Tire Basis

Tire Basics
by
Neil Mullineux
World Tire Industry
Tire Basics
Tire Basics
Contents
The Role of the Tire

Parts of a Tire
How a Tire is Made
What the codes mean
Radial v Bias tires
Glossary of Terms
References
Contents Glossary A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
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The Role of the Tire

At its simplest, a tire forms the juncture between the vehicle and the road. In that sense it
is no more than a component, but usually one component carries out one function. A tire
however carries out several different functions:
It supports the weight of the car
It softens the impact from the road
It transmits vehicle propulsion and braking
It maintains or changes vehicle direction
In order to carry out these different, and sometimes contradictory, functions it has to be
constructed as a resilient vessel of air.
A tube form is used to carry out its primary function - holding air under pressure. However,
a tube on its own cannot maintain the level of pressure needed to carry out its functions,
particularly supporting the weight of the vehicle. In addition a tube does not have the
strength to withstand the exterior impact damage from constant motion so a carcass
surrounds the tube to protect it and to support it. In turn this is protected by a thick tread
layer where the carcass meets the road.
Originally the tube of air was literally just that - a rubber tube filled with air under pressure.
This was fitted inside a carcass made of various rubbers and reinforcing materials and this
in turn was protected on its perimeter with an additional layer of rubber compounds - the
tread. Even now many tires still have these inner tubes which are completely separate
from the tire carcass but most tires now have an inner coating of impermeable rubber
which contains the pressurised air and serves as the inner tube.
Taken together, these requirements result in six characteristics for every tire:
Steering - Predictable, precise and sensitive.
Load carrying - Normal loads plus the load transfers of acceleration and braking.
Shock absorbing - For safety and comfort.
Rolling efficiency - Minimal resistance consistent with adequate grip.
Mechanical grip - To transmit the power of the engine and brakes to the road.
Wear - To give a dependable level of performance throughout its life.
All of these features are important but in some circumstances certain features may be
emphasised at the expense of others. All tire design requires compromise and the best
compromise has to be found for the particular purpose for which the tire will be used.
There are three main areas in which adjustments can be made to change performance
characteristics; the basic architecture and design of the tire, the components within the tire
such as rubber mixes and the pressure at which the tire should be used. Science is vital in
making these specifications but the final judgement as to their suitability is a human
decision. Tire design is an art as well as a science.
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Parts of a Tire
Inner Liner
A liner made of halobutyl rubber designed to give minimal air permeability. This keeps the
air pressure inside the tire and prevents it from migrating through the carcass.
Body Plies
A ply is a calendered sheet consisting of a reinforcing fabric sandwiched between two
layers of rubber. The fabric is usually polyester but cotton, rayon, nylon, and Kevlar are
also used either for economic reasons or to give additional properties to the tire. All the
plies are flexible but relatively inelastic.
The plies give the tire structural integrity as they are turned around the bead wires and are
bonded securely into the structure when the built tire is vulcanised. A passenger car tire
will typically have one or two plies, whilst truck tires, off-road tires and aircraft tires have
progressively more. Overall, they give the tire strength and flexibility.
Sidewall
These are extruded profiles made of a compound to give the tire good environmental
resistance, particularly against abrasion. They protect the bead and the carcass of the tire
from ageing. Just as important they provide a thick rubber area to allow moulding of
brands and obligatory information.
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Beads
Bands of high-tensile steel wire encased in a rubber compound. The wires are usually
coated with bronze or brass alloys to aid adhesion to the rubber and to protect the steel
from corrosion. The bead is both inflexible and inelastic in order to provide the strength to
keep the tire on the wheel and to prevent it slipping as the wheel rotates. It also provides
an airtight fit with the wheel.
Filler
A triangular extrusion, also known as the apex, which provides a cushion between the rigid
bead and the flexible inner liner and body ply assembly.
Belt
Belts are calendered sheets sandwiching a layer of closely-spaced steel cords between
two layers of rubber. Belts give the tire strength and structural integrity whilst still retaining
flexibility. They are dimensionally stable and counter longitudinal stress whilst countering
cornering forces. Passenger car tires normally have two or three belts. These stabilise and
strengthen the tread.
Tread
This is a thick profile surrounding the tire carcass. It provides traction and cornering grip.
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How a Tire is Made

The production process begins with the selection of several types of rubber along with
special oils, carbon black, pigments, antioxidants, silica, and other additives that will
combine to provide the exact characteristics wanted. Separate compounds are used for
different parts of the tire.
Source: Maxxis International

Mixing
A machine called a banbury mixer combines the various raw materials for each compound
into a homogenized batch of black material with the consistency of gum. The mixing
process is computer-controlled to assure uniformity. The compounded materials are then
sent to machines for further processing into the sidewalls, treads or other parts of the tire.
Assembly
Then the task of assembling the tire begins. The first component to go on the tire building
machine is the innerliner, a special rubber that is resistant to air and moisture penetration
and takes the place of an inner tube. Next come the body plies and belts, which are often
made from polyester and steel. Plies and belts give the tire strength while also providing
flexibility. The belts are cut to the precise angle and size the tire engineer specifies to
provide the desired ride and handling characteristics. Bronze-coated strands of steel wire,
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fashioned into two hoops, are implanted into the sidewall of the tires to form the bead,
which assures an airtight fit with the rim of the wheel. The tread and sidewalls are put into
position over the belt and body plies, and then all the parts are pressed firmly together.
The end result is called a "green" or uncured tire.
Curing
The last step is to cure the tire. The "green" tire is placed inside a mold and inflated to
press it against the mold, forming the tread and the tire identification information on the
sidewall. Then it is heated at more than 300 degrees Fahrenheit for twelve to fifteen
minutes, vulcanizing it to bond the components and to cure the rubber. This twelve to
fifteen minute curing process is for passenger and light truck tires only, off-road and large
tires may take up at a day to cure because of their size.
Inspection
Every tire is then inspected, and sample tires are randomly taken from the line and tested.
Some are x-rayed, some are cut apart to look for flaws, others are run on test wheels, or
road-tested to evaluate handling, mileage and traction performance.
To amplify this written description, an excellent 5-minute video, made by Michelin, is
available on YouTube.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=If5t783NZFY (American commentary)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F1sv_6FjqHE (English commentary)
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What the codes mean

At present most countries have specific legislation requiring certain information to be
displayed on tires sold in that country and for those tires to reach certain standards.
Unfortunately not all countries require the same information and, even when they do,
different tests and testing methods apply. With increasing globalization this would seem to
be a recipe for anarchy but the governments have recognised this and are working
together to achieve more commonality, if not a universal standard. The illustration shows
just how much information can be molded on a tire.
The two bodies most involved in this are the American Department of Transport (DOT) and
the UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). There is already a lot of common
ground between them as can be seen with the comparison of DOT and UNECE
regulations on the next page.
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The sidewall of a tire provides a large blank space and the manufacturers take full
advantage of this by advertising their brand, usually in large letters.
This still leaves plenty of space and and lot of small print is molded onto a sidewall to give
information about the tire. Some of this is provided voluntarily by the manufacturers, some
is mandated by government agencies.
Mandatory Information Requirements
Graphic 2 - US v EU Requirements
DOT Standard 139
UNECE Reg 30
DOT Symbol
E Mark
Tire size designation
Tire size designation
Max inflation pressure
Service description (Speed and load)
Max load rating
Date code
Construction info and number of plies
Reinforced or extra load (if applicable)
Tube type
Tubeless
Radial (if appropriate)
Run flat symbol (if applicable)
TIN
M+S (if applicable)
Manufacturer name
Trade name
Tread wear indicator position
Tread wear indicator position

Tire-to-rim fitment (if applicable)
Identification codes - Size Designation
P185/60/R14
The most frequently referred to gives details of the tire size and type. There are four forms
of this identification used worldwide, the European and the North American systems being
the most widely recognised. The European Tyre and Rim Organisation (ETRTO) and the
US Tire and Rim Association (T&RA) are the bodies concerned with standardising these
codes.
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Tire Type - The P designates that the tire is a passenger vehicle tire. Some other
designations are LT for light truck, and T for temporary, or spare tires. This prefix is only
used on North American tires.
Tire Width - The 235 is the width of the tire in millimeters (mm), measured from sidewall to
sidewall. Since this measure is affected by the width of the rim, the measurement is for the
tire when it is on its intended rim size.
Aspect Ratio - This number tells you the height of the tire, from the bead to the top of the
tread. This is described as a percentage of the tire width. In the example, the aspect ratio
is 75, so the tire's height is 75 percent of its width.. The smaller the aspect ratio, the wider
the tire in relation to its height.
High performance tires usually have a lower aspect ratio than other tires. This is because
tires with a lower aspect ratio provide better lateral stability. When a car goes around a
corner lateral forces are generated and the tire must resist these forces. Tires with a lower
profile have shorter, stiffer sidewalls so they resist cornering forces better.
Tire Construction - The R designates that the tire was made using radial construction.
This is the most common type of tire construction. Older tires were made using diagonal
bias (D) or bias belted (B) construction. A separate note indicates how many plies make up
the sidewall of the tire and the tread.
Rim Diameter - This number specifies, in inches, the wheel rim diameter the tire is
designed for.
In North America the Department of Transport (DOT) requires additional information.
Uniform Tire Quality Grading
Tread wear 480 Traction AA Temperature A
Passenger car tires in North America have a grade on them as part of the uniform tire
quality grading (UTQG) system.
The tire's UTQG rating tells you three things:
Tread Wear - This number comes from testing the tire in controlled conditions on a
government test track. The higher the number, the longer the tread should last. The
number is not an accurate indicator of how long the tread will actually last but it is a good
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relative measure. A tire with a larger number should last longer than one with a smaller
number.

100 +
100
100 -
Better
Baseline
Poorer
Traction - Tire traction is rated AA, A, B or C, with AA at the top of the scale.

AA
A
B
C
Best
Good
Intermediate
Acceptable
This rating is based on the tire's ability to stop a car on wet concrete and asphalt. It does
not indicate the tire's cornering ability.
Temperature - The tire temperature ratings are A, B or C.

A
B
C
Best
Intermediate
Acceptable
The rating is a measure of how well the tire dissipates heat and how well it handles the
buildup of heat. The temperature grade applies to a properly inflated tire that is not
overloaded. Underinflation, overloading or excessive speed can lead to more heat buildup.
Excessive heat buildup can cause tires to wear out faster.
Service Description
105S
The service description consists of two parts:

Load Ratings - The load rating is a number that correlates to the maximum rated load for
that tire. A higher number indicates that the tire has a higher load capacity. The rating
"105," for example, corresponds to a load capacity of 925 kgs (2039 pounds).
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Load Index
Tire Basics
kgs
Load Index
kgs
65
290
90
600
70
335
95
690
75
387
100
800
80
450
105
925
85
515
110
1060
Graphic 7 - Load Index example

A complete listing can be found on the Discount Tire website
Speed Rating - The letter that follows the load rating indicates the maximum speed
allowable for this tire (as long as the weight is at or below the rated load). For instance, S
indicates that the tire can handle speeds up to 112 mph (180 kph). The table shows the
most common speed ratings in use today with ordinary passenger cars.
Speed Category
km/h
mph
140
87
150
93
160
99
170
106
Mass market
180
112
Mass Market
190
118
Performance
210
130
High Performance
240
149
ZR/High Performance
270
168
ZR/High Performance
300
186
The lettering system demonstrates the problems involved in trying to future-proof any
system. Initially speed rating categories were at 10 km/h intervals but the achievable
speed of mass market cars was consistently rising. A category H (high speed) was
created to be the ultimate tire but it was soon realized that it was quite possible for the
speed of 210 km/h to be exceeded.
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As a result a catch-all category was introduced; ZR for all speeds over 240 km/h.
However, this was found to be too imprecise so two sub-categories have been introduced
for Z rated tires, W and Y. It would be foolhardy to predict that no more categories will
ever be needed but the pace of change is slowing, not because of technology but because
of human frailty. Many production cars are quite capable of reaching and exceeding these
speeds but the traffic laws in most countries keep speeds well below those attainable in
theory. As the density of traffic increases in all countries it is unlikely that these speed
restrictions will ever be eased.
In addition there are two self-explanatory details giving information about safe working use
and how the tire is constructed.
Load and inflation pressure
Example : Max Load 920 kg (2024 lbs) at 240 kPa (35 PSI) Max Pressure
Construction
Example : Tread 2 Ply Polyester + 2 Ply Steel / Sidewall 2 Ply Polyester
Mud and Snow
To meet the standard set by the Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA) tires must be
effective in mud and snow conditions. This means that they must have wide and deep
grooves channelling liquid from the center to the edge and providing effective surfaces to
bite through soft snow. At least 25% of the tread surface must be grooved.
Mud and Snow Symbol
DOT Code
Finally, every tire made or sold in the USA must display a code showing its factory of
origin. Effectively this means that all tire producing factories worldwide apply for
registration and are given a unique DOT code.
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The DOT Code begins with the letters "DOT" (Department of Transport) followed by a
plant code (two numbers or letters) that identifies where it was manufactured. The last four
numbers represent the week and year the tire was built. (A three-digit code was used for
tires manufactured before the year 2000.)
For example: 3208 would mean that the tire was manufactured in the 32nd week of 2008.
Other numbers show production and marketing codes used at the manufacturer's
discretion. For example, manufacturers usually embed a mold serial number into the
sidewall area of the mold, so that the tire, once molded, can be traced back to the mold of
original manufacture.
E-mark
All tires sold for road use in Europe since July 1997 must carry an E-mark. The mark itself
is either an upper case "E" or lower case "e" - followed by a number in a circle or
rectangle, followed by a further number.
An (upper case) "E" indicates that the tire is certified to comply with the dimensional,
performance and marking requirements of ECE regulation 30. A (lower case) "e" indicates
that the tire is certified to comply with the dimensional, performance and marking
requirements of Directive 92/33/EEC.
The number in the circle or rectangle denotes the country code of the government that
granted the type approval. The last number outside the circle or rectangle is the number of
the type approval certificate issued for that particular tire size and type.
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Radial v Bias tires

Until Michelin introduced the radial tire in 1946 all tires were made using the reinforcement
plies laid at an angle to each other, usually about 60 degrees + and - to the direction of
travel. This design helped to stiffen the sidewall and support the vehicle. This design is
usually referred to as bias ply or cross ply.
Radial construction has the plies running straight across the tire from bead to bead. In
addition the tread is reinforced with belts of tire cord or steel. As a result the radial tire
became two systems, the tread region and the sidewall. This gave design engineers far
more flexibility as each system can be optimized for best performance.
There is also a rather unhappy compromise between bias ply and radial ply tires; the bias
belted tire. This is of normal bias construction but with the addition of steel belts under the
tread. From the manufacturing point of view the advantage was that it could be made on
existing machines without having to invest in completely new equipment.
The sidewall in a radial tire is much less rigid than in a bias ply tire so it can act like a
spring, giving both flexibility and ride comfort. The rigid belts (usually steel) which reinforce
the tread keep a larger area of tread in contact with the road, most importantly across the
whole width of the tread. This gives much better control of the vehicle and has the added
bonus of greater durability. Against this, bias ply tires are less expensive, simpler to
manufacture and much more tolerant of overloading.
In summary, radial tires can be used safely at much higher speeds than bias ply tires and
they run cooler. This leads to greater durability and less rolling resistance.
The vehicle manufacturers in Europe were not slow to recognize this superiority and the
design was first used as original equipment in 1951. By 1955 the majority of European car
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American manufacturers were much slower to accept the technology and did not move
over to radials until well into the 1960s. Both the car companies and the tire companies
were against the change. The car manufacturers did not want to make the necessary
changes to suspension systems to provide a feature that they did not think the American
driver would want or even notice. The tire manufacturers agreed with this thinking, partly
because they did nor want to incur the expense of changing not just their manufacturing
systems but also every tire mold they possessed.
However, imported cars were using radials and they needed replacing so Michelin agreed
a supply contract with Sears Roebuck. At that time imports were not nearly as significant
as they are now but even so, Goodyear did not like losing markets so it introduced the
bias-belted tire. This was successful for a time but eventually it was seen for what it was an awkward compromise - and both the car manufacturers and the tire companies
eventually came round to making the necessary investment. However, this delay fatally
weakened the American companies as can be seen from subsequent developments.
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Glossary of Terms
A
All-season Tires
All-season tires come in various configurations and are designed to work in all conditions
such as rain, snow, sleet, and dry. The tread is characterised by at least 25% sharp-edged
grooves to cut into soft snow and to expel liquid quickly.
Alpha-Numeric sizes
An obsolete sizing system for tires.
Aramid
A synthetic fibre used in the construction of some high performance tires. Weight for
weight it is stronger than steel.
Aspect ratio
The height of the tire, from the bead to the top of the tread, is expressed as a percentage
of the width of the tire. Most tires have an aspect ratio of 60 - 70 (60% - 70%) but lowaspect tires could be as low as 15 (%).
B
Bead
The bead is that part of the tire which seats around the wheel, a loop of high-strength steel
wire. The bead seats tightly against the two rims on the wheel to hold the tire in place and
to ensure that a tubeless tire holds air without leakage. It must be tight enough to ensure
the tire does not slip as the wheel rotates.
Belts
Usually made from steel, these are plies which reinforce the area under the tread and
determine the circumference of the tire. They provide puncture resistance and help the
tread to stay flat so that it makes the best contact with the road.
Bias ply
Tires with the reinforcement plies laid at an angle of about + and - 60 degrees to the
direction of travel. This was standard method of constructing tires until the 1960s (later in
USA) but now almost all passenger car tires are radial construction and a majority of truck
tires.
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C
Calender
A machine which forces the material between two rollers under heat and pressure in order
to bond the constituent parts together.
Carbon black
Very fine, specially structured particles of carbon used in rubber compounds as a
reinforcing filler.
Carcass
The network of cords and plies that give a tire its mechanical strength.
Contact patch
The portion of the tire that is in actual contact with the road surface at any one time as the
wheel revolves. The term footprint is used almost synonymously. In simple terms the
contact patch is about the size of the palm of the hand.
The size and shape of the contact patch as well as the pressure distribution within the
contact patch are important to the ride qualities and handling characteristics of a vehicle.
Because pneumatic tires are flexible, the contact patch is different when the vehicle is in
motion than when it is static. Statically, the size, shape, and pressure distribution are
functions of many things, the most important of which are the load on the tire and the
inflation pressure.
Cord
The fabric strands forming the plies in the tire.
Cross-links
Bonds that link one polymer chain to another.
Curing press
This gives the tires their final shape and tread pattern. Tires are cured at over 300 degrees
for between 10 and 25 minutes, depending on their size.
D
DOT
United States Department of Transport. A government department authorized by Congress
to regulate transport.
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E
ETRTO
European Tire and Rim Association. A standards organization authorized to establish tire
and wheel standards for all tires and wheels sold within the European Union.
Euro metric
The size classification used in Europe. The numbering system (e.g. 225/60 R16) is the
same as the American P-metric.
F
Footprint
See Contact patch
G
Green tire
In manufacturing this term refers to the assembled components of a tire after they have
been placed in a mold but before heat and pressure is applied to vulcanise and cure the
tire.
More recently it is used to describe a finished tire which has been made with particular
thought towards its environmental impact. This usually means that it has a low rolling
resistance, thus aiding fuel consumption. However, it can also be used to refer to other
features such as a high proportion of renewable materials used in manufacture.
Groove
A part of the tread that runs around the circumference of the tire. Their function is to
channel away water.
H
Hydroplaning
Hydroplaning can occur when the car drives through puddles of standing water. If the
water cannot squirt out from under the tire quickly enough, the tire will lift off the ground
and be supported only by the water. Because the affected tire will have almost no traction,
cars can easily go out of control when hydroplaning.
Some tires are designed to help reduce the possibility of hydroplaning. These tires have
deep grooves running in the same direction as the tread, giving the water an extra channel
to escape from under the tire.
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Hysteresis
A characteristic of a deformable material such as rubber where the energy required for
deformation is greater than that required for recovery. The surplus hysteresis energy is
dissipated as heat.
I
Innerliner
The layer(s) forming the inside surface of a tubeless tire that is essentially impermeable to
air or nitrogen.
ISO Metric
A little-used sizing system for tires.
J
JATMA
Japanese Automotive Tire Manufacturers Association. The standards organization
authorized to establish tire and wheel standards for all tires and wheels sold in Japan.
K
KTMA
Korean Tire Manufacturers Association
L
Light truck tire
A tire intended for use on light trucks (including most SUVs) or multipurpose passenger
vehicles. They are stronger and heavier than passenger car tires.
Load rating
Tires are designed to withstand a maximum load. This is specified by the manufacturer
and marked on the tire. Loads exceeding the rating can result in unsafe conditions that
can lead to steering instability and even rupture.
Low Profile Tires
Tires with a low aspect ratio. These are designed for higher performance vehicles. They
give improved handling and grip and provide more traction and braking power. Set against
this, they make more road noise, give a harsher ride and have less resistance to
aquaplaning.
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Lugs
The raised portion of the tread design that contacts the road surface.
M
Millimetric
A little-used sizing system for tires.
Mold (also mould)
A metal form in the shape of the final tire. The components are assembled inside the mold
and then subjected to heat and pressure.
N
NHTSA
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. An agency of the US Department of
Transport most involved in tire legislation as it has responsibility for traffic safety.
O
P
P-metric Tires
An American definition. The load capacity of the tire is based on an engineering formula
based on the physical size of the tire and the recommended pressure. P-metric tires are
designed for sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and light trucks used as passenger vehicles.
Although designed for SUV/light truck use, these tires are placed in the passenger tire
category. The size description after the P prefix is the same as the European numbering
system.
Performance Tires
This loose classification in North America, covers any tire that is a 70-series or below and
carries at least S speed rating. The performance tire category is subdivided into two
categories, namely high performance and ultrahigh performance.
In Europe the usual definition applies to tires rated H, V and Z, the latter two categories
being regarded as High Performance tires.
Ply
A calendered strip of fabric and rubber used to form the carcass of the tire. Also referred to
as body plies.
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Polymer
A substance of high molecular weight. The molecular structure consists chiefly or entirely
of a large number of similar units bonded together. Natural rubber, synthetic rubber and
plastics are all polymers.
Q
R
Radial tire
A tire made with the ply cords extending perpendicularly across the tread and stretching
from bead to bead. In addition the tread area is reinforced with a steel belt.
Rolling resistance
The resistance that applies to a tire as it rolls over a flat surface. The lower the rolling
resistance, the less energy it takes to roll the tire thereby giving fuel savings.
S
Section width
The distance between the exteriors of the sidewalls of an inflated tire.
Service Description
Load and speed ratings mandated by the US government.
Shoulder
The area of the tire where the tread and sidewall meet.
Sidewall
The side of a tire between the tread and the bead.
Sipes
Small narrow voids within the lug block that improve the flexibility of the lug to deform as it
traverses the footprint area. This reduces shear stress in the lug and reduces heat build
up. Sipes also provide greater traction in icy conditions.
Speed rating
The speed rating denotes the maximum speed at which a tire is designed to be operated.
Indicated by a letter of the alphabet, most passenger car tires have ratings between S
(lower speeds) and Z (the highest speed.)
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T
T&RA
Tire and Rim Association. A standards organization authorized to establish tire and wheel
standards for all tires and wheels sold within the USA.
Tire pressure monitoring system
Tire pressure monitoring systems are electronic systems which monitors the tire pressures
on individual wheels on a vehicle, and alerts the driver when the pressure goes below a
warning limit.
TPMS
See Tire pressure monitoring system
Tread
The tread is the part of the tire which comes in contact with the road surface. The tread is
a thick rubber/composite compound, formulated to provide an appropriate level of traction
that does not wear away too quickly. The tread pattern is characterized by the geometrical
shape of the grooves, lugs, voids and sipes.
TREAD Act
Transportation Recall Enhancement, Accountability and Documentation Act. A federal law
of the USA setting procedures and standards for reporting incidents related to unsafe
product defects.
Tread Depth Law
Current tread depth legislation requires that car tires must have a minimum of 1.6mm of
tread in a continuous band throughout the central 75% of the tread width and over the
whole circumference of the tire.
Treadwear indicators
Projections within the grooves of a tire designed to give a visual indication of the degree of
wear of the tire.
U
UTQG
Uniform Tire Quality Grading. A comparative measure of tread wear, traction and heat
dissipation mandated by the US government. The UTQG of every tire sold in the USA
must be shown on the tire.
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V
Valve stem
A tube made of steel or rubber with a metal valve used to inflate the tire with air. Valve
stems usually protrude through the wheel for easy access for inflation.
Voids
Voids in the tire tread are the spaces between lugs that allow the lugs to flex and for water
to be expelled.
Vulcanise
A heating process with sulfa which changes the properties of rubber. The end result is that
the springy rubber molecules become cross-linked to a greater or lesser extent. This
makes the bulk material harder, much more durable and also more resistant to chemical
attack.Vulcanisation is a chemical change and is regarded as irreversible although
considerable research is being carried out to find ways of reversing this process in order to
reclaim the materials.
W
Wear bar
Wear bars (or wear indicators) are raised features located at the bottom of the tread
grooves that indicate the tire has reached its wear limit. When the tread lugs are worn to
the point that the wear bars connect across the lugs, the tires are fully worn and should be
taken out of service.
X
Y
Z
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References
European Regulations

UNECE Regulation 30
US Regulations

NHTSA (Standard 139)

Every report is a continual work in progress. If you notice any errors or omissions or you
believe that a topic is not as clear as it could be, please contact:
editor@WorldTireIndustry.com with your suggestions.

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Tire Basis

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Tire Basics

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The Role of the Tire

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The Role of the Tire

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How a Tire is Made

Source: Maxxis International

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What the codes mean

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Tire size designation

Tire size designation

Max inflation pressure

Service description (Speed and load)

Max load rating

Construction info and number of plies

Reinforced or extra load (if applicable)

Radial (if appropriate)

Run flat symbol (if applicable)

M+S (if applicable)

Tread wear indicator position

Tread wear indicator position

Identification codes - Size Designation

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Tread wear 480 Traction AA Temperature A

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The service description consists of two parts:

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Graphic 7 - Load Index example

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Mud and Snow Symbol

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Radial v Bias tires

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World Tire Industry

World Tire Industry

World Tire Industry

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