ME305 Mechanical Measurements

1. Introduction

Why Measurement?
Measurement is part of our daily life, Measurement => Quantifying
We make decisions based on that

What to eat? How u h? Nutritio , Taste, Appetite,

Where to go for studies? Why NITW? Ra ki g, Quality, A reditatio
Whi h dress to uy? Wear? Cost, o fort,
When to go for class? (Time)

We do it so often that it becomes second nature

Everything that we purchase, create, design, and build uses
measurement.
Measurement is foundational to Science and Engineering

Why Measurement?
In the current context measurement is crucial for experiments and
control.

Measurement Terminologies
Readability closeness with which the scale of an instrument may be
read
Least Count smallest possible reading on the output scale
Sensitivity ratio of change in output to the change in input signal
(measured variable)
Hysteresis difference in output signal for a given input signal
depending on whether the input signal is approached in increasing
levels or decreasing levels.

Measurement Terminologies
Accuracy the degree of closeness of the output to the known input.
It is usually indicated as percentage of full scale reading. The
deviation is called as Error.
Precision ability to reproduce a certain output with a given
accuracy.
Calibration comparison of the output signal of a given instrument
with a standard or instrument of known accuracy or with known input
source, to improve its accuracy. Accuracy cannot be improved beyond
the precision of an instrument.

Standards
Standards are the fundamental reference for a measurement system
against which all other measuring devices are compared.

The role of standards is to achieve uniform, consistent and repeatable

measurements throughout the world. It facilitates interchangeability
of parts and identifies the method of manufacture.
Standards can be primary, secondary or working standards.
Eg. Primary Standard for one meter is the distance light travels in a
vacuum during 1/299,792,458 of a second

Generalized Measurement System

May be divide into three stages

1. Detector or Transducer stage (Input stage) detects and transforms

the signal to more usable form.
2. Intermediate stage enhances the signal by amplification, filtering,
atte uatio et
3. Final or Output stage indicates, records or control the variable
being measured.

Generalized Measurement System

Controller

Physical Variable
Measured

Generalized Measurement System

Eg. Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
(Transducer stage)
(Output stage)

(Intermediate stage)

Dynamic Measurement
Static measurement is done when the input (physical quantity
measured) is not changing with time
For transient inputs the measurement becomes more complex
We need to familiarize with characteristics and parameters applicable
to a dynamic measurement system

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems

Consider a general measurement system measuring a physical variable

x(t). The most general form of differential equation to represent such a
system would be,
=

+ +

The dynamic response of a measuring instrument is the change in the

output y caused by a change in the input x. Both x and y are functions
of time t.

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems
A zeroth order instrument/system has an output which is proportional
to the input at all times in accordance with the equation,
=

where a0 is a constant called the static gain of the instrument. The

static gain is a measure of the sensitivity of the instrument.
An example of a zero order instrument is a wire strain gauge in which
the change in the electrical resistance of the wire is proportional to the
strain in the wire. All instruments behave as zeroth order instruments
when they give a static output in response to a static input.

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems
A first order instrument/system has an output which is given by a first
order linear differential equation,
=

or

+
+

where (a1/a0) is a constant, called the time constant of the instrument.

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems
In first order instruments there is a time delay in their response to
changes of input. The time constant is a measure of the time delay.
Thermometers for measuring temperature are first-order instruments.
The time constant of a measurement of temperature is determined by
the thermal capacity of the thermometer and the thermal contact
between the thermometer and the body whose temperature is being
measured.

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems
A second order instrument/system has an output which is given by a
second order linear differential equation,
=

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems
To further proceed with understanding the second order system,
consider the following spring mass damper system. k is spring constant
and c is damping coefficient
=

This involves the transformation of a force input function into a

displacement function.

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems
Force x t =
is impressed on the spring mass damper system
and we wish to determine the displacement of the mass y(t) as a
function of time. The differential equation of this system would be,
=

+ =

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems

Lets define =

+ =
=

as the natural frequency and

critical damping coefficient

as the

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems

With the definition of and

+ =

the above equation can be written as,

+

is called as the damping factor or damping ratio.

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems

Under a static input a second order linear instrument tends to

oscillate about its position of equilibrium. The natural frequency of
the instrument is the frequency of these oscillations.
Friction in the instrument opposes these oscillations with a strength
proportional to the rate of change of the output. The damping factor
is a measure of this opposition to the oscillations.

Dynamic Measurement
Zeroth, First and Second order systems
An example of a second order instrument is a galvanometer which
measures an electrical current by the torque on a coil carrying the
current in a magnetic field. The rotation of the coil is opposed by a
spring. The strength of the spring and the moment of inertia of the
coil determine the natural frequency of the instrument. The damping
of the oscillations is by mechanical friction and electrical eddy
currents.
Another example of a second order instrument is a U-tube
manometer for measuring pressure differences. The liquid in the Utube tends to oscillate from side to side in the tube with a frequency
determined by the weight of the liquid. The damping factor is
determined by viscosity in the liquid and friction between the liquid
and the sides of the tube.

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
Suppose that x(t) = 0 for t < 0, and x(t) = 1 for t > 0. This is called the
unit step function

Suppose also that y(t) = 0 for t < 0. We want to find y(t) for t > 0

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
Zeroth Order Instrument
Since in a zeroth order instrument y(t) = K.x(t), we have y(t) = 0 for
t < 0, and y = K for t > 0. Therefore the response to the unit step
function is a step function with height K.

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument
The response of a first order instrument to the unit step function for t >
0 is the solution of

Consider that x(t) = 0 at t = 0 and x(t) = A when t > 0, with the initial
condition y = y0 at t = 0. The solution for the above equation with the
given condition is

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument

=
+

The response is represented as in the below curve

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument

Here = (a1/a0)

=
+

The first term on the right or the value of the output that will be
obtained for large values of time is called the,
Steady state response of the system
The second term involving the exponential decay term represents the,
Transient response of the system

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument

=
+

If we designate the steady state value of the output as y

the above equation can be written in a dimensionless form as,

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument

When t = , the output will have responded

to 63.2% of the step input

So the time constant is called as the time to achieve this value.

The rise time is the time required to achieve a response of 90% of the
step input. This requires,

= .
which gives t = 2.303
A response is assumed to be complete after t = 5

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument
If is small the response of the instrument is fast. If is large the
response of the instrument is slow.
System which exhibit first order behavior usually involve storage and
dissipation capabilities such as an electric capacitor discharging
through a resistor (Simple RC circuit).
When a circuit consists of only a charged capacitor and a resistor, the
capacitor will discharge its stored energy through the resistor.

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument
The voltage across the capacitor, which is time dependent, can be
found by using Kirchhoff's current law, where the current charging the
capacitor must equal the current through the resistor. This results in
the linear differential equation,

+ =

Solving this equation for E yields the formula for exponential decay,

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument
In this system
= RC

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument
Problem 1: A certain thermometer has a time constant of 15 s and
initial temperature of 20oC. It is suddenly exposed to a temperature of
100oC. Determine the rise time and the temperature at this time.
(Soln: 34.54 s, 92oC)
Problem 2: A 10 F capacitor is charged to a potential of 100 V. At time
zero it is discharged through a 1 M resistor. What is the time constant
for this system?
Problem 3: Consider an ordinary mercury-in-glass thermometer and
indicate which parts corresponds to which stage of a measurement
system.

Response to change of input

Unit Step Function
First Order Instrument
Problem 4: An RC circuit is to have a rise time of one microsecond.
Select appropriate values of R and C to accomplish this objective.
Problem 5: A thermometer is used for the range of 200 to 400oFand it
is stated that its accuracy is one-quarter of one percent. What does this
mean in terms of temperature?

ME305 Mechanical Measurements

2. Analysis of Experimental Data

Error
Deviation from the true value

Types:
Systematic errors: Errors that are not determined by chance but are
introduced by an inaccuracy inherent in the system. They are also
called as fixed or bias error.
Random errors: Random errors are errors in measurement that lead to
measurable values being inconsistent when repeated measures of a
constant attribute or quantity are taken.

Error
Systematic error, is predictable and typically constant or proportional
to the true value. If the cause of the systematic error can be identified,
then it usually can be eliminated.
Systematic errors are caused by imperfect calibration of measurement
instruments or imperfect methods of observation, or interference of
the environment with the measurement process, and always affect the
results of an experiment in a predictable direction. Incorrect zeroing of
an instrument leading to a zero error is an example of systematic error
in instrumentation.

Error
Random error is always present in a measurement. It is caused by
inherently unpredictable fluctuations in the readings of a measurement
apparatus or in the experimenter's interpretation of the instrumental
reading. Random errors show up as different results for ostensibly the
same repeated measurement.
They can be estimated by comparing multiple measurements, and
reduced by averaging multiple measurements. Systematic error cannot
be discovered this way because it always pushes the results in the same
direction. If the cause of a systematic error can be identified, then it
can usually be eliminated.

Error
Example for simple error calculation

Power P=EI
E = 100 2 V
I = 10 0.2 A
Pmax = (100+2)(10+0.2) = 1040.4 W
Pmin = (100-2)(10-0.2) = 960.4 W
Thus the error is between +4.04% and -3.96%

Uncertainty
Uncertainty of measurement is the doubt that exists about the result of
any measurement.
Error is the differe e et ee the easured alue a d the true
alue of the thi g ei g easured.
Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement
result.
Whenever possible we try to correct for any known errors: for example,
by applying corrections from calibration certificates. But any error
whose value we do not know is a source of uncertainty.

Uncertainty
Uncertainty is expressed in general with two parameters. One is the
width of the margin, or interval. The other is a confidence level, and
states ho sure e are that the true alue is ithi that argi .
For example:
We might say that the length of a certain stick measures 20 centimetres
plus or minus 1 centimetre, at the 95 percent confidence level. This
result could be written:
20 cm 1 cm, at a level of confidence of 95%.
The statement says that we are 95 percent sure that the stick is
between 19 centimetres and 21 centimetres long.

Uncertainty Analysis
Consider a calculated result R which is a function of independent
variables xi as follows,
R = R(x1,x2,x3,,xn)
Let wR be the uncertainty in the result and w1,w2,w3,,wn be the
uncertainties in the independent variables. Then wR is given by,

Uncertainty Analysis
Problem: The resistance of a certain copper wire is given as

R = R0[1+(T-20)]
where R0 = 6 0.3% at 20oC, = 0.004oC-1 1% and the temperature
of the wire is T = 30 1oC. Calculate the resistance of the wire and its
uncertainty.
Soln: R = 6.24 ohms and WR = 0.0305 ohms or 0.49%

Uncertainty Analysis
Problem: A resistor has a nominal stated value of 10 0.1 . A voltage difference
occurs across the resister and the power dissipation is to be calculated in two
different ways:

a. from P=E2/R
b. from P=EI
In (a) only a voltage measurement will be made while both current and voltage will
be measured in (b). Comment on the choice of the method of measurement when
the measured values of E and I are:
E = 100 1 V (for both cases)
I = 10 0.1 A
Soln: wp = 2.24% for (a) wp = 1.41% for (b)

Uncertainty Analysis
Problem: Two ME305 students wish to measure the height of the Mechanical
Engineering building. The first student suggests dropping a ball bearing from the
top of the building and measuring the time it takes for the ball to hit the ground
using a digital stopwatch. (Air drag may be neglected) The second student
recommends using a tape measure to measure a horizontal distance from the
building, a protractor to measure the angle to the top of the building, and then
using trigonometry to determine the height. The time for the ball to fall to the
ground is measured at 2.2 s while the angle to the roofline measured from a
distance of 20.0 m is 44.4 deg. The uncertainty in the ball-dropping method is 0.2
sec and the uncertainty in the length and angle measurements, respectively, are
0.5 m and 1 deg.
a. What is the height of the ME building?
b. Which measurement method is most accurate/preferred?
Soln: H = 23.7 4.3 m using the ball dropping method.
H = 19.6 0.8 m using the angle method.

The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

For any large number of measurement made to determine a particular value, the
random errors are expected to have a normal distribution, given that the
experimental system is controlled well.

The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

The probability density P(x), for such distribution is given by,

The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

The confidence interval expresses the probability that the mean value will lie within
a certain number of values and is given by the symbol z.
=

The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

The confidence interval expresses the probability that the mean value will lie within
a certain number of values and is given by the symbol z.
=

From the probability density we can get the probability for a measurement to lie
within certain range of x1 as,
=

If we calculate the probabilities, using the above equation for a measurement to lie
within one, two or three standard deviations of the mean value then we get the
following values, P(1) = 0.6827, P(2) = 0.9545, P(3) = 0.9973.
These values give the confidence level for the respective measurements.

The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

The level of significance is 1 minus the confidence level. For small number
of measurements (from a large set of data) z value should be replaced

with = where n is the number of measurements taken.

The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

Problem: A certain steel bar is measured with a device which has a known
deviation of 0.5mm when a large number of measurement is taken. How many
measurements are necessary to establish the mean length with a 5% level of
significance such that xm= xm0.2mm.

(Soln: 25)
Problem: Resistance of a certain copper wire is measured repeatedly to obtain the
following data.
R (k): 1.22, 1.23, 1.26, 1.21, 1.22, 1.22, 1.22, 1.24, 1.19
What is the best estimate for the resistance and what is the error with 95%
confidence?
(Soln: 1.22k, 0.04k)

Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a statistical process for estimating the relationships among
variables. It includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables,
when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or
more independent variables
Linear regression
Given a data set (x1,y1), (x2,y2 , xn,yn) of n statistical units, a linear regression
model assumes that the relationship between the dependent variable yi and the
independent variable xi is linear.
Then the equation representing such a relationship becomes, y= ax + b where b is
generally called as the error term. To find the values of a and b for getting the best
fit data we have to minimize the variance of the data.
=

The minimization requires that

and

Regression Analysis
That gives,

and

Solving the above two equations we get,

and

=
=

=
=

Regression Analysis
The goodness of the fit is given by a term called as the correlation coefficient
defined by,
=

where y is the standard deviation in y and S is as defined previously.

Problem: The following data is expected to follow a linear relationship. Determine

the fit parameters and the correlation coefficient.
x
y

0.9
1.1

Soln: a= 0.67, b=0.29

2.3
1.6

3.3
2.6

4.5
3.2

5.7
4

6.7
5

Regression Analysis
Problem: Obtain y as a linear function of x from the following data and find the
correlation coefficient.
x
y

1.0
1.2

1.6
2.0

3.4
2.4

4.0
3.5

5.2
3.5

Soln: a=0.54, b=0.879, r=0.92

Problem: Obtain the equations to find the fit parameters for y as a quadratic
function of x.