exception even on the
continents. Volcanism is a characteristic or hallmark of several tectonic regimes. Referring to the
classification given in the introduction to Chapter 2, Tectonic Landforms (p. 30), one can predict
volcanic activity concomitant with lithospheric plate interactions for the following classes (named
and then listed by the number-letter code used in that classification):
I.Divergent Plate Margin:
a. Intracontinental Rift (A-1)
b. Oceanic Spreading Center (A-2)
II. Convergent Plate Margin:
a. Ocean-Ocean Plate Margin (B-1)
b. Ocean-Continent Margin (B-2)
c. Continent-Continent Margin (B-3)
III.Transform Zone:
a. Trench-Trench (Dead Sea Type) (C-1)
b. Ridge-Trench (San Andreas Type) (C-2)
c. Ridge-Ridge (San Andreas Type) (C-3)
IV.Plate Interior:
a. Shields (D-1)
b. Posttectonic Magmatic Intrusions (D-4)
c. Hot Spot Track (D-7)

3.

Space imagery is especially effective in placing active, recent, or older, but nearly always
Cenozoic, volcanism in context with several types of structural control. Fault zones and rifts are
the prevalent types, as exemplified in Plates V-21, V-25, and V-27. Alignments of volcanoes are
frequently obvious, but the controlling fracture sets and lineaments are more difficult to discern in
many images.

4.

Recognition and better definition of many volcanic land-forms that stand above their
surroundings (cones, domes, eroded dikes, and viscous flows) are significantly enhanced by
winter imagery (see Plates V-2 and V-25), owing to both lower Sun angles and occasional snow
cover.

5.

Again, the synoptic aspect of space imagery helps to call attention to the remarkable range in
sizes among such volcanic structures as stratocones (compare Plates V-14 and V-17) and
calderas (Plates V-13 and V-18).

6.

Some landforms that at least partially owe their existence to volcanism display only subtle
evidence of this connection in the imagery. The rounded hills and sculptured divides seen
in Figure 3-1 do not readily manifest the influence of basaltic trap flows that cap underlying
sedimentary rocks in the Siberian Platform, nor do the Karoo dolerite sills of South Africa (Plate
V-20) produce a landscape that makes evident the role these intrusions play in the landform
pattern.

7.

Other volcanic landforms maybe obscured by land-use patterns or soil cover. This is evident in
the Deccan Plateau of India (Plate V-23) and the Snake River Plains of Idaho (Plate V-6). Tephra
deposits are geologically transient, as indicated in the Mt. St. Helens subimage (Plate V-8),
where only a few years of forest growth has diminished the once sharp contrast between tephra
deposits and vegetated terrain.

8.

As is evident in Table 3.3, space imagery is presently not well suited to recognizing the majority
of volcanic features whose critical dimensions are less than the effective resolution of the sensor
system. This group of phenomena include pahoehoe, blocky, and aa lavas, plug domes, tholoids.
spatter cones, hornitos, pit craters, many dikes (and dike swarms), and nearly all other small
features. Some of these are even difficult to locate and identify in aerial photos. Certain other
smaller features-maars, diatremes, necks, lahars, and welded tuff units--can frequently be
spotted in space images of adequate resolution.

9.

Finally, under fortuitous circumstances, space imagery can capture a volcanic eruption "in the
act" or can often provide the first direct evidence of the consequences of that eruption shortly
thereafter. Plate V-8 offers a dramatic example in its extended coverage of the 1980 eruptions at
Mt. St. Helens, during which a NOAA satellite actually picked up the airborne ash clouds in
transit and after which Landsat provided the first complete view of the devastated area around
the volcano. A lava flow in process of descending from one of the Galapagos volcanoes is visible
in Plate V-13. New flows from eruptions at Mt. Etna (Plate V-16) in the 1980s are readily
discernible.

Volcanoes are spectacular (as well as dangerous) when they erupt,

and they are among those geological features that give us a very
clear sense of the power of geologic processes. Their magma
originates in the upper mantle or the lower crust and varies in
composition.
Volcanoes come in all shapes and sizes. The more common types
are shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, and cinder cones.
Shield volcanoes gained their name from the fact that their profile
against the horizon looks like a shield laying on the ground. The
flanks of a shield volcano have low slopes, sometimes only a few
degrees from horizontal. Shield volcanoes are the largest volcanic
features on earth. The largest shield volcano, Mauna Loa in the
Hawaiian Islands, has a volume 300 times greater than that of the
largest stratovolcano, Mount Fuji in Japan. Shield volcanoes are
created through the eruption of basaltic magmas, which flow easily
and thus are capable of flowing over the landscape many miles from
the central fissures or vents. The volcanoes observed on Mars are
also classified as shield volcanoes. The largest one, Olympus Mons,
is considered the tallest Mountain (24 km) in the solar system.
mauna_loa.gif (86015 bytes)
Photo of Mauna Loa, a shield volcano in Hawaii
Stratovolcanoes are volcanoes that consists of intermixed layers of
lava flows and poorly consolidated volcanic material such as ash
and cinders. Stratovolcanoes are typically located on continental
crust above subducting plates and are easily recognized by their
often beautiful symmetrically-shaped cones (Mt. Fuji in Japan is
probably one of the better known examples).
hood_lost_lake.gif (128729 bytes)
Photo of Mt. Hood in Oregon, a stratovolcano that has been
somewhat eroded by glacial activity.
Cinder cones (tephra cone) are a type of volcano that consists
almost entirely of tephra (another term used for pyroclasts or solid
volcanic ejecta). Magma that contains abundant volatiles (gases)
bubbles as it reaches the surface and small bits of magma are
thrown into the air in the process. They cool down as they shoot
through the air, and fall back down as solid particles. Depending on
their size they are described as ash (small), slag or cinder (a few cm
in size), or as volcanic bombs (decimeters in size). From a distance,
cinder cones resemble piles of sand because they are made almost
entirely of loose material that has rained down from their central
vent. These cones usually erupt lava flows, too; however, the flows

erupt through the side because the loosely piled cinders that make
up the cone are easily pushed outwards toward the side as magma
attempts to move up the central vent toward the peak. Usually the
lava flows come towards the end of the eruption, once the magma
has lost enough of its volatiles to flow more quietly. Cinder cone
eruptions are comparatively short lived, and thus cinder cones are
much smaller features than stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes
(usually no more than a mile at the base).
cin_cone.gif (130970 bytes)
Photo of a typical cinder cone. The steep slopes reflect the angle of
repose of the loose material (volcanic ash, slag, bombs) that the
cone consists of.
cindercones&flow.jpg (62353 bytes)
A field of cinder cones. One cone has produced a lava flow (in
black).
Where does Volcanism occur?
Abundant volcanism (most of it actually) does of course occur along
the mid-oceanic ridges, but because these are covered with water
we don't have much opportunity to see it.
Aside of mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes occur most often above
subducting slabs, forming island arcs and volcanic arcs. These
volcanoes are typically stratovolcanoes. Additional volcanic activity
is found in zones of crustal extension (continental rifts) where
faulting provides a conduit for magma to reach the surface. In ocean
basins, thousands of seamounts have been formed over the past
200 million years as oceanic plates have drifted over assorted
mantle hotspots. These volcanoes mark the trace of a plate as it
drifts steadily over the hotspot, which is fixed (or nearly so) in the
mantle beneath the plate.
Finally, flood basalts are voluminous outpourings of sheets of
basaltic magmas that are believed to originate when the head of a
mantle hotspot (or plume) first arrives beneath the base of a plate.
Flood basalt eruptions are by volume the largest kind of volcanic
eruptions. The volumes of lava generated by far exceed the volume
of lave found in any given single volcano. Examples include the
Columbia River Plateau basalts and the Deccan Trap basalts of
southern India. There are presently no active flood basalt provinces.
How fast do they form? How long do they last?

An active volcano can build itself in a few thousand years (or

longer). Given that the highest stratovolcanoes are more than
22,000 feet high (in the Andes), the rate at which they increase in
height is rather impressive. By their nature, most volcanoes build
themselves from the top down. Material is ejected from the central
vent at or near the volcanic peak, and gravity brings it down the
slopes. The processes by which a volcano builds its edifice depends
on the type of volcano. For example, stratovolcanoes and shield
volcanoes build from the top downwards. In contrast, lava that flows
from cinder cones is emitted from its sides or near its base. Volcanic
debris is transported onto the surrounding area through direct
eruption, wind and water, and landslides from the flanks of the
volcano.
The lifetime of a volcano in the landscape is less than that of most
mountains for two reasons. 1) Stratovolcanoes often self-destruct.
During large eruptions, a volcano sometimes ejects so much
material from its interior magma chamber that too little material is
left inside to support the edifice of ejected material that comprises
the material. In these instances, the edifice can collapse
downwards, i.e. the volcano caves in. Such a collapse forms a
caldera. These collapses can occasionally remove thousands of feet
of material from the top of a volcanic edifice.
In addition to caldera formation, landslides can also remove
significant material from the flank of a volcano. Such landslides can
be initiated by volcanic or tectonic earthquakes prior to an eruption,
which appears to be what happened in the 1980 eruption of Mount
St. Helens, or they can initiate an eruption since they suddenly
remove large amounts of material that sustained pressure on the
magma chamber (this process is analogous to removing a
champagne cork - pressurized gas in the champagne suddenly
expands once the "plug" is removed).
Most volcanoes by their very nature are "poorly" constructed and
top-heavy. They are built from the top down of loose pyroclasts
interleaved with lava flows. Consequently, they are gravitationally
unstable and prone to landslides if they are rained on or destabilized
by a small eruption or earthquake. What remains of a volcano long
after the poorly consolidated material ejected out of the cone has
eroded away is its erosion-resistant central plug (volcanic neck).
Ship Rock in New Mexico and Devil's Tower in Wyoming are excellent
examples.
Geologically speaking, volcanoes are short-lived features, with
lifetimes that typically measure hundreds of thousands or a few
millions of years. Nonetheless, at any given time, the Earth's
landscape is dotted with thousands of volcanoes and they are

amongst the most fascinating and memorable features on the

Earth's surface.
Volcano
Click on the volcano landforms image to make it larger. You will not
leave this page.

A volcano has 3 main characteristics

1. Cone shaped mountain
2. Formed by rock or ash thrown from the inside of the earth
3. At times, opening or depression at top
Examples of famous Volcano Landforms:
Mt. St. Helen in Washington
Mount Fuji of Japan
What is a Volcano Landform?
There are volcanoes all over the world. They are above sea level
and below the oceans. What a volcano actually is a hole in the
Earths crust that lava and other Earth debris come out of a lot of
the

time or even hundreds of years apart. A lot of volcanoes are in a

form of a mountain or a hill that have a crater from past eruptions.
Many times, before an eruption, there is activity in the Earths
surface that make the ground shake or even the crater in
the volcano grow. Scientists are getting better at predicting
eruptions. This can save many lives.
Volcanoes can be devastating. It can destroy land in many different
ways. One example is the submarine caldera called Kuwae. A huge
island was once connected that is now two. A huge eruption
happened collapsing the land in the middle underwater. The
collapse associated with caldera formation may have been as much
as 1,100 meters. Around 3239 cubic km of magma was erupted,
making the Kuwae eruption one of the largest in the past 10,000
years.
Types of Volcanoes and How are Volcanoes Made
There are a few different types of volcano landforms in the world.
The volcanoes are classified by scientist by their shapes. There are
actually 5 different types of volcanoes but we will only focus on the
3 main types. The three types are composite volcanoes, shield
volcanoes, or cinder cone volcanoes.

The cinder cones are small volcanoes with steep sides. Even
though they are small, these are the ones you probably hear about.
They are very explosive and made of ash and rock. Most of the
cinder cones are small and less than 500 meters high. A famous
cinder cone is Sunset Crater Volcano in Arizona.
A shield is a low and broad volcano that usually has a very wide
crater (a dent in the Earths surface). It is formed from thin layers of
lava after consistent low-grade eruptions. The largest volcano in the
world is a shield volcano. It is located in Hawaii.
Composite volcanoes are the tallest type of volcano. They look very
impressive but do usually have quiet and slow lava flows. They
sometimes have small eruptions that cause ash and rock to go
flying. One of the most famous volcanoes in the world is a
composite volcano. It is Mount Fuji in Japan.
Go here to learn more about the 5 types of volcanoes, guyots, lava
fields, lava lakes, lava domes, lava spines, lava tubes, and pit
craters
Volcanoes Landform Definition
A volcano is a hole in the Earths crust that lava and other Earth
debris come out of a lot of the time or even hundreds of years apart.
- See more at:
http://worldlandforms.com/landforms/volcano/#sthash.kDIwIBoA.dpu
f

GENERIC FEATURES
A volcanic vent is an opening exposed on the earth's surface where volcanic material is
emitted. All volcanoes contain a central vent underlying the summit crater of the volcano.
The volcano's cone-shaped structure, or edifice, is built by the more-or-less symmetrical
accumulation of lava and/or pyroclastic material around this central vent system. The central
vent is connected at depth to a magma chamber, which is the main storage area for the
eruptive material. Because volcano flanks are inherently unstable, they often contain fractures
that descend downward toward the central vent, or toward a shallow-level magma chamber.
Such fractures may occasionally tap the magma source and act as conduits for flank
eruptions along the sides of the volcanic edifice. These eruptions can generate cone-shaped
accumulations of volcanic material, called parasitic cones. Fractures can also act as conduits
for escaping volcanic gases, which are released at the surface through vent openings
calledfumaroles.

Summit Crater

Parasitic Cones

Fumarole

MAIN VOLCANO TYPES

Although every volcano has a unique eruptive history, most can be grouped into three main
types based largely on their eruptive patterns and their general forms. The form and
composition of the three main volcano types are summarized here:

VOLCANO
TYPE

VOLCANO
SHAPE

SCORIA CONE

COMPOSITION

ERUPTION
TYPE

Basalt tephra; occasionally

andesitic

Strombolian

Basalt lava flows

Hawaiian

Straight sides with steep slopes; large

summit crater

SHIELD VOLCANO
Very gentle slopes; convex upward

Highly variable; alternating

basaltic to rhyolitic lavas and
STRATOVOLCANO
tephra with an overall
Gentle lower slopes, but steep upper slopes;
andesite composition
concave upward; small summit crater

Plinian

SUBORDINATE VOLCANO TYPES -- Lava and tephra can erupt from vents other than these
three main volcano types. A fissure eruption, for example, can generate huge volumes of
basalt lava; however, this type of eruption is not associated with the construction of a volcanic
edifice around a single central vent system. Although point-source eruptions can generate
such features as spatter cones and hornitos, these volcanic edifices are typically small,
localized, and/or associated with rootless eruptions (i.e., eruptions above the surface of an
active lavaflow, unconnected to an overlying magma chamber) . Vent types related
to hydrovolcanic processes generate unique volcanic structures, discussed separately
under hydrovolcanic eruptions.
For a description of each of the main volcano types, see:

SCORIA CONES
SHIELD VOLCANOES
STRATOVOLCANOES

WHEN IS A VOLCANO CONSIDERED ACTIVE, DORMANT, OR

EXTINCT?
Classifying a volcano as active, dormant, or extinct is a subjective and inexact exercise. A
volcano is generally considered active if it has erupted in historic time. This definition,
however, is rather ambiguous, because recorded history varies from thousands of years in
Europe and the Middle East, to only a few hundred years in other regions of the world, like the
Pacific Northwest of the United States. Scientists generally consider a volcano active if it is
currently erupting, or exhibiting unrest through earthquakes, uplift, and/or new gas emissions.
The Smithsonian Institution's catalog of active volcanoes, recognizes 539 volcanoes with
historic eruptions. In addition, there are 529 volcanoes that have not erupted in historic times,
but which exhibit clear evidence of eruption in the past 10,000 years. These latter volcanoes
are probably best considered "dormant," since they have the potential to erupt again.
Whether or not inactive volcanoes are considered truly extinct, or just dormant, depends
partly on the average repose interval between eruptions. As noted in eruptive variability,
explosive eruptions like those at Toba and Yellowstone have repose intervals of hundreds of
thousands of years, whereas non-explosive eruptions have very short repose intervals. Thus,
the Yellowstone region, which has not experienced an eruption for 70,000 years, can not be
considered extinct. In fact, many scientists consider Yellowstone to be active because of high
uplift rates, frequent earthquakes, and a very active geothermal system. Many inactive scoria
cones, on the other hand, may be viewed as extinct shortly after they erupt, because such
volcanoes are typically monogenetic and only erupt once.