Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 623633

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Emulsication of animal fats and vegetable oils for their use as a diesel
engine fuel: An overview
Eliezer Ahmed Melo-Espinosa a,n, Ramn Piloto-Rodrguez a, Leonardo Goyos-Prez a,
Roger Sierens b, Sebastian Verhelst b
a
Center for the Study of Renewable Energy Technologies, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Politcnico Jos Antonio Echeverra (CUJAE),
Marianao, 19390 Havana, Cuba
b
Department of Flow, Heat and Combustion Mechanics, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, B-9000 Ghent,
Belgium

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 30 September 2014
Received in revised form
23 February 2015
Accepted 8 March 2015
Available online 30 March 2015

Vegetable oils and animal fats represent promising alternatives to diesel engine fuel because they can be
obtained from different feedstocks and renewable sources; also their properties are close to diesel fuel. The
direct use of these biofuels as a diesel engine fuel can cause several problems in engine performance and
emissions. In order to obtain a more engine-friendly fuel, it is necessary to change the biofuels properties
for which different methods have been used. One of the possibilities is using emulsication techniques in
order to obtain emulsied biofuels (emulsions or microemulsions); through this method it is possible to
lower viscosity and improve the atomization. However, emulsication techniques applied to vegetable oils
and animal fats have not been studied thoroughly. For this reason, this paper presents an overview on the
formulation and characterization of the emulsied biofuels using vegetable oils and animal fats, as well as
the main experimental results reported about its use as a diesel engine fuel in the scientic literature.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Biofuel
Vegetable oil
Animal fat
Emulsion
Microemulsion
Diesel engine

Contents
1.
2.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emulsied biofuels background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Emulsied biofuels as dispersed systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
The effects of the water in the emulsied biofuels. The microexplosion phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Materials and methods used in the formulation of emulsied biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Formulation of emulsied biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Experimental results reported about the formulation of emulsied biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Prediction of emulsied biofuels properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Performance assessment of diesel engines fuelled with emulsied biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
The general effect on engine performance and exhaust emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
Engine components wear, lubricity and durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Summary and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

623
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1. Introduction
n

Corresponding author. Tel.: 53 7 2663625.

E-mail addresses: emelo@ceter.cujae.edu.cu,
eliezer.ahmed.melo.espinosa@gmail.com (E.A. Melo-Espinosa).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.091
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Diesel engines are mainly used in industrial, transport and agricultural applications due to their high efciency and reliability [1].

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E.A. Melo-Espinosa et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 623633

The development of internal combustion engines followed a

dual strategy over the past years: improvement of engine performance and reduction of pollutant emissions [2]. However, diesel
engines remain an important source of pollution, due to their
emissions: black smoke, hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
particulate matter (PM), sulfur oxides (SOx) and carbon
monoxide (CO).
On the other hand, the increasing petroleum price and environmental concern due to global warming has accelerated the search
for renewable fuels for diesel engines [3]. In addition, the fossil fuel
demand is continuously increasing the depletion of fossil fuel stocks
[4]. Researchers as Ashraful et al. [5] indicate that global energy
demand is increasing dramatically, e.g. in 1980, fuel consumption
was 6630 million tons of oil equivalents (Mt), it almost doubled in
2012 to 12,239 Mt; according to the International Energy Agency
estimation, the global energy demand is expected to increase by
53% by 2030. For this reason, one of the new challenges for the
twenty-rst century is to nd solutions in order to reduce the
exhaust emission and dependency on fossil fuels.
Current limitations of fuel resources and restrictions on environmental pollution have directed research programs worldwide to
introduce new techniques and methodologies that not only ensure
rationalization of fuel consumption but also keep emissions at ultralow levels from different combustion devices [6]. This situation has
motivated the scientic community around the world to study
alternative fuels, specically biofuels. However, biofuels will only be
benecial if they are cultivated in a sustainable way with both
biodiversity and the food vs. fuel debate in mind [7]. Therefore, it is
important that researches are carried out on biofuels obtained from
non-edible crops, non-edible vegetable oils and waste products.
Researchers as Tan [8] and Senthil [9] pointed out that animal fats
and vegetable oils represent promising alternatives to conventional
fuel (diesel fuel) because of their very similar properties. Vegetable
oils and animal fats can be obtained from different alternative
sources around the world (such as non-edible feedstocks). The
non-edible vegetable oils are natural liquids and according to No
[10] present advantages as fuels such as: availability, renewability,
biodegradability, lower sulphur content and aromatic content. The
disadvantages of non-edible vegetable oil as a diesel fuel are higher
viscosity, low volatility, the reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon
chains, and higher percentage of carbon residue [10]. These advantages and drawbacks can be extended for animal fats.
The direct use of these biofuels in diesel engines causes several
problems such as a less efcient combustion process due to the
poor atomization process and changes in the ignition delay.
Researchers as Meher et al. [11] indicate that due to the high
viscosity and lower volatility of the vegetable oils and especially
animal fats, the formation of deposits in engines can be expected,
due to incomplete combustion and improper vaporization characteristics. These problems are associated with the large triglyceride molecules and their high molecular mass [11].
In order to obtain an economic and environment-friendly engine
fuel from renewable feedstocks such as vegetable oils and animal
fats, it is necessary to change the biofuels properties such as:
viscosity, surface tension, free fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols,
odorants, moisture content, etc. For this reason, different methods
have been used, such as preheating, blending, dual fuel operation,
transesterication, cracking/pyrolysis and emulsication.
Among these methods previously mentioned, blending and
dual fuel operation with diesel fuel only partially solves the
problems with the physicalchemical properties and their negative effects on the engine. A dual fuel engine also needs modications in the engines design [12]. In addition, dual fuel operation
with alcohol induction has been reported to result in higher
emissions (HC and CO) [12] and lower performance [13]. Though
blending of oils with alcohols is a simple process, signicant

improvements in performance and emissions are not reported in

the literature [12]. In spite of blending methods having been
experimented with for nearly 100 years, according to Abbaszaadeh
et al. [14] the use of blends of vegetable oils and/or direct use of
vegetable oils has generally been considered to be not satisfactory
and impractical for both direct and indirect diesel engines.
Researchers as Senthil et al. [12] stressed the advantage of the
fuel preheating technique such as easy conversion of the normal
diesel engine to work on highly viscous fuels, needing no modication of the engine. In addition, investigations reported that
preheated animal fat and vegetable oils in diesel engines resulted
in improved brake thermal efciency and reduced smoke and
particulate emissions [12,15,16]. Nevertheless, the preheated
method is not a generalized practice fundamentally because an
external heating system is necessary which means an additional
cost and installation (thus, recommended only for stationary
engines).
Another possibility is the pyrolysis of triglycerides to obtain
products suitable for diesel engines[1722], with physicalchemical properties comparable to those specied for petroleum based
fuels [14]. However, it is important to take into account that
mechanisms for the thermal decomposition of triglycerides are
likely to be complex, because of the many structures and multiplicity of possible reactions of mixed triglycerides [14]. Also, the
equipment for thermal cracking and pyrolysis is expensive for
modest throughputs [14]. In addition, while the products are
chemically similar to petroleum-derived gasoline and diesel fuel,
the removal of oxygen during the thermal processing also removes
any environmental benets of using an oxygenated fuel [14].
Transesterication is the most common method applied to
vegetable oils and animal fats in order to obtain a friendly engine
diesel fuel (commonly named biodiesel). Biodiesel is used as engine
diesel fuel (blended or neat) and cetane improver. Its physical
chemical properties are comparable with diesel fuel and in some
cases are standardized (e.g.: ASTM D6751, EN 14214, etc.). Several
investigations have been developed about biodiesel production
from different feedstocks [2327] and their engine performances
and exhaust emissions [5,2834]. Despite its many advantages as a
renewable alternative fuel, biodiesel presents a number of problems
that must be resolved before it will be more attractive as an
alternative to petroleum diesel (e.g.: lower volatility and heating
value, poor low-temperature properties, higher NOx, plugging of the
fuel oil lter and blocking of the fuel injector) [35].
Transesterication is a complex and cumbersome process [12]
and depending on the quality of the feedstock (free fatty acids and
water percentage) different steps are necessary. The cost of
biodiesel is the major hurdle to its commercialization in comparison to petroleum diesel. The raw material cost, i.e. the cost of the
oil feedstock amounts to about 6070% of the production cost
[35,36]. The biodiesel production is an expensive process and its
cost it also affected by the price of catalysts (expensive and
difcult to recover), specic equipment (reactors, centrifuges,
separators, etc.) and instrumentation. These drawbacks were also
noticed by Atmanli [37] and Agarwal [38]. During the transesterication, it also results in certain by-products such as glycerol
which cannot be used as fuel in engines [13].
The formulation of emulsied biofuels is a potential solution
for solving technical efciency problems associated with the high
surface tension and viscosity of vegetable oils and animal fats. The
effects of the emulsied fuels on the engine performance (see
Section 5.1) are different from one study to another [39]. The
physicalchemical properties of emulsied fuel also play a decisive
role in the behaviour of the engine performance and exhaust
emissions. Nevertheless, a lot of researches [12,13,4053] reported
important reductions in exhaust emissions (e.g.: NOx) compared
with diesel fuel and other methods to use biofuels in diesel

E.A. Melo-Espinosa et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 623633

engines. Additionally, due to the microexplosion phenomenon (see

Section 2.2), it is also possible to recover in some proportion the
decrease in combustion efciency.
Emulsication thus is a cheaper method because modications
of the original engine design, special and sophisticated equipments and such are not necessary. The preparation of an emulsion
involves no complex chemical reactions [46]. It also produces no
byproducts unlike transesterication [46]. Next to neat biofuels,
relatively low quantities of surfactant, co-surfactant and/or water
are necessary. For this reason, it is possible to apply emulsication
at small scale compared with the transesterication method. In
addition, the availability and low cost of some of the typical
surfactants and co-surfactants used to formulate emulsied biofuels also make this economically attractive.
Although previous researches using emulsied diesel fuel have
demonstrated that it is possible to reduce smoke, particulate
matter, nitric oxide emissions and to recover in some proportion
the decrease in combustion efciency; emulsication techniques
applied to vegetable oils and animal fats have not been studied
thoroughly. For this reason, the purpose of this paper is to
assemble reported experimental results about emulsied biofuels,
with the aim of enhancing the knowledge about its formulation,
characterization and use as a diesel engine fuel.

2. Emulsied biofuels background

2.1. Emulsied biofuels as dispersed systems
Dispersed systems are an intermediate between heterogeneous
macroscopic systems and molecular solutions which are homogeneous systems. This fact implies the possibility to formulate
disperse systems in two ways: by dispersion of the macroscopic
phase (formation by dispersion) and by condensation of the actual
solutions or homogeneous uni-component systems (formation by
condensation) [54].
Emulsied biofuels (emulsions or microemulsions, see below)
are dispersed systems. They can be dened as a mixture of two or
more liquids, of which at least one is immiscible and dispersed into
the other. Emulsied biofuels used as an engine fuel are dispersed
systems of the type water-in-oil (W/O). For this reason, the water
droplets (dispersed phase) are dispersed in the oils or fats (continuous phase). In order to formulate stable dispersed systems,
either an emulsion or microemulsion of water-in-oil, additional
components such as emulsier agents are generally used.

625

However, there are signicant differences between emulsions

and microemulsions despite the fact that they are both dispersed
systems. Emulsions and microemulsions differ not only in the size
of the drops of the dispersed phase, but in terms of their
thermodynamic stability [55]. Most of the properties of the
emulsions (stability, viscosity, etc.) depend on the droplets size
and size distribution [9].
Emulsions have a certain stability which is increased with the use
of emulsier agents; they are thermodynamically unstable and their
formation requires energy [56]. Emulsions are thermodynamically
unstable because their Gibbs free energy (Gf) is positive (Gf 40),
and therefore they have a spontaneous tendency for phase separation. The drop diameters of the dispersed phase are larger than
0.1 mm (usually between 110 mm). In addition, it is noted that most
of these emulsions are opaque and milky in color [57].
As was previously mentioned, the emulsions are thermodynamically unstable systems and for this reason breakdown processes
are expected. This process can be delayed using surfactants and
solvents, because they can improve the system stability. The
breakdown of the emulsion is a multistage process, which involves
physical phenomena such as gravitational settling, decreasing of
the interfacial area and the free energy of the system. Different
breakdown processes presented in these dispersed systems are
shown in Fig. 1.
The physical phenomena involved in each breakdown process
are not simple and require analysis of the various surface forces
involved [58]. The above mentioned processes may take place
simultaneously rather than consecutively, complicating the analysis
[58]. A summary of each of the breakdown processes, details of each
process and methods of its prevention are analyzed by Tadros [58].
Microemulsions are spontaneously formed systems and exhibit
nano-dispersed structures [59]. Microemulsions have special features, such as: thermodynamically stable [60], large interfacial area,
ultralow interfacial tension and optical transparency [59]. The Gibbs
free energy of the microemulsions is negative or zero (Gf r0). The
size of the drops in microemulsions is much smaller than for
emulsions. Researchers as Ramadhas [61] and Rao [62] indicated
that generally they are in the range of 0.0010.15 mm. This corresponds with Ochoterena et al. [55] who reported the range size of
the drops in microemulsions to be of the order of 0.0050.02 mm.
2.2. The effects of the water in the emulsied biofuels. The
microexplosion phenomenon
One of the essential components used in order to formulate the
emulsied fuels is water. The negative effects due to the presence

W/O Emulsion

Sedimentation

Coalecense
Flocculation

Phase separation
Legend
Surfactant
Biofuel
Water

Fig. 1. Different breakdown processes in W/O emulsions.

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E.A. Melo-Espinosa et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 623633

of water in the engine system require special attention to the

stability of the emulsied fuels. Water presence in fuel can cause
the formation of rust and in the presence of acids and hydroperoxides formed by fuel oxidation, can lead to corrosion [63]. For this
reason, the water features require special attention, mainly the
salts content.
The salts naturally present in water might affect the function of
the emulsier agent and emulsied fuels properties (e.g. stability)
due to adsorption phenomena. Specically, the effect of inorganic
salts on the dispersed systems (phase behavior) stabilized by
different kind of surfactants has been reported in several investigations [6469]. The results achieved by Balcan et al. [66] showed
that an electrolyte (0.5 wt% NaCl in water) is less effective in
systems containing ethoxylated surfactants. For this reason, a
careful selection of the surfactant and cosurfactant is needed
because in several cases in order to improve the dispersed system
stability, a higher quantity of emulsier agent might be necessary,
and as a consequence higher viscosities of the emulsied biofuels
usually are expected.
Researchers as Fayyad [70] and Badran [71] recommended the
use of demineralized water because this water gave better stability
for a waterdiesel emulsion than tap water. Therefore, the water
treatment in order to decrease or eliminate its salt content might
be interesting. It is important to take into account the necessary
type of treatment and its feasibility because it could increase the
cost, energy and resources necessary to formulate the emulsied
biofuels.
The water in the emulsied biofuels should not be used with
the aim of replacing a specic amount of fuel in order to save fuel.
The purpose of the water is to make better use of the mass of fuel
injected, improving the atomization process inside the cylinder
before the combustion process occurs. The presence of water in
the emulsied biofuels reduces the fuel heating value, decreasing
the total energy per mass unit of fuel. Nevertheless, different
studies show improvements in the engines performance using
emulsied fuels (see Section 5.1).
The reported improvements in engine performances are a
consequence of improvements in atomization and mixing
characteristics, due to the water dispersed in the fuel. The
emulsied uid when sprayed through a nozzle gets atomized
into ne droplets inside the cylinder [72]. Since water has a
lower boiling point than diesel fuel, water droplets reach their
boiling point rst after it has soaked up enough reaction heat
[72]; this process can also be extended to vegetable oils and
animal fats.

According to Tran et al. [73] the combustion of emulsied fuel

droplets is largely characterized by this difference between water
and fuel volatility. According to Tran [73] the droplet is heated by
convective and radiative heat transfer and its temperature reaches
the superheat limit. Inside the droplet, this is followed by a rapid
bubble nucleation, and then, internal formation of vapor bubbles
[73]. The vaporization of water then blows up the oil layer and
thereby forms smaller oil droplets, which increase the oil droplets
surface to volume ratio [72]. This phenomenon is called microexplosion [40,72]. The microexplosion process was rst discovered by researchers such as Ivanov and Nevedov in 1965 [74].
The microexplosion causes the secondary atomization which
forms the bulk of much ner droplets [73]. Such secondary drops
evaporate very quickly and are dispersed over a large volume,
improving fuel/air mixing and the overall combustion efciency
[75]. In addition, this mechanism is fundamental in reducing
particulate emission in the combustion of medium and heavy oils
[75]. The dispersed system atomization prior to combustion is
schematically shown in Fig. 2.
The presence of water can also reduce nitrogen oxides in the
exhaust gases [2,39,76,77]. According to Armas [39], the improvement
of vaporization and mixing processes leads to a shorter combustion
reaction. This effect can help to reduce soot, PM, CO and HC formation
[39,78,79]. The water vapor reacts with particulates to produce CO and
H2 in the region with less oxygen, consequently lessening the amount
of particulate emitted [80]. Nevertheless, there is a debate about its
effect on CO and unburned hydrocarbons emissions [6]. The effect of
emulsied fuel on CO emissions will mainly depend on engine load
and the compromise between the viscosity increase and the local
temperature decrease [81].
Different researches [3,57,71,78,79,8287] about emulsied diesel
fuels refer to changes (usually increases) between the start of injection
and the start of combustion of the fuel, i.e. the ignition delay. Similarly,
changes in the ignition delay for emulsied biofuels have been
reported [37,43,46,49,88,89]. According to Armas et al. [39] and
Badran et al. [71], it is a consequence of the heat absorption by water
vaporization in the fuel jet. In addition, Zhang et al. [83] emphasized
that it is a consequence of the endothermic vaporization of water
entering the combustion chamber, which can reduce the local
temperature and enlarge the ignition delay, compared to diesel fuel.
A large scientic effort has been devoted to the experimental
evaluation of the microexplosion phenomenon [90]. The microexplosion is also questioned [91]. Califano et al. [75] pointed out that
the microexplosion does not always occur, and that its occurrence
depends on a number of parameters. An important factor affecting

Increase of temperature

injector

Primary atomization
(dispersed system)

Water droplet heated

(vaporization)

Blow up
(oil layer)

Smaller droplets

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the dispersed system atomization.

E.A. Melo-Espinosa et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 623633

the microexplosion could be the coalescence or phase separation of

the water droplets dispersed into the continuous phase [75].
Nevertheless, the presence of water inuences the physics and
chemical kinetics of combustion and has a benecial effect on the rateof-heat release and the reduction of pollutant emissions [78]. During
combustion, the vaporized water reduces the ame temperature,
changes the chemical composition of the reactants, resulting in higher
OH radical concentration controlling the NO formation rate and soot
oxidation, and dilutes the rich zones in the combustion chamber [78].

3. Materials and methods used in the formulation of

emulsied biofuels
3.1. Formulation of emulsied biofuels
An accurate methodology in order to formulate emulsied biofuels
is difcult to establish because there are different feedstocks (vegetable oils/animal fats and emulsier agents) and different methods of
preparation (mechanical methods and physicalchemical methods)
such as mechanical stirrer or membrane emulsication [92] that can
be used. Among these methods, the use of dispersion has been the
most applied. The ultrasonic vibration technique is claimed to be an
excellent choice for effectively preparing tiny particles in a solution at
high speed [3]. Different researchers [9395] noticed that the higher
rotational speed leads to the formation of smaller water droplets. On
the other hand, no variations in the sizes of water droplets varying the
stirring speed from 500 rpm up to 1500 rpm were observed in
Kerihuels experiments [95].
Most of the emulsied biofuels properties can be improved taking
into account different factors during the preparation process, such as:
surfactant and co-surfactant characteristics, intensity and duration of
the method used, volume ratios and physical properties (viscosity and
surface tension) of each of the phases, heating of the vegetable oil or
animal fat, etc. As is known, the surface tension and viscosity are
function of temperature. For this reason, a decrease of the energy used
to deform the interface might be possible when selecting a proper
heating temperature. Balcan et al. [66] pointed out that at ambient
temperature, the water is a better solvent than oil for nonionic
amphiphiles, but a poor solvent at elevated temperature, while it is
the other way around for ionic surfactants.
The aim of surfactant addition is to reduce the oil and water
surface tension, activate their surfaces and maximize the surface
contact area to obtain emulsions [95] or microemulsions, thereby
forming a continuous and nely dispersed droplets phase [96]. The
ability of the surfactant to ensure stable dispersed systems
(microemulsion or emulsion) is determined by the surfactant
molecules structure and its energy of interaction with the system
(polar and nonpolar). The surfactant orientates itself in such a way
that the hydrophilic end is oriented towards water and the

627

hydrophobic end is oriented towards the oil [45]. Researchers as

Kerihuel et al. [95] indicated that the surfactant chosen in order to
formulate emulsied biofuels must be more dissolved in the oil
(continuous phase) to obtain stable emulsied biofuels.
The surfactant can be characterized by its HLB number which
corresponds to the hydrophiliclipophilic balance [95]. According
to Debnath et al. [72] the HLB number is a non-dimensional value,
ranging from 0 to 20. Taking into account that hydrophilic
molecules are those, which interact with or dissolve in, water
and other polar substances; whereas a lipophilic molecule dissolves in fats, oils, lipids, and non-polar solvents [72], different
researchers [1,49,95,97] emphasize that the surfactants used in
order to formulate dispersed systems must be selected according
to the HLB number, recommending for W/O dispersed systems the
use of surfactants that are more lipophilic than hydrophilic.
Debnath et al. [72] recommend that the HLB number should lay
between 4 and 6 for water-in-oil systems.
Morais [98], Porras [99] and Bhimani [100] indicated that a mixture
of hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfactants yields a more stable
emulsion. For this reason, in order to obtain a mixture of surfactants
with HLB number according to the interval recommended previously,
a mathematical equation proposed by Mollet [101] and Bhimani [100]
can be used. Through this equation the mass percentage of the
surfactants involved in the mixture can be obtained.
On the other hand, in order to increase the water amount and/
or to further improve the stability of the emulsied biofuels, a
fourth component known as a cosurfactant can also be used.
According to Salager et al. [102] a cosurfactant is a smaller
amphiphile with a reduced head and tail size compared with the
surfactant, e.g. an amine, an acid, or a phenol, but in most cases it
is an alcohol. In this case, the dispersed systems are formulated as
quaternary systems (vegetable oils or animal fats/water/surfactant/co-surfactant).
The role of the cosurfactant in quaternary systems of oil in
water has been summarized by researchers as Salager et al. [102].
The rst of the conventional roles of a cosurfactant is to adsorb at
the interface and become part of the surfactant-alcohol amphiphilic mixture; as such, it modies interactions on the interfacial
layer with oil and water, and thus modies the formulation [102].
In addition, improvements of the properties of the dispersed
systems might be obtained depending on chain length and the
alcohol concentration used as cosurfactant.
3.2. Experimental results reported about the formulation of
emulsied biofuels
Different researches about the formulation of emulsied
biofuels using animal fats or vegetable oils [1,9,12,37,41,43,49,52,
62,92,95,103112] reported the use of components such as: ethanol,
methanol, 1-butanol, 1-hexanol, 1-octanol, 2-octanol, polyoxyethylene

Table 1
Surfactants used in emulsied biofuels formulation.
Chemical name

Chemical formula

HLB

Ref.

Sorbitan monopalmitate (Span 40)

Sorbitan monostearate (Span 60)
Sorbitan monooleate (Span 80)
Sorbitan sesquiolate (Span 83)
Sorbitan trioleate (Span 85)
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate (Tween 80)
Tetraethylene glycol dodecyl ether (Brij 30)
Sodium bis-[2-ethylhexyl] sulfosuccinate (AOT)
Oleic acid

C22H42O6
C24H46O6
C24H44O6
C66H130O18
C60H108O8
C64H124O26
C20H42O5
C20H37O7SNa
C18H34O2

6.7
4.7
4.3
3.7
1.8
15.0
9.7
10.2
1.0

[114,115]
[115]
[88,109]
[109,116]
[115,117]
[100,115]
[66,115]
[66]
[49,50]

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lauryl ether, polyglycerol polyricinoleate, decaglycerol esters of oleic

acid, surfactants of the Span series, mixture of surfactants and other
substances such as oleic acid, linoleic acid, triethyl amine and oleyl
amine. Specically, the use of 2-octanol as solvent has been found as
an effective amphiphile in the micellar solubilization of methanol in
triolein and soybean oil [113]. The characteristics of the surfactants
usually used as emulsier agents are shown in Table 1.
A number of researches conducted in the 1980s and 1990s
[40,5153,103,104,107,110] had an important role in the development and use of emulsied biofuels as diesel engine fuel. In order
to formulate these emulsied biofuels, different short-chain alcohols such as polar liquid phase and different continuous phases
such as sunower oil, rapeseed oil, soybean oil and triolein have
been investigated. Triolein, one of the typical triglycerides, is the
most abundant component in many plant oils, such as canola,
soybean, sunower seed, etc [118]. The compositions (by volume)
and properties of these emulsied biofuels are shown in Table 2.
In these investigations, droplet diameters and the water
amounts of the formulated emulsied biofuels were not reported.
However, alcohols used as the polar liquid phase in the formulation contain water, even the most distilled. The viscosity of three
microemulsions formulated by Schwab et al. [104] were in the
ASTM specied range for No. 2 diesel fuel. In addition, Goering
et al. [110] using 10% of primary alkyl nitrate as cetane improver
obtained a cetane rating according to the SAE minimum for No.
2 diesel fuel.
From the 2000s, new investigations [12,41,43,95,109,117,119
121] about emulsied biofuels were developed, using as continuous phases linseed oil, mahua oil, coconut oil, canola oil, palm oil,
honge oil, cotton oil, Jatropha curcas oil, algae oil, castor oil and
rapeseed oildiesel fuel blend. The compositions (by volume) and
properties of these emulsied biofuels are shown in Table 2. Also,
Mubarak, Nanthagopal, Subbarao, Senthil and Jaikumar [13,44,46]
formulated emulsied biofuels using waste cooking oil (WCO).
From the stability test it was found that the mixture of 70% of
WCO, 15% of water, 10% of ethanol and 5% of Span 80 was stable for
two weeks [46]. In addition, different combinations of emulsied
biofuels prepared by Nguyen et al. [120] using deionized water,
diesel fuel, canola oil, ethanol, 2-butanol, 1-octanol and oleyl
amine; showed no phase separation over a wide range of temperatures ( 10 to70 1C) over a period of 48 h.
Attaphong et al. [112,122] carried out two studies with the aim
of analyzing the effects of temperatures, surfactants, oils, and
water in ethanol on the formulation of reverse micelle microemulsions. The phase behavior of carboxylate-based extended
surfactants was studied. The components used were canola oil,
algae oil, castor oil, diesel fuel, ethanol, 1-octanol, isooctanol, three
types of nonionic surfactants and four anionic carboxylate-based
extended surfactants. Ethylene glycol butyl ether and di-tert-butyl
peroxide were used as anti-freezing agent and cetane enhancer,
respectively. Ethylene glycol butyl ether as cetane enhancer and
antifreezing additive was also used by Do et al. [121]. The results of
both investigations displayed emulsied biofuels with kinematic
viscosity and energy density comparable to standard diesel fuel.
For obtaining an effective way to use animal fats as diesel
engine fuel, researchers as Senthil, Kerihuel, Tazerout and Bellettre
developed different researches [12,41,43,95,109] using emulsication as an alternative method. The animal fats (duck oil) used in
these investigations were obtained from industrial centrifugation,
heating and then separating the waste. As surfactants and alcohols, the Span 80, Span 83, methanol and ethanol, respectively,
were used. The optimal formulation of emulsions were: 15% of
water, 15% of methanol, 2% of surfactant (Span 80 or Span 83) and
68% of animal fat; 9.8% of water, 9.8% of methanol, 2% of Span 83
and 78.4% of animal fat; 10% of water, 36% of ethanol, 4% of Span
83 and 50% of animal fat.

4. Prediction of emulsied biofuels properties

It would be interesting if emulsied biofuels properties could
be predicted, but this is a largely unexplored topic. Kibbey et al.
[123] developed research on this topic. Their investigation was
about reverse microemulsion fuel formulation, exploring the
ability of the Chevron model (viscosity prediction model) coupled
with temperature dependent viscosity relationships in order to
predict the viscosities of these dispersed systems. The components
used in the formulation were diesel fuel, canola oil, algae oil, palm
kernel oil, ethyl alcohol, oleyl amine surfactant and octyl alcohol
cosurfactant. The experiments were conducted at different temperatures and water content.
The results of this research suggest that the viscosities of
reverse microemulsion fuels are well-predicted by considering
the fuels to be continuous liquid mixtures [123]. The model used
provided a very good prediction of viscosities across nearly all
systems and temperatures studied; only in systems with very high
water content (4%) viscosities were underpredicted [123]. This
result suggests that the presence of microemulsion droplets has a
minimal impact on viscosity of reverse microemulsion fuels in the
absence of signicant water, while the composition of the uid
continuum largely dictates the viscosity of the resulting fuel [123].
Bhimani et al. [100] estimated the emulsied biofuels properties
considering the mass fraction of each component involved under the
assumption of ideal inert uid mixing. The estimated properties were
the higher heating value and surface tension. In addition, the chemical
empirical formulas of the formulated emulsied biofuels were also
estimated considering the mass fraction of each component.

5. Performance assessment of diesel engines fuelled with

emulsied biofuels
5.1. The general effect on engine performance and exhaust emissions
The emulsication method as was previously mentioned is not a
modern practice; it has long been used for diesel fuel in order to
improve the combustion process and emission problems (NOx, HC, CO,
etc.). Recently, different investigations [12,13,37,41,4350,62,119,120]
have been carried out about the use of emulsied biofuels as engine
fuel under different conditions. Nevertheless, the effects of the
emulsied fuels on the engine performance are different from one
study to another [39]. The obtained results depend, mainly, on the
engine operation mode [78,124], type and tuning of the injection
system, and nally, on the optimized combustion chamber conguration [39]. The physicalchemical properties of the emulsied fuel also
play a decisive role in the behaviour of the engine performance and
exhaust emissions.
The vegetable oils, animal fats and emulsier agents used in
order to formulate emulsied biofuels have a lower heating value
and cetane number than diesel fuel. For this reason, differences in
engine performance and exhaust emissions between emulsied
biofuels, neat biofuels and diesel fuel are expected. The viscosity
and surface tension of the emulsied biofuels might be improved
using alcohol as cosurfactant. It is important to point out that
previous studies have shown that higher concentrations of short
chain alcohols reduce the ignition quality of fuels due to their lower
cetane number [103] and as a result decrease engine performance
[125]. Taking into account these problems, researchers as Kumar
et al. [119] included another component in their emulsied biofuels
formulations such as cetane improver.
The higher ignition delays for emulsied biofuels compared
with diesel fuel, have been reported under different test conditions [12,13,4043,46,5153]. However, note that compared with
the neat biofuels, shorter ignition delay values also have been

Table 2
Compositions and properties of different emulsied biofuels.
Vegetable oil

Diesel Fuel

Emulsier agent

Microemulsion (ionic)
Microemulsion (nonionic)

Soybean (52.3%)
Soybean (53.3%)
Soybean (25%)
Sunower (53%)
Linseed (35%)
Linseed (30%)
Linseed (35%)
Linseed (30%)
Mahua (35%)
Mahua (30%)
Mahua (35%)
Mahua (30%)
Canola oil (89%)
Canola oil (85%)

50%

60%
60%
60%
60%
60%
60%
60%
60%

Ethanol (17.45%)
Ethanol (13.3%)
Ethanol (5%)
Ethanol (13.3%)
Methanol (5%)
Methanol (10%)
Ethanol (5%)
Ethanol (10%)
Methanol (5%)
Methanol (10%)
Ethanol (5%)
Ethanol (10%)
Methanol (9%)
Methanol (12.5%)

Emulsion (nonionic)

Emulsion
Type

Vegetable oil

Diesel Fuel

Water

Emulsion

CPO (5%)
CPO (5%)
CPO (10%)
CPO (10%)
CCO (85%)
CCO (67%)
CCO (50%)
VCO (86%)
VCO (67%)
VCO (50%)
Honge oil (80%)
Honge oil (70%)
Rapeseed (17.6%)
Rapeseed (14.8%)
Rapeseed (12.8%)
Cotton oil (20%)

90%
85%
90%
80%

70.4%
59.2%
51.2%
70%

5%
10%
5%
10%
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR

Microemulsion

NR

1-Butanol
1-Butanol
1-Butanol
1-Butanol

(20.5%)
(33.4%)
(20%)
(33.4%)

LA (6.54%)

Blend of 75% Span80 and 25% Tween80 (2%)

Blend of 75% Span80 and 25% Tween80 (2.5%)
Emulsier agent

Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol

(9%)
(17%)
(21%)
(9%)
(17%)
(22%)
(15%)
(20%)
(9.8%)
(19%)
(28%)

TA (3.27%)

Span80 (1%)
Span80 (1%)
Span80 (1%)
Span80 (1%)
1-Octanol (6%)
1-Octanol (16%)
1-Octanol (29%)
1-Octanol (5%)
1-Octanol (16%)
1-Octanol (28%)
1-Butanol (5%) 1-butanol (10%)
Oleic acid/1-butanol (2.2%)
Oleic acid/1-butanol (7%)
Oleic acid/1-butanol (8%)
1-Butanol (10%)

Viscosity (mm2/s)

Density (kg/m3)

HHV (kJ/kg)

FP (1C)

Ref.

NR
6.77 [37.8 1C]
4.03 [38 1C]
6.31 [40 1C]
2.16 [100 1C]
6.52 [40 1C]
7.87 [40 1C]
7.54 [40 1C]
7.65 [40 1C]
10.72 [40 1C]
11.31 [40 1C]
12.22 [40 1C]
14.00 [40 1C]
43.11 [25 1C]
45.78 [25 1C]

NR
NR
NR
NR
920.28
913.34
916.60
910.99
924.70
923.56
921.96
917.39
900.00
880.00

36,687.00
37,045.00
41,263.00
36,393.00
37,025.60
30,336.29
40,857.05
40,401.49
40,378.60
40,413.60
42,179.97
40,143.96
38,396.00
37,505.00

NR
27.8
28.3
27
69
60
69
61
42
41
40
43
NR
NR

[110]

Viscosity (mm2/s)

Density (kg/m3)

LHV (kJ/kg)

HHV (kJ/kg)

FP (1C)

3.96 [40 1C]

3.52 [40 1C]
4.48 [40 1C]
4.14 [40 1C]
21.86 [26 1C]
12.81 [26 1C]
9.02 [26 1C]
21.56 [26 1C]
12.82 [26 1C]
8.88 [26 1C]
25.78
10.12
3.50 [40 1C]
3.00 [40 1C]
2.72 [40 1C]
3.615

838
844
842
848
902.10
880.80
864.00
901.90
882.00
863.50
900 [25 1C]
885 [25 1C]
842 [15 1C]
834 [15 1C]
830 [15 1C]
845

43,249
41,850
42,394
41,611
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
34,633
34,049
40,050
38,660
37,250
41,005

NR
NR
NR
NR
37,200
37,000
37,100
36,400
38,400
38,400
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR

NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
42
38
NR
NR
NR
38.5

LA: linoleic acid, TA: triethyl amine, HHV: higher heating value, LHV: Lower heating value, FP: ash point, CCO: crude coconut oil, VCO: virgin coconut oil, CPO: crude palm oil, NR: not reported

[107]
[103]
[119]

[100]
Ref.
[47]

[45]

[48,62]
[62]
[49,50]

[37]

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achieved [5153]. On the other hand, Crookes et al. [53] did not
always obtain an increase in ignition delay with increasing water
amount in the emulsied biofuels. Senthil et al. [12] reported that
the emulsied animal fat based on ethanol had a longer ignition
delay than the methanol based system.
These behaviors might be attributed to the physical properties of
these emulsied biofuels and its inuence on the premixed combustion phase, peak combustion pressure and rate of reaction. Also,
as was previously mentioned, it is important to take into account
the engine operation mode. Crookes et al. [53] reported that the
ignition delay is shorter at higher speed and load conditions.
As a consequence of the lower heating value of emulsied
biofuels, usually it is necessary to increase the emulsied biofuels
injection duration in order to obtain the same engine power
output as for diesel fuel. Indeed, increases of the specic fuel
consumption for emulsied biofuels compared with diesel fuel
operation have been reported [37,41,45,47,4953,110,119,120].
Moreover, as a result of the use of emulsied fuels (emulsied
diesel fuel and emulsied biofuels) a decrease of ame temperature during the combustion process is expected due to the thermal
effect of the water dispersed in the fuel. According to Crookes et al.
[53], the thermal effect of the water is two-fold: the heating-up
and evaporation of the extra liquid, having higher specic-heat
capacity and enthalpy of evaporation than the fuel; the second is
in the increase of the water vapor, having approximately twice the
specic-heat capacity of the other gaseous products of combustion. High ame temperature is one of the precursors of NOx
formation. For this reason, as a consequence of the thermal effect
of the water on the combustion temperature, lower NOx emissions
generally are expected. Nevertheless, formation of fuel NOx is quite
complex because numerous intermediate species exist [31].
Specically on emulsied biofuels, Sangeeta et al. [126] indicated
that addition of water to vegetable oils decreases the concentration
of NOx. In agreement with this, different investigations [12,13,40
53] reported lowest NOx emissions for emulsied biofuels formulated from vegetable oil and animal fats. Crookes et al. [53] reported
lower NOx emissions for emulsied biofuels than for diesel fuel and
neat biofuels. However, higher or equivalent NOx emissions were
noticed by Nguyen et al. [120] and Atmanli et al. [37].
In diesel fuel combustion the main reasons for hydrocarbons
(HC) emission are the trapping of fuel in the crevice volumes of the
combustion chamber, low temperature bulk quenching of the
oxidation reactions, locally over-lean or over-rich mixture, liquid
wall lms for excessive spray impingement and incomplete evaporation of the fuel [31]. For emulsied biofuels, generally due to
lower heating value and cetane number compared with diesel fuel,
increases of HC and CO emissions might be expected.
Different investigations [12,37,4143,47,62] reported decreased
HC and/or CO emissions for emulsied biofuels compared with
diesel fuel and/or neat biofuels. In three experimental conditions
Senthil et al. [43] obtained increases of HC and decreases of CO
emissions. In addition, Senthil et al. [12] measured higher HC
emissions using emulsied animal fat based on ethanol compared
with neat diesel fuel, preheated animal fat and emulsied animal
fat based on methanol. Nevertheless, in concordance with Sangeeta et al. [126] a higher concentration of CO in the exhaust
[13,45,46,48,5053,120] and even higher HC [13,37,46,48,50,62]
call for more researches in this area.
Probably another precursor of the CO and HC emissions
variation might be the biofuels chemical structure obtained from
vegetable oils or animal fats which contains oxygen in its chemical
structure, as well as the contribution of oxygen by the water and
emulsier agent (solvent and surfactant) in the emulsied biofuels. This extra oxygen in the airfuel mixture, depending on the
engine operational conditions, can increase or decrease the combustion efciency. On the other hand, generally for emulsied

biofuels the ignition delay is higher and as a result, the stages of

combustion process, peak pressure in cylinder, heat release and
the fraction of the fuel mixed with air prior to the ignition vary.
The variations of these phenomena have an important effect on CO
and HC formation.

5.2. Engine components wear, lubricity and durability

In diesel engines, most of the components normally involved
with wear processes are the piston, piston ring, cylinder liner,
bearing, crankshaft, cam, tappet and valves [127,128]. The use of
vegetable oils or animal fats as engine fuel generally brings
adverse effects on diesel engine durability due to differences in
physicalchemical properties compared with diesel fuel. Researchers as Kalam, Masjuki [129] and Mojur [127] indicated that these
adverse effects or difculties might be solved by emulsifying these
biofuels in order to decrease the viscosity and improve the
atomization process. Still, the effects of these emulsied biofuels
on engine components wear, lubricity and durability should be
analyzed in two times; prior to combustion and after combustion.
Vegetable oils and animal fats mainly have triglycerides in their
chemical structure. Different researchers [130132] reported that
the triglyceride structure provides desirable qualities for boundary
lubrication due to their long and polar fatty acid chains, which
provide high strength lubricant lms that interact strongly with
metallic surfaces, reducing both friction and wear. The polarity of
fatty acids produces molecular lms, which provides oiliness with
antiwear properties [130]. For this reason, the lifetime of several
engine components in contact with emulsied biofuels might be
extended. In addition, emulsied biofuels act as lubricant between
cylinder liner and piston ring, valve train and gears. However, other
components of the fuel injection system with materials as copper,
iron, elastomers, etc. could be affected (wear and corrosion) due to
incompatibility or changes in emulsied biofuels properties (e.g.
oxidation, pH, breakdown, etc.) and the quality of the components
used in the formulation.
Adverse effects such as lubricating oil dilution and degradation,
moving parts sticking, lter plugging, nozzle coking and formation
of carbon deposits when the emulsied biofuels are used as engine
diesel fuel might be expected as a consequence of the characteristics of the continuous phase (i.e. vegetable oil or animal fat).
These adverse effects, despite of the improvement on spray
features (associated with the microexplosion phenomenon), are
attributed to the emulsied biofuels properties and their inuence
on ignition delay, premixed phase and diffusion phase of combustion. One of these adverse effects can be mitigated using alcohols
in the emulsied biofuels formulation. Senthil et al. [133] pointed
out that the alcohols have high latent heat of vaporization and
tend to cool the combustion chamber, which would reduce nozzle
coking. Bagby [134,135] using a cetane improver in the emulsied
biofuels formulation noticed accumulation of carbon around the
holes of the injector nozzles and heavy deposits on exhaust valves.
A summary of the results obtained about engine components
wear, lubricity and durability tests for different emulsied biofuels
is shown in Table 3.
Some of the emulsied biofuels formulated in the 1980s were
tested by the Engine Manufacturers Association (EMA) [136], in
order to analyse the engine component wear during 200 h. This test
suggested by the EMA, according to Goering and Fry [107] consisted
of disassembly before and after the engine runs to determine the
difference in wear and carbon deposits. Scanning electron microscopy photographs also have been used by Crookes et al. [53] in
order to analyze the impact of emulsied biofuels on engine
components, particularly the build-up of deposits at injector tip
and nozzle holes.

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631

Table 3
Engine components wear, lubricity and durability tests.
Type

Engine

Test

Microemulsion Diesel: soybean oil

l:ethanol:1-butanol (50:25:5:20)

Deere, model: 4219 D

Direct injection

EMA

Microemulsion Sunower oil l:

ethanol:1-butanol (53:13.3:33.4)

Allis-Chalmers model:
4331 4-cilinder Direct
injection

Emulsion Blend of rapeseedsoybean oil: ethanol (90:10)

Emulsion Diesel fuel:CPO:water
(90:5:5) With 1% by volume of
Span 80

Gardner model: IL2

1-cilinder Direct injection
1-Cilinder pre-combustion
chamber

Test result

Ref.

Passed the 200 h EMA test, but produced greater deposits of carbon and lacquer on the
injector tips, intake valves and tops of the cylinder liners
At 125 h the fuel lter needed changing
EMA
Sticking of the injectors. Excessive deposits on the internal parts of the fuel injection
pump
Heavier carbon residue on the piston lands, in the piston ring grooves and in the
intake ports
Lubricating oil consumption not consistent
Signicant fuel dilution of the lubricating oil
Increase in lubricating oil viscosity
SEMPh Deposit build-up at injector tip after 1 h of engine operation was lower for emulsied
biofuel than neat biofuel
200 h After 200 h of the engine operation, the wear and the physical corrosion in the engine
piston, piston of fuel pump and needle injection of fuel pump using emulsied biofuel
were not much different compared with diesel fuel

[107]

[103]

[53]
[47]

SEMPh: scanning electron microscopy photographs, CPO: crude palm oil.

From the above, it can be concluded that the effects of

emulsied biofuels on engine durability are largely unknown
and scarcely investigated. For this reason, before their recommendation for general use, these effects should be determined.

6. Summary and conclusions

From the overview of emulsied biofuels presented in this paper,
it is possible to establish that the emulsication techniques applied
to vegetable oils and animal fats have not been studied thoroughly.
Most of the investigations on this topic dealt with the formulation
and characterization of emulsied biofuels. These topics are very
important in order to obtain this alternative fuel and minimize the
negative effects on engine performance, exhaust emissions and
durability (more clear in long-term engine operation).
In spite of different feedstocks available in order to formulate
emulsied biofuels from vegetable oils or animal fats, the use of
soybean oil, rapeseed oil, canola oil, ethanol, methanol and 1butanol have been the components mostly used and reported. The
use of alcohols as co-surfactants brings an effective component to
decrease the viscosity of neat biofuels and increase the water
amount inside the system. The stability of emulsied biofuels is
affected with the increase of the alcohol amount in the dispersed
system. Compared with neat diesel fuel a lower ash point, re
point and heating value were obtained for emulsied biofuels.
These results are a consequence of the properties of the neat
biofuels and emulsier agents used in the formulation.
According to the engine performance and exhaust emissions, it
is clear that the emulsied biofuels are suitable as diesel engine
fuel due to the improvements of the atomization process. However, increases of the specic fuel consumption, ignition delay, HC
and CO emissions were also reported. On the other hand, in some
experimental conditions, decreases of HC and/or CO emissions for
emulsied biofuels compared with diesel fuel and/or neat biofuels
also were reported. Clearly, the engine performance and exhaust
emissions behavior depend on the physicalchemical properties of
the emulsied biofuels, engine type and operation conditions but
the exact dependencies need to be further claried.
Few investigations have been carried out about the effect of
emulsied biofuels on lubricating oil dilution and degradation,
engine components wear and corrosion, in spite of its importance.
The effects of the water dispersed into emulsied biofuels on the
engine components are still not claried. Emulsied biofuels
produced more deposits of carbon and lacquer on the engine
components (e.g. injector tips, intake valves and tops of the

cylinder liners) than diesel fuel. Compared with neat biofuels, a

lower deposit build-up at the injector tip was reported. In addition, emulsied biofuels provide inconsistent lube oil consumption
and increases in the viscosity. Taking into account these facts and
their negative inuence on diesel engine components, it is very
important to develop investigations in order to improve some
engine components (e.g. with more resistant materials) and fuelsystem design.

Acknowledgement
The authors wish to express their thanks to the Flemish
Interuniversity Councils (VLIR) University Development Cooperation, funding an Own Initiatives Program entitled Knowledge cell
on biofuels (from non-edible crops and waste products) for use in
internal combustion engines and a South Initiatives Program
entitled Emulsied systems for biofuels. Assessment of their
performance in diesel engines, with whose support much of this
research was performed.
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