Antarctica - The Most Interactive Ice-Air-Ocean Environment - J Singh & H Dutta (2011)

ARCTIC REGION AND ANTARCTICA ISSUES AND RESEARCH
ANTARCTICA: THE MOST INTERACTIVE

ICE-AIR-OCEAN ENVIRONMENT
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ARCTIC REGION AND ANTARCTICA ISSUES

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ARCTIC REGION AND ANTARCTICA ISSUES AND RESEARCH
ANTARCTICA: THE MOST INTERACTIVE

ICE-AIR-OCEAN ENVIRONMENT
JASWANT SINGH
AND
H.N. DUTTA
EDITORS
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York
Copyright 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Antarctica : the most interactive ice-air-ocean environment / editors,
Jaswant Singh, H.N. Dutta.
p. cm. -- (Arctic region and Antarctica issues and research)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-61324-402-9 (eBook)
1. Antarctica--Environmental conditions. 2. Antarctica--Geography. 3.
Natural history--Antarctica. 4. Extreme environments--Antarctica. 5.
Ecology--Antarctica. 6. Climatic changes--Environmental
aspects--Antarctica. I. Singh, Jaswant, Ph. D. II. Dutta, H. N.
GE160.A6A59 2011
919.8'9--dc22
2010046843
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York
CONTENTS
Foreword
vii
Preface
ix
About the Editors
xi
Contributors
xiii
Acknowledgments
xvii
Chapter 1
Antarctica: Continent Dedicated to Science

P.K. Purohit 1 , Soumi Bhattacharya2 and A.K. Gwal2
Chapter 2
An Insight into the Ocean-Ice-Air Interactions over the East

Antarctic Marine Boundary Layer: Unique Phenomena
H. N. Dutta1 , Pawan K. Sharma2, N.C. Deb3 and Laxmi Bishnoi4
13
Land-Ice-Air-Ocean Interactions
in the Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica
Khwairakpam Gajananda1 , H. N. Dutta2 and Victor E Lagun3
39
Effects of UV-B Radiations on Terrestrial Ecosystem

of Antarctica and Their Defense Mechanisms
Jaswant Singh, Rudra P. Singh and Anand K. Dubey
89
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Ultraviolet Radiation Stress: Response

and Protective Strategies of Antarctic Flora
Sanghdeep Gautam and Jaswant Singh
107
Antarctic Mosses, Limiting Factors

and Their Distribution
Rudra P. Singh and Jaswant Singh
131
Affinities of Lichen Flora of Indian Subcontinent

VIS--VIS Antarctic and Schirmacher Oasis
Dalip K. Upreti and Sanjeeva Nayaka
149
Water Relation of Some Common Lichens

Occurring in Schirmacher Oasis, E. Antarctica
163
vi
Contents
Sanjeeva Nayaka1 , Dalip K. Upreti1 and Ruchi Singh2
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Index
Solar Wind Influence on Atmospheric

Processes in Winter Antarctica
O.A.Troshichev , V.Ya.Vovk and L.V.Egorova
173
Atmospheric Observations at Dome C, Antarctic

Plateau, One of the Coldest Place in the World
S. Argentini and I. Pietroni
199
Impact of Individual Responsibility

in Changing Global Warming?
Nitosh Kumar Brahma
221
Navigation with Global Positioning

System in Antarctic Circle
Rajesh Tiwari 1 , Smita Tiwari 1, P. K. Purohit 2
and A. K. Gwal 3
233
249
FOREWORD
The Indian Antarctic program started in the year 1981-82 and soon it was realized that
Antarctica holds strongly coupled ice-air-ocean interactive system in the world. Dr. Ram
Manohar Lohia Avadh University had an opportunity to participate in four Indian Scientific
Expeditions to Antarctica in collaboration with the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi.
I am happy to see the results from the various Indian Antarctic expeditions being poured
in the form of a book, which deals with a complex subject of ice-air-ocean interaction over
the icy continent. I am also happy to note that there are contributions from Italian and Russian
Antarctic stations supporting the SCAR spirit.
Antarctica holds the most efficiently coupled ice-air-ocean interaction system which has
led to many unique natural phenomena both over the Southern Ocean and over the Antarctic
continent itself. In fact, it is the efficient coupling in Antarctica that would help it to maintain
and sustain the much debated global change in various ways.
I am sure; the book will fill up the gap of scientific results particularly from the east
Antarctic regions and the understanding on the ice-air-ocean interactive processes over the
Antarctic continent and would inspire the younger generation to formulate their projects for
future expeditions to Antarctica from the world over.
As an academician, I compliment the authors (Dr. Jaswant Singh & Dr. H.N. Dutta) and
all the Authors of various chapters for integrating their knowledge for the advancement of
Antarctic science & technology. I wish authors would continue their efforts in future in
elevating Antarctic research for the benefit of humanity, which is facing multiplicity of
complex problems at the global level.
(Prof. R.C. Saraswat)
PREFACE
Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, driest and the shiniest continent on Earth, which is
surrounded by the stormiest and biologically the most productive oceans in the world. To a
first time visitor, Antarctica is seen like a fantasyland and an ivory vastness bisected by
ethereal mountains. In addition, this place contains many scientific mysteries like aurora,
polar shadows, mirage, katabatic winds, severe cyclones, ozone hole and many other
geophysical phenomena. The continent covers an area of 14x106 km which is about 10% of
the land surface on earth. Antarctica holds a pristine environment and the world's largest
stock of fresh water in the form of a frozen thick ice sheet. Antarctica pushes ice, cold fresh
water and cold air mass from its interior towards the Southern Ocean in order to maintain cool
around it and to lead many atmospheric/oceanic processes. But the ocean around Antarctica
transports back only the air laden with rich water vapor and some minor constituents present
in the air. The water vapor condenses to cause snowfall both over the Antarctic continent and
over the ocean itself. The snowfall not only maintains the equilibrium for Antarctica to retain
its physical strength and shape, it is absolutely necessary to maintain pristine environment.
Antarctic environment is the least polluted and is having the highest atmospheric visibility.
Antarctica is a magnificent display of interaction between air and the various
phases of water in a pristine environment. This interaction has led to the
formation of many unique features and many scientific mysteries, which are yet to be
explored. Antarctica is now emerging as an important key in the understanding of global
environmental concerns. Its unique features have provided scientists with special
opportunities to investigate the origin of the continents, the pollution of the globe, ozone
hole and changes in world climate. Lack of scientific data remains a major problem for
researchers in many areas of Antarctic science; it is basically due to vast size of the continent,
inhospitable conditions and the logistic support to sustain the efforts.
The contributors are eminent scientists, expedition members and technologists, who have
directly experienced the vastness of this continent to realize the Mother Natures
craftsmanship in carving the most efficiently, coupled system of ice-air-ocean in the world.
The book shall be useful to almost all the planners and researchers working in the area
of Antarctic science and technology as it encompasses chapters specifically devoted to
Antarctic science, land-ocean-ice-air interaction, influence of solar wind on atmospheric
processes, atmospheric observation at Dome C, navigation with global positioning system in
Preface
Antarctic circle, effects of UV-B radiations on terrestrial ecosystem, Antarctic lichen and
mosses and adaptations of Antarctic flora to survive under extreme environmental conditions.
Advances made in recent years have been provided in this book which will be helpful in
understanding of Antarctic climate and environmental changes. The book provides up-to-date
information on Antarctic ice-air-ocean environment. It is hoped that the book shall benefit the
polar scientific community in general and shall stimulate further advancement in the polar
science.
ABOUT THE EDITORS
Dr. Jaswant Singh, Associate Professor at the Department of

Environmental Sciences of Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad
U.P., India and having twenty years of active research career. He has
been engaged in teaching to postgraduate students and research on
current issues of environmental pollution and management. He has
successfully completed six major research projects in the capacity
of Principal investigator and edited a book Natural Resource
management and conservation.
Currently working on the effects of UV-B radiations on
Antarctic cryptrogams and their adaptive strategies to survive under harsh environmental
conditions. He has participated in the 22nd and 24th Indian scientific expedition to Antarctica.
Dr. H. N. Dutta is leading Roorkee Engineering &

Management Technology Institute, Shamli as Director (R&D)
promoting Antarctic research. Prior to this assignment, he served at
the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi from 1976 to 2007,
where he worked as the Convener of CSIR Steering Committee on
Antarctic Research and led a group on PBL studies over
Antarctica. He himself participated in three Indian Scientific
Expeditions to Antarctica and carried out multidisciplinary
investigations over the Schirmacher Oasis, where India has
established its Maitri station.
As part of the Indian Antarctic program, Dr. Dutta designed, developed and established a
monostatic acoustic sounder at the Maitri station and later on, he became the first in the world
to establish shipborne acoustic sounders onboard various ships probing PBL over east
Antarctic Ocean. As part of these studies, Dr. Dutta has many unique distinctions to his
credit-technology transfer of Antarctic acoustic sounder to a private company for its
production, utilizing Antarctic data for taking an international patent, publishing papers in
refereed journals and producing several PhDs on the Antarctic environment. Dr. Dutta has
received many distinctions and honors for his scientific and technological contributions.
CONTRIBUTORS
Anand K. Dubey
Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad224001, U.P., India.
Prof. A. K. Gwal
Space Science Laboratory, Department of Physics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal
462026, India.
Dr. Dalip K. Upreti
Lichenology Laboratory, National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg,
Lucknow 226001, U.P., India.
Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Nitosh Kumar Brahma
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur721302, W.Bengal, India.
Dr. H. N. Dutta
Shri Balwant Institute of Technology, Sonepat-131001, India.
Dr. I. Pietroni
ISAC-CNR via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00133 Roma, Italy.
Dr. Jaswant Singh
Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad-224001,
U.P. India.
Dr. Khwairakpam Gajananda
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Addis Ababa University,P.O.
Box 1176,Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Dr. L. V. Egorova
Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg, 199397, Russia.
xiv
Contributors
Dr. Laxmi Bishnoi,
Government Girl's P. G. College, Gurgaon-122 001, India.
Dr. N.C. Deb
Indian Statistical Institute, 203 B.T. Road, Kolkata-700 108, India.
Dr. O. A. Troshichev
Dr. Pawan K. Sharma
Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-132 119, India.
Dr. P. K. Purohit
National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research, Shamla Hills, Bhopal462026, India.
Dr. Rajesh Tiwari
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering
Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
Rudra P. Singh
Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad224001, India.
Dr. Ruchi Singh
Plant Physiology Laboratory, National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg,
Sanghdeep Gautam
Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad224001, India.
Dr. Sanjeeva Nayaka
Lichenology Laboratory, National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg,
Dr. Smita Tiwari

Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle
Upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
Dr. S. Argentini
ISAC-CNR via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00133 Roma, Italy.
Contributors
xv
Dr. Soumi Bhattacharya

Space Science Laboratory Department of Physics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal462026, India.
Dr. Victor E Lagun
Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg-199397, Russia.
Dr. V. Ya. Vovk
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
On behalf of all the authors, the editors are thankful to the National Centre for Antarctic
and Ocean Research, Goa (Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, New Delhi) for
providing us an opportunity to participate in various Indian Scientific Expeditions to
Antarctica. These endeavors have given us a personal experience to bring before the world a
volume of scientific work for a better understanding of the ice-ocean-air interactions over
Antarctica.
The editors would also like to express their sincere thanks to the authorities of the
National Physical Laboratory, (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi) and
Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad, U.P. for wholeheartedly supporting the Indian
Antarctic program and our personal participation.
The editors would like to express thanks all the authors who have provided their scientific
contributions in the form of various chapters. The views expressed in this book are solely of
authors and are not to be attributed to their respective governments and institutions.
In this series of acknowledgements, we sincerely express gratefulness to our families for
their moral and emotional support while the work was being carried out over the icy
continent.
The editors particularly wish to thank Nova Science Publishers, Inc. and their staff
members for their collective efforts in finalizing and publishing this book. At the end, we
would definitely like to thank our readers and we are sure, there might be many shortcomings
but we will be very happy to receive suggestions and the criticism to improve ourselves.
Editors
In: Antarctica: The Most Interactive Ice-Air-Ocean Environment ISBN: 978-1-61122-815-1

Editors: Jaswant Singh, H.N. Dutta
2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
ANTARCTICA: CONTINENT DEDICATED TO SCIENCE

P.K. Purohit 1 *, Soumi Bhattacharya2 and A.K. Gwal2
ABSTRACT
Antarctica is a land of extremes: it is the highest, driest, coldest, windiest continent.
It is the last continent to be explored and exploited. The continent is known to have many
unusual, interesting and unexplored features. Antarctica is not only a place of curiosity
for scientist but is a place of interest to layman also. In many ways Antarctica is a
Scientist Paradise. Science is the principal human activity in Antarctica. Being away
from polluted places and human interference, unique physical properties, geographical
locations, easy for analysis of radio waves, effect of solar radiations, Global warming,
effect of magnetic flux on poles, excess of charged particles and ionized gasses in the
environment above poles makes it an important place for research. Polar atmospheric
conditions affects the atmosphere of the whole earth and provides important information
to world related to weather and environment. It is a pristine laboratory and its ice core
archives climate history of the past. The unique nature of the region provides a living
laboratory where scientists can measure the effects of changes in the environment and
climate change.
Keywords: Antarctica, Blizzard, Continent, Earth History, Scientists Paradise.
E-mail: purohit_pk2004@yahoo.com, Fax and Phone Numbers +91-755-2661600

National Institute of Technical Teachers Training And Research, Shamla Hills,
Bhopal-462026, India
2
Space Science Laboratory, Department of Physics, Barkatullah University,
Bhopal-462026, India
P.K. Purohit, Soumi Bhattacharya and A.K. Gwal
INTRODUCTION
The universe has seven continents namely Asia, Africa, North America, South America,
Antarctica, Europe and Australia. Among all continents on the basis of shape and size
Antarctica occupies the fifth place. Antarctica is the remotest, isolated and frozen continent of
the Earth, with a very inhospitable terrain and a very harsh climate. Antarctica is arguably the
most untouched region on the planet that makes it one of the world's most important places to
do scientific research. Prolonged stay and research on this continent is fraught with dangers.
Antarctica being called as the heaven for scientist and has several unsolved mysteries
concealed within it. It is a universally accepted fact that this is the largest pollution free
research lab available to the mankind. Antarctica occupies an area between South Pole and
Antarctic Circle from 65S and 90S. Antarctic convergence zone lies southward from 50
south and comprises of all islands presents beyond 50 but the actual zone is beyond 66.5
south. This island is banked by water on all sides being Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean and
Indian Ocean. Being the highest, coldest, driest, windiest continent it is engulfed by ice to
almost 97.6 % and the rest 2.4% part of this continent comprises of iceless part of land.
Almost forming one- tenth part of the earth and its area is 14million sq. km. The features of
suspense and thrill possessed by this continent fascinate the world. Antarctica is also known
as the land of midnight sun, most unbearable weather, house of hail and snowstorms, land of
the penguins, a frozen desert, fascinating continent and South Pole with all its attractive
features attracts one and all.
Figure1. Map depicting geographical position of Antarctica.
Figure 2. Mountain of ice in Antarctica.
Two hundred million years ago Antarctica was joined with Africa, Australia, India, New
Zealand and South America forming the super continent- Gondwanaland. Forces within the
Earth affecting the crust caused these continents to separate and drift apart. Thirty million
years ago the continents as we know them today, reached their approximate present positions.
Humans didn't even catch a glimpse of Antarctica until 250 years ago. And only in the last 90
years have people begun to explore this vast polar desert in earnest. After conquering the
South Pole and the discovery of Antarctica this land happens to be the centre of interest for
the scientists to quench their aspirations, and this land no longer remained lonesome. Initially
Antarctica was not a frozen land around 70 million years ago and the environment was as
similar to other warm islands. There were flora and fauna on the land. But little is known
about it today. A new scientific era has already begun with the discovery of Antarctica.
India has been sending scientific expeditions to Antarctica every year since 1981-82, and
has collected a wealth of data in various areas of science. With the establishment of Dakshin
Gangotri in 1983-84 and Maitri in 1988-89, India is now directly involved in polar research.
WHAT IS ALL HIDDEN IN ANTARCTICA?

It is very difficult to find out the different minerals that lie under the thick layer of ice,
covering the continent. From the samples obtained from mountains it can be enlisted that
Antarctica has almost all the minerals that are present in South Africa and South America. On
the analysis of the core of land there are chances of iron oxide and coal being present in large
quantities. Several other minerals are present there but in very small proportions having very
low commercial value. A decade earlier it was decided by the members of the Antarctic treaty
that for the coming fifty years the mineral ores comprising of hydrocarbons, oil and gas
would not be extracted from here. But the water from the glacier could be utilized.
It is believed that in the future we would be able to find more deposits of oil and natural
gas. The extremely cold temperature of the continent, the thick layer of ice being harder than
iron, being very far from other continents, the problem due to transportation, to cross the
enraged and frothy oceans, big glaciers, the split of ice shelf forming icebergs that flow in the
ocean, the water of ocean being frozen, the icebergs which can collide and break the ships to
pieces, all these act as obstacles to the natural extractions of these minerals.
The fossils of the past atmospheric inhabitants lie in the layers of ice. Due to excess of ice
the plant samples are well protected waiting to be unearthed. Antarctica is a vital area of
attraction not only due to its scientific value but also due to its geopolitical and commercial
values. Its comprises of valuable minerals like copper, gold, zinc, manganese, tin, uranium
various gases and oil. But the mining of minerals and commercial usage are not allowed at
present. The water bodies have species that may possess some commercial usage. Nature has
bestowed on the Antarctica some ornamental and natural blessing, which are of prime
importance due to their geographical and scientific values. It is very surprising to enlist that
the ice of Antarctica holds about 90% of pure water of the world. Several such icebergs melt
here every year. Scientists are making an analysis of expenditure regarding transportation of
these icebergs by huge ships to fulfill the requirements of drinking water. A single small
iceberg has the potential to fulfill the water requirement of a metro town in prime countries.
An iceberg that broke form this continent in 1963 is perhaps the largest ever known iceberg
with a length of 335 kms and width being 97 kms. It floated for 12 years before losing its
existence.
In the interior regions extremely low temperatures, several months of complete darkness,
fierce winds and blowing snow combine to make life virtually impossible. Antarctica is the
harshest in the world. Wind chills freeze exposed skin in seconds; blizzards can reduce
visibility to a few feet, months of darkness and seemingly endless expanses of snow and ice.
Most of Antarctica is covered with vast areas of snow and ice, which reflect about 75% of the
incoming solar radiation.
THE FASCINATING CONTINENT

The human interest in Antarctica has been to compute the origin of scientific
inquisitiveness occurring here. Initially the inquisitiveness was limited only up to finding the
geographical locations. As far as possible the initial expeditions team has tried to gather
samples and data regarding weather, flora and fauna.
Several deep secrets of nature are enclosed in the continent. As a challenge to science this
place is a fort of unsolved mysteries. The continent being free form pollution and being called
as worlds largest laboratory why does it captivate the scientists of the world? Being away
from polluted places, unique physical properties, geographical locations, easy for analysis of
radio waves, effect of solar radiations, effect of magnetic flux on poles, excess of charged
particles and ionized gasses in the environment above poles makes it an important place for
research. Solar radiations and the highly energetic charged particles having ionization power
present in the upper atmosphere are responsible for magnetic storms and form aurora
affecting the transmission of radio waves. These entire phenomenons can be studied here very
well and in fact scientists are undertaking these studies in greater detail. Polar atmospheric
conditions affects the atmosphere of the whole earth and provides important information to
world related to weather and environment.
During winter nights, at the time of absence of solar radiations and absence of direct
ionization is a special property of Polar Regions. This continent offers a golden chance of
analyzing effects of geo-magnetism on structure and mechanism of ionosphere. During
summer season when Antarctica has continues day for few months that causes ionization at a
constant rate in the upper atmosphere due to solar radiations and excessive heat. A regular
measurement of geo-magnetic activities at the permanent research centers of all the nations is
being carried out. The data records pertaining to this is being properly analyzed and utilized
for navigation purposes. Information can be obtained regarding the movement of magnetic
poles. One can perform a complete analysis related to these phenomenas and it could be
utilized for social welfare.
North and south poles are maintaining the energy balance of the world. The energy from
atmosphere and oceans coming to the poles loses its identity and converts to thermal
radiations. The cold winds in this region combines with hot air of lower latitudes to form
clouds thereby regulating the global environment. To predict the changes in atmosphere in the
future it is necessary to analyze the trend in the past. This continent is ideal for such types of
analysis. The ice that has been accumulating from years withholds natural secrets amongst its
layers. Antarctica is a Scientists Paradise. Science is the Principle human activity in
Antarctica. It is a pristine laboratory and its ice core archives climate history of the past. The
unique nature of the region provides a living laboratory where scientists can measure the
effects of changes in the environment. Ongoing research is crucial to the understanding and
monitoring of the global warming, ozone depletion and atmospheric pollution.
The important research work associated with this place is the discovery of ozone hole,
gradual increase in temperature of Earth, information regarding presence of antifreeze
chemical in the body of fishes. Atmospheric research is one of the areas for which Antarctica
provides a rich ground. The fundamental knowledge gained here is currently being used for
practical applications and has potential promise for future applications as well. Antarctic
ecosystems are ideal for biological research due to many factors. Few life forms survive
above the ice because of harsh environmental conditions. A simple, land-based ecosystem is
easier to study here. Thick Antarctic ice sheets provide one of the best records for past
climate change. Ice cores can reveal patterns of mean air temperature, evidence of major
volcanic eruptions and composition of the atmosphere. Antarctica and the surrounding areas
are natural laboratories for scientific research that cannot be done anywhere else on Earth.
Geophysicists can take advantage of Antarctica's ideal conditions to study the effects of solar
radiation on the Earth's magnetic field.
The geographical location of Antarctica has been a field of special interest for the Indian
scientists. Pacific and Atlantic Ocean meet both the poles of earth but Indian Ocean has land
in the north and Antarctic Ocean in the south. Indian Ocean captures the enormous energy
available here and carries it across to the country. This continent is called as key of the
weather of the world. Information regarding weather, climate and water can be obtained from
this continent. Because of its geographical location its the best and static location for
atmospheric researches. Scientists pertaining to geography and environmental study have
accepted this as their prime research area. This land is primarily useful for researches
pertaining to pure and applied science areas.
Figure 3. Scientists taking metrological observations and UVB measurements.
IDEAL PLACE FOR SCIENTIFIC INVENTIONS

Antarctica is a land of extremes yet these extremes offer spectacle and beauty. It is the
last continent to be explored and exploited the continent about which still least is known has
many unusual, interesting and beautiful features. The scientists of various nations working in
Antarctica undertake in depth research and measures ozone, ultraviolet radiations, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide and Green house gases. In our atmosphere at a height of 30 to 50
km ozone layer is present. This layer protects life on earth by preventing harmful UV
radiations of sun and upper atmosphere to reach earth surface. In the beginning of the century
people could not imagine that this gas only being 0.03% is responsible to maintain the
environmental balance and probably this unawareness has been the reason for ozone
depletion. During the period of 1969 to 1989 a fall in ozone by 3% was observed. In the year
1985, British Antarctic survey scientist J. Farman declared a startling and disturbing
discovery, ozone levels in the stratosphere over the South Pole were dropping precipitously
during September and October every year as the sun reappears at the end of long polar winter.
This ozone depletion phenomenon has been occurring at least since 1960s but was not
recognized because earlier researchers programmed their instruments to ignore changes in
ozone levels that were presumed to be erroneous. It was also informed that in 1970 the
thickness of this layer was almost double than is 1981 and the rate of ozone depletion had
picked up pace. The exceptionally cold temperatures in Antarctica play a role in ozone losses.
The cooled air gets settled on the poles because of which chlorine gets accumulated on
troposphere.
During summer season at Antarctica the sun is present for all 24 hours. The reaction of
chlorine and ozone continue to occur all the time in presence of sunlight. This depletes the
ozone layer. During September and October the hole widens to cover the whole of Antarctica
and southern Australia. Hole in ozone layer has been observed on North Pole also.
Springtime ozone hole in Antarctica provides favorable atmospheric conditions for observing
the celestial dome. This window enables scientists to probe the structure of the Sun and the
universe with novel precision.
Evidence for levels of global pollution by industry, agriculture and transport sectors is
frozen into the Antarctic ice. Antarctic 4.75 km thick ice sheet is a record of past climate for
the last 5,00,000 years. Antarctica is a vital area of attraction not only due to its scientific
value but also due to its geopolitical and commercial values. The winter season here is from
April to September and summers are from October to March. In the winter season this
continent doubles itself as the ocean around these freezes. As it occupies positions on the pole
hence it has nearly six months of darkness and six months of day. Indian station Maitri
located on Shrimachar Mountain has day from 22nd November to 24th January and continuous
night from 31st May to 20th July. This continent is hit by most severe adversity of climate. The
minimum temperature recorded here is -89.2C at the Vostok centre of Russia in 1983. The
wind velocity and velocity of storms recorded here has been 320 km/h. The windstorms and
hailstorms continue for days together. Calamities like breaking of ice, breaking of ice shelf,
formation of icebergs and its flow into the waters for Kms together, formations of rifts in ice,
render an utmost challenging and almost impossible working environment to people engaged
in researches here. The reflection of sunrays due to ice almost renders the researchers to
continue their work and increases the chances of getting lost.
Antarctic can be compared to a desert also. Any area of land that has less than 254 mm
(10 inches) rain than it is called as desert. There is almost no rainfall here even if rain falls it
is in the form of snow. Hence its called as a cold desert. During winter season the area of sea
ice increases to 20 million sq. kms, which is larger than the total area of the continent. Every
year almost 85% of this part melts in the summer seasons.
The whole game is of the weather; even a smallest flaw in understanding the climate can
turn disastrous. There must be a thousand mysteries that lie unsolved in Antarctica. The more
mysteries that are unfolded the more hidden mysteries line up. There are countless mysteries
in Antarctica being almost impossible to count.
It is strange but a fact that Antarctica plays a vital role in the weather and climate
mechanism of the whole earth. A key role is played by Polar Regions in regulating the
climate of the world. To derive facts and figures related to such issues an in-depth analysis of
the climatic mechanism at Antarctica has to be done. About 97.6% of ice of this continent
inclusive of the oceanic ice is very sensitive towards the global warming. The ice holds
enormous reserve of water inside it. The risk of increase in sea level may arise by melting of
this ice. The whole coastal region is surrounded by winds hence sudden changes of weather
are natural. The climate of this place is considered to be the most hazardous amongst all
continents. The strong winds due to gravitation give birth to storms, which flow from lower
regions of the continent to upper regions. Keeping the diversity and importance of the
weather and climate of this region January Ist, 1957-58 was celebrated as International
geophysical year. Along with these celebrations all the nations started the race of exploration
of this quiet Zone. A non-governmental organization named SCAR (Scientific committee on
Antarctic Research) was set up in 1958. The committee acts as a regulator for nations doing
research here and also establishes co-operation between these nations. A new avenue was
opened in the field of Metrology in Antarctica after establishment of IGY and SCAR.
Antarctica has day for 24 hours in summer and 24 hours of night in winter. We know that
the earth revolves around the sun and simultaneously rotates on its axis also. The earth is
tilted 23 on its axis. During revolution half of the earth that faces sun has day and the
other half portion that lies in the dark has night. Antarctica lies on the south pole of the Earth
and when there is day on the North Pole the South Pole has complete night.
The Earths South and North Pole plays an important role in research of global weather
and climate because heat from lower latitudes is transported to high latitudes through
meteorological process and is than radiated from polar latitudes at larger wavelengths.
Analysis of meteorological datas collected here is of paramount importance in modeling of
global weather and climate. The weather of Antarctica is made up of uncertainties, nonconsistencies and hindrances. There is no similarity and balance in the climatic factors here.
Many nations have set up static or permanents centers in the white continent and have
established their laboratories regarding weather and climate. The environmentalists here
conduct research on weather related factors of this place. Antarctica affects the atmospheric
and oceanic cycle inside the southern hemisphere hence has an impact on the atmosphere and
weather of the world. The ice here acts as a heat absorber, thereby regulates the sea level. To
know the environment of the world completely its essential to know about energy balance of
this white continent. This frozen ice has detained mysteries of climate of past several
thousands year.
To calculate weather of a particular place the data of surroundings is essential. To predict
weather of an area the data both of the surface and upper atmosphere of various regions is
required. There are huge uninhabited areas as well as a major area is occupied by water hence
the complete zone cannot be inspected and no related datas can be obtained. The various
weather satellites set up by several nations have achieved laurels in the area of weather
predictions. To give exact prediction of weather this place is only partially suitable. The
climate here depends on the weather of the sea, which is devoid of any static laboratories.
The ice of Antarctica is a key factor of the weather mechanism of earth. The whole
continent is surrounded by ice, which spreads to 18 million sq. kms during winters and melts
to two sq. kms during the summer season. The ice is quiet sensitive to these changes of
weather. To collect figures and samples from this ice covered regions is difficult and
hazardous but has been eased by remote sensing.
From time to time scientists were able to extract huge ice cores to analyze the life
structures and climate of the past. This would help in knowing the changes of the atmosphere
that has undergone in the past. This information is related with changes in temperature,
carbon dioxide, ozone level, atmospheric pressure etc. Low pressure group of air move
southward from 500 to 700 along with regular wind. At times its a group of 5 to 6 slabs at low
pressure which have impact on surrounding of Antarctica move eastward at a speed of 90
km/hour. Cold winds towards the coastal region gives rise to high velocity snowstorms,
which may occur for a few hours or several moths altogether.
In the early years information was collected to derive normal conditions but now
permanent laboratories have been constructed to assist research. Research using hi-tech
devices was initiated only in the sixties. International Antarctic Analysis centre was set up to
analyze the data available with all the nations collected from work of several years. The data
held was also published so that it could be used to unravel mysteries of weather. Later use of
satellite was made to predict weather, climate, pressure, temperature, humidity, direction and
velocity of wind etc. Correct information of all these factors was available only because of the
satellites used. After the use of these technologies it became easy to know about the location
of low-pressure area.
To know the climatic hazards of this region information for research is being made
available through world climate research program and World Meteorological Organization.
Today efforts are being made to know the degree to which weather can be predicted and the
human activities affects the weather. Some scientists belonging to member nations of SCAR
are conducting research pertaining to movement of ice, its thickness, energy flux and
activities in the atmosphere.
The layer of ice serves as a mirror to solar radiations coming from the top and reflects
these rays back into the atmosphere. There by this continent shreds energy in the form of
radiations and acts like a global energy sink affects the weather. To know in detail about the
weather and climate total devotion and carefulness in required. It is essential requirement to
analyze the surroundings of Antarctica and the ocean and also to analyze the reactivity and
effect on oceanic waters. Weather experts in various centers have analyzed pieces of ice to
know chemical reactions along with freezing and changes in atmosphere several decades
before. Russian scientists have analyzed the freezing rate, atmospheric temperature of
oxygen, percentage of compounds of hydrocarbon in an ice slab extracted from 2000 mts
under ice. With more human intervention for research the carbon dioxide percentage has
increased causing an increase in the green house effect due to which an increase in the
warmth of the continent is observed. On analysis of pieces of ice from the layer for the gases
enclosed a rise in percentage of CO2 has been proved. Two hundred years ago the percentage
of CO2 was 200 ppm, which went upto 280 ppm hundred years ago and now it has risen to
340 ppm. Many years ago the reason for low CO2 percentage was dissolution of CO2 in cold
water, which has better dissolution capacity than hot water. Thus the glaciers were more static
pertaining to low CO2.
In the recent years almost all nations have established their automatic weather stations in
this region. Implementing the modern hi-tech devices information regarding Antarctic and the
rest of the world can be predicted at least a week before. This white continent has become an
inseparable part of the climate and weather mechanism of the globe. It is even possible to
calculate the weather of high latitudes easily.
From the first expedition, India had started gathering information related to weather for
research purposes. Regular per minute inspection of the velocity of air, state of clouds,
visibility, humidity, vapour etc. by the Indian metrology department is going on. The
10
laboratories have all self-start and automatic devices. These laboratories experimenting on
diffused solar radiations, surface ozone, total ozone, ultra violet radiation, measurement of
Green House Gases etc. The prior prediction of weather is useful especially for scientists who
perform research work in the Antarctic fields.
The average temperature of Antarctica is - 490C. On the southern pole the sun shines for
24 hours and for nearly 6 months but if one feels that a little warmth can be felt due to sun it
is wrong. The outside world avails information regarding Antarctic from datas available
through satellite. Satellite can be used to obtain information regarding temperature of water,
ice layer on water, construction and expansion of ozone layer.
The recording of the climate of this region started in 1950. Through the data and pictures
available from satellite the state of clouds, velocity and movement of storms, formation of ice
and its distribution and various environmental processes can be updated. Various global
climatic models clearly indicate that there would be enormous changes in the climate of
Antarctica during the next 100 years which would cause an increase in temperature that
would in turn increase the snow melt. The available climatic models have failed to produce
reliable data of the changes in weather hence more research is required in this field.
Several experiments have proved that there are certain changes occurring in the upper
atmosphere. In ionosphere in the F- region (300 kms) the peak of concentration of electron
density from the past 38 years has come down by 8 kms. In the lower atmosphere due to
increase in concentration of green house gases the temperature has increased but the upper
atmosphere has become relatively colder. The various theoretical analyses have shown that
the layers have decreased. Southern ocean acts like a sink in global carbon cycle. The layers
of ice, oceanic ice and oceans are active factors of climate.
The polar plates being formed over Antarctica render it coolest. There is extreme cold
due to flow of cold air. The air flows from cold mountains at a height of 9000 feet downwards
and flows towards the coastal region. The rotation of earth deflects the air to left side.
Researchers believe that these cold winds have major effects up to long distances. In the
coastal areas the wind velocity is 150 meters per hour.
The 5 meter thick ice of this continent deposited from 5 lakhs years encloses the climate
of the past. These gas bubbles enclosed in the ice are a witness of pollution caused by
environmental gases, industrialization, atomic bomb and fertilizers used for crops. The future
climate and weather can be predicted on the basis of research on theses factors. Every year
during winters about 7 million sq. kms of ice deposits around Antarctica, which melts during
summers. This is the biggest event associated with weather. Scientists have discovered two
more sub glacial lakes, raising renewed speculation of the existence of living ecosystems
below the ice. The one lake is called "90E" because it lies along that longitude and is now
the second biggest sub glacial lake in Antarctica, while the other is named after the Russian
station above the lake called Sovetskaya. These lakes were known of before but this is the
first time that scientists have been able to assess their size using satellites and ground
penetrating radar equipment.
Scientists and experts coming to Antarctica are conducting research on various problems.
Zoologists are analyzing the behavior of animals residing here and are trying to find out
reasons due to which they can survive in this hostile environment. Some scientist has
discovered very small plants growing inside rocks. The biologists analyzes water of lakes
covered to find out fecal coli form and other chemical contaminations. Environmental and
weather experts analyze the climate of Antarctica and trying to discover reasons of the
11
alterations regarding the unpredictability of weather. Geologists are performing critical

analysis of the rocks and mountains ranges to find out the history of earth. They have been
very successful in discovering minerals and ores. Glaciologists have analyzed the Antarctic
ice and have gathered ice samples. Physicists have done research on southern magnetic poles
and wind. They have gathered vital information regarding the ozone layer and its depletion.
For Astrologist this area is matchless as during summers the sunlight is available for days
together.
LIFE IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENT

Although it seems quite unbelievable that even under such adverse climatic conditions
life is possible but this fact is absolutely true. The Antarctic continent where earlier human
settlement was beyond imagination is now a home to numerous permanent bases where the
scientists conduct research and experiments throughout the year.
In spite of the dangerous weather and hostile environmental conditions plants survive
here. Almost 350 species of plants are found here all of which represent lichen, algae and
moss. The natural flora and fauna does not have a big influence on the environment. The
continent has absence of higher order plants. The higher order plants refer to those that
markedly exhibit flowers, leaves, root system and fruits. The research regarding the
vegetation of this place started after 1960. This was done after the predominant plants of this
region were collected in large numbers as samples and were grouped into species to do a
selective analysis. Many important conclusions were drawn after studying the plant density,
life cycle, behavior and chemical characteristics. The outstanding feature of analysis was how
the plants have sustained the adverse conditions and survived. These plants being green are
producers prepare food through the process of photosynthesis for consumers.
In the barren valleys of Antarctica a few rocks are found which leave space for air and
moisture within them. Some of these rocks being translucent allow light to penetrate as a
result some primitive type of vegetation is able to grow and survive.
The namesake greenery is due to green colored ground algae, during summers this alga
shows a little growth. The cold temperature and snow cover during winters curb the growth of
these algae. The prevailing darkness during winters does not allow the photosynthesis to take
place. In the Antarctic Peninsula some green grass can be spotted, as the temperature of this
region is little warmer. Here as compared to marine life forms the terrestrial life forms are in
great minority. This plays a vital role in the Antarctic food chain. During the summer season
due to longer days it shows tremendous growth in the water under the floating ice. Marine
microorganisms consume this. The microorganisms are intern consumed by krill and other
small fishes. Lichens are abundantly growing on bare rocks and display different colors such
as orange, dark brown, black etc. Their rate of growth is very slow almost being
approximately 1cm in a century. These can survive in dry and passive region for long periods
and are able to perform photosynthesis at even very low temperature at 200C also.
Creatures found on this continent comprises of seals, whales, penguins, krill, petrel, skua,
mites etc. All activities within the Antarctica continent and the waters around it are regulated
and governed by a unique treaty called Antarctic Treaty. The need of this treaty was felt to
12
provide a constituted outlook to the research happening here so that it could benefit all
nations.
WHO OWNS ANTARCTICA?

All activities within the Antarctic continent and the waters around it are regulated and
governed by a unique treaty called Antarctic Treaty. The need of this treaty was felt to
provide a constituted outlook to the research happening here so that it could benefit all
nations. The Antarctic treaty was made on December 1, 1959 but was enforced on June 23,
1961. Antarctica is an international conservation and research area managed by a group of
countries all of which are signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. Hence no individual,
organization or country owns Antarctica. The scientists working here on environmental
conservation issues are given full freedom. The scientists came here through their national
research programmes but the tourists who visit this place are also given a guideline, which
they have to follow. For years to come Antarctica would remain a fabulous place for the
tourist and a challenge to the scientific community. Antarctic research may be a long way
from home, but it is an outstanding and most pertinent in present day context of Global
warming and climate change.
REFERENCES
Chaturvedi, A:. Rochak avam Romanchak Antarctica: Prabhat Prakashan, Delhi, pp.1-256,
ISBN No.81-7315-532-1, (2006).
Khare, N.: Dharkta Mahadeep, NCAOR, Goa (2000).
Girija R.:-Atmospheric research from Antarctica, the Indian contribution, pp. 1-104, IIG
Bombay (1993).
Purohit, P.K.: Antarctic: Vigyan Avam Chunotion., Madhya Pradesh Hindi Granth Acadamy
Bhopal, pp. 1-116,(2004).
Purohit, P.K.: Antarctic: Aakarshan Kyon? Indira Publishing House Bhopal, pp.1-175, ISSN
No.818910703-8, (2005).
Purohit, P.K.: Antarctic: Where the Silence Speaks, Indira Publishing House Bhopal, pp. 1180, ISSN No. 8189107-14-3 (2006).

Chapter 2
AN INSIGHT INTO THE OCEAN-ICE-AIR

INTERACTIONS OVER THE EAST ANTARCTIC MARINE
BOUNDARY LAYER: UNIQUE PHENOMENA
H. N. Dutta1 *, Pawan K. Sharma2, N.C. Deb3 and Laxmi Bishnoi4
ABSTRACT
Antarctica is a magnificent display of interaction between air and the various phases
of water in a pristine environment. This interaction has led to the formation of many
unique features over the Antarctic continent, which is surrounded by an equally
magnificent ocean known as the Southern Ocean. Indias interaction with the Southern
Ocean effectively started with the launch of Indian Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica in
the year 1991 and as part of these expeditions, India made several attempts to install
various types of shipborne acoustic sounders onboard various ships, which were part of
these expeditions.
The present Chapter deals with the understanding of the marine boundary layer over
the east Antarctic region as probed by a shipborne acoustic sounder installed onboard the
ship Megdalena Oldendroff, which sailed to Antarctica as part of the 21 st Indian
Scientific Expedition in the year 2002 from South Africa to Antarctica. In the entire
period from 22 January March 3, 2002, which is of 984 hours in terms of duration, the
system recorded data only for 476 hours, which is 48.37% and the rest of the data
contained windy conditions, system maintenance etc. Even with this limited data, it is
clear that most of the time, the marine boundary layer remains stable and the thickness of
the ground based inversion was about 150 m although its ranged varied between 50-325
m. Similarly, in the case of thermal convection, the plume rise has recorded variability
between 100-450m and most of the plumes reached up to a height of 300 m.
*
E-mail: hndutta@gmail.com
Roorkee Engineering and Management Technology Institute,
Shamli-247774, U.P. India
2
Pawan K. Sharma, Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra-132 119, India
3
N.C. Deb, Indian Statistical Institute, 203 B.T. Road, Kolkata-700 108, India
4
Laxmi Bishnoi, Government Girl's P.G.College, Gurgaon-122 001, India
1
14
H. N. Dutta, Pawan K. Sharma, N.C. Deb et al.
Keywords: Acoustic sounder, Marine boundary layer, Shipborne, Southern Ocean.
1. INTRODUCTION
Antarctica is a magnificent display of interaction between air and the various phases of
water (vapor, liquid and solid) in a pristine atmosphere, where the direct solar energy reaches
the Pole for six months of the year at very low elevation angle, and for the other six months of
the year, it is dark. This has already led to the formation of a dome shaped, permanent ice cap,
which is about 4 km thick in the interior of the continent, having an area of about 14.5 m km2
(or a circle with a radius of about 2000 km).
Antarctica is surrounded from all around by an equally magnificent ocean called as the
Southern Ocean and both the Antarctic continent and its surrounding ocean are connected
through the most efficiently coupled ocean-ice-air system (Bailey, 2000; Schellenberg et al.,
2002; Liu et al., 2004; Hall and Visbeck, 2002; Parkinson, 2004; Simmonds and King, 2004;
Naithani, 1995). The Southern Ocean is dominated by a yearly variation of sea ice; its
maximum area is about 19 million km2 in late winter and the minimum about 4 million km2
during late summer (Arrigo and Thomas, 2004). The moment sea ice forms, it reflects the
solar radiation, thus enhances the sea ice growth. Also, being a poor conductor of heat (Van
den Broeke et al., 2006; Lefebvre and Goosse, 2008), it separates the warm ocean water and
the colder atmosphere and thus stops the transfer of heat from ocean to atmosphere and vice
versa. Moreover, when sea ice forms, brine is rejected into the underlying ocean creating a
layer of saline, dense water decreasing the vertical stability at the base of the oceanic mixed
layer (Kwok and Comiso, 2002). Subsequently, entrainment causes a negative feedback
between the ocean and sea ice, whereby the deeper, warmer ocean water is brought to the
surface, increasing oceanic heat flux and inhibiting sea ice growth (Martinson, 1990;
Marsland and Wolff, 1998). The heat flux is greatest initially when brine rejected by the
rapidly growing ice sets up thermohaline convection in the underlying water. As the rate of
ice growth and brine rejection decreases, so does the convection and the heat flux to the lower
ice boundary drops off.
During summer, sea ice melts mostly by warming of the ocean mixed layer through heat
input (mainly solar radiation) in open water areas (Ohshima and Nihashi, 2005). Also, a large
number of low pressure areas in summer result ocean swells and high winds breaking the ice
into large pieces that move under the influence of wind and currents. (Fast-ice is sea-ice that
is held fast to the continent.) Pack ice can change in a matter of hours from being open and
navigable to densely packed and impassible.
The large seasonal fluctuation of the sea ice cover affects the exchange of energy, mass
and momentum between the ocean and atmosphere, and is extremely important in controlling
the existence of Antarctic continent and its interaction with the whole globe (Lefebvre and
Goosse, 2005, 2008; Simmonds, 2003; Thattermann and Levermann, 2009; Busalacchi, 2004;
Meskhidze and Nenes, 2006; Ito et al., 2010; Ved Parkash, 2008; Liss et al., 2004).
The Southern ocean's circulation system has another unique feature known as the
Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), which is both the longest and the strongest current in
the ocean carrying a volume transport of 130Sv (1 Sverdrup=1Sv=1106m3s1) along a
An Insight into the Ocean-Ice-Air Interactions over the East Antarctic Marine
15
24000 km path encircling Antarctica (Gille, 1994). The ACC is also unique because no
continental barriers exist in the latitudes spanning Drake Passage (the gap between South
America and the Antarctic Peninsula), which allows the current to close upon itself in a
circumpolar loop and is the primary means of inter-basin exchange of heat, carbon dioxide,
chemicals, biology and other tracers. Despite its essential role in the climate system, the ACC
remains one of the most poorly understood currents in the ocean (Thompson, 2008). At the
same time, deep waters in the Southern Ocean are rich in dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC)
and depleted in oxygen. When circulation brings these waters into the mixed layer, the
soluble gases are exchanged at the air-sea interface. The formation of deep mixed layers
combined with high biological productivity make the Southern Hemisphere extra-tropical
oceans an important component of the global carbon cycle (Bishop and Wood, 2009).
2. INTERACTION BETWEEN THE MAIN ANTARCTIC CONTINENT AND

THE SOUTHERN OCEAN
The interaction between the Southern Ocean and the Antarctic continent (Dierer et al.,
2005; van Ommen and Morgan, 2010) has already led Antarctica to be the coldest (due to the
thickest dome shaped ice cover on Earth), windiest (again due to thick dome shaped ice cover
and by the least polluted pristine environment), driest (due to low temperature, water vapor
freezes into ice and whatever is left, it is pushed towards the ocean by the katabatic winds.
Also, the katabatic winds make the icy surface harder, as evaporation causes cooling, thus
help in maintaining stability of the dome shaped ice) and the least polluted (pristine
environment-the frequent snowfall cleans the atmosphere and almost all the particulate
matters are pulled down and buried under the ice forever). Also, the pristine environment
helps the radiative energy-Infrared/heat energy to escape to the sky without any hindrance,
leading to the formation of steep surface based inversions in the lowest atmosphere resting on
the icy slopes of Antarctica. This air mass is pulled by the gravity and flows out of the
periphery of the continent as the unidirectional, highly consistent winds, called as katabatic
winds. These winds trigger / force or create warm-air advection for creating atmospheric
cyclones over the ocean, with the result, Antarctica is surrounded all around by the stormiest
ocean in the world (Fyfe, 2003; Kalnay et al., 1996; Lin and Simmonds, 2002; Carrasco et
al., 2003; Gajananda, 2002). These cyclones, in-turn, pump moisture over the continent,
leading to the snowfall (Genthon and Krinner, 2001; Guo et al., 2003; Gajananda et al., 2004,
2007) and churn the oceanic water, creating trillions and trillions of water droplets, thus
rendering a perfect turbulent transfer of air into the ocean and the transfer of the oceanic
gases, water vapor, pollutants, microorganisms etc. into the air (Gajananda et al., 2004;
Gajananda and Dutta, 2005; Lim and Simmonds, 2007; Bargagli, 2008). All these
microorganisms, various pollutants, sea salt particles, oceanic gases and water vapor have
invaded the periphery of Antarctica and form an important subject of investigations over the
ocean and oasis regions of Antarctica (Honjo, 2004; Gajananda et al., 2004, 2007; Kerminen
et al., 2000; Ved Parkash, 2008). Antarctic continent and its surrounding ocean are connected
with each other basically in four ways:
16

2.1. Ice interaction: The ice from the main continent is slowly pushed towards the ocean
due to gravity and a part of this ice breaks in various forms to maintain the cool over
the Southern Ocean (Joughin and Tulaczyk, 2002; Ng and Conway, 2004; Rignot,
2006). It is important to note that the Antarctic continent pushes ice into the
surrounding ocean, while the ocean creates snowfall over the entire continent and
over the ocean itself.
2.2. Water interaction: During local summer, over the main continent, when the upper
portion of the ice melts, the water either gets collected in depressions, forming
pools/lakes or tries to cut the ice to create trenches, crevasses, tunnels etc. flowing
out of the continent towards the periphery. The water gets collected in the form of
lakes / ponds etc. over the oasis regions or flows towards the ocean (Naithani, 1995;
Gajananda, 2002; Gajananda et al., 2003). The formation of water alters the surface
albedo and wherever, water gets collected, it dissolves more and more ice. Also, at
the periphery of the continent, the lower portion of the shelf ice gets dissolved in the
relatively warm oceanic water (Vaughan and Doake, 1996). In any case, over the past
millions of years, there has been a perfect equilibrium between the ice melting during
summer and freezing during the winter period. In fact, there should be more
deposition of ice during winter than the melting during summer, so that the net
balance is positive, but confirmatory results are still awaited (Wingham et al., 2006;
Ramillien et al., 2006).
2.3 Air interaction: The third interaction is through the air, which is the lightest form in
terms of density and specific heat compared to water and ice. Over the main
continent, due to pristine atmosphere, the icy surfaces emit infrared energy to the
sky, resulting in the formation of surface based inversion. With the result, the air
resting over the icy slopes becomes much heavier than the air aloft, thus it is pulled
by the gravity towards the periphery of the continent. As the air move towards the
periphery, its velocity increases tremendously and it pushes the lower atmospheric
water vapor towards the periphery. This unidirectional moving cold and dry air mass
is known as katabatic winds (Kumar, 2002). It is important to note that although the
katabatic flow carries very cold and dry air, its remarkable strength may disrupt the
surface temperature inversion by vertically mixing the cold surface layer with the
upper and warmer atmospheric layers, causing a surface warming (Knig-Langlo et
al., 1998). In addition to this mechanism, also the frictional and adiabatic heating of
the katabatic flow may contribute to warming the near-surface air. Over the Southern
ocean, the relatively cooler, dry katabatic winds trigger many phenomena, including
the formation of sea ice over open ocean areas and pushing it away from the
periphery of the continent. Also, the katabatic winds trigger the formation of
cyclones over lower latitudes. These cyclones, in turn, lead to snowfall over the
continent and the entire loss of ice in various forms gets compensated. The intensity
of katabatic winds is more pronounced during local winter, as the cooling of the icy
surfaces is the highest.
2.4. Radiation interaction: The snowfall during winter covers almost all the portions of
Antarctica, so that in local summer, the Sun rays get reflected as part of the survival
strategy of Antarctica and its surrounding (Naithani, 1995; Gajananda, 2002;
Pirazzini, 2004). Also, during snowfall periods, the entire atmosphere becomes
17
cleaner, as the suspended particulate matter in the air is brought down by the falling
snow flakes and buried in the ice (Wang et al., 2008; Boucher et al., 2003; Eisele et
al., 2008; Stohl and Sodemann, 2010; Gajananda et al., 2004, 2007). This cleaning of
the atmosphere is essential for the radiative part to be efficiently active over the
entire Southern Ocean. The cleaning of the atmosphere also happens even during
summer, when the cyclones lead to snowfall. This is an absolutely essential
component of the entire Southern Ocean environment as for the formation of the sea
ice, it is necessary that the radiative energy must escape to sky without any hindrance
or modification etc. (Chamberlain et al., 2000; Lawrence et al., 2004; Naithani et al.,
1994).
In summer, cyclones may also result in some rainfall events at the periphery of the
continent (Deb et al., 1999; Ved Parkash, 2008). In fact, over the past thousands of years, the
loss of Antarctic ice had been lower than the total amount it gained and thats how, Antarctica
is holding its physical structure and is participating in the controlling the global temperature
and many other important features.
Even in the past, there has been no change in the snowfall over the continent
since the IGY (Monaghan et al., 2006) and Antarctica seems to be stable in some respect
(Gudmundsson and Jenkins, 2009). However, many signals or worries are related to the
global warming, which makes the subject of ocean-ice-air interaction to be an important
science subject (van de Berg et al., 2006; Justino et al., 2010; Peck, 2005; van den Broeke,
2008; Bindschadler, 2006; Steig et al., 2009; Gille, 2008; Zazulie et al., 2010; Atkinson et al.,
2004). In fact, to strengthen our knowledge about various aspects of Antarctica, many
programs are in progress (Rignot, 2002; Frey et al., 2009).
Once the katabatic winds are forced to blow over the ocean, they move up the relatively
warm and humid air. As this humid air moves up, it moves into a region of low pressure and
cools. The associated water vapor also cools to form water droplets or directly into snow,
releasing latent heat. This release of latent heat creates a low pressure area, with the result;
more air is sucked into this region. Thus, it triggers the formation of a well defined or well
developed cyclone over the ocean, which has to move towards the continent.
The cyclonic air from the ocean side is relatively much warmer than the existing
Antarctic air, leading to warming of the atmosphere, which is more noticeable in winter
months (Naithani, 1995; Gajananda, 2002). In fact, there are events over Antarctica, wherein
a widespread warming has been observed both during local summer and winter seasons
(Enomoto et al., 1998; Deb et al., 1999; Van As et al., 2007).
In summer, the katabatic winds are weaker but the number of lows per month is higher in
summer due to advection of water vapor (Naithani, 1995; Kumar, 2002; Carrasco, 2003; Ved
Parkash, 2008). At the same time, the invaded moisture by the cyclones may lead to the
formation of fog over the periphery of the continent (Gera et al., 2002; Walden et al., 2003;
Gajananda et al., 2003; Gajananada et al., 2007).
These cyclones approaching from lower latitudes (moving from west to east), become the
main sources of heat for the atmosphere, and the atmosphere-surface heat transfer takes place
through turbulent mixing and longwave radiation, the latter is dominated by clouds. The
cyclones are also responsible for warming of planetary boundary layer around the periphery
of the continent during winter.
18
Also, the cyclones replenish the loss of ice in the form of fresh snowfall all over the
continent and around the ocean. The freezing ice in winter and the falling snow cover almost
all the exposed parts even at the periphery of Antarctica, thus prepare the entire continent to
be ready to reflect the falling Suns energy during the local summer.
The atmospheric research in Antarctica is increasingly important as many processes
taking place in the atmosphere are still barely understood (Anisimov et al., 2007). This is
particularly true for exchange of gases and particles between ocean and atmosphere, an area
of study which is currently receiving much attention (Meskhidze and Nenes, 2006; Zorn et
al., 2008).
Since the Antarctic atmosphere is absolutely clear, aerosol particles play an important
role in the atmosphere because of their effects on the radiation budget and consequently on
climate and climate change, which is in particular true for aerosols from marine environments
(ODowd et al., 2007). Currently, the focus is on their formation and understanding which
gaseous compounds participate in it (ODowd et al., 2007) and the atmospheric processes
over the most complex situation caused by the water, ice and air (Andreas et al., 2004;
Bishnoi et al., 2005; Dutta et al., 2004 ).
In the present Chapter, we shall concentrate only on the atmospheric phenomena, which
have been captured by a shipborne acoustic sounder deployed onboard the ship Megdalena
Oldendroff, which sailed along the periphery of the east Antarctic ocean in the year 2002.
3. SODAR MEASUREMENTS
The group at the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi had established an acoustic
sounder (sodar) at the Indian Antarctic station, Maitri (70.76o S; 11.73o E; elevation 117m) in
the year 1990-91 (Dutta et al., 1991; Dutta and Naithani, 1994; Naithani and Dutta, 1995;
Gajananda et al., 2004, 2007; Kumar et al., 2007; Gera et al., 2010). This development had
made India as the sixth country in the world to have a boundary layer program over
Antarctica and since then, attempts have been made to install a sodar system onboard the
ships sailing to Antarctica as part of various Indian Antarctic expeditions (Dutta et al., 1993,
1999, 2004, 2007; Bishnoi et al., 2005).
The most successful attempt for shipborne operation was made during the 21st Indian
Scientific Expedition in the year 2002, when the system was installed onboard the ship
Megdalena Oldendroff, which sailed from South Africa to Antarctica. The team established it
successfully and operated PC controlled system as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows
photograph of the antenna mounted onboard the ship and that of Dr Pawan Kurmar Sharma
who installed and operated the system successfully.
The system was placed on the ship around January 19, 2002 and after making several
checks, it finally started functioning from January 22, 2002. At the same time, the ship was
sailing; its pathway is shown in Figure 2. The ship actually sailed to the German Antarctic
station, Neumayer, which is situated on the shelf itself. It is important to note that the ship
cannot be anchored along the shelf during the cyclonic conditions for various reasons and
therefore it is kept in motion. The square shown in Figure 2. indicates that the ship remained
in this area from February 3 to March 11, 2002.
19
Figure 1. Shipborne acoustic sounder antenna onboard the ship Megdalena Oldendroff and Dr Pawan
Kumar Sharma operating the system electronics.
Figure 2. It indicates latitude and longitude that ship followed during its journey in Antarctica. The box
indicates that the ship remained in this area from February 3 to March 11, 2002.
4. BASIC PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER STRUCTURES

In the entire period from 22 January March 3, 2002, which is of 984 hours, the system
recorded data only for 476 hours, which is 48.37% and the rest of the data contains windy
conditions, system maintenance etc.
20
Out of this useful data of 476 hours, 69.9% of the time, it was surface based inversion,
followed by thermal convection for 15.3% of the time and elevate inversion for 14.7% of the
time (Figure 3). This indicates that even during sunny hours, it is the stability in the lower
atmosphere, which dominates the lower marine planetary boundary layer close to the
periphery of the east Antarctic continent.
Thermal
convection
15.3%
Elevated
inversion
14.7%
Surface based inversion
69.9%
Figure 3. Out of the total 476 hours of noise free recording by the shipborne acoustic sounder, surface
based inversions dominated the occurrence followed by elevated layers and the thermal convection.
4.1 Surface Based Inversion (Stable Atmospheric Structure)

Surface based inversions are the most common feature of the Antarctic environment
along the shelf. On acoustic sounder records, it is seen as a thick patch with one end sticking
to the ground and another showing a flat upper surface under the most stable conditions;
otherwise, wind may lead to some turbulence or undulations at the upper boundary. An
example of the surface based inversion is given in Figure 4. The surface based inversion is
caused by the radiative cooling of the surface.
The surface based inversion depicts two important parameters:
(i) Thickness of the ground based inversion, and
(ii) The thermal gradient
The thickness can be directly read from the facsimile chart with a precision of about 10m,
while the thermal gradient can be judged from the colors depicted in the chart. The Figure 4.
shows that the surface based layer has about 275 m as the thickness, which is varying at
different timings. This variability is caused by the radiative processes influenced by the
prevailing wind. Also, many thermal gradients are imbedded in the inversion, as the depiction
is not just one dark patch, rather, there are many colors are an integral part of it. This shows
that there must be some wind blowing at the site, which intensified at 0645 hrs. Moreover, the
lighter wind was blowing throughout the record as can be seen by the green colored vertical
21
lines, indicating wind noise. The surface based inversion thickness is an important parameter
and is plotted in Figure 5. This shows that surface based inversions have a high variability in
terms of thickness, which can as low as just 50 m or as high as 325m. Of course, the most
probable thickness lies around 150 m. However, it is important to note that the data given in
this figure cannot be taken for any strong or definite conclusion, these are just preliminary
observations actually meant to show that the shipborne acoustic sounder can function
normally even under the most adverse Antarctic conditions, recording variability in the
thermal structures of the lowest PBL.
Figure 4. An example of a surface based inversion recorded by a shipborne Acoustic sounder observed
over the southern ocean along the eastern coast of Antarctica. This echogram directly gives the
thickness of inversion and is an important parameter in many atmospheric applications.
Figure 5. Statistical distribution of thickness of surface based inversion in various categories. The SBI
thickness has a high variability but is most probable around 150 m.
22
4.2. Thermal Convection

Thermal convection is an important phenomenon that is rare in the Antarctic environment
but it has its own importance in transporting fine particles and biological material from the
oceanic surfaces to upper atmospheric regions. In this region, since the velocity is high, it
helps transportation to much longer distances (Gajananda et al., 2004).
On an acoustic sounder system, thermal convection is seen as inverted cones, caused by
the thermal heating of the lowest surfaces, leading to mach warmer air close to the surface of
earth/ ocean than the air aloft. With the result, the warmer air rises upwards, leading to the
formation of what are called thermal plumes on the acoustic sounder echograms.
The thermal plumes represent region of direct vertical mixing for the fine particulate
matter or biological microorganisms (Gajananda et al., 2004) and are essential to be recorded
on a long-term basis in order to detect signals like global warming. In the Antarctic ocean,
these may not be just caused by the thermal heating of the oceanic upper surfaces by the Sun,
but the warm oceanic water compared to the adjoining air, can also lead to such a situation.
The reasons of formation may be many but the most important parameter to be measured
is the height up to which these thermal go. Figure 6. shows a case of thermal convection as
recorded and depicted by an echogram.
Many papers have been published on the interpretations of these records. In this
photograph (Figure 6), the clarity of thermal plumes is seen to diminish as soon as the
background winds become stronger beyond 2130 hrs. Actually, winds distort the vertical
movement and also lead to generation of noises on the acoustic sounder record, these two
effects combined together, make them indiscernable. The plumes are seen to be going well up
to a height of 350m between 1800-1900 hrs and have a high day to day variability. This has
been measured on hourly basis and is plotted in Figure 7.
Similarly, in the case of thermal convection, the plume rise has variability between 100450m but most of the plumes reach up to a height of 300 m (Figure 7). It is important to note
that over ocean, the development of thermal plumes may not just due to the surface heating of
the upper oceanic surfaces but it can also be due to the warm water, after all, thermals
indicate only relativeness in the surface and upper air temperatures.
Figure 6. Thermal plumes are an important atmospheric phenomenon in the Antarctic atmosphere as
they represent surface air to be much warmer than the air aloft. The warmer surface air rushes up to
form an inverted cone on the acoustic sounder echograms. The height up to which these thermal go
represents the thermal mixing in the atmosphere.
23
Figure 7. The occurrence of thermal convection in various height ranges as recorded by the shipborne
acoustic sounder over the east Antarctic coast. As expected, it has a high variability but the most
probable height attained by the plumes is around 300 m. This is an important finding and shall be useful
in many models.
Figure 8. Elevated inversions in the Antarctic environment are an expected phenomenon in the PBL
Shipborne acoustic sounder has revealed a variety of these layers, which have shown a high degree of
variability in the height but thickness is generally between 50-80 m.
4.3. Elevated Layers / Inversions

Another important feature for any site in the world is the presence of an elevated layer,
which is basically a stable layer but suspended in the air (Naithani, 1995; Kumar, 2002). It
may be caused by a number of atmospheric phenomenon and the most common among them
are the presence of a high pressure zone, which suppresses the air towards the earth. The other
cause can be the wind shear, which means two air masses of different origin may lead to the
appearance of this situation (Naithani, 1995).
24
An example of this layer is shown in Figure 8, wherein an elevated layer is seen to be

persisting continuously for several hours. Again, the interest will be in the height and the
thickness of such layers (Naithani, 1995; Kumar, 2002). In Antarctica, flow of katabatic
winds close to the undulating surface of earth may lead to the formation of elevated layers
(Naithani, 1995; Kumar, 2002).
With the available scanty data, it is not advisable to draw a figure depicting various
height ranges for the elevated layers, but, most of the layers have been between 250-350 m
altitudes. It is important to note that over the Indian Antarctic station, Maitri, numerous
studies have been made during 1990-96 period and a variety of elevated inversions associated
with a number of phenomena have been identified (Naithani, 1995; Deb, 2009). Here, since
the observational period was too short, we have not been able to really record a variety of
these layers.
5. NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

The acoustic sounder structures observed during the experimental period recorded a
variety of structures, indicating the fact that during summer, the atmospheric conditions are
variable over space and time. Figure 9. shows variable structures observed on January 24,
2002, it shows a highly variable surface based inversion, with clear jumps in the structure
dynamics at 0430-0530 hrs. At the same time, the presence of elevated layer indicates that
there may be two different sources of airflow. Unfortunately, we were not carrying out any
supporting measurements of temperature either in the oceanic water or in the air, with the
result, its interpretation is difficult. But, the observed structures are a testimony to the
variability. However, this variability is created by the fact that over ocean, the water surface is
highly variable in terms of type of sea ice, its age and its strength embedded over open ocean
spaces. Undoubtedly, the open ocean spaces are at a much higher temperature than the areas
covered by a variety of sea ice.
This type of variability may not be seen on daily basis, Figure 10. shows the facsimile
recorded on February 10, 2002, in which surface based inversion is predominantly present in
the lower atmosphere. However, dull thermal convection seems to be appearing during 10001400 hrs. At the same time, the surface based inversion is spiky, which means, vertical
movement of wind or turbulence is present in the lower atmosphere. At the same time,
there have been a number of incidences of high wind speeds, again indicating atmospheric
variability
25
Figure 9. Highly variable facsimile picture shows a turbulent planetary boundary layer over the
Southern Ocean.
Figure 10. Dominance of surface based inversion is the key for the survival of Antarctica but patches of
thermal convection are indicators of atmospheric variability over the ocean.
26
6. UNUSUAL PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER PHENOMENA

Apart from the mixed types of structures, there have been two extremely important and
unusual incidences over the east Antarctic region. These are discussed below:
6.1. Prolonged Persistence of Thermal Convection

Figures 11 a-b show that there was a special case of thermal convection on February 2-3,
2002, wherein convection persisted continuously for almost 2 days, although there were
timings when the winds were high.
Figure 11 a. An extremely important and unusual event of continuous thermal convection over the east
Antarctic ocean is a subject of great scientific value and needs in-depth investigations.
This is something unique as if we see the sunlight hours, the convection can only be
expected during the peak sunlight hours and that too, if we presume that there was no mixing
over the ocean. On the other hand, if the oceanic water is warmer than the air, then the
thermal convection can be sustained on a prolonged basis. In any case, thermal convection
indicates that the surface is at least 3-4oC warmer than the air aloft and the horizontal mixing
is low. It is the time when surface of ocean transports its heat to the atmosphere.
27
Figure 11.b. Dull thermal convection continuing from the previous day, is again an extremely important
phenomenon and calls of well planned PBL studies over the east Antarctic Ocean, which is holding
many natural secrets. The most important part is that even under high winds beyond 1030 hrs., dull
convection continued till 2115 hrs.
Unfortunately, we had no support of any other simultaneous data and therefore, it is

difficult to comment but on the basis of the published results and the data downloaded from
the Antarctic data websites, some light can be thrown as discussed below:
6.1.1. Discussion
It is important to note that there was a surprising event over the east Antarctic
region in early 2002, when the break-up of the Larsen B ice shelf was observed
(http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/global_warming.htm).
This event has been attributed to the effects of global warming. That it occurred is beyond
dispute and that it is a result of the warming of the Antarctic Peninsula where it is situated is
also beyond dispute. What remains unclear is whether or not this is a taste of things to come
and an indicator of an Antarctic-wide phenomena or simply a localized result of the localized
warming of the Antarctic Peninsula region alone.
The Larsen B ice shelf was about 220m thick (720 feet) and during a 35 day period in
early 2002 lost about 3,250 km2 of ice into the ocean. It is thought to have been in existence
for at least 400 years prior to this and probably as long as 12,000 years since the end of the
last ice age.
Such disintegration in such a short time period is therefore an extremely significant event.
What now remains of the Larsen B is about 40% of what was there in 1995. It had been
breaking up at what was considered to be a rapid rate anyway before this major event. The
break-up is thought to be a consequence of higher temperatures and large amounts of summer
melt-water running down crevasses in the ice shelf so speeding the disintegration process.
28
Overall in the Antarctic Peninsula, seven ice shelves have between them declined in area
by about 13,500 km2 since 1974. This melting on such a large scale cannot be explained just
on the basis of warming of the air, it has to be basically warming of the water, which had
dissolved the whole mass of ice. This warming or warm water must have been below the ship
on February 2-3, leading to the formation of thermal convection observed for over 24 hours.
A series of Southern Hemisphere experiments have been performed to study turbulent
convection on a continental shelfslope placed in a large rotating tank filled with fresh water
(Liang et al., 2008).
The upward ocean heat transport is generated by oceanic advection, diffusion, and
convective overturning. In the Southern Ocean, convection occurs along the continental
shelves of Antarctica as well as in the open ocean owing to ice formation and associated salt
rejection (Baines and Condie 1998). Bitz et al. (2006) have demonstrated the strong influence
of sea ice on convection and the upward ocean heat transport through freshwater transport,
which makes the surface waters more stable in a greenhouse warming scenario.
In support of the thermal convection, it is important to note that the synoptic pictures
show that there was certainly warming over the investigation area (Figure 12).
Figure 12. Rising layer is a common phenomenon over the land and is well understood. But, over ocean
and that too in Antarctica, where the ocean is the most turbulent and winds are strong, this is something
unique and needs in-depth investigation.
6.2. The Rising Layer

Another important and unique event is the rising layer observed on January 23, 2002
(Figure 13). The rising layer phenomenon over ocean /ice looks to be unique, as we cannot
expect that over ocean, the heat will not be dissipated by the mixing of the water due to winds
and thermal gradients. Of course, over land, the surface based inversion created at nigh starts
moving up under the influence of solar heating of the earths surface. As this inversion layer
rises, underneath are the thermal plumes.
29
Figure 13. Rising layer over Antarctic ocean is a unique feature on acoustic sounding as it hard to
expect that the oceanic/ icy surface will not transfer energy to its own medium, rather only the upper
surface will get warmer to create convection and sustain it for at least 6 hours.
In fact, it is the thermal plumes, which lift the inversion at the same time, erode it from
the lower side of the inversion. In the case of brisk heating, the plumes may penetrate into the
inversion and may break it within a short span of time. On the other hand, like in winter, it
may take several hours or the upward moving inversion may not break at all, it may remain as
a suspended layer throughout the day and then return back to ground in the evening as the
heating subsides (Dutta et al., 1994; Choudhury and Mitra, 2004; Kumar et al., 2010).
Over the Indian Antarctic station Maitri, an acoustic sounder was deployed in the year
1990 and here also, over a period of six years, some incidences of rising layer were noticed
but such cases were not very prominent (Naithani, 1995).
On the other hand, on the ship, a case of rising layer was observed and it very unique as
over ocean, it cannot be expected that either ocean or ice will behave like Earth. In the ocean,
some amount of mixing will always be expected and over the ice, the melted water under
solar heating shall always dissolve more ice. But under exceptional circumstances, it is just
possible that the energy exchange underneath the water or ice gets limited and the energy
exchange takes place between the wet /icy surface and the air. But, it would certainly require
a high pressure area over the observational site to ensure calm weather (calm ocean) and low
winds.
6.2.1. Discussion
We have scanned the whole literature to get a support for our observation but there is
nothing that can be quoted with firmness. However, it is important to note that for a rising
layer, the heating has to be continuous on the ground to support the development of thermal
plumes underneath the rising layer. This will only be available if the mslp is high so that the
atmosphere is clear to form the steep inversion and in the morning to receive the heat to warm
up or erode the inversion. The atmosphere, of course, has to be still.
30
Figure 14. Isobaric contours of surface msl recorded on January 22, 2002 indicate high Pressure zone
(marked as H) around the ship position.
Figure 15. The sea ice erosion along the eastern coast of Antarctica has been severe in the months of
January-March, 2002. Sreenivasan and Majumdar (2006).
This support is available for the synoptic pictures as seen in Figure 14. It is clear from
this figure that there was indeed a high pressure area or zone between two consecutive
cyclones. This is what normally happens in Antarctica (Naithani, 1995; Kumar, 2002;
Gajananda et al., 2004; Ved Parkash, 2008) and the weather is altogether different in two
regimes (the low pressure area and the high pressure area).
The other support is from the surface temperature (Figure 15), which shows the warming
over the eastern zone of Antarctica and relatively open ocean so that its albedo is low.
31
Actually, the whole month of January was getting warmer as is seen from the published
work of Sreenivasan and Majumdar (2006), wherein authors have reported the unusual
melting and the figures are presented here as Figure 15. The calculated estimates are given in
Table 1.
Table 1. Sea ice areal extents and depletion statistics
Date
15.1.2002
23.1.2002
Area of Sea ice depletion

Million km2
Weekly depletion
Million km2
5.023
4.348
1.160
0.675
Average Weekly rate of

depletion
km2/day
165714
84375
CONCLUSION
Antarctica is the least explored and still a mysteries continent on Earth; through acoustic
sounding of the atmosphere, we have explored two of its unique secrets for the first time in
the history of mankind. Both of these events throw a light on the need to continue acoustic
sounding program with better coordination and planning for giving a proper interpretation for
the better understanding of the water-ice-air-radiation interactions over Antarctica. After all,
Antarctica holds the largest fresh water stock on Earth, the key to absorb CO2, millions of
unique species and much more for the betterment of mankind on Earth.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr. B.S. Gera, who supported the development of shipborne
acoustic sounder in India. Authors would like to thank members of various Indian Scientific
Expedition teams, who helped in the installation of acoustic sounders onboard various ships
sailing over east Antarctica. Thanks are also due to the Chairman, CSIR-SCAR for selecting
and providing field support to various NPL Antarctic teams.
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Chapter 3
LAND-ICE-AIR-OCEAN INTERACTIONS
IN THE SCHIRMACHER OASIS, EAST ANTARCTICA
Khwairakpam Gajananda1 *, H. N. Dutta2 and Victor E Lagun3
ABSTRACT
Study of the land-ice-air-ocean interaction over the Schirmacher Oasis (SO) of east
Antarctica was carried out during the years 1999-2000. The research revealed that a
unique ecosystem prevails over this oasis, where all the physical and biological
components interact in a complex pattern. SO ecosystem is heterogeneous in nature and
the estimated biomass production is low at a value of 22.5 gm m-2. The lakes are
oligotrophic in nature and are of fresh water lakes. Food chain of SO is very simple and
short and the energy cycle is poor due to less sunlight during austral winter. The diversity
of the flora and fauna is poor and is dominated by poikilohydric microorganisms. About
34 species of primitive flora were observed and only 6 primitive invertebrate fauna were
recorded. Only four species of birds were observed in SO. The migratory birds from subAntarctic islands may introduce some non-indigenous forms of plants, animals and
microorganisms species to SO, but only cold tolerant variety of organisms survived.
Average organic carbon content of the oasis is 1.58%, which is poor in comparison to
other ecosystem of the world. The microbial enzyme activity or dehydrogenase activity is
0.008 mg TPF g soil-1 day-1 suggesting a very less microbial activity for substrate
decomposition. Experimental investigation suggested that the climate at Maitri is
dominated by the extreme contrasts between the seasonal inputs of solar radiation. SO
experiences sub-zero mean temperature throughout the year except in the peak summer
months (December and January). Pressure (average 986.5 mb) forms half yearly cycle
and influenced for the formation of cyclones. The humidity and precipitation are low but
have significant relationship for the growth of microorganisms. Convective atmospheric
phenomena during austral summer have the potential for dispersal of the microorganisms
*
E-mail: gajkh@yahoo.com, Mobile: +251-910448842

Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176,Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia
2
Roorkee Engineering and Management Technology Institute,
Shamli-247774, U.P. India
3
Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg-199397, Russia
1
40
Khwairakpam Gajananda, H. N. Dutta and Victor E Lagun

in this oasis. The study suggested that the ecosystem of SO must have grown with some
control of atmospheric parameters and high UV-B doses in Antarctica. Climatic
parameters are limiting the survival of normally living organisms, except for cold
hardiness ones. The diminutive forms of plants and animal of SO are the result of less
availability of nutrient, food and harsh conditions for growth and survival. Therefore,
only the cold tolerant varieties of microorganisms have evolved with time in this oasis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Antarctica presents the most efficient and the most interactive land-ice-air-ocean system
in the world (Dutta et al., 2007). The land-ice-air-ocean interactive system supports extreme
climatic conditions in the interior of the continent. With the result, only micro flora and fauna
have been able to evolve with time and survive, forming one of the most important subjects in
Antarctica for human understanding (Gajananda 2003).
In Antarctica, only Oasis regions get deglaciated during local summer and therefore,
present the most favourable conditions for the survival, growth and function of the micro
flora and fauna in the otherwise harsh climatic conditions. The deglaciation of the east
Antarctic oasis might have started very rapidly, close to the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary,
probably favoured by marine transgression, sea level falls and climatic warming (Melles et
al., 1997). Antarctic continental soils are arid, saline and lacking in organic matter, whereas
maritime soils, in wetter environment, range from structure-less lithosols to frozen peat (Hall
and Walton, 1992). Two important factors in the development and diversity of terrestrial
communities are water availability and the period of exposure since deglaciation.
The retreat of ice sheets offers new sites for colonization by microbes, plants and
animals. The interactions between snow line, freeze-thaw cycles, wet-dry cycles and the
length of the summer are considered as critical in determining the extent and rate of localized
changes in weathering and pedogenesis (Gajananda 2007). The implications of higher
temperatures and differing precipitation regimes are considered in relation to weathering, soil
development and the establishment and development of terrestrial communities of flora and
fauna. A study on this subject will provide a good model of how present soils and
communities developed at the end of the last glacial age. The east Antarctic region, has
relatively young terrestrial and inland water ecosystems, dominated by a few or single
species. These ecosystems offer a great deal of information about species adaptation and
reproduction. Moreover, the coastal region is ideal for the study of dispersal and colonization
across great expanses of ice and ocean (Gajananda 2003). The 8 major coastal oases of
Antarctica provide the migration and immigration of organisms during austral summer. The
migratory birds and Penguins migrate from various sub-Antarctic islands to these regions in
summer, bringing with them various forms of seeds, propagules of plants, spores and minute
invertebrates. The atmospheric boundary layer dynamics over Antarctica has been studied at
many stations by acoustic sounding technique, which provides an in-depth knowledge of the
PBL dynamics (Argentini et al., 1996; Gera et al., 1997; Naithani and Dutta, 1995). Acoustic
sounder finds applications in the areas of fog monitoring (Beran and Hall 1974; Gajananda et
al., 2007). The coastal Antarctic planetary boundary layer (PBL) experiences varying external
influences both from the interior of the continent and due to the moving depressions/cyclones
along the coast (Wendler and Kodama, 1994; Carrasco and Bromwich, 1997). The influence
Land-Ice-Air-Ocean Interactions in the Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica
41
from the interior of the continent is dominated by katabatic flow of winds of varying
intensities, often depositing snow/ice in the form of blowing snow, drift and blizzards (Du
and Bromwich, 1992; Argentini et al., 1996; Braaten, 1997). However, cyclones push
relatively warm and moist air towards the interior of the continent, leading to foggy weather
condition (Naithani and Dutta 1995) and coreless nature of temperature variation over
Antarctica (Wendler and Kodama, 1994; Naithani and Dutta, 1995). In the driest and coldest
habitats, especially where fog and dew are major water sources, desiccation-tolerant algae or
cyanobacteria, bryophytes, lichens may form the only vegetation (Alpert and Oliver 2002). At
the same time, thermal convection over the ocean transports fine living materials and
propagules (Gajananda et al., 2004b). During summer, the atmospheric processes and the
local solar heating make the Antarctic boundary layer to be one of the most dynamical
regions (Kottmeier et al., 1993; Williams and Hacker, 1992 and 1993). It can be mentioned
here that the increasing scientific activities and tourisms over Antarctica has introduced new
and alien species and also unwanted materials are increasing day by day. The extent of its
impact on this pristine environment is yet to be ascertained precisely. Strictly speaking,
vegetation should be considered to be part of the climate system on all timescales. Thus, this
study presents a detailed investigation on almost all aspects of climatic/atmospheric
phenomena in the Schirmacher region that influence both the terrestrial and aquatic ecology
or are directly responsible for ecological control and development of this region. Results
obtained from the analysis of the samples collected over the Schirmacher Oasis (SO
hereafter) during the period December 1999 to January 2000 have been discussed. At the
same time, support of the personal observations related to the number of ecological study and
the simultaneous measurements of the atmospheric parameters, during the above period have
been utilized. Since various ecological factors affect the functioning of life forms in a holistic
manner (i.e. all the factors operate in conjunction and not in isolation), it becomes difficult to
understand the mechanism of the nature of influence by an individual factor. To understand
this mechanism of environmental influences, it is essential to study the effect of each
individual factor separately, thus, by taking into account the concept of an analytical
approach; the following paper has been organized accordingly.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

The SO is mainly comprised of the Precambrian age strata consisting of acidous gneiss
and crystalline slates with intrusions of gabbro-norites, gabbro-diorites and pegmatite veins.
Gouging traces of the ice sheet glaciation are observed everywhere as these are preserved in
the form of individual spurs, sheep-back rocks and glacial striation at the surface of cliffs,
etc. indicating that in the past, the glacier covered the Oasis. Weak development of the
weathering forms on the rock surfaces and fresh traces of glacial impact indicate recent ice
disappearance. The weathering of rocks releases minerals, an essential component for the
survival and development of the eco-system. It may be noted that the weathering of rocks
leads to the formation of sandy soil, which cannot support normal forms of plant and animal
lives. At the same time, brown or black rocks absorb solar energy, leading to a much higher
temperature of the rock surfaces, thus providing a better habitat for the unique micro flora and
fauna of Antarctica. The channels of temporary water flows appearing in the summer months
42
interconnect many lakes. The depth of channel entrenchment is different comprising 8-10 m
in the break segments. In mid-summer during the period of intense melting of snowfields and
the glacial slope adjoining the SO, the area of some lakes significantly increases. Numerous
small lakes appear with an area of up to several tens of square meters. By genesis, the lakes of
glacial origin dominate. There are many relict lakes-lagoons located at the boundary between
the Oasis and the ice shelf. Both shallow (3-5 m) and deep lakes (20 to 120 m) are
encountered. Water in the lakes has very low mineral and small hardness. Figure 1. gives the
sampling locations, fresh water lakes, rocky areas, ice shelves, polar icecaps with the two
adjacent east Antarctic researches stations namely Maitri and Novolazarevskaya. SO can be
classified as a true cold desert of Antarctica (Wharton 1993). In this oasis average annual
precipitation (expressed in terms of water) is between 50-150mm (Schwerdtfeger 1979).
Heavy snowfall occurs when cyclonic storms over the surrounding seas push in relatively
warm and moist air over the continent. This moist air freezes and is deposited as snow over
the areas. The region has almost continuous daylight during the local summer and darkness
during the winter. The continental character dominates climate of the SO, except in local
summer when it is predominated by the intensity of solar radiation heating the exposed rocks.
The weather forms depend on the position of the circumpolar trough, solar parameters, flow
of katabatic winds and the position of various cyclones along the periphery of Antarctica. The
circumpolar trough has a biannual movement, leading to the surface pressure level to be the
highest during summer and winter periods. In contrast to the seasons normally observed over
the Northern hemisphere, the seasons of Antarctica have been divided as given in table 1. The
relative air humidity, on an average does not exceed 52% in a year. Under such conditions,
strong evaporation and melting of snow occurs, which is probably, one of the decisive factors
ensuring the existence of the oasis under the current climatic conditions. Table 2. shows the
average climatic characteristics of the SO, calculated from the meteorological data recorded
during 1990-96 at Maitri, Antarctica.
Figure 1. Location of the study sites in east Antarctica.
43
Table 1. Different seasons of Schirmacher Oasis

S No.
1.
Seasons
Summer
2.
Autumn
3.
Winter
4.
Spring
Months of the season

December, January and February
December-January are totally sunny over the Schirmacher region
Circumpolar trough is towards the periphery of Antarctica
March, April and May
Surface temperature is on the declining phase
Circumpolar trough moves away from the continent and by Winter, it
again returns close to the periphery of Antarctica.
June, July and August
June and July are totally dark over the SO
Circumpolar trough is near to the Antarctic continent
September, October and November
Surface temperature is on the inclining phase
Circumpolar trough starts moving towards the Southern Ocean and
again in summer, it returns back to the periphery of Antarctica.
Table 2. Average climatic parameters recorded over the Schirmacher

Oasis during 1990-96
Direct annual radiation
Total annual radiation
Absorbed annual radiation
Annual radiation balance
Average annual temperature
Mean annual atmospheric pressure at sea level
Mean annual wind speed
Prevailing wind direction
Mean annual relative air humidity
Annual precipitation quantity
Number of days with snow storms for a year
Mean annual absolute air humidity
Mean annual total cloudiness
43.9 kcal/cm2
93.8 kcal/cm2
69.6 kcal/cm2
23.9 kcal/cm2
-11C
988.0 mb
10.2 m/s
ESE
52%
309 mm
88 days
0.07 hPa
5.8 points
The group at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi has been primarily
working on the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) over the SO since 1989-90. During the
years 1990-1997, a monostatic acoustic sounder or Sodar was operated at the Maitri, Station
(Naithani and Dutta 1995). The Sodar measurements indicate stable atmospheric condition
throughout the year (~95%), except in summer, when thermal convection predominates
during the noon hours (~5%). The stable atmosphere is basically due to the extreme
transparency of the atmosphere, leading to the cooling of the icy surfaces. However, heating
of the dry, rocky region, especially in the warmer hours of the day, causes the thermal
convection. In the Antarctic environment, penetration of UV light is much deeper. However,
it is influenced by the influx of suspended particulate material, sea salt etc. by the cyclones
churning and pushing the warm, moist oceanic air towards the continent.
44
2.1. Atmospheric Measurements

The techniques used for studying the atmospheric parameters are broadly classified into
the following two categories:
1. Direct or in-situ measurement techniques, and
2. Remote sensing techniques.
The direct sensing techniques include surface instruments, instrumented towers, free
rising balloons, radiosonde etc and the remote sensing techniques include Sodar, satellites
data, UV-B, radiosonde etc. Depending upon the meteorological parameters to be measured,
both of these techniques have their own importance and are at times complementary or
supplementary to one another. The precise and accurate measurements of meteorological
parameters need appropriate combination of the direct and the remote sensing techniques for
a better understanding of the atmospheric dynamics. The Indian Antarctic program is
relatively new as the permanent Antarctic station Maitri was established only in the year
1988-89. At present both the direct and remote sensing instruments are in use at the Maitri
station.
2.2. Ecological Samples Collection and Analysis

In the SO the exposed landmass filled with glacial water in the streams and lakes offers a
relatively warmer habitat for the development of its own ecosystem. A continuous cycle of
freezing and melting in winter and summer brings a large amount of change in
physicochemical and biological properties of the waters, bottom sediments and over the rocky
structures. In the SO, 14 sites that were showing the growth of some biological organisms
were selected for studying some important ecological parameters. Collection of water, soil,
flora and fauna and records of migratory birds such as Skua, Petrels and Penguins etc. were
performed at these 14 locations of the SO (figure 1). Table 3. gives the descriptions of these
sites. This work has been one of the most important tasks that have been undertaken at the
Maitri and over the surrounding region. The water, soil and biological samples from all the 14
different locations covering almost entirely the oasis region were studies of their
physicochemical analysis. It can be mentioned here that sampling is seriously limited by the
harsh weather conditions in Antarctica. It is pertinent to mention here that SO is a rocky
terrain with high and low undulations, sparse nunataks and depressions, slippery ice sheets,
falling glacier walls, severe blizzards etc. Sampling was also often interrupted by adverse
weather conditions.
2.3. Sampling Techniques

The collection of samples was done during the last week of December 1999 to 31 January
2000, which was the only favourable period for growth of flora and fauna. Samples of water
and soil, flora including lichens, algae and mosses, and birds litter were collected from the
study sites such as moist and dried lakes, running streams and rocky sandy soil areas, all
45
along the length of SO. The temperature was recorded at the site of collection using simple
thermometer during the sampling session and compared with the daily station temperature
records at Maitri. From all the 14 sites, samples of soil, water (wherever available), rocks and
biological samples were collected in triplicate. The sampling and analysis were carried out
based on the standard methods.
Table 3. Description of the 14 sampling sites at the Schirmacher Oasis
Site No.
1
Habitat type
Swampy lake bank
Lake bank
Site No.
3
Habitat type
Hilly rocky area
Swampy lake bank
Hilly and rocky area
Glacier melt water, lake

bank
Rocky area near Skua
nest
Near Maitri station, Zub
lake bank
Small dried lake,
swampy area
Glacier melt water,
stream, small lake
Dried lake, swampy and
sandy area
Near Novolazarevskaya
lake
Hilly rocky area
Algae and tardigrades

dominate
Mosses and mites dominate
Transition of continental
ice and SO rocks
Lichen dominate
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Flora and Fauna

Algae, protozoans and mites
dominate
dominate
Flora and Fauna
Lichen and mites dominate
dominates
Algae and mites dominate

Mosses and protozoans
dominate
Algae and tardigrades
dominate
Mosses and mites dominate
Algae and protozoans
dominate
Remark
Little human
activities
Little human
activities
Remark
Little human
activities
Little human
activities
Little human
activities
Little human
activities
Moderate human
activities
High activities of
human
Little human
activities
Little human
activities
Little human
activities
High activities of
human
Little human
activities
Little human
activities
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 2. shows the schematic flow diagram of the interactive mechanism, in which,
energy (heat and momentum) flows from one form to another to support the survival of some
life forms and development of Antarctic environment with time (adapted from Dutta et al.,
2007).
46
Figure 2. Most efficiently coupled Land-Ice-Air-Ocean Interaction System in the World. It maintains
itself strongly but gets influenced by the global changes. (Dutta et al., 2007).
In the process, cyclones churn the ocean to mix the oxygen in the oceanic water,
promoting high rate of biological production. Also, due to the cyclones, long exposure of the
high UV-B doses to the biological organisms is avoided due to creation of turbulent mixing in
the ocean, as well as, due to the development of thick clouds and precipitation. High doses of
UV-B radiations in Antarctica might also be playing a role in degrading the dead organic
matter, thereby releasing various nutrients, which could be readily used by planktons, thereby
rendering Antarctic Ocean as the most productive ocean in the world. At the same time, the
47
cold oceanic water has much higher capacity to retain dissolved oxygen, the most essential
component in the production, growth and function of organisms, as well as to support krills
and various types of fishes in the southern ocean (Dutta et al., 2007). Under natural
conditions, it is found that living organisms are affected by the sum total of all ecological
factors and not by any individual factor. All these factors interact and are interrelated to each
other, forming a complex process. Variations in one may affect the other in measurable
quantities.
3.1. Structure and Function of the SO Ecosystem

The SO ecosystem is a unique and fragile ecosystem with very low species diversity both
from plant and animal kingdom, non-existence of higher life forms, domination of the biotic
component by lower forms of plants and invertebrate organisms surviving since millions of
years. The nutrient and energy exchanges in this oasis are poor due to low productivity and
low diversity of flora and fauna, and extreme environmental factors. At this juncture, it is
important to mention that the main factors limiting life in the SO ecosystem are the sub-zero
temperatures, severe katabatic winds, drift, blizzards, extremely low humidity, snowfall, low
availability of liquid water and poor sun light even during summer months, high doses of UV
radiation etc. Despite the extreme environment, some forms of life have been found in the
soils, streams, lakes, rocks, glacial lake ices, and melted water pools. Microorganisms such as
the prokaryote dominate while a few varieties of eukaryotes prefer less stressful sites. The
flora of the oasis is dominated with several species of algae, lichen and mosses. The total
faunal biodiversity of the oasis consist of nearly 10 mostly microscopic species, permanently
inhabiting the region. These species include protozoans, rotifers, nematodes, tardigrades,
insects, and mites; there are no land-based vertebrates. The poorly developed soils and low
nutrient water bodies contain bacteria, algae, yeast, and fungi. These microorganisms interact
among themselves and with their nonliving environment for both food and nutrition. Over the
thousands of years, SO has resulted in the development and sustenance of one of the simplest
ecosystems in the world, leading to very high species endemism in this region. The lake
ecosystem in the oasis varies from brackish to freshwater in nature, depending upon the
distance from the coast.
In SO, the hill slopes remain covered with ice in winter, but in summer, melted water gets
accumulated in the depression areas between the hills, forming lakes of various sizes.
However, the quantity of water in the lakes depends on the quantity of melting water, which
varies from year-to-year. The majority of the lakes are archaic, possessing no outflow, and the
annual ablation rate is generally balanced by the summer ephemeral inflow of glacial meltstreams. Some lakes are very shallow, small in size and are subjected to periodic drying. In
winter, all these lakes freeze. The lakes, ponds and swampy areas surveyed during the study
were of fresh water in nature, varying in physical area from 1.5 sq m to 2.1 sq km; depth
ranges from 1.2 to 8 m. At the same time, it has also been found that the surrounding of the
lakes peripheries provides a better habitat for the organisms. Figure 3. shows possible
interaction between five principal components of the environment (energy, soil nutrients,
organisms, water and air) prevailing over the oasis. From this figure, we infer that the
ecological factors alone cannot sustain in this interactive system, rather they are a part of the
whole system (Gajananda 2003).
48
Figure 3. Simplified patterns of energy and nutrient exchange in the Schirmacher Oasis.
Consequently, looking at the roles of inorganic components which involve in material

cycling, the organic compounds linking the biotic and abiotic component, climate, the
prevailing organisms of the ecosystem (structure) and their holistic interaction or links in a
complex pattern for energy, nutrients, food chain, evolution and control (function) etc in the
SO ecosystem, give a meaningful study in terms of the traditional way of ecosystem analysis
by both the structural and functional concept (Figure 3).
3.2. Biotic (Living Matter)

The biological environment of Antarctica is composed of two distinct and very different
ecosystems: a terrestrial ecosystem (mainly over the Oasis regions), and a marine ecosystem.
Marine organisms are widely distributed around Antarctica, often in patches with high
population densities. Some marine mammals, such as seals and sea birds, spend some time
both on land and at sea. Sea birds also supply land-based plants with vital nutrients, but
terrestrial organisms provide no nutrients for marine flora or food for marine fauna. The
micro faunal density at SO was found to be high in moss associated sediments. This could be
related to the availability of rich organic matter in the moss beds (Davis, 1980). The SO soil
has very low organic content. SO represents a typical terrestrial ecosystem, with low
organism densities and abundance.
It is important to note that due to higher population densities, greater complexity, and
greater continuity, the marine ecosystem of Antarctica is probably somewhat more resilient to
49
impacts than is the land-based ecosystem. The biotic component of the oasis is expressed in
terms of their energy exchanges and trophic position such as producers, consumers and
decomposers.
3.2.1. Producers
The producers of the SO are comprised of all non vascular plants. Based on the study and
collection of all the vegetated sites in the 14 study areas of SO, a total of 34 species were
recorded consisting of mostly lichens, algae and mosses. The Oasis is represented by
individual rare patches of lichens on rocky substrates and by moss mats on silt. A total of
about 19 species of lichen have been reported in the Oasis (Pandey and Upreti 2000). In the
present study 17 species of lichens were recorded. Diatoms were found to be present in waters
of lakes of the oases. The algal-flora of lakes in the oasis consists of about 11 species and
most of them belong to the phytoplanktonic groups dominated by cyanobacteria. On the land,
the producers such as lichen, mosses and algae were found mostly on damp soils, surface of
rocks, and beneath the rock surface. Wherever moisture availability is high the populations of
producers are also high. As the primary productivity is very less, they may support a small
fraction of living consumers. Description of the species found in the SO performing the roles
of primary producers are:
(i) Algae. The algal species at the SO occupied distinct levels of habitats; (a) in
association with mosses (b) on damp soils (c) on quartz rocks in the water pools and
(d) lake bottoms. The submerged rocks, which are directly exposed to sunlight,
favored the growth of thin reddish brown to blue-green encrustation. These crusts
were composed of both N2 and non-N2-fixing species. The cyanobacterial patches
only covered with high amount of mucilage were abundant on the soil surface near
the edge of the stream and were also observed in the depressions created on turning
the small rocks and stones in slow running streams. Glacier does not support growth
of algae and cyanobacteria. The pond and upper stream support less growth of algae
and cyanobacteria. However, their growth was abundant and readily visible on the
surface of the rocks, boulders and weathered soil of the middle portion of the stream
of site no. 2. Algae are also found under rocks, particularly light-coloured quartz
stones, where the microclimate is more favourable than in the surrounding sand or
soil. This strategy enables them to scrape a humble living in this harsh environment.
The species richness of algae was highest in the streams. Analysis of SO lake water
showed the presence of Oscillatoria, Chroococcus, Synechocystis and some diatom
species. Phormidium frigidum constitutes an important and dominant species of algal
flora, which is non-N2-fixing species. Table 4. shows the different types of algae
found at the SO. Majority of the algae recorded at the SO possess tough and collared
mucilage. These properties of algae may help in two possible ways (a) light filtration
and (b) increasing water retention capacity. Komarek and Ruzicka (1966) found that
the ice-covered lakes of SO were highly productive due to algae. The main
component of flora is the Phormidium species, which forms large fan shaped
colonies supersaturating the water with oxygen.
(ii) Lichens. Lichens are the most widespread flora of the SO. Lichens such as
Rhizocarpon flavum, Acarospora gwynnii, Xanthoria elegans, Buellia pallida,
50

Lecidia cancariformis, Lecanora fuscobrumnea, Umbilicaria aprina dominate in the
oasis. It is interesting to note that lichens are found growing even on rock surfaces,
where availability of nutrients is low. This is due to the fact that many of these rocks
are porous; so as to retain little amount of water. The lichens released some weak
acids themselves, resulting in the dissolution of some nutrients from the rocks
(Pandey and Upreti, 2000; Stoutjesdijk and Barkman, 1991; Upreti and Pant, 1995).
At the same time, rock surfaces become much warmer under sunlight than the soil
itself, leading to a favorable conditions for lichens to grow. Under the microscope, it
has been observed that the lichens penetrate the upper transparent coat of the rock. In
all the samples collected, lichens are present mainly in the water free rocky samples.
Their population density is high in the oasis. Lichen population and density are more
favourable in humid environment. They are found in abundance in all the forms of
soil substrates. Lichens are known to be the initial colonizers of bare rocks starting
the succession process. The growth of lichens on the rocks of SO indicates that they
might be having the way for some more forms of life by creating gradually a little
more congenial conditions for growth in years to come. Table 5. gives the various
descriptions and the dispersal potential of the lichen communities over SO.
(iii) Mosses. The moss species available over the SO are given in Table 6. the most
dominant one is Bryum argenteum, which is capable of photosynthesis in low light
and low temperature. Photosynthesis of this moss can start within a few hours of
thawing after a prolonged period of freezing and almost immediately following short
snowfall periods. Moss (Bryum species) has been found to be associated with algae
such as Nostoc species and Stigonema species. Moss turfs are seen mainly on the icemelt water streams from the glaciers. They tend to grow more on the places with
finer sand than the coarse sand with pebbles (Table 6). Maximum biomass of the Zub
Lake has been estimated as ~40.63 gm m-2 and it comprises mainly of moss turfs
(Gajananda 2003). The moss habitat forms the substratum for the micro invertebrates
such as tardigrades, nematodes and rotifers. Only in site no. 9 (Figure 1), mosses
were not observed. This may be due to the fact that the sample was collected from
water free dry lake region of SO. Mosses were found in abundance in other samples.
In terms of density and population moss Bryum argenteum is amongst the dominant
flora of the SO.
3.2.2. Consumers
The real consumers of the oasis are mainly the primary consumers composed of
invertebrate micro-fauna. These micro-fauna have adapted to the extreme living conditions
throughout the years. However, some of the larger birds (Skua, Snow Petrels, Storm Petrels
and stray Penguins) migrate to this region only during the local summer. All the birds depend
on the sea for their food except Skua, which also feeds on the dead remains of Penguins,
Petrel and their chicks. Thus, Skua acts as a detritivore and scavenger. It may be noted that
these birds except Penguins, migrate purposely towards the oasis region, while Penguins
come by mistake, losing their sense of direction. Instead of moving towards the coast in
search of food, they move towards the continent. The death of such Penguins serves the
purpose of the scavenger bird Skua and the remains add to nutrient pool of the oasis. The
invertebrate terrestrial fauna of SO mainly inhabited in the soil and in vegetation. They range
from protozoa (single-celled creatures), rotifers, tardigrades and nematodes to arthropods
51
(mainly mites and springtails, midge). The largest invertebrate found is the wingless midge
(Belgica antarctica), which grows to 12 mm long. The distribution of tardigrades, nematodes
and rotifers are more near surface soil area. The occurrence of micro fauna on the top layers
of the soil may be due to a slight rise in temperature due to sunshine, availability of food etc.
They may also migrate up and down in the soil.
Further studies might reveal the local variations due to temperature and light difference
the occurrence of these fauna in the soil. Heywood (1979) has also shown that many
invertebrates are plant feeders. It may be stated here, that the species reported in 8 lakes and 4
swampy areas of SO are those that are distributed widely in Antarctic lakes with similar
behavioural pattern that is thriving well in sediments rich in micro flora and organic matter.
Densities of these micro fauna vary from 20,000 to more than 14 million animals per m2
(Bonner and Walton, 1985). Ingole et al., (1987) observed a maximum tardigrade density of
140 per m2 and 272 per m2 of nematodes at Zub Lake.
However, a maximum of 35 per m2 of Tardigrades, 21 per m2 of nematodes and 10 per
2
m of rotifers were observed in the present study, which is much lower than at the bottom of
the lake in SO. The low density of micro-fauna in the present study may be due to less food
availability (moss growth) on the land. Population density of these micro-fauna is reported to
show variations with light, temperature, level of blizzard, relative humidity and food, these
being the major determinants (Fleeger and Hummon, 1975; Morgan, 1977). All of the
Antarctic animals have adapted to life in extremely cold conditions. The springtails and mites
live under rocks in the SO. A brief description of the primary consumers of SO is provided as
follows.
Table 4. Taxonomic assessment, identification, habitats descriptions and the dispersal
potential of the algal communities of Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica
S No.
Algal class, order

and species
Habitat
descriptions
Shapes and
sizes (m),
color
Forms of
possible
dispersal
Comments
Class:
Cyanophyceae
Order:
Nostocales
Calothrix gracilis
Lyngbya
aeustuarii
Nostoc commune
Oscillatoria
limosa
Phormidium
frigidum
Schizithrix
Order:
Chroococcales
Aphanocapsa
Aphanothece
nidulans
Gloeocapsa
kuetzingiana
Found in all
the sites; fresh
water lakes,
streams,
swamps,
ponds etc.
association
with lichen
and mosses;
forming green
scum; black
epilithic crusts
on rock
surfaces
Ellipsoidal,
Spherical,
irregular;
motile or non
motile; 1-90;
both
unicellular or
multicellular;
colonial
Independent
dispersal of
spores and
cysts may
occur;
vegetative
cells, spores
and cysts
Generally
aggregated,
chlorophyll
present, thallus
undifferentiated
thalloid plant body
52

Table 4. (Contnued)
S No.
Algal class, order

and species
Habitat
descriptions
Shapes and
sizes (m),
color
Forms of
possible
dispersal
Comments
Spherical,
ellipsoidal,
irregular
1-80
Same
Same
Order:
Chlorococcales
Chlorococcum
3
Class:
Baccilariophycea
e
Order:
Pennales
Hantzschia
Pinnularia
borealis
Table 5. Taxonomic assessment, identification, habitats, descriptions and the dispersal

potential of the lichen communities of Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica
S No.
Lichen class,
order and species
Sites, Habitat
descriptions and date
Shapes and
sizes (m),
colour
Spherical,
irregular;
35-70;
yellowish
green
Forms of
possible
dispersal
Independent
dispersal of
ascospores;
Soredia, Isidia
Comments
Acarospora
A. gwynnii
A. williamsi
Alectoria
A.minuscule
Very common on
shady place, moraine
and rocks; generally
absent in habitats
close to melt water;
Near Russian and
Indian Stations
Cracks and surface
of rocks, rocks inside
water
Same
Same
Moraine, amongst
pebbles, rocks
Same
Same
Carbonea
C. capsulata
Grow on rocks of
small depressions,
Near Russian station
along the lake.
White mat
with
compressed
areolate
Same
Lecidea
L.cancariformis
Same;
black
apothecia
Same
Lecanora
L.fuscobrumnea
Very common,
endolithic lichen,
grow in dry rocky
surface, mostly on
the leeward sides of
rocks, along the dried
stream
Grow on rocks,
sheltered place,
Same; Fruticose;
forms varicose
masses;
filamentous
Same; umbilicate
thallus; crustose
and saxicolous
Same;
amorphous
thallus; apothecia
on the tops and
sides of the
stipes
Same
Buellia
B.pallida
yellowdark brown
disc,
Same
Squamulose
areolate and
crustose; thallus
fragments very
common
Same; lichen
with crowded
mats of
apothecia

S No.
Lichen class,
order and species
Sites, Habitat
Lepraria
Lepraria
membranacea
Physcia
P.caesia
Polycauliona
P. murrayi
Very common lichen

of SO, grow on moist
place, decayed
mosses
Common and
luxuriant lichen;
Pebbles and small
rocks
Common lichen on
rocks, sandy soils,
well watered areas
Porpidia
P.species
Rhizocarpon
R.flavum
R.species
10
Rinodina
R.Species
11
Umbilicaria
U.aprina
U.decussata
12
Xanthoria
X.elegans
Stones, pebbles,
Rocks; leeward sides
of rocks
Rocks, stones,
pebbles; streams,
ponds, lakes
Most common lichen

on rocks; decayed
mosses tufts, algae
etc.
Most common lichen
on rocks, stream,
lakes, ponds, sandy
soil; elevated well
sunlight area
Sandy soil near
Novolazarevskaya
lake
53
Shapes and
sizes (m),
colour
Powdery,
Yellow
colored
Forms of
possible
dispersal
Same
Comments
Same;
whitish,
Same
Same; foliose
lichen
Orangeblack
circular
hapteron
Same;
black
apothecia
Same;
yellowblack and
white-black
colored
Same;
black
granular
Same
Same; fruticose
lichen; erect tufts
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same; varicose
lichen
Thallus 0.1
cm to 18
cm
diameter
Same
Same; foliose
lichen;
cosmopolitan
Same; red
lichen
Same
Same; lobate
lichen
Same
Table 6. Taxonomic assessment, identification, habitats, descriptions

and the dispersal potential of the mosses (bryophytes) communities
of Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica
S
No.
Mosses family,
Genus and species
Sites, Habitat
Shapes and sizes

(m), colour
1.
Bryaceae
Bryum
argenteum(Hedw.)
Bryum
pseudotriquetreum
(Hedw.)
Very Common; moist

soils, sheltered place
of rocks; banks of
lakes, ponds and
swampy areas; close to
snow banks; biogenic
remains; birds nest
remains etc.
Globose,
tetrahedral,
Variable in
length;
10-25; yellowish
brown to
brownish, red
stem, deep green
Forms of
possible
dispersal
Spores,
Gemmae
Comments
Sporophyte
present;
seta 1.5-4.5
cm long;
whitish
colour;
capsulated;
vegetative
fragments
dispersal
observed
54

Table 6. (Continued)
S
No.
Mosses family,
Genus and species
Sites, Habitat
Shapes and sizes

(m), colour
2.
Pottiaceae
Bryoerythrophyllu
m recurviroste
(Hedw.)
Pottia cf. heimii
(Hedw)
Not common; banks of

lakes, ponds and
swampy areas; close to
snow banks; around
the nest remains etc.
3.
Ditrichaceae
Cedratondon
purpureus (Hedw.)
Common; Same as Sl
No. 1
4.
Grimmiaceae
Grimmia sps.
Common; Same as S
No. 1.
Globose and
tetrahedral;
10-25; reddish
green to brown,
yellowish green
to green, reddish
nerves
Globose,
tetrahedral,
Variable in
length;
10-25; brownish
green, yellow,
reddish
Globose,
tetrahedral,
Variable in
length;
6-20; brownish
green, green
turfs
Forms of
possible
dispersal
Gemmae,
vegetative
fragments
Comments
Gemmae,
vegetative
fragments
Non
Sporophyte
vegetative
fragments
dispersal
observed
Gemmae,
vegetative
fragments
Non
Sporophyte;
vegetative
fragments
dispersal
observed
NonSporophyte;
vegetative
fragments
dispersal
observed.
3.2.2.1. Primary Consumers

The primary consumers of the SO are very less in comparison to others ecosystem types.
The primary consumers comprise of minute organisms, which consume very little amount of
food available in this oasis. Table 7. shows the various primary consumers of the oasis.
During the present investigation, six different micro faunal groups viz., Protozoa,
Nematoda, Rotifera, Tardigrada, Collembola and Mites have been recorded from SO area
(Table 7). Some groups of parasitic insects are also found in this region. It is found that
nematodes and protozoans have higher range of adaptability in this harsh environmental
condition. Table 7. shows that most of the micro-faunal groups were found from ice free
areas, except mites, which were not found in ice-free water. Collembola was not found in
sites mostly covered with ice water. All the micro faunal groups were found in both running
and stagnant water except mites, which were available only in running water. Thus from the
present data (Table 7) it may be concluded that Protozoa, Rotifera and Nematoda were
distributed in generalized way and in all different conditions of the water and moss habitat
type.
(i) Protozoa. Maximum number of Testacids Protozoan species (7 sps) followed by 6
sps of Rhizopods have been observed in SO. Amongst ciliates, Oxytricha fallax is
found in all the lakes. Testacids Corythion dubium was found to be most dominant
and cosmopolitan, followed by Assulina muscorum and Arcella Sp. One genus
(Parmulina Penard) of protozoan species of Schirmacher area is cosmopolitan to soil
55
and moss dwelling forms. However, earlier workers found that several species are
endemic to SO.
(ii) Rotifer. The Rotifers are a group of small usually microscopic, Pseudocoelomate
animals. They are also called Rotatoria or wheel animalcules. Only one species
viz., Philidina gregaria has been observed and collected from SO.
(iii) Tardigrada. Tardigrades have well defined head and four trunk segments with 4
pairs of short legs bearing claws, which are used to walk along underwater surfaces.
Tardigrades have the ability to hibernate (cryptobiosis) in which they can survive
extreme thermal condition, exposure to highly toxic chemicals, drying out, etc. In
this process, they are capable of withstanding very cold condition (-900 C) by passing
into a state of very low metabolic activity. This phenomenon is also referred to as
anabiosis. The body surface is covered with ornamented plates, sometimes bearing
spines or hairs. Many species have eyes. The mouth is terminal or ventroterminal.
Sexes are separate and the females are oviparous. Development is direct, the cuticle
being moulted. Two species of tardigrades are found in SO, namely Hypsibius
ckhilenesis and Macrobiotus polaris. The ability to tolerate severe desiccation,
anhydrobiosis survival etc are the advantages for the widespread distribution of many
species of tardigrades. In spite of the short summer season tardigrades multiply
quickly and become very abundant. They reproduce by parthenogenesis.
(iv) Nematoda. Three species of nematodes are found in SO viz. Tylenchorhychus sp.,
Dorylaimoides sp and Rhabditis. Hazra (1994) recorded 5 genera from SO for the
first time. The genus Tylenchorhynchus and Dorylaimoides, which occur widespread
in the Indian continent, might have been transported along with agricultural products
to the SO especially in the Zub lake area (Venkataraman 1998).
(v) Springtail (Collembola). Two species out of two families viz., Isotomidae and
Entomobryidae were observed from SO. Isotomidae is larger and have slender body,
they can jump actively, whereas smaller type Entomobryidae is dorso-ventrally
flattened with broad oval abdomen and moves slow to hide in the soil. The body
segments are more obvious in larger type. The springtails were collected from soil
with micro-plants. They mainly inhabited the soils where little growth of plants is
possible. The population densities of larger and smaller types of springtails were
counted as 6 to 28 and 12 to 56, respectively in 100 gm of soil sample. So far 20
species of springtails have been reported from the Antarctic continent (Laws, 1977).
(vi) Mites. Mites, which belong to the spider family, are the commonest land animals. It
is the worlds most southerly indigenous animal found as far south as 850 S. Two
species of mites viz., Tyrophagus sp and another unidentified species of family
Scutacaridae from SO have been reported by earlier workers (Mitra, 1999). Many of
the mites avoid freezing by a physical process known as super-cooling, whereby
their body fluids are maintained in a liquid state in temperatures below their normal
freezing point (Pan and Shimada 1991). Their ability to synthesize glycerol,
antifreeze, enables them to survive temperatures of 350 C (Block et al., 1994). The
population varied from 7 to 76 in 100 gm soil. Acarina represents the principal
Arthropod group and these mites are large and relatively well-known group in the
region.
(vii)
Insects. Compared to other regions, insects are scarce and much smaller in
size over the oasis. The type of living habitat for most of them has been found to be
56

parasitic, like lice, which live in the feathers and fur of birds and seals, where they
remain protected from the harsh climate for most of the time. Collembola
(springtails) are the only free-living insects, which feed on algae and fungi, and
remain dormant in winter. However, some of the parasitic insects do fall on the
surface from feathers of the birds, but they do not survive during the freezing
periods.
Table 7. Primary consumers of SO
S No.
Microconsumers
(species)
Habitat descriptions
Protozoa
Rotifer
Most dominant sps,

lakes, soil, moss dwelling
forms
Partly freshwater but
prefer moist terrestrial
moss-water habitat
Tardigrada
Nematoda
Springtail
(Collembola)
Insects
Mites
Non-planktonic; Found in
aquatic mosses and algae,
mud, ponds and lakes.
Active tardigrades found
even in droplets and film
of water on terrestrial wet
mosses.
Not common; found in
soils, plants and dead
organic materials,
terrestrial moist soil,
moss-fresh-water etc.
Found mostly in soil;
damped place with small
amount of micro flora
Scarce; Parasitic; found
mainly inside the
stations; birds feathers
etc.
Commonest land animals
Shapes and sizes

(m), color
Comments
Small microscopic,
mm long;
reddish color.
Also known as
rotatoria or
wheel
animalcules
Commonly
known as water
bear;
Cryptobiosis;
reproduce by
parthenogenesis
About 1 mm long
About 0.6 mm
long, 0.03 mm
wide and weighs
about 0.55
micrograms
About 0.65mm to
1.25 mm long;
white in color
Smaller compare to
mainland parasites
About 0.3 mm
long; whitish in
color; oval shape
with dorsally
convex body
Only free living

insect
Mostly parasitic
to birds
Worlds most
southernly
indigenous
animal; process
of "supercooling"
57
3.2.2.2. Secondary Consumers

Birds: Penguins (Emperor, King, and Adlie), petrels (Snow, Wilson's storm, Blackbellied storm, and Gray-backed storm), Brown Skua, and Arctic Tern were seen during the
study period. Most typical and abundant bird of the oasis is the Adlie penguins and Brown
Skua. Their description and habitat are given as follows:
(i) (i). Penguins. Penguins are the common flightless, aquatic birds of the southern
hemisphere. The largest species are the Emperor Penguin, which may attain a height
of more than 120 cm (48 in), and the King Penguin, from 91 to 97 cm (36 to 38 in) in
height. Adelie penguins are the most widespread penguins in Antarctica and they are
smaller than Emperor and King Penguins. All these species of penguins are found on
the Antarctic ice. They evolved from earlier flying ancestors but have become highly
specialized for swimming. Their wings resemble the paddles of other swimming
vertebrates. The ability to withstand intense cold is one of the penguin's greatest
advantages. Most penguins have small feet, wings, and heads. The relatively small
body parts in comparison to the birds volume results in excellent heat conservation.
In addition, many penguins have a thick insulating layer of fat under the skin. The
emperor penguin, which may weigh 27 to 32 kg, appears to be the best equipped of
all. Penguins usually walk or hop and toboggan along on their breasts, pushing with
wings and feet. Penguins feed on fish, cuttlefish, crustaceans, and other small sea
animals. On land, they make colonies (rookeries), which often numbered in the
hundreds of thousands. The greatest concentrations of penguins are seen in rookeries,
where the birds gather to breed. The emperor penguin breeds in one of the world's
most inhospitable regions during one of the coldest periods of the year, laying and
incubating its eggs in temperatures as low as -620 C. Most species of penguin lay a
clutch of two eggs, which are white or greenish in colour. Incubation periods vary
according to species. The Adlies incubate their eggs in the open nests formed of
stones or sticks. King and Emperor penguins build no nests; in these species the bird
holds its single egg on the top of its feet, hunching down over it so that a fold of
abdominal skin covers and warms the egg. In general, both sexes incubate the eggs
and feed the young. The male Adlie penguin usually fasts while incubating the eggs
for the first two weeks, allowing the female to return to the sea to feed and bathe.
The male has been known to fast during the entire time that the nesting territory is
established and defended, courtship takes place, and the eggs are laid and incubated.
Most penguin chicks are covered with a sooty-grey down at hatching, although some
have a pattern of soft greys and whites. Natural enemies of the penguin include
leopard seals, killer whales and in the case of young chicks and eggs, Skuas. Today,
the populations of penguins have increased due to lesser human perturbation.
Scientific classification: Penguins make up the order Sphenisciformes. The king
penguin is classified as Aptenodytes patagonica, the emperor penguin as Aptenodytes
forsteri. The six other species that have yellowish feather crests on the sides of their
heads make up the genus Eudyptes. The Adelie Penguin as Pygoscelis adeliae.
(ii) Skua (Catharacta macromicii). Skuas are brown coloured predatory sea birds. The
lower side of the wing feathers are light colour and flashy. Their beak is like the
common kites and is strongly hooked. The beak is covered at the base with a flat
horny sheath. The black feet are like that of the common duck and are strongly
58

clawed. They have a rapid, sustained and powerful flight, which enables them to prey
on many birds. Skuas prey on chicks and eggs, particularly those of penguins and
take a heavy toll of small petrels. Skuas characteristically are territorial bird; they
defend intruders of their territories by raising and squalling with open wings over the
back. The females are larger than males and are more aggressive and rapacious.
Females are particularly aggressive in defending their young chicks from intruders.
The Skuas fight, dive, squall, flap and acrobat to ward off the intruders.
3.2.3. Decomposers
At the present study the decomposer assessment could not be undertaken. However, some
earlier workers have reported the following microorganisms. Bacteria, yeasts and fungi: The
dominant species of bacteria present in SO are the gram-positive rod identified as
Pseudomonas fluoresceus, P. putida and P. syringae and gram-positive cocci as Micrococcus
genus Arthrobacter (Shivaji et al., 1989a, 1989b). Matondkar and Prabhu (1986) reported
bacterial counts in peripherial lake sediments in January 1985 to range from 21x105 numbers
g-1 of dry sediment. In loam and moss soil, their concentration varied from 12x102 to 2.5 x
103 and 10 x 102 to 1.2 x 103 per g dry weight respectively. Moss algae and moist soil were
rich in bacterial counts as compared to dry sand. Evans et al., 1997 has reported bacterial
counts to vary from (1 to 25) 106 per g dry weight in some of the Antarctic lake sediments
and majority of the bacteria as psychrotrophs. On the other hand phylogeny of obligately
anaerobic, coiled bacterium from Ace Lake, Antarctica, was isolated by Franzmann and
Rohde, (1991); Franzmann and Dobson (1993), which they believed to have been introduced
by humans. Franzmann et al., (1991) also found that Carnobacterium funditum and
Carnobacterium alterfunditum are psychrotrophic, lactic acid-producing bacteria found at
anoxic waters in Ace Lake, Antarctica. Matondkar and Prabhu (1986) studied the effect of
temperature on bacterial population of SO, and found that temperature has minimal effect on
these microorganisms indicating their high degree of tolerance to low temperature. Shivaji, et
al., 1989c isolated fungal populations and found Penicilium species, consisting of P.
olivicolor, P. corylophulum, P. viridicatum, P. chrysogenum, P. waksmanii, and P.
camemberti to dominate the fungi. Few colonies of Fusarium oxysporum and Paecilumyces
variotii were also reported. Similarly, in the soil samples of SO, 8 strains of yeasts
Rhodotorula rubra, one Bullera alba, one diamorphic Candida humicola and one C. famata
and the remaining two tentatively identified as C. ingeniosa and C. auricularia was reported
(Ray et al., 1989). In the dry valleys elsewhere in Antarctica various yeast strains such as
Cryptococcus, Candida, Rhodotorula and others have been reported (Vishniac and Kurtzman,
1992; Vishniac 1993).
3.3. Food Chain and Food Web

Food chains and food webs are the basic units of ecosystem, since all the energy and
materials cycling take place around them. The food webs of SO can be represented as follows
(Figure 4). The food chains and webs are much simpler at SO terrestrial ecosystem as
compared to any other ecosystem, particularly in view of the non-existence of higher
organisms of plant or animal kingdom. The only higher animals include some migratory
birds.
59
Figure 4. Simplified Food Webs of the Terrestrial Ecosystem of Schirmacher Oasis.
The carbohydrates produced by the algae and mosses through photosynthesis are the
main source of food for the primary consumers like mites, tardigrades, protozoans, rotifers
and midges etc.
More information is needed on the actual decomposition process in the Antarctic
ecosystem where temperature is very low. The primary production is very little and as such
the proportion of plant biomass passing into detritus component is presumably quite low as
most of the primary production is grazed by the herbivores. Detailed investigations are
required to understand the energy flow and nutrient cycling through the terrestrial ecosystem
at SO through the simple food chain. During the Antarctic winter when it is dark, there is no
photosynthesis by many of the producers. The plant eating primary consumers living on algae
grew only during the summer.
3.4. Characteristics of SO Community

3.4.1. Frequency Distribution
The data collected for ecological community study with the help of line transect method
during the months of December 1999 to January 2000 are given in Table 8.
For preparing the frequency diagram of the SO the values were counted and calculated as
% of the total species for five different classes as laid down by Raunkiaers (1934). The law
of frequency is given as:
>
A>B>C=D<E
<
The % values of normal frequency diagram of different frequency classes are: A=53,
B=14, C=9, D=8 and E=16.
From table 8, the % frequency of different classes was calculated as follows:
Calculation of Frequency Class (%):
60

i)
Frequency Class A % = (No. of sampling

sampling units) x 100 = (11/25) x 100 = 44
ii) Frequency Class B % = (No. of sampling
iii) Frequency Class C % = (No. of sampling
iv) Frequency Class D % = (No. of sampling
unit of species occurrence/Total no. of

Table 8. Frequency of plant species in Schirmacher Oasis

(estimated by Line Transect method)
S
No.
Vegetation
Groups
Name of Species
Frequency
(%)
Algae
II
Lichen
III
Mosses
Lyngbya aeustuarii
Nostoc commune
Oscillatoria limosa
Phormidium fragile
Aphanothece nidulans
Chlorococcum
Pinnularia borealis
Acarospora gwynnii
Buellia pallida
Carbonea capsulata
Lecidea cancariformis
Lepraria membranacea
Physcia caesia
Polycauliona murrayi
Rhizocarpon flavum
Rinodina Species
Umbilicaria aprina
Umbilicaria decussata
X.elegans
Bryum argenteum
Bryum pseuotriquetreum
Bryoerythrophyllum
Recurviroste
Cedratondon purpureus
Grimmia sps.
Unknown
60
60
80
80
20
40
40
40
40
20
30
20
10
30
20
10
30
30
10
60
20
10
Frequency class
To which species
belongs
C
C
D
D
A
B
B
B
B
A
B
A
A
B
A
A
B
B
A
C
A
A
20
20
70
A
A
D
IV
Unknown
The above-calculated values are plotted and compared with the normal frequency classes
(Figure 5.a and b). From the figure 5.b. it is clear that values of frequency classes B, C and D
of figure 5.b. is comparatively higher than the respective values in normal frequency diagram
(Figure 5.a). Thus, the plant community of the SO is heterogeneous in character. It can also
be mentioned here that the value of frequency class E in figure 5.b is nil. Thus, none of the
61
species showed 80-100% constancy. This indicates that the SO environment does not provide
suitable habitat for any species to occur homogenously. The heterogeneity is linked to
microenvironments in the oasis providing congenial conditions for growth, both spatially and
temporally. Also from table 8 it is found that the dominant algal species are Oscillatoria
limosa and Phormidium fragile both of which are blue green algae, the moss species are
dominated by Bryum argenteum and the lichen species by Acarospora gwynnii. It is
important to note here that amongst all the plant groups, algal species dominate, whereas, the
occurrences of moss and lichen species is lesser, which could be because the study sites are
mostly aquatic in nature and it is true that out of 14 selected sampling 8 sites are just the
banks of lakes, two dried lakes and four swampy areas. Some unknown species also occurred,
which seemed to be some moss in close association with some lichen or algae, and could not
be identified. It is very interesting to note that all the algal mats were dominantly consisting
of cyanobacteria or blue green algae. Heterocystous cyanobacteria capable of independent
nitrogen fixation like Nostoc Commune were mostly present on ice surface and lake bank over
snowmelt. Pinnate diatom Pinnularia was found on surface layers of lift-off and often seen
sliding between blue green algal mats. The only green algae found in the present transect
study was Chlorococcum. This is in contrast to many other reports from snow regions where
Chlorophyta members are present in abundance. Earlier Ling and Seppelt (1993) reported
Chloromonas Subroleosa belonging to chlorophyta from Antarctica, which gave a red color
to the snow attributed to the development of pigment in the species.
Figure 5. A and B. Shows the Raunkiaers normal frequency diagram and the frequency diagram of the
Schirmacher Oasis community. Frequency classes B, C and D of diagram B are relatively higher than
A, thus the community is heterogeneous.
62
Rare occurrence of green algae and dominance of blue green algae in the SO of
Antarctica suggests that these cyanobacterial species are better adapted to the prevailing
extremities of climatic conditions in Antarctica. The prokaryotic cell wall struture consist of
diaminopimellic acid and muramic acid presumably provides better resistance to the cells. It
also seems likely that the green algae are not so efficient in withstanding the freezing and
thawing. In an experiment conducted by Bidigare et al., (1993), samples of red and green
Chlamydomonas (Chlorophyta) when exposed to freezing and thawing resulted in lysis of the
green cells whereas the red cells survived, which was due to increased membrane fluidity.
Cyanobacteria containing phyco-cyanin (blue pigment) and phyco-erythrin (red pigment)
seem to have more resistance to the stress conditions of Antarctica.
3.4.2. Plant Biomass (Standing Crop)

Biomass or the standing crop present in a population at any given time is expressed as
weight per unit area and is given in Table 9. for various study sites of SO. The estimated
standing crop (dry weight) or biomass per square meter of SO varies from 6.25 to 45.31 gm-2
in various study sites. Various methods have been used by different workers to estimate the
net primary production of an ecosystem and mostly a time-series data of harvest method is
employed. However, Antarctic ecosystem is unique as it experiences long periods about two
months of complete dark followed by two months of complete light. Again, it is during the
summer period (December to February) that the snowmelts and favourable periods for some
plant growth set in. Thus, the data on standing crop of biomass collected in the present study
on December 31, 1999 to January 18, 2000 represent the peak growth and peak biomass and
have therefore been considered as an estimate of net primary production (NPP) of the SO
ecosystem (Odum 1971).
Table 9. Peak Plant Biomass (gm-2) in terms of fresh weight and dry weight
for the vegetation at different study sites of Schirmacher Oasis
(the values are mean of three replicates)
Site No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Biomass (gm-2)
Fresh weight
11.5
15.35
12.5
9.54
14.5
26.7
8.5
21.75
7.5
21.75
17.45
8.5
11.6
21.8
Dry Weight
2.8
3.25
2.95
2.2
3.45
7.25
1
6.5
1.2
6.2
4.65
1.2
2.46
5.3
Moisture Content %
310.71
372.31
323.73
333.64
320.29
268.28
750
234.62
525
250.81
275.27
608.33
371.54
311.32
17.5
20.31
18.44
13.75
21.56
45.31
6.25
40.63
7.5
38.75
29.06
7.5
15.38
33.13
Mean (1 S.E)
14.92 ( 4.30)
3.60 ( 4.32)
375.42 ( 4.31)
22.50 ( 4.32)
Biomass per unit area
63
It must, however, be mentioned here, that these values of NPP are highly biased because
they correspond to the study sites where conditions are favourable for growth. Even during
summer, there are large areas bearing no vegetation at all. The present estimates of NPP
therefore give an estimate of the potential of production of SO under the prevailing
conditions. The average NPP value of the SO (22.5 gm-2), when compared to other stressful
ecosystems of the world is still found to be very little.
3.5. Abiotic Component (Standing State)

The study of abiotic components of the SO consists of rocks, ice, snow, and various
inorganic nutrients, soil, melted water, sunlight and the climatic parameters. The soil over the
SO has been classified as dry, polar desert soil, with a variety of textures and their occurrence
has been found to be limited to the deglaciated (ice-free) area. Organic compound, such as
humus (that links the biotic and abiotic component of the ecosystem), is extremely poor in
this region. In table 10. the analysis of the various water, soils and biological samples for
determining the standing state of the ecosystem and the atmospheric condition of the
particular dates are given. Table 10. shows the physicochemical analysis of water (0 to 1m
depths), biological and organic carbon of soils collected during December 1999 to January
2000, from 14 different sites with the atmospheric condition of the particular dates of SO. The
results of the various analyses presented in table 10 are given below.
3.5.1. Physicochemical Analysis of Waters and Soils Samples:

The average value of pH in the water of 14 different sites is 7.5, indicating that the water
bodies are slightly of alkaline nature. This alkaline nature may be due to the photosynthesis
by the algae and diatom mat present at the bottom of the lake (Gajananda and Dutta, 2005).
The average Ca and Mg content of all the lakes have been measured to be 17.6 and 4.8 mg l-1,
respectively. Dissolved Oxygen is also high at the value of 7.5 mg l-1. The DO, pH, Ca and
Mg contents indicate that the lakes are well aerated and offer to be sources of freshwater
supply to the oasis (Gajananda et al 2004a). Over the SO, these few important parameters of
physicochemical characteristics of freshwater lakes were correlated with the available fauna
(Table 10).
3.5.2. pH, Dissolved Oxygen and Conductivity
pH in the surface waters ranged from 6.9 to 8.20, showing alkaline nature of the lakes. In
site no. 4 (table 10), the pH in the surface water was high, while in site no. 8 the reverse was
observed. Such changes may reflect the chemical composition of the bedrock sediments of
each of the lakes and also human perturbances. The DO of lakes ranges between 6.1 to 8.4 mg
l-1. The maximum was recorded from site no. 8. The conductivity of the lakes varied between
8-15 mhos cm-1 (Gajananda et al., 2004a). The DO levels of the lakes indicate high quality
water. The high DO levels can also be due to good photosynthetic activity of the algae present
in the water (Gajananda et al., 2004a).
Table 10. Physicochemical analyses of the various water, soils and biological samples and the atmospheric conditions
of the particular dates
S.
No
1
2
3
4
Ecological
Parameters
Surface Air
Temp. (0C)
MSL
Pressure
(mb)
Wind Speed
(m/s)
UV-B
(MED/Hr)
Dates and sites of the samples collected

Dec. 30, 1999
Jan. 7, 2000
I
II
III
IV
V
Jan. 13, 2000

VII
VIII
IX
Jan. 28, 2000

X
XI
XII
Jan. 29, 2000

XIII
XIV
Average
VI
-2.63
-2.63
-2.63
0.2
0.2
0.2
2.5
2.5
2.5
-2.0
-2.0
-2.0
-3.2
-3.2
-0.87
986.57
986.57
986.57
978.96
978.96
978.96
981.25
981.25
981.25
981.9
981.9
981.9
986.3
986.3
982.76
3.77
3.77
3.77
5.76
5.76
5.76
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.11
4.11
4.11
3.08
3.08
4.32
0.798
0.798
0.798
2.282
2.282
2.282
2.1
2.1
2.1
0.946
0.946
0.946
1.718
1.718
1.55
DO mg l-1
8.2
7.8
7.9
6.1
7.6
6.6
8.4
8.1
8.2
6.5
7.9
6.2
7.8
7.6
7.5
6
7
8
9
10
pH
PO4 mg l-1
NH4 mg l-1
NO2 mg l-1
NO3 mg l-1
7.2
0.16
0.36
0.45
0.56
7.8
0.42
0.01
0.06
0.78
7.4
0.24
0.24
0.22
0.98
8.2
0.12
0.12
0.18
7.3
0.04
0.12
0.32
0.12
7.6
0.56
0.03
0.14
0.32
7.5
0.32
0.34
0.46
0.51
6.9
1.28
0.93
0.94
0.94
7.7
0.61
0.56
0.76
0.12
7.8
0.93
0.01
0.07
0.23
7.8
0.07
0.23
0.82
2.40
7.1
1.26
0.99
0.19
2.20
7.0
0.07
0.17
0.21
0.09
7.4
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.16
7.5
0.44
0.31
0.3
0.69
11
Ca mg l-1
22.6
2.1
3.1
25.0
32.0
14.3
10.5
37.5
29.0
2.5
6.4
48.5
10.2
2.2
17.6
12
Mg mg l-1
Chlorides
mg l-1
Chlorophyll
mg m-3
Primary
Productivity
mgC m-3 hr-
4.2
3.1
1.3
3.0
16.4
2.5
3.5
15.2
2.3
2.4
1.1
9.3
1.3
1.1
4.8
0.016
0.022
0.018
0.022
0.011
0.008
0.041
0.052
0.021
0.026
0.056
0.052
0.001
0.000
0.0
0.264
0.632
0.046
0.050
0.457
0.132
0.241
0.060
0.415
0.122
0.711
0.910
0.058
0.260
0.31
0.72
4.15
1.13
0.62
3.26
2.70
1.13
4.26
1.85
2.80
0.65
4.33
0.89
0.55
2.074
1.36
1.77
1.43
1.36
1.70
1.63
1.43
1.77
1.57
1.63
1.36
2.58
1.36
1.16
1.582
13
14
15
16
Organic
Carbon %
S.
No
17
18
Ecological
Parameters
Sediment
Organism
density
individuals
m-2
Dehydrogen
ase activity
g/ g soil/24
hr
Dates and sites of the samples collected

Dec. 30, 1999
Jan. 7, 2000
I
II
III
IV
V
Jan. 13, 2000

VII
VIII
IX
Jan. 28, 2000

X
XI
XII
Jan. 29, 2000

XIII
XIV
Average
VI
1730
520
2205
1100
1115
1680
1750
1820
1050
1250
410
430
1630
380
1219
0.007
0.011
0.008
0.003
0.01
0.009
0.009
0.012
0.011
0.009
0.003
0.016
0.008
0.001
0.008
66
3.5.3. Ammonia, Phosphate, Nitrate and Nitrite

Analysis for ammonia shows variation from 0.01 to 0.99 M respectively, in different
sites. Concentration ratio of PO4:NO3 ranged from 0.44 to 0.69. Ammonia in these waters
probably acts as source of nitrogen for the growth of non-nitrogen fixing algal species. In
surface water, nitrate is nutrient taken up by plants and assimilated into cell protein
(Gajananda 2007).
Maximum concentration of phosphate, ammonia, NO3 and Nitrite is found to be 1.28,
0.93, 0.94 and 0.94 mg l-1 at site no. 8 i.e. near Maitri station (table 10). An input of these
nutrients seems to have taken place through anthropogenic activities (Gajananda 2007).
3.5.4. Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride Content and Chlorophyll a
The average concentration of Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, and Chlorophyll a are
17.6, 4.8, 0.0 mg l-1 and 0.31mg m-3, respectively (table 10). Calcium and magnesium
dissolves out of almost all rocks and is, consequently, detected in many lakes and streams
water. As it has been mention in the earlier that the SO rock comprises of metamorphic and
igneous rocks, calcium and magnesium contribution to hardness of water is low. As there is
no intrusion of seawater or geological formation to contribute for the chloride concentration
in the lakes the average chloride content is very low (Gajananda 2007). Chlorophyll a aids in
the assimilation of nutrients into cell biomass by harnessing the energy of sunlight. Its
concentration is related to the quantity of the cell carbon. The concentration varies with water
depth depending on the penetration of light (necessary for algal photosynthesis) and whether
there is sufficient turbulence to mix the algae within the water column. Concentration of
chlorophyll a (chl. a) in the surface waters in all lakes remained below 0.91 mg m-3
(Gajananda 2007).
3.5.5. Organic Carbon and Sediment Organism Density
Organic carbon content of the soil samples ranged from 1.16 to 2.58 %. The soil covered
with the vegetation (moss or algae) showed high organic carbon content compared to those
without vegetation. The average total organic carbon content in the soil is 1.58%. Table 10.
shows the result of the analysis of the soil samples collected from 14 sites of SO (Figure 1).
The organic matter in the soil is contributed by the algae, lichens, mosses and the soil fauna.
The greatest soil TOC content (site 12, 2.58%) is likely to be due to trampling of the
microbiotic crusts through human activity, whereby a large amount of organic materials may
have penetrated below ground. The average TOC content of 1.58% in the open soils of the
SO, when considered against the amount of plant biomass present, can be regarded as
significant in comparison with other Antarctic continental and maritime soils.
The sediment organism density was found to be around 1219 individual m-2 in the SO,
indicating a very low amount of fauna in the oasis (Gajananda 2003).
3.5.6. Enzyme Activity (Dehydrogenase Activity)
Dehydrogenase activity (g soil-1 day-1) is an index of total soil metabolic activity and the
oxidation-reduction reactions mediated by microorganisms in the soil. It is often correlated
with soil fertility and even soil microbial population (Sethi et al., 1990). Also the
dehydrogenase activity is dependent on the substrates availability (Schleifer et. al., 1972). The
DHA values in the 14 studies sites of SO are found to be low and are about 10 times less than
67
that of marginal soils in sub-tropics (Malik et al., 1995). The DHA value shows a relationship
with soil organic carbon. The low DHA in SO soils indicates that there is very limited
microbial activity in the soil, which in turn, affects the decomposition process and Cmineralization. Relatively higher DHA values on the site 12 may be attributed to the inputs of
the organics matter coming from the Russian Station Novolazarevskaya (Gajananda 2007).
3.6. Climatic Parameters of SO Ecosystem

Weather and climate, determine to a large degree, the distribution of plants and animals,
and of whole biocoenoses, not only on a continental scale but also on the regional scale.
Climate governs both the distribution of plants and animals and the soil conditions, which are
important for their inter-relationship. Secondly, vegetation influences both the soil and smallscale climatic conditions (the microclimate) (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman, 1991).
During local summer over SO, the sun is available for 24 hours for 2 months and during
this period, temperature is the highest, winds are the lowest, moisture is inducted in the form
of snowfall, fog and at times by drizzle (light rain). Therefore, the most important functions
of the biological life cycle took place during this period and in the later period i.e. local
Antarctic winter, biological life becomes dormant. The only negative factor that prevails
during summer is the high doses of UV-B radiations. Of course, our study reveals that UV-B
intensity in MED/hr is negatively correlated with the productivity over SO. In fact, interaction
of UV-B energy with the micro flora and fauna is still a subject of concern, which needs indepth studies.
The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), which extends from the surface to a height of
about 1 km or so is the most important part for all the plants and animals to survive and is
generally known as biosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman, 1991). The ABL of Antarctica
usually remains stable all round the year (Naithani and Dutta, 1995; Gajananda et. al., 2002b).
Extreme stability is found in the winter months while extreme instability is reached to a lesser
extent during polar summer (Naithani and Dutta 1995). Over the SO, katabatic winds,
temperature, humidity, total solar radiation, UV doses, formation of inversions and cyclones
etc. are the most important atmospheric parameters controlling the development of the
habitats (Gajananda et. al., 2002c). Thus, considering the impact of the climate on plants and
animals involved a complex factor. For instance, understanding the temperature at the surface
of a plant not only need to study the air temperature, air humidity, radiation and wind, but
also on the transpiration of the plant. Therefore, it is obvious that plants and animals are in
interaction with their natural environment (Odum 1971).
To link the ecosystem and the atmosphere it is important to study the various climatic
factors such as temperature, humidity of air, winds, pressures, precipitations, evaporation
rates, solar energy and UV doses etc. All these factors are discussed individually as follows:
3.6.1. Temperature
Temperature plays a key role in the survival, growth, locomotory activity, life cycle,
oxygen consumption rates, water balance, osmoregulatory ability, psychrophilic forms, fatty
acid synthesis and other metabolic characters of plants and animal (Block et al 1994; Klok
and Chown 1997; Moller and Dreyfuss 1996).
68
A perusal of the literatures shows a wide range of the effects of temperature on the flora
and fauna of Antarctica. Many earlier workers had studied various aspects of temperature and
their roles in determining the organisms survival, evolution of super cooling ability and
habitat distribution etc.
Booth (1990) used various climatological data to describe the climatic requirements of
plants and for numerical methods and models to indicate the decisive climatic factors for
plant distribution. In another study of temperature dependences of three species of free-living
Antarctic fellfield nematodes exhibited differing degrees of both strategies of cold-hardiness,
freeze-tolerance and freeze-avoidance (Pickup 1990). The adaptation and acclimation of
growth and photosynthesis of some Antarctic freshwater algae to low temperatures had been
studied (Nagashima et al 1993; Eggert and Wiencke 2000).
Both low temperature and water are limiting factors in the Antarctic terrestrial
environment; these two factors have profound effect on the rate of photosynthetic response to
the Antarctic moss Polytrichum alpestre to low temperatures (Kennedy 1993a-b). Franzmann
(1997) found that cells of Methanogenium frigidum isolated from the perennially cold, anoxic
hypolimnion of Ace Lake in the Vestfold Hills were psychrophilic, which exhibit most rapid
growth at 150 C and no growth at temperatures above 18 to 200 C. The growth and
consumption rates of bacteriovorous Antarctic naked marine amoebae grew at temperatures
down to 20 C and showed optimal growth at 20 C and the growth efficiencies were low,
typically <2%, which suggest that amoebae incur high energetic costs for life at low
temperatures (Mayes et al 1997). Crustose lichen Buellia frigida growing on rock at Cape
Geology were well adapted to the combination of hydration, low temperatures and strong
light (Kappen et al 1998). Studies carried out on the cyanobacterium Nostoc commune by
Kashyap et al (1991) over SO shows the influences of temperature on the nitrogen fixation.
Matondkar and Prabhu (1986) also found that in SO the effect of temperature on bacterial
populations is significant. At SO, the animals recorded were all of very small size. The small
size also seems to be an adaptation to the prevailing low temperature. Todd and Block (1997)
and Pickup (1990) showed greater super-cooling ability in small-sized classes of insects due
to accumulation of cryoprotectants.
Freezing intolerance is much more widespread throughout the invertebrates than freezing
tolerance, but that switching from being tolerant to intolerant of body ice formation may
occur in natural populations under snow cover (Block et al., 1994). In Antarctica the
organisms are eurythermal, which can survive temperature in a very wide range. One good
example was given by Nicolaus et al (1998), who found that bacterium Alicyclobacilli
isolated from an unexplored geothermal soil in Antarctica: Mount Rittmann, were
thermoacidophilic, showing an optimum temperature of -630 C and an optimum pH of 3.5 to
4.0. These bacteria were able to grow in the temperature range -45 to 700 C. Thus, in
Antarctica both cold tolerant and thermophilic organisms can survive. Thus, from the above
discussions it is clear that temperature plays a great role in all the life forms of plants and
animals.
It seems to affect shape, size, and volume, short or long life cycles etc. The plants as well
as animals present at SO have adaptations to face the low temperature and are tolerant to
freezing. Also, the snow present at Antarctica plays great role in providing suitable niches to
the organisms through its various physical properties. The data of Maitri and the
Novolazarevskaya are complimentary to each other giving an opportunity to study long-term
variation or time series analysis of both temperature and pressure.
69
Figure 6. Seasonal average temperature from 1961 to 2001 recorded at Novolazarevskaya, Antarctica.
Full data sets of annual temperature (dark squares) with summer values highlighted as open squares.
Solid trend lines represent annual and dashed lines are of summer only.
Figure 6 shows the temperature trend of the Novolazarevskaya station for the last four
decades. The data pertains to the year 1961 to 2001. The monthly average surface air
temperature observed at this station shows that the temperature has significantly increased
during the last four decades by [1.11 0C (P<0.01)], which is at the rate of about 0.27 0C per
decade. The summer (December-February) of this period also shows a significant rise in
temperature by about [0.99 0C (P=0.05)], which is at the rate of about 0.24 0C per decade
increase. In the year February 1996 a widespread warming over east Antarctica was reported
(Gajananda et al., 2002d). Hence, in the SO, the surface air temperature enhancement will
certainly affect the function of ecosystem dynamics in future.
3.6.2. Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure seems to be of lesser ecological significance on the terrestrial
ecosystem of SO. Though it has found that in terms of plants and animals life it has played
some secondary role. In plants the osmosis of cell is influenced by pressure, similarly in
animals low or high-pressure can reduce or increase the rate of transfer of energy within the
tissue (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman, 1991).
The surface air pressure variation over the SO (Figure 7) depicts a semi-annual pressure
variation. The highest pressure is observed during the local summer (December-January) and
in winter months (June-July), while the minimum pressure is observed during the two
transition seasons (March-April and September-October). The annual average pressure of
986.5 mb is observed and forms half yearly cycle, influencing the formation of cyclones.
The semi-annual variation in pressure has been explained by movement of the
circumpolar trough (Streten, 1983; Naithani and Dutta 1995). At any particular time, the
Antarctic trough is occupied by decaying depressions originating at lower latitudes. During
local summer and in the local winter seasons, over Antarctica, the circumpolar trough moves
away from the continent, thus average pressure increases. It is closest to the continent in
autumn and spring seasons, thereby leads to minima.
70
Figure 7. Monthly average msl pressure observed at Novolazarevskaya from 1961 to 2001.
In Antarctica specially, pressure plays a vital role in the development and maintenance of
flora and fauna indirectly by affecting cloud formation, precipitation etc. The high and lowpressure systems around the circumpolar trough develop in severe cyclone. These cyclones
push towards the continent and result in the formation of clouds, moisture, warmer air and
precipitation over the continent periphery (Bromwich 1997). The cyclones also churn the
ocean, thereby mixing the water with atmospheric oxygen, resulting into very high production
of Southern ocean. Likewise, over the continent periphery, warmer air, precipitation, churning
of lake water etc. gives a better habitat for plants and animals.
3.6.3. Wind Velocity and Direction

Winds are the most effective vectors for the transportation of the spores and propagules
of organisms to the Antarctic environment (Broady and Smith, 1994). In the SO, Singh and
Agarwal (1998) estimated the settling rate of one bacterium per two hours of the exposed
plates over the region.
The reported bacteria and fungi were also present in the soil of this oasis. In Antarctica,
earlier workers have studied unintentional dispersal of non-indigenous biota by human
activities and dispersal by natural agents (wind, birds) (Smith, 1996). In the absence of higher
life forms of plant kingdom, wind does not play a very significant role on the terrestrial
ecosystem at SO.
However, the wind direction does play an important role on dispersal of spores of the
mosses and lichens. Smith (1996) also reported the unintentional dispersal of non-indigenous
biota by human activities, and dispersal by natural agents (wind, birds) into and within the
Antarctic, which contravened the measures of the Antarctic Treaty for the control of
introduced biota. Over the SO, the average wind speed is 10.2 m/s coming from mostly SE
and ESE direction. The biological effect of wind can be summarized as follows: (a)
mechanical damage, especially in combination with air-borne salt, sand or ice crystals;
increased transpiration; (b) reduction of dew formation; (c) supply of air pollutants; (d)
hindrance of insect or bird dispersal and flight. All these effects vary from organism to
organism. On the other hand, wind promotes the dispersal of pollen, spores, seeds, cysts and
small animals, as well as bird flights. Heise and Heise (1949) carried out study of the
influence of winds aloft on the distribution of pollens and moulds in the upper atmosphere.
71
Gajananda et al 2004b also reported the potential dispersal of microorganisms over SO

earlier.
3.6.4. Humidity and Precipitation

Evaporation depends on air humidity. Humidity not only determines the speed of
evaporation, but also the ultimate water content of organisms. If the organisms cannot
compensate for water losses through water uptake from the water bodies, soil and air (plants)
or drinking (animals), they start desiccating.
Desiccation of organisms is the most important part deciding their survival rate. Both
evaporation rate and water content of organisms are important ecological factors. Although
the RH at SO is low yet due to abundant water availability in the form of snow water, the
vegetation present at SO show very high moisture content as revealed by the fresh weight and
dry weight differences. In the SO the humidity level is very low (52%), thus have a profound
effect on the development and metabolic characteristics of the flora and fauna.
As has been stated above the moisture of the air is more important than rain for
microorganisms such as lichen and mosses, this decreased humidity enhances desiccation of
cell protoplasms of the flora and fauna of the SO. But the algal species like Nostoc commune,
Oscillatoria, Lyngbya etc. show a high degree of desiccation tolerance.
3.6.5. Solar Radiation (Direct and Diffused)
Light between 400 and 700nm is used in photosynthesis by green plants. This
photosynthetically active radiation or PAR makes up about half of the energy provided by
solar radiation (Ross 1975). Photochemical effects at the upper end of the visible spectrum
are found both with near red ( 600 700 nm) and far red ( 700 800 nm), especially for
germination.
Figure 8. Albedo (%) of various vegetation types and other surfaces values.
72
The amount of solar radiation reflected by the soil surface or by vegetation varies
considerably. Green plant cover reflects little of the visual spectrum but much above 700 nm
(near infra-red). Albedo (%) of various vegetation types and other surfaces values are given in
figure 8. (after Stoutjesdijk and Barkman, 1991). From this figure, we see that water has a low
albedo, but at low solar elevations, specular reflection strongly increases the albedo. The
albedo of fresh snow is the highest found on earth and approached the albedo of an ideal
white surface. The net radiation is the amount of energy available for the warming of soil and
air and for evaporation. Clearly, the net radiation will differ markedly from point to point; a
bare surface which is greatly warmed by the sun will receive a low net radiation and,
conversely, a strongly transpiring crop with the same albedo as the bare surface, remaining
cool, will have a high net radiation. Also, when there is a strong wind, the net radiation
received by bare sand will be greater than under still conditions, when the surface is
considerably warmed up. The warming of the atmosphere by the soil surface can be extended
to hundreds of meters in the course of a sunny day. Naturally, thermal convection is
dependent on the intensity of solar radiation (at night there is no convection at all) and on the
characteristics of the landscape: a strong convection above dry ground, but less above
vegetation using a large part of the energy received for evaporation.
3.6.6. UV-B Radiation

Most organisms do not possess UV-B receptors; they cannot avoid deleterious
wavelength radiation that (according to new measurements) penetrates deeper into the water
column than what has been previously measured. New action spectra indicate that, in addition
to DNA, other targets absorb UV-B radiation including intrinsic proteins of the photoreceptor
and photosynthetic apparatus (Gajananda et al., 2002a).
The inability to adjust their position within the water column causes massive inhibition of
photosynthesis, measured both in field and laboratory studies. Only in a few cases have
potential UV-B-inducible screening pigments been identified (Hader, et al., 1991). In situ
incubations of natural phytoplankton assemblages in Antarctic waters indicated that UV-B
under the ozone hole (150 DU) impaired photosynthesis by about 4.9 % while UV-A was
responsible for about 6.2 % inhibition (Hansen- Holm et al., 1993a and 1993b). Similar ratios
were found for tropical waters (Helbling et al., 1994), and screening of most UV <378 nm
results in an increase in photosynthesis by 10 to 20 %. The Antarctic ecosystem may serve as
a model system to measure continuous changes in UV radiations in relation to biological
systems. The dominants of blue green algae at SO seems to be due to their better adaptation
under high UV doses (Figure 9). Thomas and Duval (1995) reported green coloured algae to
be more sensitive to UV. Duval et al., (1999) also reported that there is tendency in the green
algae Chlamydomonas nivalis to develop carotenoids for better protection against UV. The
phycobiliproteins and carotenoids present in Cyanobacteria seem to give them better
protection against the harmful UV-B radiations.
The studies suggest that the ecosystem of SO must have grown with some control of
atmospheric parameters and high UV-B doses in Antarctica. The maximum UV-B radiation
of 3.998 MED/hr was recorded on December 1, 1998 and 2.806 MED/hr was recorded on
October 27, 1999, both of which fall almost in the middle of austral spring period (Figure 9).
The UV-B recorded on the average during the year 1999 was lower than in the year 1998. In
both the years the threshold limit of UV-B (1 MED/hr) was crossed during both spring and
summer. Thus, a profound effect on the flora and fauna is likely.
73
Figure 9. Graph showing the maximum daily values during the noontime for the period 1st February,
1998 to 31st January, 2000 observed over Maitri, Antarctica.
A comprehensive long term program involving the study of ecosystem under both
prolonged low UV-B conditions and high UV-B conditions should be drawn, so as to
understand the relationship and scientific mechanisms through which the ecosystem of SO
has survived.
Although many studies, but not all (Tosserams and Rozema 1995, Gehrke et al. 1995),
suggest that photosynthesis and plant growth can be reduced by elevated levels of UV-B
radiation, data on plant biomass and rates of net primary productivity, i.e. the standing stock
of living matter expressed as g dry weight per unit ground area, and growth expressed as g
dry weight per unit ground area per unit time, are difficult to find for natural ecosystems and
forests. However, a review (Rozema et al. 1997a) suggests that there is little impact of UV-B
radiation on the primary production of terrestrial ecosystems.
The high doses of UV-B radiations in the Antarctic ecosystem also result in strong photooxidation of chlorophyll-a of green algae causing damage to the algal cells whereas other
pigments are more protective against UV. This could be another reason why the species
dominating the SO ecosystem consisted of cyanobacteria. Lichens, which are the symbiotic
associations of cyanobacteria and fungi mainly, occupied hilly and rocky terrians. Due to
their highly adaptive features of nutrient absorption by heterotrophic fungi and photosynthesis
by algal partner, they are the common pioneer species reported for starting autotrophic
succession on bare rocks.
3.6.7. Snow
Snow cover changes the thermal budget at the surface of the earth. Fresh snow reflects
solar radiation, not only the visible light but also shorter and longer wave radiation, up to
95% (Figure 8). Older snow has a lower reflection because of the snow turning into ice and
due to accumulation of dust. However, for long-wave (heat) radiation snow acts as an ideal
black surface, with absorption of 99.5 % and only 0.5% reflected. Older snow partly turns
into ice and becomes more transparent. A fresh snow cover of 20 cm transmits only 3% of the
solar radiation between 400 and 700 nm, but an older snow cover of the same depth transmits
74
13% (Geiger 1965). Under icy snow a sort of greenhouse effect may occur. In Antarctica
temperatures of +130 C were measured on lichens growing under an icy snow cover, with an
air temperature of 90 C (Lange and Kappen 1972).
Because of the small amount of heat from the soil during a clear and still night snow can
cool off rapidly at the surface, causing very low night temperatures. Moreover, high radiation
intensities during the day (both from direct and reflected sunlight) may lead to relatively high
temperatures in the middle of the day. As a result, plants growing above the snow may be
subjected to very large temperature differences, with a damaging effect.
A particular characteristic of snow is its insulating effect, protecting soil and vegetation
from frost. On top of the snow cover it is much colder than on the bare ground; underneath
the snow it is much warmer. Many plants in alpine and arctic/Antarctic environments with
winter temperatures of 20 to 50 0 C, would be killed in temperate regions because of the
severe frost with no protecting snow cover. Under a long-lasting snow covers many animals;
both vertebrates and invertebrates can remain active for most of the winter (Merriam and
Caldwell 1983).
Lichens are photosynthetically active when they receive a great deal of light reflected by
the snow on the ground. Creveld (1981) found that during winter lichen receives the highest
light intensities because of snow reflection and called this adaptation as cheimophotophytic
(cheimoon = winter). This is also true for Antarctic lichens.
Snow offers an effective protection against low temperatures; on the other hand little
solar radiation is passing through a thick layer of snow. Another ecological aspect of snow is
that the snowmelts on the soil may be saturated with water. Thickness of the snow cover and
time of melting are often varied spatially according to fixed patterns, which can be correlated
with vegetation patterns found in the summer (Friedel 1961).
Sheltered depressions and spaces behind obstacles receive a great deal of snow. In the SO
snow remains longer on north slopes than on south ones. Variation in snow cover ranges from
very short duration with strong frost and desiccating winter storms (Blizzards), to a relatively
long duration, especially in SO. Stoutjesdijk and Barkman (1991) found that if the soil is
snow-free for less than three weeks, no vegetation will develop. If the snow-free period lasts
at least three weeks the moss dominated. If the snow-free period is still longer, and the winter
is cold, the limiting effect of frost on the vegetation is considerable.
Clearly, lichens growing in snow-free places in high mountains and polar areas have to
tolerate very low temperatures. In the SO the average summer temperature is 9.83 0C, the
average winter temperature is 300C. Lichens occurring here tolerate temperatures of 750C,
even in wet conditions (according to laboratory experiments of some workers). They can
assimilate at 20 0C and have their photosynthetic optimum at low light intensities and very
low temperatures of 0-50 C (Lange and Kappen 1972; Gjessing and Ovstedal 1989). The dark
colour of lichens above the snow cover may be related to their heat requirement.
Solar radiation, because of the high reflection from snow, has little influence on
snowmelt. As soon as objects appear above the snow, plants or stones, melting proceeds
much faster. These objects release heat through conduction and radiate heat, which is fully
absorbed by the snow. In this way holes arise in the snow around patches of mosses, algaes
and lichens, providing the essential water for these plants.
The extreme low temperature of Antarctica resulting in the thick snow cover forms an
important part of the climate system and affects greatly the ecology of the region. The snow
cover seems to mediate the SO ecosystem in the following ways:
75
a) The snow has a great potential of acting as an energy bank by storing latent heat of
fusion and sublimation and crystal bonding forces (Gubler, 1985). The intake and
release of energy throughout the year seems to be responsible for the variability in
habitat conditions leading to heterogeneity of the ecosystem composition at the SO.
b) The snow has a porous medium with large air content with a high insulation capacity.
The insulation plays an important role in giving protection to the microorganisms.
c) The snow acts as a reservoir of water during the summer and provides habitat and
food resources to the various primitive plant forms, invertebrates and microbes.
Permafrost: Permanently frozen ground underlies some 25% of the earth's land surface,
which is widespread in Antarctica. Permafrost is believed to form gradually over very long
time intervals (105 years), occurring continuously where mean annual air temperature is <-70
C. Along the margins, where it is thin and discontinuous, permafrost degradation can be
monitored. Changes in the permafrost and the overlying summer active layer can have
important effects on hydrological regimes, ecological and geomorphological conditions, and
structures (Koster and Nieuwenhuijzen, 1992; Nelson et al., 1993).
3.6.8. Energy Balance and Water Relations, Dew Formation, Fog and Hoarfrost
During the day high temperatures of the lower air layers promote energy exchange, while
at night the situation is reversed: the colder and heavier air is not easily mixed with higher
warmer layers of air and consequently the atmosphere is stable.
Nyberg (1938) found that at 1 mm above the snow on still clear nights there was an
unmistakable effect of turbulence. As stated above, the vapour pressure profile indicates the
beginning of dew formation, which has been left out of consideration in the energy balance
because it is negligible in energy terms. The occurrence of extremely low minima above bad
conduction soil has received more attention than the absence of such minima above rock
surfaces, although both phenomena are biologically important.
For many organisms, which cannot take up water from the soil, the presence of liquid
water can be very important, from dew or from precipitation. For mosses and lichens dew
may be essential. These organisms can absorb water up to saturation from a dry starting
position and retain this water. In mosses dew is also important for fertilization, allowing the
spermatozoids to swim to the archegonia. Rocks are a similarly extreme environment for
mosses, algae and lichens, as deserts are for higher plants. Some epiphytic species are only
found at the foot of hills and do not grow higher up the glacier where the nocturnal radiation
fog reaches. Dew is of special importance for the micro flora on the surface of leaves of
vascular plants (Ruinen 1961). For many animals, dew is an important source of water.
The relationship between fog and lichen flora in the Antarctica is one of the good
examples. Fog is important as a source of water for organisms, which cannot take up water
from the substrate, such as lichens on rocks. It is also important for lichens to be able to
photosynthesize continuously in the daytime, which requires sufficient light and moist (but
not wet) conditions. Fog here is more favourable to lichens than rain, i.e. especially fog in the
daytime. In climates with mainly night fog and drought during the day lichens do not
thrive, because respiration at night continues and is not compensated for sufficiently by
photosynthesis (a so-called negative photosynthetic balance). In the SO, for example,
the number of days with fog is generally low throughout the years. In the same direction
the epiphytic lichen flora is considerably impoverished. Thus, maps of fog frequency are
76
important if one wants to know whether the fog habitually occurs at night or in the daytime
and affects lichen flora. A prolonged presence of elevated layer in the planetary boundary
layer over SO will enhance fog duration (Gajananda et al., 2002e). Figure 10. shows the
Sodar echogram of the foggy boundary layer in SO during January 1996.
Figure 10. Facsimile pictures of foggy and non-foggy days during 810 January 1996 at Maitri.
Formation of fog started at around 21 : 15 h (UTC).
77
For many organisms, which cannot take up water from the soil, the presence of liquid
water can be very important, from dew or from precipitation. For mosses and lichens fog may
be essential. These organisms can absorb water up to saturation from a dry starting position
and retain this water. In mosses, fog is also important for fertilization, allowing the
spermatozoids to swim to the archegonia.
Clouds form when air is supersaturated with respect to water or ice (Gajananda et al.,
2007). Fog is a potentially significant source of water in the desert environment, and also a far
more predictable source of moisture than rainfall (Gajananda et al., 2007). There is, however,
no evidence for direct uptake of fog condensation on leaves by plants. Any leaf structure
capable of absorbing water on the leaves is also a potential route via which water can
evaporate. Thus, there would be little benefit for plants in a hyper-arid environment to absorb
fog moisture directly from the leaves. A more likely route whereby plants could benefit from
fog moisture would be by absorbing condensation on the sand surface and as a result of stem
flow. This route would facilitate the uptake of both fog and dew condensation on the soil
surface. Certain plants growing in the fog zone of the Namib have well-developed superficial
root networks or efficient mycorrhizal relationships to be able to benefit from alternative
moisture sources such as fog and dew. In the Namib Desert lichens grow in great diversity on
west facing slopes and surfaces where they are able to draw moisture from the sea fogs. If it
were not for the fog the plants would have no source of water (Lange 2003). Dawson (1998)
has clearly documented the importance of fog drip for soil moisture and root uptake. In the
Arctic, foggy weather cut down the photosynthetic rates, but the net amount of carbon fixed
by the end of growing season is high at about 174 g C per m2 per season (Billings and
Peterson 1992). Gas exchange is completed by small pores in the leaf surface called stomata.
Most desert plants have few stomata on the bottom side of the leaf, protected by deep
depressions. The relationship between fog and lichen flora in the Antarctica is one of the good
examples.
Fog is important as a source of water for organisms, which cannot take up water from the
substrate, such as lichens on rocks. It is also important for lichens to be able to
photosynthesize continuously in the daytime, which requires sufficient light and moist (but
not wet) conditions. Fog here is more favourable to lichens than rain, i.e. especially fog in the
daytime. In climates with mainly night fog and drought during the day lichens do not thrive,
because respiration at night continues and is not compensated for sufficiently by
photosynthesis (a so-called negative photosynthetic balance). In the SO, for example, the
number of days with fog is generally low throughout the years. In the same direction the
epiphytic lichen flora is considerably impoverished. Thus, maps of fog frequency are
important if one wants to know whether the fog habitually occurs at night or in the daytime
and affects lichen flora (Gajananda et al., 2007). In SO the solar heating of the ground and
formation of thermal plumes had less effect on the formation and dissipation of the fog
episode. The dissipation of fog was only after the katabatic wind started flowing from the
interior of the continent. Therefore, this type of fog can be regarded as advection fog (figure
10). It is also likely that due to changing climate over Antarctica, frequent fog may occur in
the near future. The monostatic acoustic sounding data in association with the study of
microbiotic crusts retention of atmospheric moisture especially during foggy period will help
in understanding the complex physiological and metabolic characters of the various
microbiota of Antarctica. The cytological mechanisms of the microbiotic communities of SO,
which used fog moisture are unclear. Therefore, research on this aspect will be fruitful.
78
3.6.9. Thermal Convection

Convection is the vertical transfer of energy by the actual movement of the heated
substance and is sometimes called sensible heat transfer processes. Sodar operation in the
monostatic mode detects thermal structures associated with atmospheric phenomena
(Gajananda et al., 2002f). Two types of thermal convection/plumes have been recorded at the
Maitri station. In the first case, thermal plumes formed during free convection (well mixed
Atmospheric Boundary Layer) due to the solar heating of the ground, which are conical in
shape and seen as a rising layer, have been observed all over the Antarctic continent
(Gajananda et al., 2004). In any case, these plumes lead to thermally driven vertical transport
or uplifting air masses from the rocky surface of SO upto an altitude of 200300 meters
(Figure 11), representing a much warmer habitat on the ground (Gajananda, 2002f; Gajananda
et al., 2004). As SO comprises of a rocky surface surrounded by polar ice, the uplifting air
masses are more prevalent than the descending air masses, which are more common above
lakes and seas (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman, 1991). The convective activity is mainly confined
in the summer season between 1200 to 1400 hr and is the most favourable period for the
dispersal of microorganisms. Surface based inversions are the most predominant feature on
Sodar echograms and have been observed for about 94.37% of the time, clearly dominating
over the convective activity which has been observed for only 5.63 % of the time (Figure 11).
Figure 11. Facsimile chart showing thermal plumes on January 10, 1996 at Maitri. It shows plumes
around 0945 to 2200 hrs.
79
Short spells of winter warming enhancing surface air temperature by even 15 0C have
been measured. Such warming events may play an important role in the sustenance of
microorganisms from totally desiccating their body fluids (Gajananda 2004b). These
convective or unstable atmospheric conditions in the lower atmospheric boundary layer may
help carry upward the spores/pollens of the micro-flora in the SO and facilitate their
dispersive capacity to a larger distance (Gajananda et al., 2004).
4. CONCLUSION
From the above studied, it is clear that Antarctica provides a unique platform for
understanding the climatic processes in a complex environment. Study of land-ice-air-ocean
interaction over the SO reveals that a unique ecosystem prevails over this oasis, where all the
physical and biological components interact in a complex pattern.
The conclusions drawn from the present research are summarized as:
1. The climate at Maitri is dominated by the extreme contrasts between the seasonal
inputs of solar radiation. It experiences sub-zero mean temperature throughout the
year except in the peak summer months (December and January). The surface wind
regime (annual mean 10.2 m/s) is dominated by katabatic wind component from the
southeast direction (110 to 1800), which is the direction of maximum slope around
the Maitri site. Pressure (annual average 986.5 mb) forms half yearly cycle and
influenced for the formation of cyclones. The humidity and precipitation are although
low but have significant relationship for the growth of microorganisms. Surface
albedo also has great effect on the warming and cooling of the surface of SO and in
formation of atmospheric convection.
2. The monthly average surface air temperature observed at Novolazarevskaya station
shows that the temperature has significantly increased during the last four decades by
1.11 0C (P<0.01), which is at the rate of about 0.27 0C per decade. The summer
(December-February) of this period also shows a significant raise in temperature by
about 0.99 0C (P=0.05), which is at the rate of about 0.24 per decade increase. Hence,
in the SO the surface air temperature enhancement will certainly affect the function
of ecosystem dynamics.
3. The ecosystem of SO must have grown with some control of high UV-B doses. The
threshold limit of UV-B (1 MED/hr) was crossed during both spring and summer for
the study period. Thus, a profound effect on the flora and fauna is likely. A
comprehensive long term program involving the study of ecosystem under both
prolonged low UV-B conditions and high UV-B conditions should be drawn, so as to
understand the relationship and scientific mechanisms through which the ecosystem
of SO has survived.
4. Thick snow cover forms an important part of the climate system and affects the
ecology of the region. The snow acts as an energy bank by storing latent heat of
fusion and sublimation and crystal bonding forces. The intake and release of energy
throughout the year seems to be responsible for the variability in habitat conditions
leading to heterogeneity of the ecosystem composition at the SO. The snow has a
80

porous medium with large air content with a high insulation capacity playing an
important role in giving protection to the microorganisms. The snow acts as a
reservoir of water during the summer and provides habitat and food resources to the
various primitive plant forms, invertebrates and microbes.
5. Our observation of fog layer within 300400 m continuously for about 24 h due to
the influence of oceanic air is an important feature for the microbiota of this cold and
dry region. In the austral summer over the SO, there is 24 h sunshine and no rainfall
except during rare occasions. Thus, fog here will be more favourable to the lichens
than rain, i.e. especially fog during austral summer. However, in the SO, the number
of days with fog is generally low throughout the year. Correspondingly, the epiphytic
lichen floras are also considerably impoverished. As there is little or no rainfall,
localized fogs contributed atmospheric moisture to the few poikilohydric microbiotic
crusts as their sole water source. Organisms, which cannot take up water from the
soil, dew and precipitation, are important. For mosses and lichens fog may be
essential. These organisms can absorb water up to saturation from a dry starting
position and retain this water. In mosses fog is important for fertilization, allowing
the spermatozoids to swim to the archegonia.
6. The type of fog in SO are advection fog. In future it is predicted that frequent fog
may occur in Antarctica. The cytological mechanisms of the microbiotic
communities of SO, which used fog moisture are unclear and research on this aspect
will be fruitful.
7. The convective or unstable atmospheric conditions in the lower atmospheric
boundary layer help carry upward the spores/pollens of the micro-flora in the SO and
facilitate their dispersive capacity to a larger distance. In Antarctica, katabatic winds
represent atmospheric conditions when microorganisms are forcefully transported
from the interior towards the icy periphery and the ocean, but the rocky oases regions
may provide a shelter/protection for their survival and growth. In the present model
of coupled mechanism, thermal convection over the ocean transports fine living
materials and propagules towards the interior of the continent during local summer.
It is clear from the above points that all the climatic parameters are limiting the survival
of living organisms in SO. The floral diversity in SO is poor and dominated by primitive
poikilohydric groups of producers (algae, mosses and lichens) forming thin crusts on the soils
surface. It also exhibits a very narrow spectrum of micro-floras in two distinct ecosystems i.e.
terrestrial and aquatic. With the abiotic factors limiting life forms, the following conclusions
are made:
1. The energy cycle and food chain are poor and short in SO due to less sunlight during
austral winter and lack of higher organisms.
2. About 34 species of primitive flora were observed and only 6 primitive invertebrate
fauna were recorded. Only four species of birds were observed in SO. The algal
species are dominated by blue green algae (cynobacteria) and green algae are not
frequent. Lichens are the most wide spread species in this oasis. Mosses have less
species diversity but their frequency over the oasis is large.
81
3. Sub-antarctic Islands migratory birds may introduce some non-indigenous forms of

plants, animals and micro-organism species, but only cold tolerant variety of
organisms survive.
4. The SO ecosystem is heterogeneous in nature with primitive plant life forms
occupying some suitable niches at some less stressful microhabitats. The flora and
fauna, which comprises the ecological equivalents of the SO, can be regarded as
endemic species.
5. The estimated average biomass or NPP is low at a value of around 22.5 gm m-2
(range 6.25 to 45.31 gm-2). The lakes are oligotrophic in nature and are of fresh water
lakes.
6. The average organic carbon content of the oasis is 1.58%, which is poor in
comparison to other ecosystem of the world, indicating lesser amounts of detritus
organic C or humus.
7. Dehydrogenase activity (DHA) was low and the average was 0.008 mg Triphenyl
formazan (TPF) g soil-1 day-1, suggesting a very less microbial activity of substrate
decomposition. The low DHA in SO also suggests that anaerobic oxidation of
organic C is poor. The primitive plant compositions and the small DHA suggest that
the SO is in the primary stage of ecological successions.
The diminutive forms of plants and animal in SO is the results of less availability of
nutrient, food and harsh climatic conditions for growth and survival. This might have resulted
into the evolution of the cold hardiness, UV-B tolerant species of micro-floras and faunas
with times. The biotic and abiotic component of SO, which interact in a cyclic and intricate
manner are yet to be fully understood. Our present study provide baseline information and
data for undertaking a long-term land-ice-air-ocean interaction research at SO. However,
further study on the sustenance, growth, metabolic functions, reproduction and survival of the
micro flora and fauna in the present climatic change scenario penetrating the periphery of
Antarctica is highly recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to the Director, National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi and
to the Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India for providing us an
opportunity to work at the Indian Antarctic station, Maitri. We also thank the Director (Dr.
Rasik Ravindra), National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR), Goa for the
supports and logistics helps. The constructive criticisms rendered by Professor Anubha
Kaushik, Guru Jambheshwar University, Hisar is thankfully acknowledged. The Leader (Dr.
Ajay Dhar) and Members of the 18th and 19th Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica
(InSEA) who helped in surveying the SO is thankfully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to
IMD at Antarctica and to Dr. Risal Singh and Mr. Shambhu Nath of NPL, New Delhi who
provided data of the harsh polar environment. The financial assistance to one of the author
(KG) under CSIR-SRF, DOD-SRF (DOD/12-MMDP/897-MRC CELL) and deputation as a
Wintering Member of the 18th InSEA (19982000) by NPL, New Delhi, is acknowledged
with thanks.
82
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88
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Chapter 4
EFFECTS OF UV-B RADIATIONS ON TERRESTRIAL

ECOSYSTEM OF ANTARCTICA AND THEIR DEFENSE
MECHANISMS
Jaswant Singh*, Rudra P. Singh and Anand K. Dubey
ABSTRACT
The terrestrial environments of Antarctica are among the most extreme on earth
challenging the very existence of life itself. The major voyages were carried out to the
Antarctica for scientific observations and investigations by several countries.
Presently, the thinning of springtime ozone layer due to release of
chlorofluorocarbons in earth atmosphere causes the increased UV-B radiation over
Antarctica is a serious cause of concern among environmentalists.
The long term predictions of future UV-B levels are difficult and uncertain and UVB have significant effects on organisms at the different trophic levels. Antarctic continent
is mostly dominated by cryptogamic plants which are distributed in different parts of the
icy continent.
The long term UV-B studies carried out under field conditions showed plant
responses to higher UV-B levels and effects tends to increase or cumulative in nature.
This chapter provides information of UV-B effects in field based studies and adaptive
responses to UV-B radiations and how the enhanced UV-B altered the concentrations and
distribution of photosynthetic pigments in plants.
Keywords: Antarctica, Ozone hole, UV-B, Pigments, Antarctic Flora, Adaptive

strategies.
E-mail: jaswant1983@yahoo.co.in, Mobile+919415717168

Dept. of Environmental Sciences, Dr. R.M.L Avadh University
Faizabad-224001,. (U.P.), India
90
INTRODUCTION
Till 1830, Antarctica remains as an unsolved puzzle for researchers. Later on number of
expeditions to this continent were carried out by the explorers and scientists, from different
countries basically for collecting flora and fauna from the different parts of the icy continent.
In the year, 1948 the British, Australian, New Zealand, conducted Antarctic research
expeditions for exploring the biodiversity of flora along with meteorological analysis at
Antarctica. Antarctica is almost entirely (99.68 %) covered by permanent ice and has a
surface area of 13,830,000 sq. km., which include several massive floating ice-shelves, which
is some what similar to the area of Arctic Ocean (British Antarctic Survey 2004). Three major
national voyages were carried out the Antarctica between 1837 and 1843; an important object
for each was the determination of the position of the South Magnetic pole. The French naval
expedition (1837-1840) visited the South Orkney Islands, South Shetlands, Trinity peninsula,
Orleans Strait and Joinville Island. The International Polar Commission was formed at a
conference in Hamberg, 1889 and a second conference was held in Berne, 1880 and a third in
Sankt Peterburg, 1881, (Headland 2005).
The international polar year conducted from 1st August 1882 to 31st August 1883, and 12
countries established 14 scientific stations in polar regions for co-coordinated Scientific
observations. Three national expeditions, from Britain, Germany and Sweden set out in 1901
after much careful planning, the intended to explore different part of Antarctica and coordinate their geophysical and meteorological observations (Headland 2005).
Indias interest in Antarctica arises mainly from its Gondwana land connection, the
lack of any land barrier between the Indian and Antarctic Ocean is also of great significance.
Indias first research station Dakshin Gangotri commissioned in the year 1984 and second
research station Maitri commissioned in the year 1988-89 over the exposed rocks of
Schirmacher Oasis of Queen Maud Land area in east Antarctica (Figure 1). The Schirmacher
Oasis (700 4558S) is one of the small, snow / ice covered during the winter (June-August)
and spring (September-November) seasons, typical desert near the shore of East Antarctica,
with a width of 1.6 Km and length of about 20 Km with east-west orientation.
Figure 1. Map of Antarctica (www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/antarctica_map.htm).
Effects oF UV-B Radiations on Terrestrial Ecosystem of Antarctica
91
Its composed of with mainly high grade of metamorphic rocks, the fresh water lakes,
ponds, pools cover a total area of 35 square km, and the altitude varies from 0 to 228m with
an undulated surface.
Climatic conditions are similar to other East Antarctica ice-free areas with annual
temperature of -100C, January is the warmest month (-0.60C) and August is the coldest (10.10C), (Francisco et al. 2004). Recently India started to build its third station at Larsemann
Hills, (69o20S to 69o30S Lat.; 75o55E to76o30E. long) in Prydz Bay, is an ice-free oasis on
the Ingrid Christensen coast, of East Antarctica.
OZONE DEPLETION AND ULTRAVIOLET RADIATIONS

Most of the ozone (about 90%) is located in the stratosphere (8-18 km) and only 10% in
troposphere (below 8 km). Ozone in the stratosphere is very important as it acts as a shield for
the mother Earth and protects life from harmful UV radiations coming from sun.
One cannot think of any form of life in the absence of stratospheric ozone. Stratospheric
ozone depletion has been recorded throughout from the temperate to polar regions
(Blumthaler and Ambach 1990; Lubin and Jensen 1995). However, the ozone in the
troposphere is a green house gas, trapping the long wave radiation in 9.6 nm bands affecting
the energy budget of the earth-atmosphere system.
Atmospheric ozone has two types of effects on the temperature balance of the earth, it
absorbs solar ultraviolet radiations, which heats the stratosphere and it also absorbs infrared
radiation emitted by the earths surface effectively trapping heat in the troposphere.
Therefore, the climate impact of change in ozone concentration is important and varies with
altitude at which these ozone changes occur.
Depletion of stratospheric ozone, resulting from anthropogenic atmospheric pollution has
led to increased ultraviolet radiation at earths surface as well as spectral shifts to the more
biologically damaging shorter wavelengths (Frederick and Snell 1988). A decrease in the
concentration of stratospheric ozone enhances the incoming solar UV-B radiation, which is
detrimental to over all growth of the plant and various other metabolic processes of the
organisms (Caldwell et al 1998), may cause changes in pigments concentrations, nucleic acids
and proteins (Jansen et al 1998). Ecologists are interested to know how Antarctic flora is
surviving over the harsh environmental conditions such as ultraviolet radiation stress,
coldness and nutrient poor soils etc. The response of terrestrial plants to UV-B radiation is an
active subject of research by molecular biologist, physiologist and environmentalists.
Research during the past three decades has been largely focused on stratospheric ozone
depletion and the resultant increase in irradiances of UV-B at the earths surface and has
greatly increased our understanding of how UV-B radiation affects Antarctic flora and their
defense mechanism. Recovery of the Antarctic ozone hole is currently predicted by 2050, but
it remains a topic of intense research interest (McKenzie et al 2003).
92

Table 1. Distribution of Antarctic Flora in different regions of Antarctica
SN
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
27
Lichens
Umbilicaria, decussata
Acarospora gwynnii
Buellia pallida
Lecidea cancriformis
Lecanora fuscobrunnea
Physcia caesia
Rhizocarpon flavum
Rinodina olivaceobrumea
Umbilicaria antarctica
Xanthoria elegans
Usnea antarctica
Sphaerophorus globosus
Parmelia saxatilis
Turgidosum complicatulum
Pseudephebe minisciila
Rizoplaca melanopthalma
Carhonea capsulata
Pseudephebe miniscula
Bryophytes
Bryum argenteum
Bryum pseudotriquetrum
Ceratodon perpureus
Grimmia antarctici
Sanionia uncinata
Lichens
Andrea regularis
Cephaloziella varians
Schistidium antarctici
Algae
Entomeneis kjellmannii
28
Berkeleya adeliense
29
Nitzschia stellata
30
31
Prasiola crispa
Choricystis minor
32
33
34
35
36
Phormidium sp
Lyngbyasp sp
Oscillatoria sp
Nodularia sp
Anabaena sp
19
20
21
22
23
SN
24
25
26
Location
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Shirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Antarctic Peninsula
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
References
Czeczuga 1996
Dodge 1973
Dodge 1973
Dodge 1973
Dodge 1973
Czeczuga 1996
Dodge 1973
Dodge 1973
Lamb 1964
Czeczuga et al. 1986b
Lamb 1964
Czeczuga et al. 1986b
Czeczuga 1996
Lud et al. 2001
Upreti et al. 2000
Upreti et al. 2000
Upreti et al. 2000
Upreti et al. 2000
Antarctic Peninsula
Windmill Islands
Windmill Islands
Windmill Islands
Antarctic Peninsula
Location
Antarctic Peninsula
Antarctic Peninsula
Windmill Islands
Green et al. 2000

Markham et al. 1990
Robinson et al. 2006
Newsham 2002; 2003
References
Newsham 2002; 2005
Newsham et al. 2002
Cape Evans Ross

Island
Cape Evans Ross
Island
Cape Evans Ross
Island
Windmill Islands
South Shetland
Archipelago
Mc Murdo
Mc Murdo
Mc Murdo
Mc Murdo
Mc Murdo
Ryan et al. 2002

Ryan et al. 2002
Ryan et al. 2002
Post and Larkum 1993
Zidarova 2006
Quesada et al. 1998
Quesada et al. 1998
Quesada et al. 1998
Quesada et al. 1998
Quesada et al. 1998

SN
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
Lichens
Chlorell vulgaris
Chlorococcum sp
Phormidium uncinatum
Oscillatoria sp
Aphanothece sp
Urospora sp
Cylindrocapsa geminella
Calothrix brevissuna
Chrococcus macrococcus
Gloeocapsa sp
Lyngbya martensiana
Nostoc commune
Stigonema sansabaricus
Higher Plants
Deschampsia antarctica
Colobanthus quitensis
Location
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
Schirmacher Oasis
References
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Shukla et al. 1999
Antarctic Peninsula
Antarctic Peninsula
Xiong et al. 2000

Xiong et al. 2000
Table 2. Important Pigments in Antarctic Plants

SN
Lichens
Umbilicaria,
decussata
Acarospora
gwynnii
Buellia pallida
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Lecidea
cacriformis
Lecanora
fuscobrunnea
Physcia caesia
Rhizocarpon
flavum
Rinodina
olivaceobrumea
Umbilicaria
antarctica
Xanthoria
elegans
Usnea antarctica
Photosynthetic
Pigments
Other pigments
References
-Carotene, Lutein,
Cathaxanthin, Astaxanthin
-Carotene, Lutein,
Hydroxyechinenone
-Carotene, Lutein,
Zeaxanthin
-Carotene, Lutein,
Czeczuga 1996
-Carotene, -Carotene,
Lutein
-Carotene, Cryptoxanthin, Lutein,
Astaxanyhin
-Cryptoxanthin,
Canthaxanthin, Lutein,
-Carotene, Lutein,
Zeaxanthin, Canthaxanthin
Asthaxanthin
Hydroxyechinenone
Czeczuga, 1996
Czeczuga 1996
Czeczuga 1996
Czeczuga 1996
Czeczuga 1996
Czeczuga 1996
Czeczuga 1996
Czeczuga 1996
Czeczuga 1996
Czeczuga 1996
93
94

Table 2 (Continued)
SN
Lichens
12
Sphaerophorus
globosus
Parmelia
saxatilis
Turgidosum
coplicatulum
Bryophytes
Bryum argenteum
Other pigments
References
Astaxanthin, Adonixanthin
Czeczuga 1996
-Carotene, Cryptoxanthin, Lutein

-Carotene, Lutein,
Neoxanthin, Violaxanthin
Czeczuga 1996
Chl a, Chl b.,
Violaxanthin, - Carotein
Bryum
pseudotriquetrum
Ceratodon
perpureus
Grimmia
antarctici
Chl a, Chl b.,
Chl a, Chl b.,
Chl a, Chl b.,
Sanionia
uncinata
Andrea regularis
Chl a, Chl b.,
Chl a, Chl b.,

Chl a, Chl b.,
25
Cephaloziella
varians
Schistidium
antarctici
Algae
Entomeneis
kjellmannii
Berkeleya
adeliense
Nitzschia stellata
Neoxanthin, Lutein,
Zeaxanthin, ,- Carotene
Neoxanthin, Violaxanthin,
Lutein, Zeaxanthin
Neoxanthin, Lutein,
Zeaxanthin, ,- Carotene
Anthocyanin
Markham et al.
1990
Robinson et al.
2002; 2006
Dunn 2000
Robinson 2002
Dunn 2000
Robinson 2002;
2005
Newsham et al.
2002
Newsham 2003
26
Prasiola crispa
Chl a, Chl b.,
Mycosporine like amino

acids
acids
acids
Violaxanthin
27
28
Choricystis minor
Phormidium sp
Chl a, Chl b.,

Chl a.,
29
Lyngbya sp
Chl a.,
30
Oscillatoria sp
Chl a.,
31
Nodularia sp
Chl a.,
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Photosynthetic
Pigments
Chl a, Chl b.,
Chl a, Chl b.,
-carotene
MAAs (porphyra-334) Carotene
Lud et al. 2001
Newsham et al.
2002; 2005
Robinson et al.
2006
Ryan et al.
2002
Ryan et al.
2002
Ryan et al.
2002
Post and
Larkum 1993
Zidarova 2006
Quesada et al.
1998
Quesada et al.
1998
Quesada et al.
1998
Quesada et al.
1998

SN
Lichens
32
Anabaena sp
33
Palmaria
decipiens
Phyllophora
antarctica
Porphyra
endiviifolium
Iridaea cordata
34
35
36
37
38
Higher Plants
Deschampsia
antarctica
Colobanthus
quitensis
Photosynthetic
Pigments
Chl a.,
Other pigments
References
Quesada et al.
1998
Dhargalkar
2004
Dhargalkar
2004
Dhargalkar
2004
Dhargalkar
2004
Chl a, Chl b.,
Orientin, Luteolin
Chl a, Chl b.,
Orientin, Luteolin
Ruhland et al.
2001
Ruhland et al.
2001; Lud et al.
2001
Chl a.,
Chl a.,
Chl a.,
Chl a.,
95
ANTARCTIC FLORA AND THEIR PIGMENTS

Historically, Antarctic plants were growing under the low UV-B levels on the earth but
now because of ozone depletion, they are exposed to some of the highest concentrations with
little time for evolutionary adjustment and acclimation (Madronich et al. 1995). In continental
Antarctic, environmental conditions are extremely hostile to terrestrial vegetation with
extreme cold, UV irradiance, strong wind and drought (Green et al. 1999). In Antarctic
ecosystems, snow cover can offer protection from excess photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) and also damaging UV-B radiation (Marchand 1984). Away from the Antarctic
Peninsula the vegetation is composed of entirely of poikilohydric organism, the occurrence of
which depends on the distribution of available water. The brief spring and summer season
thought to be the main period of growth and productivity (Hovenden et al. 1994). Cryptogams
are a major component of the vegetation in both polar regions their response to elevated UVB radiation is of particular interest. Very few species have been recorded from ice-free areas
of the continent which is approximately 2%. Different types of flora survive there, the lichens
are the major elements of Antarctica, mosses, fungi and algae have also shown their existence
and are characterized by a high degree of adaptation on harsh environmental conditions. Soil
of Antarctica has very less humus, but rich nitrogen and phosphorus are responsible to
provide luxuriant growth to lichens and mosses on rocks in both dry and moist habitats,
(Crittenden 1998). Cryptogams are poikilohydric, and as a result, during period of low water
availability or freezing temperatures, they possess the ability to enter a dormant state of
physiological inactivity through controlled dehydration of their cells (Robinson 2003). The
photosynthetic pigment contents in lichenized alga are chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b,
carotenoid, phycocyanin, lutein and -carotene as well as the lipid soluble antioxidant alphatocopherol (Table 2). Riley, (1997) explored the melanin in lichens and concluded that,
melanin a predominantly indolic polymer is the major pigment present in surface of lichen,
these are black in color naturally found in lichens growing in Antarctica. These black colors
96
may be helpful to accumulate high photo energy from sun and retention in lower amount,
these melanin help to protect lichen thallus against UV-radiation. Gauslaa and Ustvedt,
(2003) explored the brightly orange color anthroquinone i. e. parietin found in lichens and
discussed their role as UV screening compound and concluded that parietin may reduce the
effect of UV radiations. UV-B absorbing pigments such as flavonoids are wavelength
selective UV-B screens, which can accumulate rapidly in response to high UV-B radiation
levels, Caldwell et al. (1983). Morphological changes includes reduced growth, where as
reduced photosynthesis is also important parameter for measurement (Prasad et al. 2005).
Several pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoid in lichens, algae, bryophytes, and green alga are
the advance parameter rather than morphology and anatomy, to detect the effect of UV
radiation on Antarctic flora. The pigment found, in photoautotrophic organisms have the
interest to ecologist and biologist for a number of reasons, e. g. chlorophyll and their
derivatives has been much used a parameter for the measurement of productivity. Their
qualitative as well as quantitative measurements may be indicative of the climatic changes.
LICHENS
The peculiarity of lichens is that they are not one homogenous organism but a symbiosis
of two different partners. The fungal partner supplies the plant, water and nutritious salt,
meanwhile the algal partner supplies the organic substances, like carbohydrate produce. With
this ideal job-sharing lichens can withstand hardest environmental conditions. Of all the
plants, lichens are best adapted to survive in the harsh polar climatic conditions (Table 1).
Some lichens have even been found only about 400 km from the South Pole. Lichens are
colorful organisms owing to numerous combinations of algal and fungal pigments; color is
often used in taxonomic studies to aid species identification. Some times the color of the
thallus is used as a characteristic to discriminate related genera; however, color variation
within species can be significant because of spatial and temporal variations through
environmental factors (Gauslaa and Mc Evoy 2005). Among Antarctic flora, the lichen shows
extensive diversity, thus it has taxonomical, ecological, environmental, interest of many
lichenologist from various countries. According to Dodge (1973) there are 429 species of
lichens occurring in Antarctica, while Hertel (1988) estimated only 160 crustose lichens in
that area. Comparing the investigation to Indian context a single lichen genus Acarospora was
recorded by Wafar and Untawale (1983), from Maitri area. Upreti (1999) collected lichens
from Maitri region of Schirmacher Oasis, and enumerated about 23 species of lichens
belonging to 16 genera. According to Friedmann (1982), in Antarctica, lichens are the major
floral elements of terrestrial vegetation of the harsh climate, after the disappearance of macrolichens the rock inhabiting (saxicolous) crustose species forms the main component of the
lichen vegetation. The crustose lichen develops a thin primitively organized thallus, which is
completely affixed to the substratum over the whole lower surface or hidden in the uppermost
layer of the rock. According to Hertel (1988), the crustose lichens can colonize, in extreme
polar habitat better than the other macroscopically visible plants. The common genera of
lichens, are reported in Table 1 are Acarospora, Buellia, Candellariella, Lecidea, Lecanora,
Physcia, Rhizocarpon, Rinodina, Umbilicaria, Xanthoria, Turgidosculum, Usnia, etc are
luxuriant growing in Antarctica (Czeczuga 1996; Lud et al. 2001; Lamb 1964; Dodge 1973).
97
The poikilohydric nature of lichens and several secondary chemicals like atronorin, usnic
acid, zeorin, triterpins are widely found, and help to protect against stress; thallus color of
lichens i. e. orange, red, yellow, grey are also helpful during harsh environmental conditions.
During stress conditions these secondary chemicals reach at upper cortex of lichens thallus to
protect them (Elix, 1996). Leading to these types of studies Huneck (1999), justified that
these secondary chemicals some time react with rock substratum and secrete powdery
substance on upper surface called Pruna these pruna shade the thallus to protect the thallus
against temperature as well UV radiations. The darkness of melanin pigments are observed
with the naked eye in intact Lobaria pulmonaria thallus again a natural light gradient reflects
the level of solar exposure. The brownest thalli are observed in the most sun-exposed position
and increasing pigmentation causes a reduced cortical transmittance, especially of UV and
short wave visible radiation. A photo protective role for melanin compound should imply a
higher resistance against excessive light in thalli where these pigments are abundant (Riley
1997). The melanic green algal lichens like Parmelia and Cetraria display predominantly
Arctic / Alpine regions; this melanin shows the strongest protection at energy-rich
wavelength, the percentage reduction in transmittance caused by melanin appears to be large
in the UV range. The secondary medullary compounds, stictic and norstictic acid deposited in
largest quantities in the photobiont layer may assist in UV protection (Bachereau and Asta
1997).
BRYOPHYTES
Like the lichens, the bryophytes can be found in all areas capable of supporting plant life
in the Antarctic, though they are not very widespread in distribution. Bryophytes, even those
of open, exposed habitat have been seen as showing features that would generally be regarded
as characteristic of shade plants. With lichens, bryophytes share the distinction of being the
largest group of plants that occur in Antarctic region. In spite of general assumption that
Joseph D. Hooker made the first collections of mosses in Antarctica during 1829-30. The
bryophytes are also poikilohydric, depending on the presence of free water during the summer
month for photosynthetic carbon gain and growth. Antarctic bryophyte communities are
largely confined to the margins of melt lake at Casey (the Australian base in the Windmill
Island region, 660 17S, 1100 32E) the three dominant moss species Ceratodon purpureus,
Grimmia antarctici and Bryum pseudotriquetrum are found in the both pure and mixed
communities (Selkirk and Seppelt 1987) and stream areas subject to snow accumulation. In
addition to their role in energy storage compounds, simple sugars and polyols performs
multiple roles in plant. They are thought to act as cryoprotctants, as osmotic regulator in the
drought and salt stress plants, and as antioxidant (Popp and Smirnoff 1995). Various soluble
carbohydrate are able to interact with the polar head groups of phospholipids, taking the place
of water molecules and maintaining membrane integrity during desiccation (Crowe and
Crowe 1986), polyols accumulate in higher plants in response to water stress. These
molecules probably have multiple roles, as compatible solutes, scavengers of active oxygen
species and as stabilizers of macromolecules (Loescher 1987; Smirnoff and Cumbes 1989;
Popp and Smirnoff 1995). Differences in the response of the three moss species to
desiccation, and the phenotypic plasticity in their response, was assessed by testing for
98
differences in three parameters over two sites that differed in water availability; (1) the WC
(water content) at full hydration, (2) the rates of drying over time, and (3) the relationship
between the decline in chlorophyll fluorescence and relative WC. Initial rates of water loss
were faster in moss obtained from the wet sites compared to that from the dry sites.
Few mosses have been studied, to know the negative effects of UV radiation on growth
and morphology in some high latitude species (Sonesson et al. 1996; Searles et al. 1999;
2002, Robson et al. 2003, Robinson et al. 2005). Short moss turf and cushion moss is found
most frequently in sandy and gravelly soil. The extent of these moss communities depends on
the availability of summer melt water, and ranges from the extensive moss which occurs
around, melt lakes and along melt streams (Selkirk and Seppelt 1987). Mosses, like lichens,
gather in colonies, which make them possible to collect and retain more water. They also lose
less by evaporation and show a marked ability to use water rapidly whenever it becomes
available. Mosses have also become well adapted to the almost continuous light during long
day of a polar summer. The impact of ambient ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation on the endemic
bryophyte, Grimmia antarctici, was studied over 14 months in East Antarctica. Over recent
decades, Antarctic plants have been exposed to the largest relative increase in UV-B exposure
as a result of ozone depletion. Although photosynthetic rates were not affected, there was
evidence of UV effects on morphology Antarctic bryophytes possess UV-B absorbing
pigments which should offer better protection under ambient UV-B radiation, these findings
suggested that G. antarctici may be disadvantaged in some settings under a climate with
continuing high levels of springtime UV-B radiation (Robinson et al. 2005).
Recently, high concentrations of UV-B absorbing pigments have also been reported in
two Antarctic mosses, Sanionia uncinata and Andreaea regularis, and one liverwort,
Cephaloziella varians, with positive correlations between pigment accumulation and flux of
natural solar UV-B radiation (Newsham et al. 2002, 2005, Newsham 2003), and investigated
the effect of reduced UV and visible radiation on the pigment concentrations, surface
reflectance and physiological and morphological parameters of the moss. Chlorophyll content
was significantly lower in plants grown under near-ambient UV, while the relative
proportions of photoprotective carotenoids, especially -carotene and zeaxanthin, increased
(Table 2). However, no evidence for the accumulation of UV-B absorbing pigments in
response to UV radiation was observed. According to Paul (2001), the carotenoid
concentration plays an important role in prolonged period of freezing. The Bryum argenteum
produce more energy by photosynthesis in low light at 50C than it does at 150C or higher.
Photosynthesis can start within few hours of thawing after a prolonged period of freezing, and
almost immediately following short period, due to this reasons it may be survive there.
ALGAE
Snow algae, which grows in semi permanent to permanent snow or ice in the alpine or
polar region of the world. Their optimum growth temperature is generally below 100C.
According to Green et al. (1999) more than 300 species of non-marine alga have been found
in Antarctica, these algae successfully adapted to their harsh environment though the
development of a number of adaptive features which includes pigments polyols (sugar
99
alcohols, e. g. glycerin), sugar and lipid (oils), mucilage sheaths, motile stages and spore
formation.
Cyanobacteria (blue green algae) have a cosmopolitan distribution ranging from hot
springs to Arctic and Antarctic regions characterized by high variability and the organisms
need to adapt to various environmental factors (Rozema et al. 2002). Blue green and other
algae are found growing in damp sand and gravel around lakes and pools along melt water
streams or in low-lying areas.
Other than blue and green algae may form extensive and spectacular red, yellow or green
patches in area of permanent snow. These pigments protect the cells from the high light and
ultraviolet radiation damage during the summer months. The pigments may take the form of
iron tannin compounds, as M. berggrenii, or orange to red-pigmented lipids as in the majority
of the snow algae. The cells of some species also secrete copious amount of mucilage, which
unable them to adhere to one another and to snow crystal and to prevent the cell from being
wash away by melt water. The mucilage also forms a protective cover and delays desiccation.
It may have additional function as an ultraviolet shield. According to Sinha et al. (2005),
Ultraviolet-B radiation reaching the earth surface due to depletion of stratospheric ozone layer
have been shown to cause destruction of phycobiliproteins like phycoerythrin, phycocyanin,
allophycocyanin, especially in blue green algae. In general, cyanobacteria are protected by
mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) and scytonemins while terrestrial plants contain
flavonoids (Table 2).
FUNGI
In Antarctic conditions, fungi have been studied in little. Several mushrooms have been
found on the west coast of the Antarctic peninsula, and on the South Shetlands. A few of the
fungi in Antarctica are unique to the continent and responsible to deteriorate the quality of
material but there is little study regarding pigments (Green et al. 1999).
HIGHER PLANTS
Only two native vascular plants, the Antarctic hair grass Deschampsia antarctica and a
cushion forming pearlwort, Colobanthus quitensis, survive south of 560 S. They occur in
small clumps near the shore of the west coast of Antarctic Peninsula. Both plants can tolerate
very harsh environmental conditions. The accumulation of UV-B absorbing pigments would
be particularly useful in Antarctic plants because such passive screens could protect them
from UV-B damage when physiological inactivity, due to desiccation or freezing, renders
active repair mechanisms unavailable (Lovelock et al. 1995, Cockell and Knowland 1999).
They continue to maintain their physiology at freezing point (Caldwell et al. 1998).
Ultraviolet Radiations and Adaptations in Plants

According to Prasad et al. (2005), UV-B exposure to photosynthetic terrestrial plant
Pisum sativum, is believed to enhance the generation of active oxygen species at various sites
of photosynthetic and respiratory electron transport chain. The active oxygen species (AOS) i.
e. hydrogen peroxide, superoxide radicals and hydroxyl radicals are highly reactive and can
100
induce lipid and protein peroxidation and thus, these active oxygen species are suggested to
affect the structural integrity and permeability of cellular mechanisms due to ultraviolet
radiations. Almong et al. (1991) suggested that enhanced UV-B radiation causes a multitude
of differing effects such as change in electron transport capability, chloroplast ultrastructure,
level of photosynthetic and protective pigments and disturb the mechanism of photosynthesis
in terrestrial plants. Among two photosystem, photosystem II appeared to be more sensitive to
ultraviolet radiation than photosystem I. Significant reduction in chlorophyll content was
noticed with increasing dose of UV-B and the suppression was more prominent on
chlorophyll-a than chlorophyll-b in other words it shows decreasing trend in Chl a / Chl b
ratio. This reduction could be due to chlorophyll destruction as reported in most of the UV-B
exposed photosynthetic organisms in glass house study (Teramura and Sullivan 1994). In
contrast to chlorophyll contents, carotenoid contents showed an enhancement with increasing
dose of UV-B radiation. In order to avoid AOS induced damage during oxidative stress,
plants evolve a complex antioxidant defense system (Kondo and Kawashima 2000). The
antioxidative enzymes: superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, etc. and non-enzymatic
antioxidants: ascorbate, carotenoids, flavonoids and a variety of phenolics are synthesized in
stressed plants (Rao et al. 1996). UV-B may cause damage to nucleic acids, proteins, and
lipids, and may affect photosynthesis, growth and development of plants (Jansen et al. 1998).
According to Tevini et al. (1981), carotenoid acts as scavenger of singlet oxygen which is
formed during intense light, protect chlorophyll from photo-oxidative damage therefore,
increased carotenoid content following UV-B exposure could have a positive effect on
protecting chlorophyll pigments. Interestingly, concentrations of UV-B absorbing compounds
were higher and chlorophyll-b was lower under ambient UV-B radiation in two Antarctic
vascular species, D. antarctica and C. quitensis, (Ruhland and Day 2000). There is also
evidence to suggest that reductions in leaf area may be related to increases in insoluble levels
of UV-B absorbing phenylpropanoids that contain epidermal cell elongation and subsequent
leaf expansion. Studies have found that the ambient levels of UV-B can stimulate production
of UV-B absorbing compounds (Hunt and Mc Neil 1999).
It is important to study the effect of particular stress on the biological organisms, and to
explore the pathway for signaling system i. e. defense mechanism at targeted organism and
also explore the mechanism between photosynthetic pigments and defense. Among these it is
also necessary that what type of defense be adopted by the organisms during adverse
conditions. In Antarctica, there are intense ultraviolet radiations therefore, it is important to
study the effect of ultraviolet radiation on flora and fauna and type of defense adopted for
surviving organisms. Leading to these types of studies in Robson et al. (2003) using polyester
film for the attenuation of ultraviolet radiation, which transmit a large percentage of the UVA radiation and found that photosynthetic pigment altered with UV-B radiations. Phoenix et
al. (2002), have used polycarbonate filter that absorb both UV-A and UV-B radiation, in this
experimental model the effect of ultraviolet radiation, in subarctic shrubs, reductions in UV-B
radiation resulted in increased levels of UV-B absorbing compounds which was attributed to
either increased secondary metabolism in absence of UV-B radiation or UV photo-oxidation
of these pigments. Krizek and Mirceki (2004) reported that cellulose acetate film as sometime
used for near-ambient control in UV-B exclusion or UV-B attenuation experiments can have
toxic effects on plants and affect growth in dependently of their effect on UV radiation. The
experiment of Robson et al. (2003) is not affected by this problem as Aclar film was used
instead of cellulose acetate for in-vitro as well field study. Result of these UV-B experiments,
101
added more information leading to effects of UV-B radiation on vegetation. Reduction in

chlorophyll b concentration has been observed in the other species of plant in response to
enhanced levels of UV-B (Strid et al. 1990, Deckmyn et al. 1994, Barsig and Malz 2000).
These reductions may be associated with UV-B induced damage to photosystem II
(Greenberg et al. 1989). Scientific investigations have shown that phytoplanktons are
sensitive to current UV-B levels, which can reduce the rate of primary productions, (Smith et
al. 1992, Vincent and Roy 1993). Bothwell et al. (1994) showed that UV-radiation reduced
not only the photosynthesis and growth of benthic diatoms but also inhibited algal consumers.
Ochs (1997) demonstrated the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation on the grazing activity
of heterotrophic flagellates on autotrophic pico-plankton. Keller et al. (1997), using a
mesocosm approach, concluded that the enhancement of UV-B radiation during a winter /
spring bloom did not affect the marine food web, trends of diminishing abundance of
organisms were consistently observed at different trophic level in the enhance UV-B
treatment.
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Chapter 5
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION STRESS: RESPONSE AND

PROTECTIVE STRATEGIES OF ANTARCTIC FLORA
Sanghdeep Gautam and Jaswant Singh*
ABSTRACT
Antarctica is place of adverse conditions- low temperature, low water availability,
strong winds and high incidence of solar specially the UV radiation altogether
constituting limiting factor for plant and animal life. Increases in ultraviolet radiation at
the Earths surface due to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer have increased
interest in the mechanisms of various effects it can cause on organisms. DNA is certainly
one of the key targets for UV-induced damage in a variety of organisms ranging from
bacteria to humans. Absorption of UV-B radiation by plants can damage and disrupt key
biological molecules. UV-B damage can manifest reduced photosynthesis, growth of the
plants and photosynthetic productivity. Antarctic plants experiences UV-B stress and for
their survival has shown various adaptive strategies. The first line of defence is to screen
UV-B radiation before it reaches the cell, then to minimize damage within the cells
through other protective strategies, and finally to repair damage once it has occurred. The
survival of Antarctic plants under ozone depletion depends on their ability to acclimate,
by employing photo protective mechanisms to avoid and repair UV-B damage.
1. INTRODUCTION
Antarctica is a place like no other; as an intriguing habitat, it is a scientist's dream. It is a
land where water is scarce, despite having more than two-thirds of the world's freshwater
supply trapped in ice. Though it borders the world's major oceans, the Southern Ocean system
is unique; it is a sea where average temperatures do not reach 2C in summer, where even the
water is so unusual that it can be identified thousands of kilometers away in currents that
*
Email: jaswant1983@yahoo.co.in
Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University,
Faizabad-224001, U.P., India
108
originated here. As the Earth, tilt on its rotational axis, makes its elliptical journey around the
Sun each year, the Sun "sets" in April, not to be seen again until September. And the icean
unimaginable, incomparable vastness of iceappears in a dozen different varieties, at times
and in places several thousand meters thick. There are two major ice sheets that change all the
time. Antarctica is a remote and inhospitable continent. The climate is the coldest and driest
known on Earth; nevertheless it is not uniform across the continent, and different climatic
regions can be distinguished (Holdgate 1977; Onofri 1999; vstedal).
The prevailing Antarctic conditions of low temperature, low water availability, frequent
freezethaw cycles, low annual precipitation, strong winds, high sublimation and evaporation,
high incidence of solar and especially ultraviolet radiation together constitute significant
limiting factors for plant and animal life. As a consequence of these severe conditions, the
Antarctic flora is almost entirely cryptogamic, only two vascular species occur, both of which
are restricted to the relatively mild Antarctic Peninsula. Therefore, the biology of Antarctica,
more than other continents, is dominated by microorganisms, with a high level of adaptation
and able to withstand extreme conditions. Abundance and diversity of organisms decrease,
along broad latitudinal gradients, from the maritime to the continental Antarctic zone and
within the latter with increasing altitude and latitude from the coast to the Ice Slope Region
(Pickard and Seppelt 1984; Kappen 1993).
2. DISTRIBUTION OF ANTARCTIC FLORA

Antarctica has been divided into three phyto-geographic zones -continental, maritime and
periantarctic (Stonehouse, 1989). The high-latitude, Continental Antarctic, is the most
climatically severe zone. The northwest coast of Antarctic Peninsula and associated islands
(including King George, South Shetlands, Sandwich and Orkney and Peter Iy) make up the
relatively mild Maritime Antarctic (Figure 1).
Despite the severe growth conditions, plants are found on the Antarctic continent,
although many species, including the two Angiosperms, are restricted to the relatively mild
maritime zone (Lewis Smith, 1984; Edwards and Smith, 1988; Hansom and Gordon, 1998;
Longton, 1988). Outside the maritime zone, the remaining cryptogamic vegetation is
primarily limited to a few small rocky outcrops along the coast, the dry valleys and inland
nunataks.
Exacerbating the extremely dry conditions are the subzero summer temperatures, which
lock most water away as snow and ice, significantly limiting plant productivity (Hansom and
Gordon, 1998). Antarctica has the most extensive and best developed terrestrial vegetation in
continental Antarctica but the vegetation is restricted to six species of bryophytes and 27
lichen species (Lewis Smith 1988; Melick et al. 1994). The bryophytes are poikilohydric,
depending on the presence of free water during the summer months for photosynthetic carbon
gain and growth. Consequently, Antarctic bryophyte communities are largely confined to the
margins of melt lakes and streams and areas subject to snow accumulation. At Casey (the
Australian Antarctic Base in the Windmill Island region, 6617S, 11032E) the three
dominant moss species Ceratodon purpureus, Grimmia antarctici and Bryum
pseudotriquetrum are found in both pure and mixed communities (Selkirk and Seppelt 1987).
The extent of these moss communities depends on the availability of summer melt water, and
109
Ultraviolet Radiation Stress
ranges from the extensive moss turves which occur around melt lakes and along melt streams
to small isolated moss buttons which are found in moisture pockets on rocky outcrops. Of the
three species, G. antarctici is common within melt lakes and streams, C. purpureus is often
associated with drier sites, and B. pseudotriquetrum co-occurs with both G. antarctici and C.
purpureus (Selkirk and Seppelt 1987) Despite limitations to growth , mosses have been
reported from as far south as 84.1 S and although bryophyte fruiting events are rare in the
continental Antarctic zone (Wise and Gressitt, 1965; Filson and Willis, 1975). In addition to
the relatively conspicuous mosses and lichens, the continental Antarctic terrestrial vegetation
includes groups that are often overlooked, including the chasmoendolithic algae, which occur
only within rock fissures. These organisms are widespread in coastal regions of Antarctica
and are believed to underlie up to 20% of the rock surface in some locations (Longton, 1985;
Hansom and Gordon, 1998). Total plant group contributing to the biodiversity of the
Antarctic landmass is provided in the table 1.
Table. 1. Estimated contribution of plant groups to the terrestrial plant
biodiversity of Antarctica
Phytogeographic
zone
Continental
Maritime
Total
Angiosperms
Mosses
2
2
30
75
85
Liverwort
s
1
25
26
Lichens
125
150
200+
Macrofung
i
2
22+
28
References
Lewis Smith(1984)
Lewis Smith(1984)
Longton(1985)
Figure 1. Map of Antarctica. The Maritime Antarctic is the area to the left of the dashed line. The
Periantarctic islands are found north of the limit of sea ice and bounded by the polar front. Locations
where much of the research described in this review was conducted include Signy Island, Maritime
Antarctic, Windmill Islands, Wilkes Land, Ross Island and Victoria Land ( Adapted from Robinson
2003).
110
3. OZONE LOSS IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

Depletion of stratospheric ozone, resulting from anthropogenic, atmospheric pollution
has led to increased ultraviolet (UV) radiation at the Earths surface, as well as a spectral shift
to the more biologically damaging shorter wavelengths (Frederick and Snell, 1988). As a
consequence, Antarctica now experiences unseasonably high UV-B radiation through much
of the spring, caused by the combined effects of the ozone hole and the approach of the
natural annual radiation peak, the summer solstice (Frederick and Snell, 1988; Roy et al.,
1994). The ozone hole which is defined as the average area with an ozone thickness of 220
DU, develops during the austral spring (SeptemberNovember) and is closely linked with the
polar vortex (Roy et al., 1994). Ozone depletion has recently extended into the mid-latitudes
reaching South America and the south island of New Zealand (Stolarski et al., 1986;
McKenzie et al., 1999). The largest ozone holes were recorded between 1998 and
2001(Figure 2), with areas twice that of Antarctica and minimum ozone thickness reaching
90DU at the south pole (NASA, 2002).
In Antarctic ecosystems, snow cover can offer protection from excess photo-synthetically
active radiation (PAR) and also damaging UV-B radiation (Marchand, 1984). Furthermore,
the spectral composition of sunlight transmitted through snow is primarily between 450 and
600 nm, with shorter and longer wavelengths removed (Salisbury, 1984). However, these
figures vary with the depth and density of snow cover. After snowmelt, submergence beneath
water may reduce incident PAR. Water preferentially absorbs longer wavelengths and,
although some attenuation of shorter wavelengths does occur, it offers only limited UV-B
protection (Cockell and Knowland, 1999). In addition to changes in incident UV-B due to
stratospheric ozone distribution and concentration, actual UV-B experienced on the ground is
highly variable because it is strongly influenced by cloud cover, geometry and albedo
(Bodeker, 1997).
Figure 2. Ozone hole area w.r.t to 220DU in Southern hemisphere from year 1999 to 2008 (NASA
2008).
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4. EFFECTS OF UV-B RADIATIONS ON PLANTS

Absorption of UV-B radiation by plants can damage and disrupt key biological
molecules, with an array of repercussions for the physiological functioning of the plant
(Greenberg et al., 1997; Rozema et al., 1997; Jansen et al., 1998; Tobin, 2003). The first line
of defence is to screen UV-B radiation before it reaches the cell, then to minimize damage
within the cells through other protective strategies, and finally to repair damage once it has
occurred (Stapleton, 1992).
Since repair mechanisms are often incomplete, prevention of damage, through avoidance
of UV-B absorption, should be more effective. Damage to biological molecules can occur
through direct absorption of UV-B or indirectly as a result of the production of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) (Figure 3).
Although such molecular effects of UV-B damage can manifest as reduced
photosynthesis and growth of the plants, photosynthetic productivity is unlikely to be
significantly affected by increasing UV-B (Allen et al., 1998), and direct effects on plant
communities are likely to be subtle (Caldwell et al., 1999).
Vulnerability to UV-B damage is likely to be greater in plants occurring at high latitudes
due to the fact that they have evolved under lower UV-B conditions (Caldwell et al., 1982;
Barnes et al., 1987; Marchant, 1997).
Prior to ozone depletion, polar plants were growing under the lowest UV-B levels on
earth, and in the last few decades they have been exposed to similar levels as temperate
plants, having little time for evolutionary adjustment and acclimation (Karentz, 1991).
Figure 3. Effects of UV-B radiation on plant cells, showing screening sites of damage.
112
The annual occurrence of the ozone hole coincides with time of emergence from winter
dormancy beneath the protective snow cover (Karentz, 1991; Adamson and Adamson, 1992;
Wynn-Williams, 1994), exposing plants to sudden elevations of UV-B radiation in
combination with increased PAR and greater temperature fluctuations. Bryophytes may be
particularly susceptible to UV-B damage because of their simple structure, with most having
leaves that are only one cell thick and lacking protective cuticles or epidermal layers
(Richardson, 1981; Gehrke, 1998; Gwynn-Jones et al., 1999). Combined with the
physiologically stressful effects of repeated freeze/thaw cycles, an intermittent water supply
and limiting nutrients, polar bryophytes are likely to be sensitive to the additional stress
imposed by elevated UV-B radiation (Robinson et al., 2003;Wasley et al., 2006 a, b). The
survival of Antarctic plants under ozone depletion depends on their ability to acclimate, by
employing photoprotective mechanisms to avoid and repair UV-B damage.
Many of the effects induced by UV-B radiation allow for at least a duality of
interpretations. The difference between damage, repair and acclimation can be subtle and it is
not always possible to identify one particular mechanism as the explanation underlying a
given phenomenon. For example, the UV-B induced degradation of the D1 protein of PSII
can be seen either as damage or as a part of a repair mechanism leading to the substitution of
the damaged components of PSII. A number of studies have found that photosynthetic
activity (estimated by measuring gas exchange or chlorophyll fluorescence) does not appear
to be strongly affected by either reduced or elevated UV-B treatments in the two Antarctic
vascular species. However, growth was affected in a number of ways by exposure to UV-B.
The major impact was a reduction in cell length, leading to shorter leaves. Less branching and
fewer leaves per shoot led to reduced plant size and biomass, with effects more pronounced in
C. quitensis than D. antarctica. Leaves were also thicker in plants exposed to UV-B. Perhaps
the cost of producing and maintaining thicker leaves explains the reductions in growth that
occur in the absence of effects on photosynthesis (Xiong and Day, 2001; Xiong et al., 2002).
Long-term field studies showed similar but less pronounced impacts of UV-B radiation
compared with similar length pot studies, but the latter showed high inter-annual variation
and provided evidence of cumulative UV-B effects (Day et al., 2001). Exposure to UV-B
accelerated plant development and led to greater numbers of reproductive structures in both
species, although the weight of C. quitensis seed capsules declined with higher UV-B
exposure. However, since these structures produced fewer spikelets and seeds, the overall
reproductive effort was unchanged. In addition, although the final seeds produced under UVB exposure were smaller, their germination rates were unaffected (Day et al., 2001).
In two Antarctic bryophyte species (Sanionia uncinata and Bryum argenteum), no
reductions of net photosynthesis or chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were observed under
current levels of UV-B. However, in the 7 day field UV-B enhancement study, effective
photochemical quantum yield (FPSII) was reduced in S. uncinata. Studies of lichens in
Antarctica have concentrated on the impact of excess visible radiation on photosynthesis and
have found that, while photoinhibition was evident when lichens were water stressed
(Hovenden et al., 1994), it was less likely to be a factor when lichens were fully hydrated
(Kappen et al., 1998a). No significant effects of either screening or supplementation of UV-B
have been observed. As with the excess PAR studies, it appears that lichens are far more
sensitive to moisture content and temperature. Perhaps these factors, which are hard to control
under screening treatments, have tend to obscure any potential impact of UV-B (Huiskes et
al., 2001; Lud et al., 2001b).
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5. PLANTS PROTECTION MECHANISM

Plants in nature are seldom affected by only a single stress factor such as UV-B radiation.
Instead, plants are subjected to a combination of environmental stresses and their overall
response to them can be very different from that induced by a single stress. For example, the
effectiveness of UV-B radiation can be ameliorated (Teramura et al. 1990) or in some cases
aggravated (Dube et al. 1992) depending on the plant species and on the nature of the stress
factor interacting with UV-B radiation (Bornman and Teramura, 1993; Caldwell et al. 1998).
However, experiments in controlled environments are often necessary, providing valuable
information on specific targets and mechanisms during relatively short time periods. They are
also useful as predictive indicators for organism response in natural environments, but they
should be verified as much as possible under field conditions.
5.1. UV Absorbing Compounds

UV-absorbing compounds are widespread and are found in lower and higher plants,
including aquatic and terrestrial life forms. One of the many roles of these compounds
appears to be the protection of organisms from harmful effects of UV-B radiation by means
of their direct absorption of these wavelengths. However, recent evidence suggests that some
of the phenolic compounds may contribute to the decrease in active oxygen species by acting
as antioxidants (Husain et al. 1987; Foyer et al. 1994; Markham et al. 1998; Olsson et al.
1998; Ryan et al. 2002). Although almost omnipresent, UV-absorbing molecules are
chemically very different in the various plant groups, since, for instance, their degree of
polymerisation and complexity decreases from higher plants to lower plants to cyanobacteria.
The survival of Antarctic bryophytes under ozone depletion depends on their ability to
acclimate to increasing UV-B radiation by employing photoprotective mechanisms to avoid
or repair UV-B damage. UV-B absorbing pigments are widespread across the plant kingdom,
due to their ability to absorb biologically damaging UV-B radiation while transmitting
essential photosynthetically active radiation. A meta analysis of field studies revealed that the
most striking and consistent response of plants to increased UV-B radiation was an increase
in UV-B absorbing pigments, on average by 10% (Searles et al., 2001). A similar study of
Arctic plants also showed increases in UV-B screening or radical scavenging compounds as
the major response to increasing UV-B radiation (Dormann and Woodin, 2002). However,
high latitude, southern hemisphere vascular plants do not show such consistent accumulation
of UV-B absorbing compounds (Day et al., 2001; Giordano et al., 2003). The accumulation of
UV-B absorbing pigments could be particularly useful in polar and alpine bryophytes, since
when such plants are physiologically inactive during desiccation or freezing, passive screens
would provide more effective protection from UV-B damage than repair mechanisms which
require an active metabolism (Cockell and Knowland, 1999). The primary UV-B-absorbing
pigments found in higher plants are flavonoid compounds, providing a broad UV-B screen
(Swain, 1976). UV-B-absorbing pigments such as flavonoids are wavelength-selective UV-B
screens, which can accumulate rapidly in response to high UV-B radiation levels (Caldwell et
al., 1983). In addition to their UV-B-absorbing properties, some flavonoids (e.g. quercetin
and kaempferol) with additional hydroxyl groups are thought to function as antioxidants, thus
114
protecting plants against oxidative damage (Bornmann et al., 1997) (Figure 4). Accumulation
in higher plants is primarily in the epidermis, screening physiologically important molecules
below (Robberecht and Caldwell, 1978; Tevini et al., 1991; Vogt et al., 1991; Lois, 1994;
Cuadra and Harborne, 1996; Bjerke et al., 2002; Buffoni-Hall et al., 2002). The accumulation
of UV-B-absorbing pigments would be particularly useful in Antarctic plants because such
passive screens could protect them from UV-B damage when physiological inactivity, due to
desiccation or freezing, renders active repair mechanisms unavailable (Lovelock et al., 1995a,
Lovelock et al., 1995b). UV-absorbing compounds have been investigated in a number of
Antarctic terrestrial species from cyanobacteria to terrestrial plants. In general, cyanobacteria
are protected by mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) and scytonemins, while terrestrial
plants contain flavonoids (Rozema et al., 2002). Flavonoids are important UV-B absorbing
pigments, which can be induced within hours in response to UV-B radiation, and are
ubiquitous in higher plants (Cooper- Driver and Bhattacharya, 1998). They have been
extracted from about half of the bryophyte species examined (Markham, 1990). Flavonoids
from herbarium specimens of Antarctic Bryum argenteum were also shown to correlate with
historical ozone levels suggesting the possibility that these were actively induced UV-B
screens (Markham 1990). Recently, high concentrations of UV-B absorbing pigments have
also been reported in two Antarctic mosses, Sanionia uncinata and Andreaea regularis, and
one liverwort, Cephaloziella varians, with positive correlations between pigment
accumulation and flux of natural solar UV-B radiation (Newsham et al., 2002, 2005;
Newsham, 2003). Conversely, UV-B absorbing pigments decreased or showed no change in
response to elevated UV-B levels in seven European, Arctic and South American moss
species (Barsig et al., 1998; Gehrke, 1998, 1999; Searles et al., 1999; Niemi et al., 2002 a, b).
Kaempferol
Quercetin
Figure 4. Molecular structure of kaempferol (above) and quercetin (below) found in some terrestrial and
aquatic higher plants.
115
As a result of these studies, it has been suggested that mosses are less likely to synthesize
UV-B absorbing pigments than other plant groups and are potentially more vulnerable as a
functional type (Gwynn-Jones et al., 1999). Although relatively few mosses have been
studied, negative effects of UV radiation on moss growth and morphology have been reported
for some high latitude species (Sonesson et al., 1996; Searles et al., 1999, 2002; Robson et al.,
2003, Robinson et al., 2005). In many species, flavonoid synthesis is stimulated by exposure
to UV-B radiation (Tevini et al. 1981; Staaij et al. 1995), which seems to act at the gene level
by increasing the expression of the enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway (Hahlbrock et
al. 1989; Kubasek et al. 1992) such as Chs, which encodes the enzyme chalcone synthase, and
phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL).
Lichens are exposed to the highest irradiance levels when desiccated (Lange et al. 1999),
and in this state, active repair cannot take place. Therefore, lichens are probably more
dependent on UV-B protection by screening compounds than the homeohydric plants. UVprotection in lichens has been tentatively ascribed to secondary compounds, also called lichen
compounds (Fahselt 1994; Rikkinen 1995; Huneck 1999), a heterogeneous group of fungal
compounds with varying biosynthetic pathways (Huneck and Yoshimura 1996). Most lichen
compounds absorb strongly in the UV, and some, such as parietin, additionally absorb
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) (Solhaug et al. 2003; Hill and Woolhouse 1966).
The widely distributed and common compounds parietin, atranorin, usnic acid, as well as the
structurally less known fungal melanins, are cortical pigments, forming a screen above the
photobiont. Most other compounds are located in the photobiont layer within the upper part of
the medulla (Fahselt and Alstrup 1997). The cortical lichen compounds in particular have a
strong potential to protect the photobiont in lichens against adverse effects of UV-B radiation
(Dietz et al. 2000) found that pigmentation of the cortex, rather than changes in reflectance
and cortex thickness was the most important factor determining percent transmitted PAR in
nine investigated lichen species.
6. PROTECTION FROM UV-B INDUCED DNA DAMAGE

IN THE DESICCATED STATE
Although tolerance of solar radiation and either drought stress or desiccation are
associated in many plants. Bryophytes are protected from UV-B induced DNA damage in the
desiccated state and since a previous study had shown that lichen thalli accumulate more
damage when desiccated (Buffoni-Hall et al. 2003). Desiccation tolerant mosses and lichens
can often tolerate exposure to both high PAR and UV-B (Seel et al. 1992a; Seel et al. 1992b;
Tkacs et al. 1999; Heber et al. 2000) and this tolerance can manifest differentially in the
hydrated and desiccated state. For example, the photosynthetic apparatus of the desiccation
tolerant moss species, Tortula ruralis, is more tolerant of photoinhibition when the moss is
desiccated than when it is hydrated, but even when hydrated this species was able to tolerate
elevated UV-B for 8 days with no significant decline in Fv/Fm (Tkacs et al. 1999). In
Antarctic mosses the tolerance to UV-B induced DNA damage, and the extent to which
desiccation is protective, fits with the degree of desiccation tolerance and hence the
hydrological habitat of each species (Robinson et al. 2000; Wasley et al. 2006), as well as
with its relative accumulation of UV-B absorbing compounds (Lovelock and Robinson 2002;
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Dunn and Robinson 2006; Clarke and Robinson 2008). The fact that these mosses are so well
protected when dry is suggestive of passive protection, as enzymatic repair processes are
unlikely to be active in desiccated organisms (Buffoni-Hall et al. 2003). Passive protection
mechanisms would also be effective when these mosses are frozen and could thus be
particularly beneficial to polar and alpine plants. Protection from UV-B when desiccated
could be due to morphological changes upon drying, which reduce light levels in the cell.
Desiccation tolerant plants typically reduce exposed leaf area when dry by folding or
curling of leaves (Davey and Ellis-Evans 1996; Proctor and Tuba 2002). This reduces
transmission of PAR into the cell by between 40-60% in a range of moss species including B.
pseudotriquetrum and T. ruralis (Seel et al. 1992a). UV-B is likely to be similarly reduced
which would contribute considerable protection at the molecular level. Based on relative turf
densities, desiccation of these three mosses results in reductions in size ranging from 25% in
S. antarctici to 40 to 50% in B. pseudotriquetrum and C. purpureus respectively (Wasley et
al. 2006). When moss cells shrink upon desiccation, cytoplasm volume is reduced,
concentrating cellular contents including UV-B screening compounds and possibly increasing
the attenuation of UV-B. In most ecosystems, periods of high insolation (and associated UVB stress) cause desiccation in bryophytes as they equilibrate leaf turgor with that of their
surroundings (Gehrke 1999). The reverse is true in the Antarctic environment however, where
the major water source is snow-melt, which is maximal during periods of high insolation, and
can coincide with elevated UV-B as a result of ozone depletion. Thus if desiccation is a major
strategy for protection from UV-B these plants may still be at risk from high UV-B during
ozone depletion, especially when this coincides with spring melt.
7. DNA DAMAGE BY UV-B RADIATIONS AND REPAIR MECHANISM

DNA is the primary cellular target of UV-B radiation. DNA strongly absorbs UV-C and
UV-B regions of the spectrum, with the peak absorption for around 260 nm and the maximum
absorption of DNA in intact plants near 280 nm (Quaite et al. 1992). Longer wavelengths
(UV-A, 315-400 nm) play a role in the formation of lesions, although to a lesser extent
(Quaite et al. 1992).
UV-B-induced DNA damage can be classified into two major categories: cyclobutane
pyrimidine dimers (CPDs), which make up approximately 75% of the damage and
pyrimidine-(6-4)-pyrimidinone photoproducts [(6-4) photoproducts], constituting the rest
(Mitchell et al. 1993) (Figure 5). CPDs are covalently linked to two adjacent pyrimidines on
the same DNA strand and are very stable photoproducts unlike the 6-4 photoproducts, which
isomerise into Dewar photoproducts in the presence of UV-A radiation (Matsunaga et al.
1993). Both types of dimmers block DNA replication and transcription, and can lead to the
death of the cell. CPDs are the most abundant and most cytotoxic lesions but the 64PPs have
more serious mutagenic effects (Lindahl and Wood 1999, Matsunaga et al. 1993)(Figure 6).
UV sources which contains UV-B and UV-A, produce a Dewar isomers since the
photoisomerization is most efficient around 320 nm, corresponding to the UV absorption
maximum of 64PPs. (Taylor et. al. 1990). Both classes of lesions distort the DNA helix.
Sequences which promote bending and unwinding at favourable sites for damage
formation, e.g., CPDs form at higher yields in single-stranded DNA and at the flexible ends
117
of poly (dA)-(dT) tracts, but not in their rigid centre (Becker and Wang 1989, Lyamichev
1991). CPD formation is less when the bending of the DNA is towards the minor groove
(Pehrson and Cohen, 1992).
One of the transcription factors which have a direct effect on DNA damage formation and
repair is the TATA-box binding protein (TBP). TBP induces the selective formation of 6
4PPs in the TATA-box, where the DNA is bent, but CPDs are formed at the edge of the
TATA-box and outside, where the DNA is not bent (Aboussekhra and Thoma, 1999). Every
CPD acts as a block to transcription and replication, and only a small fraction of dimers
results in a mutation (Britt 1995, 1996).
These DNA lesions, if unrepaired, interfere with DNA transcription and replication and
leading to misreading of the genetic code and leads to mutations and death. Plants uses two
broad strategies to minimise the amount of damage caused by UV-B radiation: decreasing the
penetration of UV-B radiation within the tissue and repairing the damage caused by the
radiation that succeeded in penetrating into the tissue.
One way of decreasing the penetration of UV-B radiation in the tissue is by the
accumulation of UV-absorbing pigments, as described in the previous section. Evidence that
UV-absorbing pigments are important for the protection of the DNA come from various
studies in which plants that are genetically deficient in these pigments were shown to be
much more sensitive to UV-induced DNA damage than their respective wild types (Li et al.
1993; Stapleton et al. 1994).
Figure 5. Formation of the UV-induced CPD and 6,4 photoproducts (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov).
118
Figure 6. Formation of the UV-induced second most frequently occurring 64 photoproducts and their
Dewar valence isomers. 64 photoproducts are formed at 5_-TC-3_, 5_-CC-3_, 5_-TT-3_ but not at
5_-CT-3_ sites in DNA (cosmobiousa.com).
7.1. DNA Repair Mechanisms

The accurate transmission of genetic information from one cell to its daughters is the key
for the survival of organisms. This key transmission requires (i) extreme accuracy in
replication of DNA and precision in chromosome distribution, and (ii) the ability to survive
spontaneous and induced DNA damage while minimizing the number of heritable mutations
(Zhou and Elledge 2000). To achieve this goal organisms have developed efficient DNA
repair mechanisms in order to minimise the lethal effects of DNA lesions. Specialized repair
proteins plays important role. These specialized proteins scan the genome continuously for
the presence of DNA lesions. Lesion recognition protein finds a mismatched base, if any, an
apurinic or apyrimidinic site, or structurally altered bases, it triggers an efficient DNA repair,
which ultimately leads to the restoration of the genetic information (Carell and Epple 1998).
7.2. Photo Reactivation

This is one of the simplest and oldest repair systems consisting of a single enzyme:
photolyase. DNA lesions formed by UV, many organisms containing the photolyase enzyme
which specifically binds to CPDs (CPD photolyase) or 6 4PPs (64 photolyase) reverses the
damage using the energy of light, a process known as photo reactivation (Figure 7. and Figure
8) (Sancar 1994, 1996, Kim et. al. 1994, Todo et. al.1997, Thoma 1999). CPD photolyases
have been reported in bacteria, fungi, plants, invertebrates and many vertebrates. DNA
photolyases are found in a number of archaebacteria, they are considered to be ancient repair
proteins, which have helped in the evolution of life on Earth (Carell and Epple 1998). DNA
photolyases are monomeric flavin-dependent repair enzymes with a molecular weight of
between 50 and 65 kDa. Ten to twenty enzyme molecules are believed to scan the genome for
UV lesions in every cell nucleus. DNA photolyases consists of two chromophores. One of the
chromophores (which can be either 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate or 8-hydroxy-5-
119
deazariboflavin, with absorption maxima of 380 and 440 nm, respectively) is a lightharvesting antenna absorbing the blue-light photon and transfers excitation energy to the
active (catalytic) cofactor, which is invariably a two electron- reduced flavinadenine
dinucleotide (FADH). Flavin in the excited state donates an electron to the CPD, splitting the
cyclobutane ring, and the electron is transferred back to the flavin concomitantly with the
generation of the two canonical bases (Thoma 1999). CPD photolyases recognize CPDs with
a selectivity similar to that of sequence specific DNA-binding proteins, which suggests that
they could compete with histones for DNA accessibility in a manner similar to transcription
factors (Sancar et. al.1987). Once photolyase binds to CPD, the efficiency of photo
reactivation is extremely high: approximately one dimer split for every blue-light photon
absorbed (Britt 1996).
Although the general light-driven splitting mechanism of photo reactivation is well
understood, a number of aspects of the repair process remain obscure such as (i) how repair
enzymes recognize single DNA lesions with high precision in a structurally heterogeneous
mega base prokaryotic or even chromatin-containing eukaryotic genome, (Roberts 1995,
Reinisch et. al. 1995, Nelson and Bestor 1996) (ii) how the initial reduction of FAD to FADH
takes place.
Figure 7. Formation of the most toxic and mutagenic DNA lesion, cyclobutanepyrimidine dimers by
UV radiation. Dimers can form between two adjacent pyrimidines and their photoreactivation by the
enzyme photolyase in the presence of light.
120
Figure 8. Repair of pyrimidine dimers with photolyase. Energy derived from absorbed light is used to
reverse the photoreaction that caused the lesion. The two chromophores
methenyltetrahydrofolylpolyglutamate (MTHFpolyGlu) and FADH_, perform complementary
functions. On binding of photolyase to a pyrimidine dimer, repair proceeds as follows (Principles of
Lehninger fourth edition).
1 A blue-light photon (300 to 500 nm wavelength) is absorbed by the MTHFpolyGlu, which functions
as a photoantenna. 2 The excitation energy passes to FADH_ in the active site of the enzyme. 3 The
excited flavin (*FADH_) donates an electron to the pyrimidine dimer (shown here in a simplified
representation) to generate an unstable dimer radical. 4 Electronic rearrangement restores the
monomeric pyrimidines, and 5 the electron is transferred back to the flavin radical to regenerate FADH.
Based on site-directed mutagenesis (Heelis et. al.1990, Li et. al.1991) and EPR
investigations (Essenmacher et. al. 1993) it was suggested that the formation of FADH_
results from a temporary photo-reduction and requires an electron transfer from a distant
tryptophan to the light-excited FAD radical quartet state. In addition, by using time-resolved
absorption spectroscopy it has been shown in E. coli DNA photolyase that the excited FAD
radical abstracts an electron from a nearby tryptophan in 30 ps. After subsequent electron
transfer along a chain of three tryptophans, the most remote tryptophan (as a cation radical)
releases a proton to the solvent in about 300 ns, showing that electron transfer occurs before
121
proton dissociation (Aubert et. al 2000). A similar process may take place in photolyase-like
blue-light receptors, (iii) how the enzymes mediate the energy and electron transfer processes
in order to achieve repair with almost maximal efficiency (quantum yield = 0.70.9), and (iv)
in view of the lack of any knowledge of how photolyases recognize their substrate, the
different cleavage rates observed for dimers possessing different configurations and
constitutions remain obscure (Kim et. al 1993).
CONCLUSION
Climate change has already impacted on Antarctic plants. Temperature changes in
Antarctic have led to changes in the distribution of native plants. The current levels of UV-B
have been shown to reduce growth of the plant species, suggesting that ozone depletion may
be having a negative effect on these plants. Although negative effects of UV-B are
ameliorated by UV-screening compounds in many Antarctic plants. Comprehensive
predictions are complicated by both the lack of certainty in the prediction of changes to
abiotic variables, and by the lack of long-term studies investigating recent changes to the
flora. The effects of UV-B radiation on DNA damage and repair in natural environments are
not known clearly as yet and require further research. Furthermore, lichens are usually
regarded as individuals, although they are a symbiotic entity involving at least two partners.
The high resilience of desiccated mosses to DNA damage suggests that passive screening
maybe more important than repair in these species. Further investigations are required on the
effects of UV-B radiation on the DNA of the single symbiotic partners in order to assess
whether the fungus constitutes an effective shield protecting the photobiont against DNA
damage.
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Chapter 6
ANTARCTIC MOSSES, LIMITING FACTORS AND

THEIR DISTRIBUTION
Rudra P. Singh and Jaswant Singh*
ABSTRACT
Antarctica is an unique, southern most continent and is known for extreme cold
conditions. The life on this continent is very difficult, only some of the micro flora and
specialized fauna are surviving here due to natural acclimatization and survival
mechanisms. The lichens are dominant flora of Antarctica followed by mosses, algae and
fungi. The Antarctic climatic conditions such as lowest temperature, precipitation, high
wind speeds and UV-B radiations influences the Antarctic life. Mosses are the important
cryptogamic plants, poikilohydric in nature and adapted strategies for survival. About
250 species of mosses were recorded from Antarctica (sub-Antarctic, maritime Antarctic
and continental Antarctic) while the number of aquatic mosses is just 16. The most
favorable habitats of the maritime Antarctic is dominated by cryptogamic communities of
carpet and turf-forming mosses. Antarctic bryophytes responds rapidly to ozone
dependent increase in solar UV-B by synthesizing UV-B screening pigments and
carotenoids in tissues and the pigmentation provides protection from potentially
deleterious effects of UV-B radiation.
Keywords: Antarctica, Aquatic mosses, Bryophytes, Terrestrial mosses.
INTRODUCTION
In Antarctica only cold adapted plants and animals survive, such as Penguins, seals, many
types of lichen, moss and algae. The bryophytes, because of their poikilohydric nature and
alternative strategy of adaption, are one of the very few plant groups which grow in
*
E-mail: jaswant1983@yahoo.co.in, Mobile +919415717168

Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. R M L. Avadh University,
Faizabad-224001, U.P., India
132
Antarctica. As such, their role in habitat modification, nutrient cycling, primary production
and providing shelter and security to associated invertebrate animals assume a particular
significance, Incidentally, barring just two species of vascular plants, viz. Deschampsia
antaractica, a grass belonging to family Poaceae, and Colobanthus quitensis, a pearlwort of
family Caryophyllaceae reported to be occurring in Antarctica (Seppelt and Broadly, 1988).
Other groups of plant recorded from the icy continent include lichens, fungi, algae and
bacteria. Thus the Antarctic continent, with its off-lying Islands, is unique in being the only
major landmass almost entirely vegetated by cryptogams, with the lichens predominating in
drier, more exposed situations, while the bryophytes dominant in the more sheltered and
moister habitats. The Antarctic flora in general is impoverished due to both, harsh
environment and isolation of the continent because of vast, cold and turbulent oceanic barrier
of the southern sea. Various biogeographical schemes have been suggested as a means of
classifying Antarctic terrestrial environment but there is currently a general recognition of
three biogeographical zones within the Antarctic as a whole, the sub-, maritime and
continental Antarctic (Smith, 1984; Longton, 1988). The sub-Antarctic zone includes isolated
Islands and archipelagos at high latitudes in the Southern Ocean. Most, with the exception of
South Georgia, Heard and McDonald Islands are close to or north of the oceanic Polar Frontal
Zone. These Islands are under strong maritime influence, which limits and buffers
temperature variation year round, as they are not normally impacted by pack or fast ice.
The Maritime Antarctic is also a region under strong Maritime influence from the
Southern Ocean, in this case with the influence being more seasonal in nature and limited to
the short Antarctic summer period. It includes the western coast of the Antarctic Peninsula to
c. 72 S, the South Shetland, South Orkney and South Sandwich Islands, and the isolated
Bouvetoya and Peter Ioya. The central mountain spine, eastern coast and the more southern
elements of the Antarctic Peninsula are not included, and therefore the term Maritime
Antarctic does not include all or even a majority of the geological region of West Antarctica.
The continental Antarctic is the largest biogeographical zone in terms of area, including
all of East Antarctica, the Balleny Islands, and those parts of the Antarctic Peninsula not
included in the Maritime Antarctic. By contrast with the other two zones, terrestrial habitats
of the continental Antarctic are very limited in extent and more isolated, although they
include coastal rocky regions superficially similar to those of the maritime Antarctic. With
one exception i.e., formation of the extensive ice-free cold deserts of Victoria Land (Lyons et
al., 1997). Air temperature in the continental Antarctic are more extreme than those of the
maritime and sub-Antarctic although, as in all zones, microhabitat temperature may be more
variable, in particular with snow cover giving protection from winter thermal minima. During
the brief summer, absorption of energy by rocks and soil can lead to melting and free water
being available even at the most southern ice-free locations.
The continental Antarctic bryoflora is characterized by just a few species of bryophytes
generally wide distribution belonging to 8-10 genera only, viz. Bryoerythropyllum, Bryum,
Cephaloziella, Ceratodon, Dicranella, Didymodon, Grimmia, Plagiothecium, Pottia and
Sarconeurum. Bryum is the luxirount growing moss genus occurring in Antarctica, because of
great phenotypic plasticity exhibited by it in response to extreme environmental conditions,
coupled with general lack of sporophytes make this as taxonomically most difficult and
confused genus in the continent. Sarconeurum, a monotypic moss genus widely distributed in
Antarctica and Southern South Amrica (Green, 1975; Matteri, 1982), shows the southern
Antarctic Mosses, Limiting Factors and Their Distribution
133
most distribution by any bryophyte, being recorded at 82 42'S latitude (Wise and Gressit,
1965).
HISTORY OF ANTARCTIC BOTANY

Scientific reports only came out when there were scientific expeditions to Antarctica with
the aim of exploring not only the marine but the terrestrial environment. Difficulties on land
were overwhelming especially because of freezing temperatures and strong winds. Infact, this
was a land for adventurers made by laymen, hunters and sailors, who used to send their
collections to specialists for identification. Systematic botany was first presented in a study by
J. Torrey. He, in 1823, described what appears to the first botanical finding in Antarctica: a
new species of Usnea (Lichen). J. Eight was the first scientist to collect the lichens, mosses,
sea algae and grasses, between 1829-1830. J.D. Hooker carried out collection on the newly
discovered Cock burn Island, close to Trinity Peninsula, in 1843, while participating in
Rosss Antarctic Expedition and the results were published by Wilson and Hooker, (1847).
After J.D. Hookers expedition, new collections in Antarctica were carried out by E.
Racowitza, a botanist who included 15 species and two varieties of mosses, described by
Cardot (1900-1901), and three species of liverwort on the west coast of the Antarctic
Peninsula, which were examined by Stphani, (1901). Fenton and Smith, (1982) described the
ecology of the tall turf- forming mosses and their distributions over Signy Island and South
Orkney Island. The genetic diversity, mutagenesis and dispersal of Antarctic mosses were
well documented in the review of Skotnicki et al., (2000). Recently biologist and botanist are
participating in the expedition from all over world and making excellent contributions in the
floral biodiversity of icy continent.
ANTARCTIC BRYOPHYTES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

The cryptogrammic plants are the main Antarctic flora which survives under harsh
environmental conditions. Bednarek-Ochyra et al., (2000) and Lewis Smith, (1984), reported
that most of the mosses are distributed in maritime Antarctic, and continental Antarctic.
Maritime Antarctic (North) have maximum moss species (100-115 species) and are dispersed
under South Sandwich Island, South Orkney Island, South Shetland, west coast of Antarctic
Peninsula to 65 0S, North coast of Peninsula to 65 0S while in the South maritime Antarctic
have 40-50 species of mosses, dispersed on west coast of Antarctic Peninsula and offshore
Islands from 68 0S to c. 72 0S and east coast of Antarctic peninsula from 65 0S. Continental
Antarctic (coastal and slope areas) recorded 20-30 species of mosses and are distributed over
eastern Antarctica and western south of 72 0S. Latter on Convey, (2006) reported current
Antarctic biodiversity knowledge under three biogeographical zones of Antarctica, the
maximum 250 moss species were reported from sub-Antactic zone, while 100 from maritime
and 25 from continental Antarctic zone. The bryophyte found in Antarctica, can be subdivided in to two big taxonomic groups: the Hepaticae, 27 species and the Mosses (Musci) of
which there are at least 100-110 species (Putzke and Pereira, 2001). The distribution of
Antarctic bryophytes are as follows.
134
Amblystegiaceae
Campyliadelphus polygamus (B.S.G.) Kanda [ syn: Compylium polygamus (schimp.

In B.S. and G.) lange in g. Jens]- South Shetland Island
Orthotheciella varia (Hedw.) Ochyra [ syn: Amblystegium subvarium Broth].Bipolar
Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske with S. uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske var. georgicouncinata (C. muell) Putzke and Pereira C.N. Bipolar, found in all main Island
Warnstorfia laculosa (C. Muell.) Ochyra and Matteri (Calliergidium
austrostramineum is syn.)- Circumsubantarctic
Warnstorfia sarmentosa (Wahlenb.) Hedenas (Calliergon sarmentosum is syn.)Bipolar
Andreaeaceae
Andreaea acceminata Mitt.

Andreaea depressinervis Card.
Andreaea gainii Card. West Antarctic endemic (found in all the main Islands of the
South Shetland and in the continent)
Andreaea regularis Muell. South temperate and Antarctic (found in all main Island
of the south Shetland and in the continent)
Bartramiaceae
Bartramia patens Bird.- Amphiatlantic south temperate

Conostomom megellanicum Sull.- American south temperate, south Georgia, south
Orkney and south Shetland
Brachytheciaceae
Brachythecium austro-glareosum (C. Muell.) kindb.- continent

Brachythecium austro-salebrosum (C. Muell) kindb.- Pan south temperate, South
Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Brachythecium glaciale B.S.G. [all collections identified as B. subpilosum (Hook. F.
ae wils.) Jaeg probably correspoods to this species]- Bipolar
Brachythecium subpilosum (Hook.f. et Wils) Jaeg- South Shetland Island
Bryaceae
Bryum amblyodon G. Muell- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
135
Bryum argenteum Hedw.- Worldwide, South Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Bryum dichotomum Hedw. Only on Deception Island
Bryum orbiculatifolium Card. Et. Borth Shetland Island
Bryum pallescens Schlieich Ex. Schwaegr- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and
Antarctic continent
Bryum psudotriquetrum (Hedw.) Schwaegr
Bryum urbanskyi Broth (probably= Bryum psudotriquetrum)- South Shetland Island
Pohlia cruda (Hedw) Lindb.- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Pohlia drummondii (C. Muell) A. L. Andrews in Gront [syn: Pohlia inflexa (C.
Muell.) wijk. Et. Marg]- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Pohlia nutans (Hedw) Lindb- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Pohlia wahlenbergii (web. Et Mohr.) Andrews- Bipolar, South Shetland Island
Dicranaceae
Anisothecium cardotii (R. Br. ter.) Ochyra [syn: Dicranella cardotii (R. Brown ter.)
Dixon]- South America, Australia and New Zeland, Subantarctic Island (King
George Island- For a single locality in Ezeurra Inlet. Anisothecium hookeri (C.
Muell.) Broth. [syn: Dicranella hookeri (C.Muell.) Card.]- South Shetland (Only
Deception Island) and Antarctica (Victoria Land) need to revised more carefully
Chorisodontium caiphyllum (Hook. F. et wills.) Broth.- Southern South America,
New Zeland, Antarctic Peninsula and Southern Shetland Island (all the main Island)
Kiaeria pumila (Mitt. In Hook. F.) Ochyra Southern South America, Subantarctic
Island and Southern Shetland Island (only in King George Island), Antarctic
continent
Ditrichaceae
Campylopus pyriformis (Schulz) Bird- Central Victoria land, Antarctica, in

Fumaroles- also in south America (Brazil and Paraguay) and Africa other species
were cited to Deception Island
Ceratodon antacticus Card.- Widespread
Ceratodon grossiretis Card.- Widespread
Ceratodon purpureus (Hedw.) Bird.- Widespread (Bipolar)
Distichum capillaceum (Hedw.) B.S.G.- Widespread (Bipolar)
Ditrichum conicum (Mont.) Mitt.- South America, Subantarctic Island and South
Shetland Island (only in Deception Island near Furnaroles)
Ditrichum gemmiferum Ochyra and Lewis. Smith- Deception Island
Ditrichum hyalinum (Mitt) Kuntze (sin: D. austro-georgicum C. Muell.)- South
America, South Shetland (Liringstone and King George Island) and Antarctic
continent
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Ditrichum lewis and Smithii Ochyra- America, South Shetland (Liringstone and King
George Island) and Antarctic continent.
Encalyptaceae
Encalypta rhaptocarpa Schwaerge (= E. patogonica Broth)

Encalypta procera- Antarctic continent
Grammiaceae
Grimmia reflexidens C. Musell Grimmia lawiana J.H. willis and Grimmia

plagiopoda are reported but needs revision- South America, east Africa, Bipolar, and
Antarctic continent
Racomitrium sudeticum (Funck) Bruch and Schimp. In BSG. (syn: R.austrogeorgicum Par.)- Bipolar, South Shetland and Antarctic continent
Racomitrium pachydictyon Card.
Schistidium amblyophyllum (C. Muell.) Ochyra and Hertel [syn: Schistidium hyalinecuspidatum (C. Muell.) B.G. Bell]- South America, Subantarctic Island and South
Shetland Island
Schistidium antarctici (Card) L.I. Saviez and Smironova [belongs here all reports of
Schistidium opocarpum (Hedw.) B.S.G. to the Antarctica]- Antarctic Endemic
Schistidium cupulare (C. Muell) Ochyra- Amphiatlantic, Subantarctic Island and in
the South Shetland Island (only in King George Island)
Schistidium folcatum (Hook. F. at. Wils) B. Bremer.- Amphiatlantic, Subantarctic
Island and in the South Shetland Island (only in King George Island)
Schistidium halinae Ochyra.- Livingstone and King George Island (endemic to west
Antarctica)
Schistidium occultum (C. Muell) Ochyra and Malteri- Southern South America,
Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Island
Schistidium rivulare (Bird) Pobp.- Aquatic, Bipolar, South Shetland Island and
Antarctic continent
Schistidium steerei Ochyra.- Antarctic endemic known only from the South Shetland
Island (martel and Ezeurra Inlets in king George Island)
Schistidium urnulacerum (C. Muell.) B.G. Bell- South Georgia and South Shetland
Island
Hypnaceae
Hypnum revolutum (mitt) Lindb

Platydictya jungermannioides (Bird.) Crum (rare)- only in King George Island
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Meesiaceae
Meesia uliginosa Hedw. (syn: Ceratodon kinggeorgicus Kand)- Bipolar, South

Shetland and Antarctic continent
Orthotrichaceae
Muellerialla crassifolia (Hook f. et wils) Dus.

Orthotrichum rupestre Schleich. Ex. Schwaegr
Plagiotheciaceae
Plagiothecium ovalifolium Card.

Plagiothecium georgieo antarcticum (C. Muell) Kindb (syn: Plagiothecium simonovi
Sav. L. jub. and Smirn.)
Polytrichaceae
Notoligotrichum trichodon (Hook f. et. Wils.) G.L. Smith- South America and
Antarctica (known only from a single locality on Potter Peninsula, King George
Island)
Polytrichum alpinum (Hedw) G. L. Smith- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and
Antarctic continent
Polytrichum strictum Bird (Syn- P. alpestre Hoppe)- Bipolar, South Shetland Island
and Antarctic continent
Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and Antarctic
continent
Polytrichum piliferum Hedw- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Pottiaceae
Bryoerythrophyllum recurvirostrum (Hedw.) chem.- Antarctic continent

Didymodon gelidus Card- South Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Hennediella heimii (Hedw) Zand [syn: P. hemi (Hedw) Hamp]- Bipolar
Hennediella antarctica (Angstz) Ochyra and Matteri (syn: Pottis austoo- georgica
Card)- Bipolar, South Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Stegonia latifolia (Schwaegr in Schult) Vent in Broth- Bipolar (extremely rare and
only in King George Island).
o Syntrichi filaris (C. Muell.) Zand [syn: Tortula filaris (C. Muell) Broth]Amphiatlantic, Subantarctic, South Shetland Island and Antarctic
Peninsula
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Syntrichia princeps (De Not.) Mitt. (syn: Tortula princeps De Not)- Bipolar, South
Shetland Island and Antarctic continent
Syntrichia sacicola (Card) zand (syn: Tortulasaricols Card)- Amphiatlantic,
Subantarctic and South Shetland Island
Sarconeurum glaciale (C. Mull.) Card et Bryhm- Tierradel Fuego, Antarctic
continent and South Shetland Island (only in Deception Island)
Sarconeurum tortelloides C.W. Greene
Seligeraceae
Dicranoweisia brevipes (C. Muell) Card [including those reported as D. antarctica

(C. Mull) kindb]- Australia (SE), Subantarctic Island, Southern South America,
Antarctic Peninsula and Southern Shetland Island
Dicranoweisia crispula (Hredw) Midde.- Bipolar, infrequent in the south Shetland
Island and Antarctic Peninsula
Dicranoweissia grimmiacca (C. Mull.) Broth- Amphiatlantic and Antarctic Peninsula
Holodontrium strictum (Hook f. et milts) Ochyra- Southern South America up to
equator (Known only from a single locality at filders peninsula King George Islandprobably introduced)
ANTARCTIC AQUATIC MOSSES

Bryophytes occurs in a diverse range of terrestrial and in aquatic habitats. Ignatov and
Kurbatova, (1990), reviewed the occurrence of aquatic bryophytes, especially in deep lakes in
the world and listed about 85 taxa of mosses and liverworts. These aquatic bryophytes, which
grow on bottom substrata in lakes and streams, and permanently in submerged conditions,
have often been found in high altitude (Light and Smith, 1976) or high latitude regions
(Longton, 1988) where the environmental conditions are very severe for macrophytes and
aquatic seed plants.
In the Antarctic region, 16 taxa of mosses are known as aquatic plants at the bottom of
lakes (Table-1). In the maritime Antarctic 6 taxa of mosses have been reported in large
number from lakes on Signy Island (Light and Heywood, 1973; Priddle and Dartmall, 1978;
Priddle, 1979) and 5 taxa of mosses are known from lakes on Alexander Island (Light and
Heywood, 1975). Even in some ice free areas in East-Antarctica, the most severe terrestrial
habitat on Earth, 5 taxa of aquatic mosses have been reported (Savich-Lyubitskaya and
Smirnova, 1960; Kasper et al., 1982; Seppelt, 1983; Kanda and Iwatsuki, 1989).
In the Soya Coast region, 4 taxa of aquatic mosses have been reported by Imura et al.,
(2003) which are B. pseudotriquetrum (Kanda and Ohtani, 1991), Bryum sp. (Kanda and
Mochida, 1992), H. heimii (Kanda and Ohtani, 1991 as Pottia heimii) and Leptobryum sp.
(Imura et al., 1992; Kanda and Iwatsuki, 1989 as Dicranella sp.). Most of the work on aquatic
mosses are reports on their occurrences in particular lakes, or taxonomical treatments. Only
Kanda and Mochida, (1992), discussed the distribution of aquatic mosses at Skarvsnes, one of
the ice free areas Soya Coast region in East Antarctica.
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Table 1. Distribution of aquatic mosses in different lakes of Antarctica

Aquatic mosses
Signy Island Alexander Island East Antarctica
Ambrystegium sp.
(1)
Calliergon sarmentasum
(1,2,3)
Campylium sp.
(1)
Drepanocladus sp.
(1)
Drepanocladus cf. aduncus
(1,2)
Pohlia nutans
(1)
Bryum sp.
(4)
Campylium polygyamum
(4)
Dicranella sp.
(4)
Distichium capillaceum
(4)
Bryum psudotriquetrum
(4)
(5-12)
Bryum sp.
(11)
Leptobryum sp.
(11-16)
Henediella heimii
(10)
Plagiothecium simonowii
(17)
Plagiothecium georgico-antarcticum
(17)
(1) Light and Heywood (1973), (2) Priddle (1979), (3) Priddle and Dartmall (1978), (4) Light and
Heywood (1975), (5) Savich-Lubitskaya and Smirnova (1959), (6) Savich-Lyubiskaya and
Simirnova (1960), (7) Kesper et al., (1982), (8) Seppelt (1983), (9) Kanada and Iwatsuki (1989),
(10) Kanda Ohtani (1991), (11) Kanda and Mochida (1992), (12) Imura et al., (1999), (13)
Nakanishi (1977), (14) Ochi (1979), (15) Imura et al., (1992), (16) Tewari and Pant (1996), (17)
Savich-Lyubitskaya and Smirnova (1964).
The aquatic moss vegetation were found at the bottom of lakes from 2.0 to 14.5m in
depth, and were most vigorous from 3 to 5m. In shallow areas, less than 2m in depth, moss
vegetation were not found, probably due to ice action, there were only fragments of algal
mats. Bodin and Nauwerck, (1968), noted that ice movement in summer is the main reason to
explain the absence of aquatic moss colonies in the shallow water zone down to about 2m
depth.
The deepest record of aquatic mosses in the east Antarctica is 32.3m, where P. georgicoantarcticum was found in lake Glubokoye, Schirmacher Oasis, Dronning Maud Land
(Savich-Lyubitskaya and Smirnova, 1964).
SURVIVAL OF MOSSES AND LIMITING FACTORS

Antarctic harsh environmental conditions causes difficulties for survival of flora and only
about 2% of continental Antarctica is ice-free. Despite these difficulties, Antarctic terrestrial
vegetation offers exceptional opportunities for gaining novel insights into both the
mechanisms of plant survival under extreme conditions, and plant genetic evolution,
especially in response to increased UV irradiation and climate change. These plants also
provide a glimpse of the wide scope of adaptation and evolution in pristine habitats once
thought to be incompatible with life.
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1. Survival of Mosses under UV-B Radiations

The potential biological significance of seasonal ozone depletion is linked with the
associated increase in shorter wavelength i. e., UV-B radiation, reaching the Earths surface.
During periods of maximum ozone loss (typically October and November, during the austral
spring) the intensity of UV-B radiation at ground level is similar to that normally experienced
in mid-summer. However, early in the spring, exposed biota may be unable to respond, as
they are yet to resume normal physiological activity after winter.
The survival of Antarctic bryophytes under UV-B radiations depends on their ability to
acclimate to increasing UV-B radiation by employing photoprotective mechanisms to avoid
or repair UV-B damage (Jansen et al., 1998). UV-B absorbing pigments are widespread
across the plant kingdom, due to their ability to absorb biologically damage UV-B radiation
while transmitting essential photosynthetically active radiation (Cockell and Knowland,
1999). A meta analysis of field studies revealed that most striking and consistent response of
plants to increased UV-B radiation was an increase in UV-B absorbing pigments, on average
by 10% (Searles et al., 2001). The accumulation of UV-B absorbing pigment could be
particularly useful in polar and alpine bryophytes, since when such plants are physiologically
inactive during desiccation or freezing, passive screens would provide more effective
protection from UV-B damage than repair mechanisms which require an active metabolism
(Cockell and Knowland, 1999). The primary UV-B absorbing pigments found in higher
plants are flavonoid compounds, providing a broad UV-B screen (Swain, 1976). The
accumulation of UV-B absorbing pigments would be particularly useful in Antarctic plants
because such passive screens could protect them from UV-B damage when physiological
inactive, due to desiccation or freezing, renders active repair mechanism unavailable
(Lovelock et al., 1995a, b; Cockell and Knowland, 1999). UV-absorbing compounds have
been investigated in a number of Antarctic terrestrial species from cynobacteria to terrestrial
plants.
Flavonoids are important UV-B absorbing pigments, which can be induced within hours
in response to UV-B radiation, and are ubiquitous in higher plants (Cooper-Driver and
Bhattacharya, 1998). They have also been extracted from about half of the bryophyte species
examined (Markham, 1990). Flavonoids from herbarium specimens of Antarctic B.
argenteum were also shown to correlate with historical ozone levels suggesting the possibility
that these were actively induced UV-B screens (Markham, 1990). Recently, high
concentrations of UV-B absorbing pigments have also been reported in two Antarctic mosses,
S. uncinata and A. regularis, and one liverwort, C. varians, with positive correlations between
pigment accumulation and flux of normal solar UV-B radiation (Gehrke, 1998, 1999; Searles
et al., 1999; Niemi et al., 2002 a, b). As a result of these studies, it has been suggested that
mosses are less likely to synthesize UV-B absorbing pigments than other plant group and are
potentially more vulnerable as a functional type (Gwynn-Jones et al., 1999). Although
relatively few mosses have been studied, negative effects of UV radiation on moss growth
and morphology have been reported for some high latitude species (Sonesson et al., 1996;
Searles et al., 1999, 2002; Robson et al., 2003; Robinson et al., 2005). In many species,
flavonoid synthesis is stimulated by exposure to UV-B radiation (Tevini et al., 1981; van de
Staaij et al., 1995; Olsson et al., 1998), which seems to act at the gene level by increasing the
expression of the enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway (Hahlbrock et al., 1989; Kubasek
141
et al., 1992) such as Chs, which encodes the enzyme chalcone synthase, and phenylalanine
ammonia lyase (PAL).
2. Low Temperature and Photosynthesis in Antarctic Mosses

Antarctic and sub-Antarctic photosynthetic autotrophs maintain photosynthesis at low
temperatures, with some being active well below 0C. Prevailing low temperatures
throughout the Antarctic biome are generally considered to limit net photosynthesis (Pn) for
most of the growing season (Xiong et al., 1999). However, photosynthetic organs can reach
relatively high temperatures and show much greater fluctuations than seen in diurnal air
temperature, e.g. +20C above ambient on the continent (Longton, 1974; Melick and Seppelt,
1994). During summer photosynthetic organs often achieve temperatures well above zero and
optimum temperatures for photosynthesis are correspondingly higher, rating from 10-12C in
D. antarctica from Signy Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula (Edwards and Smith, 1988;
Xiong et al., 1999), 12C in Poa cookii from Marion Island (Bate and Smith, 1983), 15C in
Pringlea antiscorbutica at les Kerguelen (Aubert et al., 1999), 190C in C. quitensis from
Signy Island (Edwards and Smith, 1988) and up to 20-25C in a variety of maritime moss (S.
glaciale, B. argenteum, A. regularis, and A. depressinervis) species (Rastorfer, 1972; Green
et al., 1999, 2000; Schroeter et al., 1997; Pannewitz et al., 2003). Some species additionally
show plasticity in their optimal temperature. When grown at temperatures above those
experienced in the field, the optimal temperature for Drepanocladus uncinatus (now known
as S. uncinata) remained at 15 C, whilst that for Polytrichum alpestre increased from 5-10 C
to 15C (Collins, 1977). The relative importance of temperature and irradiance to
photosynthetic rates varies. In the two Maritime Antarctic vascular plants (D. antarctica and
C. quitensis) net photosynthetic rates are negligible at canopy air temperatures greater than 20
C, rather than high irradiance responsible for this photosynthetic depression (Xiong et al.,
1999). However, it has also been demonstrated for these species that increasing vegetative
growth outweighs decreases in photosynthetic rates under 20C day time temperatures (Xiong
et al., 2000).
3. Antarctic Mosses under Changing Water Availability

On the Antarctic continent most water is permanently locked up as ice and snow, while
large areas are accurately described as frigid desert, receiving very low or no direct
precipitation and experiencing chronically low relative humidity. Organisms living here must
therefore be able to survive long periods of freezing and consequent drought, year round. In
the summer, water may become available from snowmelt and around melt lakes, however,
this water supply is transient and repeated freeze thaw events still occur. In the maritime and
sub-Antarctic, water is less limiting, although the maritime region experiences extended
periods of freezing during winter and rainfall plays a more important role. Throughout the
region water availability thus varies spatially and temporally, with large variation occurring
from year to year. At a broad scale, levels of tolerance of desiccation therefore vary across the
Antarctic biome and among species, with the maritime region supporting some desiccationsensitive species, particularly in hydric habitats (Davey, 1997a,b,c; Robinson et al., 2000;
142
Lange and Kappen, 1972). Continental Antarctic bryophytes, whilst less tolerant of increasing
aridity than lichens and also have the ability to survive desiccation. Species-specific
differences in tolerance of desiccation have been detected for three moss species from the
Windmill Islands, East Antarctica (Robinson et al., 2000; Wasley et al., 2006) with two
cosmopolitan species (B. pseudotriquetrum, C. purpureus) able to metabolise at lower turf
water content than the endemic G. antarctici, and S. antarctici. B. pseudotriquetrum also
shows greater plasticity than the other species, with plants from drier sites showing greater
tolerance of desiccation that those from wetter sites, in addition to seasonal changes in
desiccation tolerance (Robinson et al., 2000; Wasley et al., 2006). The ability to survive
repeated desiccation and freezing events is probably related to the high concentrations of
soluble carbohydrates found in these species (Melick and Seppelt, 1994) and in particular the
presence of compounds such as stachyose and trehalose in B. pseudotriquetrum (Robinson et
al., 2000; Wasley et al., 2006). In contrast C. purpureus has a much higher proportion of fatty
acids/soluble carbohydrates. All three species have a high proportion of their fatty acids in
polyunsaturated forms (> 67%), a feature characteristic of cold tolerant higher plants (Zuiga
et al., 1996; Wasley et al., 2006). Quantifying the relative importance of lipids versus soluble
carbohydrates in these freeze tolerant plants stands out as an interesting target for further
study, it may be that lipids are a safer storage compound, since soluble carbohydrates are
known to leak from bryophytes during desiccation-rehydration and freeze thaw cycles
(Melick and Seppelt, 1992).
Water is less likely to be limiting in the relatively moist Maritime Antarctic. On Signy
Island, whilst some xeric species are occasionally water-limited (Davey, 1997c), more
generally photosynthesis is not water-limited (Collins, 1977). When the photosynthetic rates
of a range of xeric and hydric species from this Island were compared under laboratory
conditions, no difference among habitats was detected (Convey, 1994). Maritime moss (A.
regularis, A. depressinervis, P. alpestre, and B. algens) species from a variety of habitats
(hydric, mesic, xeric) also experience increased penetration of light into the turf as drying
occurs, counteracting at least in the short term the loss of productivity during periods of
desiccation (Davey and Rothery, 1996). Water availability has been shown to influence turf
and gametophyte morphology in a range of continental and maritime Antarctic mosses (A.
regularis, P. alpestre, B. algens, Grimmia lawiana and G. antarctici) and this, in turn, can
affect water relations (Nakanishi, 1979). In general, gametophyte shoots are shorter and turf
denser in drier sites (Gimingham and Smith, 1971; Wasley, 2004; Wasley et al., 2006).
Indeed, the changes in plant morphology and growth patterns that are reported as the norm in
many long-term environmental manipulation experiments, often implicitly assumed to relate
primarily to temperature increase, may equally well be explained by changes in microclimate
humidity and soil moisture.
In general, continental Antarctic mosses (G. lawiana, Grimmia plagiopodia, Coscinodon
psudocribrosus and C. bolivianus) can survive repeated freeze-thaw events (Melick and
Seppelt, 1992), whilst maritime species appears to be less tolerant (Davey, 1997b). The
pattern of exposure to freezing is also important - repeated freeze-thaw cycles cause a greater
reduction in gross photosynthesis than constant freezing over the same time period (Kennedy,
1993). Tolerance of freeze-thaw events involves interactions with other environmental
parameters, in particular that of water availability. For example, desiccation before freezing
reduces damage to the photosynthetic apparatus, while protection from freeze-thaw events
can be provided by snow cover acting as an insulator (Lovelock et al., 1995a,b).
143
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Chapter 7
AFFINITIES OF LICHEN FLORA OF INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT VIS--VIS ANTARCTIC
AND SCHIRMACHER OASIS
Dalip K. Upreti* and Sanjeeva Nayaka
ABSTRACT
Affinities of Indian subcontinent lichen flora with lichens of Antarctic and
Schirmacher Oasis are discussed in detail. Out of 439 taxa of lichens known from the
Antarctica and South Georgia 76 are similar to Indian subcontinent and 68 with the
Schirmacher Oasis, while 18 species are common in both subcontinent and Schirmacher
Oasis. The genus Cladonia with 17 species showed the maximum affinities of Antarctic
lichens. Most of the Indian subcontinent lichens which exhibited affinities with
Antarctica are known mostly from temperate and alpine regions of the subcontinent.
Keywords: Diversity, distribution, similarity, geographical isolation, speciation.
INTRODUCTION
Lichens are one of the most widely distributed groups of organisms in the world; exhibit
their presence in almost all the habitats available. They have an ability to grow on rock,
stones, bark, leaves and various man made substrates including glass plane, iron rods and
plastics. The dry and sterile rock surfaces where other group of plants unable to grow, but
lichens colonizes successfully on them and flourish. Lichens exhibit broadest range of
habitats as they occur both in dry hot and cold desert, from low sea level region to highest
mountains.
*
Email: upretidk@rediffmail.com, Mobile: +919450400264

Lichenology Laboratory, National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI-CSIR), Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow
226001, U.P., India
150
The Antarctic regions is a well known extreme environment for plant life, as the
temperatures are low, there are long periods of frost and snow cover and frequent winds that
causes abrasion and evaporation. Lichens, because of their high resistance to freezing and
their ability to endure long periods of inactivity in a frozen state, can survive in this
environment (Kappen 1973).
In the past few decades a large number of lichenological investigations on Antarctic
lichens were carried out in different regions of the world, thus resulted a fairly clear picture of
the diversity and distribution of lichens in the region. vstedal and Smith (2001) provided the
detailed diversity and biogeography of the lichen biota in Antarctica. Accordingly, South
Georgia which is represented by 194 species of lichen has 47 exclusive species not known
from Antarctic biome. The Antarctic Peninsula has greatest diversity of 268 taxa. The South
Orkeys and South Shethland Islands are represented by 221 and 211 taxa.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The enumeration of lichens known from different regions of Antarctica and Schirmacher
Oasis (SO), East Antarctica are compiled from the investigation provided by Lindsay (1977)
and vstedal and Smith (2001). The inventory of Indian subcontinent lichens provided by
Awasthi (2000) was used for tracing out the affinities of subcontinent lichens with Antarctic
lichens. All the information available on lichens of SO in the last five decades is consolidated
in Table 1, while Table 2. enumerates the affinities of lichens occurring in Antarctica, Indian
subcontinent and SO.
Table 1. Occurrence of lichens in Schirmacher Oasis, E. Antarctica (Cr = Crustose,
Fo = Foliose, Fr = Fruticose, En = Endemic, Bi = Bipolar, Co = Cosmopolitan)
Lichen taxa
1
2
3
4
5
Growth
Form
Acarospora. flavocordia Castello and Nimis Cr
Cr
A. gwynnii C.W. Dodge and E.D. Rudolph
Cr
A. macrocyclos Vain.
Cr
A. williamsii Filson
Amandinea coniops (Wahlenb.) M. Choisy ex Cr
Scheid.
- Lecidea coniops Wahenb.
- Buellia coniops (Wahlenb.) Th. Fr.
A. petermannii (Hue) Matzer, H. Mayerhofer Cr
and Scheid.
- Lecanora petermanii Hue
- Rinodina petermanii (Hue) Darb.
- Beltraminia petermannii (Hue) C.W. Dodge
A. punctata (Hoffm.) Coppins and Scheid.
Cr
- Lecidea punctata Hoffm.
- Buellia punctata (Hoffm.) A. Massal.
Distribution
En
En
En
En
Bi
Nayaka Olech and

et al 2009 Singh 2010
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
En
Co

Lichen taxa
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Growth
Form
Cr
Arthonia molendoi (Frauenf.) R. Sant.

- Tichothecium molendoi Frauenf.
A. rufidula (Hue) D. Hawksw., R. Sant. and Cr
vstedal
- Charcotia rufidula Hue
Cr
Bacidia johnstonii C.W. Dodge
Cr
B. stipata I.M. Lamb
Cr
Buellia darbishirei I.M. Lamb
B. frigida Darb.
Cr
Cr
B. grimmiae Filson
Cr
B. grisea C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
Cr
B. illaetabilis I.M. Lamb.
Cr
B. lingonoides R. Filson
B. pallida Dodge and Baker
Cr
Cr
B. papillata (Sommerf.) Tuck.
- Lecidea papillata Sommerf.
- Tetramelas papillatus (Sommerf.) Kalb.
B. pycnogonoides C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker Cr
Cr
B. subfrigida May. Inoue
Cr
Caloplaca athallina Darb.
C. citrina (Hoffm.) Th. Fr.
Cr
- Verrucaria citrina Hoffm.
- Pyrenodesmia mawsonii C.W. Dodge
Cr
C. frigida Schting
Cr
C. lewis-smithii Schting and vstedal
C. saxicola (Hoffm.) Nordin
Cr
- Psora saxicola Hoffm.
- Gasparrinia murorum Tornab.
Fo
Candelaria murrayi Poelt
Candelariella flava (C.W. Dodge and G.E.
Cr
Baker) Castello and Nimis
- Huea flava C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
- C. antarctica R. Filson
- C. hallettensis (J.S. Murray) vestedal
- Protoblastenia citrina C.W. Dodge
Cr
Carbonea assentiens (Nyl.) Hertel
- Lecidea assentiens Nyl.
Cr
C. vorticosa (Flrke) Hertel
- Lecidea sabuletorum var. vorticosa Flrke
- L. vorticosa (Flrke) Krb.
- L. capsulata C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
- C. capsulata (C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker)
Hale
Cr
Lecania cf. racovitzae (Vain.) Darb.
151
Distribution
Bi
Nayaka Olech and

et al 2009 Singh 2010
+
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
Bi
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
En
En
En
Co
+
+
+
+
+
+
En
En
Bi
+
+
+
En
En
+
+
En
Bi
En
152

Lichen taxa
- Lecanora. racovitzae Vain.

32 Lecanora epibryon (Ach.) Ach.
- Lichen epibryon Ach.
- L. broccha Nyl.
33 L. expectans Darb.
34 L. fuscobrunnea C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
35 L. geophila (Th. Fr.) Poelt
- Placodium geophillum Rsnen
36 L. cf. mawsonii C.W. Dodge
37 L. mons-nivis Darb.
38 L. orosthea (Ach.) Ach.
- Lichen orostheus Ach.
39 L. polytropa (Hoffm.) Rabenh.
- Verrucaria polytropa Ehrh.
40 L. sverdrupiana vstedal
41 Lecidea andersonii Filson
42 L. auriculata Th. Fr.
43 L. cancriformis C.W. Doge and G.E. Baker
- L. phillipsiana R. Filson
44 L. lapicida (Ach.) Ach.
- L. lapicida Ach.
- L. rupicida Vain.
45 L. cf. placodiiformis Hue
46 Lecidella siplei (C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker)
May Inoue
- Lecidea siplei C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
47 L. stigmatea (Ach.) Hertel and Leuckret
- L. stigmatea Ach.
48 Lepraria cacuminum (A. Massal.) Kmmerl. and
Leuckert
- Diploicia cacuminum A. Massal.
49 L. neglecta (Nyl.) Erichs.
- Lecidea neglecta Nyl.
50 Physcia caesia (Hoffm.) Furner.
- Lichen caesius Hoffm.
- P. wainioi Rsnen
51 P. dubia (Hoffm.) Lettau
- Lobaria dubia Hoffm.
52 Pleopsidium chlorophanum (Wahlenb.) Zopf.
- Parmelia chlorophana Wahlenb.
- Acarospora chlorophana (Wahlen.) Mass.
- Biaterella antarctica J.S. Murray
- B. cerebriformis (C.W. Dodge) R. Filson
53 Pseudephebe minuscula (Nyl. Ex Arnold) Brodo
and Hawks.
- Imbricaria lanata var. minuscula Arnold
Growth Distri- Nayaka

Olech and
Form bution et al 2009 Singh 2010
Cr
Bi
Cr
Cr
Cr
En
En
Bi
+
+
+
+
+
+
Cr
Cr
Cr
En
En
Bi
+
+
+
Cr
Bi
Cr
Cr
Cr
Cr
En
En
Co
En
+
+
+
+
+
+
Cr
Co
Cr
Cr
En
En
+
+
Cr
Bi
Cr
Co
Cr
Bi
Fo
Co
Fo
Co
Cr
Bi
Fr
Bi

Lichen taxa
153
Growth Distri- Nayaka

Olech and
Form bution et al 2009 Singh 2010
- Parmelia minuscule (Nyl. ex Arnold) Nyl.

54 Rhizocarpon geminatum Krb.
Cr
55 R. geograhicium (L.) DC
Cr
- Lichen geographicus L.
- R. flavum C.W. Doge and G.E. Baker
56 R. nidificum (Hue) Darb.
Cr
- Lecidea nidifica Hue
57 Rhizoplaca melanophthalma (Ram.) Leuckert and Cr
Poelt
- Squamaria melanophthalma Ram.
- L. melanophthalma (Ram.) Ram.
58 Rinodina endophragmia I.M. Lamb.
Cr
59 R. olivaceobrunnea C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker Cr
60 Sarcogyne privigna (Ach.) A. Massal
Cr
- Lecidea privigna Ach.
61 Umbilicaria africana (Jatta) Krog and Swinscow Fo
- Gyrophora caplocarpa var. africana Jatta
62 U. antarctica Frey and I.M. Lamb
Fo
63 U. aprina Nyl.
Fo
- Omphalodiscus spongiosus (C.W. Dodge and
G.E. Baker) Llano var. subvirginis (Lamb et Frey)
Golubk.
64 U. decussata (Vill.) Zahlbr.
Fo
- Lichen decussatus Vill.
- Omphalodiscus decussatus (Vill.) Schol. var.
discolor Lynge
65 U. vellea (L.) Ach.
Fo
- L. velleus L.
66 Usnea antarctica Du. Rietz
Fr
67 U. sphacelata R. Br.
Fr
- U. sulphrea Th. Fr.
68 Xanthoria elegans (Link) Th. Fr.
Fo
- Lichen elegans Link
- Gasparrinia elegans Stein apud Cohn
69 X. mawsonii Dodge
Fo
Bi
Co
+
+
En
Bi
Bi
Bi
Co
+
+
+
+
+
+
Co
En
Co
+
+
+
+
Bi
Co
Co
Bi
+
+
+
-
Co
En
Table 2. Affinities of Antarctic lichens with Indian subcontinent lichen flora

and lichens of SO
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
Antarctica
Acarospora badiofusca (Nyl.) Th. Fr.
A. flavocordia Castello and Nimis
A. gwynnii C.W. Dodge and E.D. Rudolph
A. macrocyclos Vain.
A. williamsii Filson
India
+
-
SO
+
+
+
+
154

S. No.
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Antarctica
Amandinea coniops (Wahlenb.) M. Choisy ex Scheid.
A. petermannii (Hue) Matzer, H. Mayerhofer and Scheid.
A. punctata (Hoffm.) Coppins and Scheid.
Arthorhaphis alpina (Schaer.) R. Sant.
Arthonia molendoi (Frauenf.) R. Sant.
A. rufidula (Hue) D. Hawksw., R. Sant. and vstedal
Bacidia johnstonii C.W. Dodge
B. stipata I.M. Lamb
Bryonora castanea (Hepp) Poelt
Buellia darbishirei I.M. Lamb
B. frigida Darb.
B. grimmiae Filson
B. grisea C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
B. illaetabilis I.M. Lamb.
B. lingonoides R. Filson
B. pallida Dodge and Baker
B. papillata (Sommerf.) Tuck.
B. pycnogonoides C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
B. subfrigida May. Inoue
Caloplaca athallina Darb.
C. cerina (Ehrh. ex Hedw.) Th. Fr.
C. citrina (Hoffm.) Th. Fr.
C. exsecuta (Nyl.) Dalla Torre
C. holocarpa (Hoffm.) Wade
C. frigida Schting
C. lewis-smithii Schting and vstedal
C. saxicola (Hoffm.) Nordin
Candelaria murrayi Poelt
Candelariella aurella (Hoffm.) Zahlbr.
C. flava (C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker) Castello and Nimis
C. vitellina (Ehrh.) Mll. Arg.
Carbonea assentiens (Nyl.) Hertel
C. vorticosa (Flrke) Hertel
Cetraria aculeata (Schreb.) Fr.
C. islandica (L.) Ach.
Chrysothrix chlorina (Ach.) J.R. Laundon
Cladia aggregate (Sw.) Nyl.
Cladonia bellidiflora (Ach.) Schaer
C. carneola (Fr.) Fr.
C. chlorophaea (Flrke ex Sommerf.) Spreng.
C. deformis (L.) Hoffm.
C. fimbriata (L.) Fr.
C. galindezii vstedal
India
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
SO
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-

S. No.
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
Antarctica
C. gracilis (L.) Wild.
C. mitis Sandst.
C. phyllophora Hoffm.
C. pleurota (Flrke) Schaer.
C. pocillum (Ach.) O.J. Rich.
C. pyxidata (L.) Hoffm.
C. rangiferina (L.) Webber
C. scabriuscula (Delise) Nyl.
C. squamosa (Scop.) Hoffm.
C. subsubulata Nyl.
Collema tenax (Sw.) Nyl.
Lecania racovitzae (Vain.) Darb.
Lecanora epibryon (Ach.) Ach.
L. expectans Darb.
L. frustulosa (Dicks.) Ach.
L. fuscobrunnea C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
L. geophila (Th. Fr.) Poelt
L. mawsonii C.W. Dodge
L. mons-nivis Darb.
L. orosthea (Ach.) Ach.
L. polytropa (Hoffm.) Rabenh.
L. sverdrupiana vstedal
Lecidea andersonii Filson
L. atrobrunnea (Ramond) Schaer.
L. auriculata Th. Fr.
L. cancriformis C.W. Doge and G.E. Baker
L. lapicida (Ach.) Ach.
L. placodiiformis Hue
Lecidella elaeochroma (Ach.) M. Choisy
L. siplei (C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker) May Inoue
L. stigmatea (Ach.) Hertel and Leuckret
Lecidoma demissum (Rutstr.) Gotth. Schneid. and Hertel
Lepraria cacuminum (A. Massal.) Kmmerl. and Leuckert
L. neglecta (Nyl.) Erichs.
Leproloma vouaux (Hue) J.R. Laundon
Megaspora verrucosa (Ach.) Hafellner and V. Writh
Ochrolechia tartarea (L.) A. Massal.
Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach.
P. sulcata Taylor
Peltigera didactyla (With.) J.R. Laundon
P. rufescens (Weis) Humb.
Pertusaria coccodes (Ach.) Nyl.
Phaeophyscia endococcina (Krb.) Moberg
Phaeorrhiza nimbosa (Fr.) H. Mayrhofer and Poelt
Physcia caesia (Hoffm.) Furner.
155
India
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
SO
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
156

S. No.
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
Antarctica
P. dubia (Hoffm.) Lettau
Physconia muscigena (Ach.) Poelt
Placynthiella icamalea (Ach.) Coppins and P. James
Pleopsidium chlorophanum (Wahlenb.) Zopf.
Protoparmelia badia (Hoffm.) Hafellner
Pseudephebe minuscula (Nyl. Ex Arnold) Brodo and Hawks.
Psilolechia lucida (Ach.) M. Choisy
Rhizocarpon badioatrum (Flrke ex Spreng.) Th. Fr.
R. disporum (Hepp) Mll. Arg.
R. geminatum Krb.
R. geograhicium (L.) DC
R. nidificum (Hue) Darb.
R. superficiale (Schaer.) Malme
Rhizoplaca melanophthalma (Ram.) Leuckert and Poelt
Rinodina endophragmia I.M. Lamb.
R. olivaceobrunnea C.W. Dodge and G.E. Baker
Sarcogyne privigna (Ach.) A. Massal
Sporastatia testudinea (Ach.) A. Massal.
Stereocaulon alpinum Laurer
Tephromela atra (Huds.) Hafellner ex Kalb
Umbilicaria africana (Jatta) Krog and Swinscow
U. antarctica Frey and I.M. Lamb
U. aprina Nyl.
U. decussata (Vill.) Zahlbr.
U. krascheninnikovii (Savicz) Zahlbr.
U. thamnodes Hue
Usnea antarctica Du. Rietz
U. sphacelata R. Br.
Verrucaria maura Wahlenb. in Ach.
V. muralis Ach.
Xanthoria candelaria (L.) Th. Fr.
X. elegans (Link) Th. Fr.
X. mawsonii Dodge
India
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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-
SO
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Distribution Pattern of Antarctic Lichens
The Antarctic lichens exhibit four categories of their distributional pattern (Rudolph
1967).
1. The Antarctic Peninsula (west coast): Usnea fasciata and Ramalina terebrata shows
their similar pattern of distribution in west coast comprising of Antarctic Peninsula,
157
South Shetland, South Georgia and outlying of Falkland Islands. Some members of
the stipitate and crustose members of lichens also exhibit their restricted distribution
in the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland and South Orkney
Islands are Bacidia stipitata, Catilaria corymbosa, Caloplaca regalis, Lecania
brialmontii and Rinodina petermanii. The Antarctic Peninsula (west coast) exhibit
occurrence of distinctive elements such as Cladonia rangiferina, Cornicularia
aculenta, Cystocoleus niger, Himantormia lugubris, Massalengia cornosa, Pannaria
hookeri, Parmelia gerlachei, P. ushuaiensis, Pseudophebe pubescens,
Sphaerophorus globosus and Stereocaulon glabrum. Most of the species under this
category exhibit a strong maritime tendency.
2. The Antarctic Peninsula (east coast): The Antarctic Peninsula possesses a continuous
mountainous range of altitudinal variation of 1500 2500 m in height. Due to the
height of the mountain range the climate divide between two coasts. The west coast
has a strong maritime climate with relatively warm, wet winds but the east coast
having extensive ice shelf provide a relatively cold, dry winds approaching that of
continental Antarctica. Usnea sulphurea and U. fasciata dominates the area.
Pseudophebe minuscule also occur in this region.
3. The Antarctic Peninsula Endemic: The stipitate crustose lichen species such as
Bacidia stipata, Catilaria corymbosa, Caloplaca regalis, Lecania brialmontii and
Rinodina petermanii are restricted to the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula and
South Shetland and South Orkeney Islands and have originated in this region
(Lindsay 1975).
4. The Circumpolar Antarctic: Buellia frigida an endemic species of Antarctica and
Xanthoria elegans a circumpolar species exhibit their scattered occurrence in this
category. Though the Arctic and Antarctic lichens exhibit many similarities in their
origins, however, the restricted nature of Antarctic lichen flora show little similarity
with the Arctic. Out of the 45 genera of lichens known from the Arctic 20 are also
known from the Antarctic. Out of 328 species of lichens recorded from Greenland
(Lynge 1937), 47 are found in the Antarctic, while out of the 65 genera listed from
the former region 46 are found in the later. The greater number of genera in common
between Arctic and Antarctic supports the idea that at one time the polar lichen floras
were basically similar, but the geographical isolation, especially that of Antarctica
from other southern hemisphere continents, has led to differences through speciation.
Lichen Flora of Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica

SO is a small ice-free landmass of 35 km2, located in Queen (Dronning) Maud Land area
of continental east Antarctica (70.8 S and 11.8 E) and is surrounded by 10 nunataks (Figure
1). Lichens from SO have been collected since the year 1970s and Golubkhova and Simonov
(1972) published the first comprehensive list of 21 lichen taxa form the area. Ritcher (1990)
provided a list of 25 species of lichens collected by the Russian researchers from this area
between the year 1979 and 1984. Further, Ritcher (1995) published a revised list of lichens
comprising 26 species including the specimen collected during 1988-89.
158
Figure 1. Map showing the location of Schirmacher Oasis and surrounding nunataks.
The National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI-CSIR) Lucknow, was identified by the
Ministry of Earth Science, New Delhi as the centre for carrying out lichenological studies in
SO in the year 1991. The organization participated for the first time in the 11th Indian
Antarctic Expedition (IAE) during the year 1991-92 and reported a total of 26 lichen species
(Upreti and Pant 1995, Upreti 1996, 1997). During 17th IAE Pandey and Upreti (2000) listed
a total of 19 lichen species collected from the SO and the Vettiya nunatak. Mean while Gupta
et al. (1999) of the Botanical Survey of India also collected some lichens form SO during 18th
IAE and reported five more species. NBRI continued its participation in the 22nd IAE and
more extensively and intensively explored the 31 sites of the whole stretch of SO together
with seven nunataks located nearby and listed a total of 35 lichen species (Nayaka and Upreti
2005).
The consolidation of published accounts on the SO lichens revealed the occurrence of
total of 48 species in the area (Nayaka et al. 2009). Out of the 48 lichen species that occur in
SO, 19 are cosmopolitan in distribution. Olech and Singh (2010) during 23rd IAE in 2003-04
made a detailed lichenological survey of the Oasis and reported 57 lichen taxa after adding 22
new addition to the Oasis. The consolidation of all the available lichenological studies
revealed the occurrence of 69 species in the SO (Table 1). The species of lichen genus Buellia
dominates the area with 10 species, followed by 9 species of Lecanora, 5 species each of
Caloplaca and Umbilicaria. The crust forming species dominates the area with 54 species,
while only 9 species are foliose, 4 are fruticose and single species of leprose form.
Affinities of Indian Lichen Flora with Lichens of SO and Antarctica

Awasthi (2000) listed 2450 species of lichens from the Indian subcontinent. Most of the
macrolichens (foliose and fruticose) are more or less fairly well worked out from India.
However, some of the microliches (leprose, crustose and squamulose) are still in need of
revisionary studies based on the modern concept of different lichen taxa available. In the last
few decades a large number of microlichens from India are studied in detail and on the basis
of their occurrence and distributional pattern, tentative observations can be made in respect of
159
the affinities of the lichen flora of the subcontinent with neighbouring area and other regions
including Antarctica. A large number of lichen species of the subcontinent are cosmopolitan
in distribution. The eastern Himalayan lichen flora has many species common with the SinoJapanese and south-east Asian regions. Lichen species present in the western Himalayas
exhibit a distinct affinity with the lichen flora of northern Europe. Though the Antarctic
lichen flora exhibits a more restricted nature, however most of the lichen genera are known
from Antarctica is also exhibit their occurrence in other regions of the world including Indian
subcontinent. The SO is represented by the following 23 genera of lichens; Acarospora,
Amandinea, Arthonia, Bacidia, Buellia, Caloplaca, Candelaria, Carbonea, Lecania,
Lecanora, Lecidea, Lecidella, Lepraria, Physcia, Pleopsidium, Pseudophebe, Rhizocarpon,
Rahizoplaca, Rinodina, Sarcogyna, Umbilicaria, Usnea and Xanthoria. Except the genus
Pseudophebe all the 22 genera know from SO are also know from India and the Indian
subcontinent. Out of the 69 species, so far known from SO, 19 species belonging to 13 genera
are also known from India. The lichen taxa common between India and SO are Amandinea
punctata, Caloplaca cerina, C. citrina, C. frigida, C. saxicola, Carbonea vorticosa, Lecanora
polytropa, Lecidea auriculata, L. lapicida. Lecidella stigmatea, Physcia caesia, P. dubia,
Pleopsidium chlorphanum, Rhizocarpon geographicum, Rhizoplaca melanophthalma,
Sarcogyne privigna, Umbilicaria decussata, U. vellea and Xanthoria elegans. In India most
of the lichen species which exhibit their occurrence in SO are mostly exhibit their restricted
distribution in temperate and alpine regions of the Himalayas. Rhizocaron geographicum
sometimes also found growing on rocks in higher altitudes of southern Indian region. Out of
439 taxa of lichens so far known from Antarctica and South Georgia (vstedal and Smith
2001, 2004) 76 species exhibit similarities with Indian subcontinent and 68 with the SO. Out
of 76 Indian subcontinent lichen species common to Antarctica (Figure 2) the lichen genus
Cladonia is represented by 64 species in the subcontinent, out of which 17 (47%) species are
also known to occur in Antarctica. However, the SO is devoid of this genus as not a single
species of Cladonia is known from there.
Lecidea
5%
Lecidella
5%
Parmelia
5%
Physcia
5%
Xanthoria
5%
Caloplaca
12%
Cladonia
47%
Rhizocarpon
8%
Umbilicaria
8%
Figure 2. Representation of some major Indian subcontinent lichens in Antarctica.
160
The species of Phaeophyscia, Physcia and Physconia are widely distributed in Indian
Himalayan regions are also known from Antarctica, while except for Physcia other two
genera do not exhibit their representation in SO. Most of Indian species of Rhizocarpon show
affinities to the Antarctic lichens as 5 species are commonly known from both the regions.
It is interesting to note that Buellia, a crustose thalloid genus, most common in Antarctica
and Indian subcontinent have different species, but not a single species of Antarctica occur in
India. However, SO is represented 10 species of Buellia known from Antarctica. Most of the
genera of lichens known from India are also reported from Antarctica. The greater number of
genera is common between Indian subcontinent and Antarctica supports the idea that one time
the Indian subcontinent and Antarctic lichen flora were basically similar, but the geographical
isolation that of Antarctica from other southern hemisphere continents has led to difference
through speciation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Director, National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow for providing
laboratory facilities, Ministry of Earth Science and Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, New Delhi for facilitating Antarctic expeditions.
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Geophysikalische Verffentlichungen, Reihe 1, Berlin 16, 471-488 (1990).
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Antarctica. In: Scientific Report: Eleventh Indian Expedition to Antarctica. Ministry of
Earth Science, New Delhi. Technical Publication No. 9, pp. 229-241 (1995).
Upreti, D.K.: Lecideoid lichens from the Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica. Willdenowia.,
25, 681-686 (1996).
Upreti, D.K.: Notes on some crustose lichens from Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica.
Feddes Repertorium., 108(3-4), 281-286 (1997).

Chapter 8
WATER RELATION OF SOME COMMON LICHENS

OCCURRING IN SCHIRMACHER OASIS,
E. ANTARCTICA
Sanjeeva Nayaka1 *, Dalip K. Upreti1 and Ruchi Singh2
ABSTRACT
The lichens are classic examples of poikilohydric desiccation tolerant organisms.
The existence of lichens in Antarctica is mainly due to their morpho-physiological
adaptation to the extremes. In this communication water relation of six common lichens
of Schirmacher Oasis growing in different water regime is presented. The elasticity
modulus derived through psychrometric methods is utilized as marker of desiccation
tolerance. It indicates the strechability of the cell wall and lesser the values of elasticity
modulus higher would be the elasticity. The lichens growing in exposed and dry areas
(Rhizoplaca melanophthalma, Umbilicaria decussata) had lesser elasticity modulus
followed by ones growing in water drainage (Buellia frigida, U. aprina), while
muscicolous (L. epibyron) and shade loving lichen (Xanthoria elegans) had higher
values. Among all the lichens studied R. melanophthalma emerged as a better desiccation
tolerant in Schirmacher Oasis by having comparatively lower osmotic potential at full
turgor, lesser apoplastic fraction, elasticity modulus and water content at turgor loss
point. The desiccation tolerance sequence of lichens studied are of following order; R.
melanophthalma > U. decussata > U. aprina > B. frigida > X. elegans > L. epibryon.
Further, the water holding capacity of U. aprina was maximum and ranged from 130.6
229.12 % of dry weight.
Keywords PV curve, desiccation tolerance, stress physiology, adaptation.
E-mail: sanjeeva_n@yahoo.com, sanjeeva_n@nbri.res.in, nayaka.sanjeeva@gmail.com, Mobile: +919305227203

Lichenology Laboratory
2
Plant Physiology Laboratory, National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI-CSIR), Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow
226001, U.P., India
1
164
Sanjeeva Nayaka, Dalip K. Upreti and Ruchi Singh
INTRODUCTION
Lichen is a composite plant consisting of symbiotically associated fungal (mycobiont)
and algal or cyanobacterial (photobiont) partners. The mycobiont is usually an ascomycete
and in very few cases a basidiomycete, and a photobiont is usually a green alga but in about
10% of lichens a cyanobacterium. Lichens are strictly dependent on ambient moisture for
their metabolic activities. Unlike homiohydric vascular plants lichens lack stomata, cuticle
and water transport system such as roots, xylem vessel and tracheids. Hence, they can not
actively regulate their water content and are called as poikilohydrous organism. The
homiohydric organisms are desiccation sensitive and die when water content falls below a
certain threshold, where as poikilohydric organism include both desiccation-sensitive and
desiccation-tolerant species. Desiccation-tolerance is the ability to revive from the air-dried
state when water is provided. It is also found in prokaryotes, algae and bryophytes, and
occasionally in pteridophytes, but very rare in the vegetative tissues of angiosperms or in
animal tissues. The vast majority of lichens are desiccation-tolerant. Under natural conditions,
the life of most lichens is exposed to rapidly changing water contents and correspondingly
rapidly changing physiological activity such as respiration and photosynthesis (Kranner et al.
2008). Antarctica is a land of extremes. About 98% of the continent is permanently covered
with ice, while remaining 2% of ice-free land is restricted mostly to the periphery of the
continent. These ice-free areas are the only habitat available for the growth lichens.
Antarctica is the coldest continent with heat balances is everywhere negative (Engelskjn
1986). It is the windiest of the continents with the highest wind speed measured at d'Urville
(327 km/h). The wind can act in three ways, by desiccation, wind-chill and ice-blast. The
absolute humidity in the continent is 0.03%, lower than that of the Sahara Desert. Low
average humidity combined with the extreme cold make the South Pole region the world's
driest desert. It rains very rarely in maritime Antarctica, otherwise the snowfall, which
averages less than one inch annually is the major precipitation in the continent. The sun does
not shine at the South Pole for six months of the year. When the sun does shine, much less
solar energy actually reaches the ground at the Pole because the sun's rays pass through a
thicker layer of atmosphere than at the Equator. Also, due to the predominance of ice and
snow covering Antarctica, most of the sun's rays that do reach the ground are reflected back
into space leaving the continent cold with un-molten ice mass. The freshwater lakes in
Antarctica are mostly confined to certain ice-free areas as Larsemann Hills, Schirmacher
Oasis, Bunger Hills and Vestfold Hills. These lakes, which remain frozen for most of the
year, are fed by glacier and snowmelt streams during the short austral summer months.
Despite the restricted availability of liquid water and other extremes a total of 439 lichens do
exist in Antarctica (vstedal and Smith 2001; 2004), which can be directly attributed to their
adaptation to the stressor (Kappen 2000). The adaptive stimulus is clearly expressed in
lichens as they are the most successful elements of the terrestrial biota in Antarctica and have
obvious dominance in ice-free areas. They are superior to bryophytes and perhaps also to free
living algae and fungi, particularly in harsher regions (Kappen 2004). Lichens together with
bryophytes or alone form the largest amount of standing biomass in Antarctic landscapes with
up to 950 kgm-2 in continental and up to 1300 gm-2 in maritime Antarctic habitats (Kappen
2000). Nayaka et al. (2009) discussed in detail the adaptive response of Antarctic lichens to
various stress in factors. The water being a major constrain in Antarctica physiological
Water Relation of Some Common Lichens Occurring in Schirmacher Oasis
165
adaptation to it is an interesting aspect for research. In the present study water relations of six
common Antarctic lichens growing in different water regime in Schirmacher Oasis (SO) were
studied in details. The aim of the study is to identify a lichen species that is physiologically
better adapted to water stress in Antarctica. The aim is achieved by through psychrometric
technique and measuring water holding capacity. This technique relies on water potential data
from which pressure volume (PV) curve is constructed and various isotherms are derived. The
PV isotherm is one of the widely used tools utilized for characterizing water status (Becket
1997). The PV isotherm has proved useful in assessing desiccation tolerance and the
distribution of tree species in Malay-Thai peninsula (Baltzer et al. 2008). Many useful
relations such as osmotic potential (OP) at full turgor, turgor loss point (TLP), relative water
content (RWC) at TLP, elasticity modulus, solute concentration, symplastic, apoplastic and
intercellular water contents can be measured with the help of PV curve.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lichen Habitat and Species Selection
Two important macro-habitats can be recognized in SO in relation to occurrence of
lichens and source of water; 1). lake drainages, where water from one lake over flows to the
another in summer, and 2). dry areas, where major source of water is snow melt. The lichens
in SO are found growing on moraine, rock and moss in these habitats. Most of the lichens are
directly exposed to sun while few are shade loving. A total of six lichens are selected for
desiccation study and were identified by following vstedal and Smith (2001) (Table 1). The
characteristics of the lichens are as follows; Buellia frigida Darb. It is a crustose lichen,
grey to blackish in colour, forms thick, circular patches on rocks. It is endemic to Antarctica,
but one of the most common and wide spread lichens throughout the continent. In SO it is
commonly occurs in lake drainages along with Umbilicaria aprina Nyl. and Rhizocarpon
geographicum (L.) DC. It depends on lake drainage and snow melt for water. Lecanora
epibryon (Ach.) Ach. It is a crustose lichen with thick pale coloured thallus and prominent,
circular apothecia found growing on moss. It is a bipolar species and also common in
Antarctica. In SO it occurs in moist places near the lakes on the mosses. The snow melt and
lake is its source of water. Rhizoplaca melanophthalma (Ram.) Leuckert and Poelt It is a
foliose lichen, yellow to yellow-green in colour, with prominent, crowded lecanorine
apothecia, forms weakly lobate, smaller thallus on rock or moraine crusts. In very exposed
habitats it appears grey-green to black. It is a cosmopolitan species and very common in
Antarctica. In SO it occurs on rock and moraine crusts in exposed areas. Snow melt is its
primary source of water. Umbilicaria aprina Nyl. It is a foliose lichen, umblicate, usually
monophyllous, 5 10 cm in size, dark grey to brown grey in colour. It is a cosmopolitan
species and common in Antarctica. In SO it is the most prominent lichen, occurs mostly in
lake drainage of lakes on rocks. Along with other species of Umbilicaria and Buellia it makes
the lake drainage appear black in colour. The lake drain water is its major source of water. U.
decussata (Vill.) Zahlbr. It is a foliose lichen, umblicate, monophyllous, smaller in size, up
to 3 cm in diam., button like, with wrinked upper surface and grows on rock. It is
cosmopolitan in distribution, found in colder region and common in Antarctica. In SO it
Table 1. Antarctic lichen taxa analyzed for the water relation and their ecology
1
2
3
4
5
6
Sample
Habit
Habitat
Substratum
Buellia frigida Darb.

Lecanora epibryon (Ach.) Ach.
Rhizoplaca melanophthalma
(Ram.) Leuckert & Poelt
Umbilicaria aprina Nyl.
U. decussata (Vill.) Zahlbr.
Xanthoria elegans (Link) Th. Fr.
Crustose
Crustose
Foliose
Water drainage
Dry area
Dry area
Rock
Moss
Soil
Exposure
to sun
Exposed
Partial shade
Exposed
Foliose
Foliose
Foliose
Water drainage
Dry area
Dry area
Rock
Rock
Rock
Exposed
Exposed
Partial shade
Locality
Priyadarshini Lake
Near Circle lake
North West of
Maitri
Priyadarshini Lake
Vetehia nunatak
Trishul Hill
Table 2. Water holding capacity and derivatives of PV curve for Antarctic lichens
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
B. frigida
L. epibryon
R. melanophthalma
U. aprina
U. decussata
X. elegans
Water holding
capacity (% dry wt.)
70.9 110.57
90.62 145.24
120.83 187.2
130.6 229.12
115.51 220.62
148.42 208.22
OP at full Turgor
(MPa)
-1.02 0.46
-0.90 0.26
-0.90 0.29
-0.64 0.25
-1.63 0.22
-0.85 0.80
Apoplastic
water fraction
12.0 5.66
19.75 7.50
12.29 7.34
28.0 8.3
21.38 9.24
21.0 5.31
Elasticity
modulus (MPa)
6.42 0.43
15.01 5.12
3.98 2.95
5.75 3.03
4.55 2.59
9.50 4.50
Water content
at TLP
61.75 1.5
48.25 5.91
67.43 8.02
66.25 3.4
58.75 8.46
56.25 2.2
167
is found growing luxuriantly on rocks of Vitteheia and Baalsrudfjellet nunatak along with
Pseudophebe minuscuala (Nyl. ex. Arnold) Brodo and D. Hawksw. Xanthoria elegans (Link)
Th. Fr. It is a foliose lichen, up to 5 cm in diam., orange in colour with radiating lobes. It is
a cosmopolitan species very common in Antarctica. It is an attractive and very prominent due
to its bright orange colouration. But in SO it is rare and found on rocks, in partially shaded,
shelf facing side of Trishul Hill.
Water Holding Capacity

About 10 15 gm of fresh lichen samples were cleaned and kept immersed in water for
30 min to make it saturated. Then samples were blotted using paper towels to remove excess
of water present over the thallus and the weight was taken. The samples were then kept in
desiccator with silica crystals for 3 hrs and then transferred to hot air oven. The samples were
dried for 70 hr at 50 C until the constant weight is attained. The water holding capacity is
calculated as follows; Water holding capacity = [(Turgid weight Dry weight)/Dry weight] x
100
Water Potential () Measurement and Pressure Volume (PV) Curve

About 15 20 mg of fresh samples of lichen were cleaned and kept in tap water for 15 30 min to make it fully turgid. Then samples were blotted using paper towels to remove
excess of water present outside the thallus, quickly weighed and placed in chambers of
Psypro Water Potential System. After equilibration for 4 hr chambers are connected to a
Wescor HR-33T micro voltmeter and measured the water potential. Samples were then
allowed to lose about 520% of their water and allowed to equilibrate again. Measurements
were repeated until the water potential fell to below 5 MPa. Then the samples were dried for
70 hrs at 50 C in hot air oven and weight was taken. Psychrometer chambers were calibrated
with standard solution 0.5 M of NaCl at 25 C. Values of are corrected to room temperature
of 25 C. A total of 8 replicates were analyzed for each species. The water potential is
represented as; = P , where P is turgor potential (TP) and is osmotic potential.
A PV curve was constructed by plotting 1/ against relative water content (RWC)
(Beckett 1995, 1997). The resulting curve is initially concave, but beyond the region where
turgor is lost (i.e. where turgor no longer contributes to ) the curve became linear. From the
PV curve TP (P) was calculated at each as the difference between y-axis intercept value of
the extrapolated linear portion of the curve and the actual (P = ). The TP was then
plotted as a function of RWC. The difference between total water content of the lichen thallus
and the water content at which turgor starts falling is considered as inter cellular water. This
intercellular water has to be deducted to actual water content within lichen. Hence, the RWCs
for all the data were recalculated as follows; RWCc = [(Fresh weight Dry weight) / (Turgid
weight Dry weight)] Weight of intercellular water
168
Figure 1. Representative PV curves of lichen species studied for water relations.
The PV curve reconstructed using RWCc and the OP () at full turgor is noted as the yintercept of the linear portion of the PV curve (Figure 1). Regression line going through this
linear portion of the curve intercepts at x-axis and yields the symplastic and apoplastic
fraction of water. Tissue elasticity was calculated from the relationship between and RWCc
(Stadelmann 1984). The bulk elasticity modulus of tissue expresses the change in turgor of
tissue cells for a unit change in the relative water content of the cells (e = dP/dr).
RESULTS
The water holding capacity of Antarctic lichen varied from 70.9 229.12 % of dry of wt.
(Table 2). The foliose lichen U. aprina, which has larger, thick thallus and grows on rock in
lake drainages had maximum water holding capacity ranging from 130.6 229.12 % dry wt.
However, a crustose lichen B. frigida, found in the same habitat but having smaller thallus has
lower water holding potential which ranged from 70.9 110.57 % of dry wt. In general
foliose lichens exhibited better water holding capacity in comparison to crustose.
169
The Antarctic lichens exhibited varied level of desiccation tolerance as indicated by

derivatives of PV curve in the present study (Table 2). The lichen growing in exposed areas,
on moraine and rock are better desiccation tolerant, while muscicolous and shade loving ones
are less tolerant. U. decussata had lowest OP (1.63 0.22 MPa) at full turgor and L.
epibryon had lowest (48.25 5.91) water content at turgor loss point. B. frigida had lowest
apoplastic water while U. aprina had more (28.0 8.3). The elasticity modulus of R.
melanophthalma was lowest (3.98 2.95 MPa) and it was maximum in muscicolous lichen L.
epibryon (15.01 5.12 MPa).
DISCUSSION
The lichens, being exposed to frequent water stress have developed high degree of water
holding capacity. They lack cuticle to impede entry of water in to the thallus. The spongy
nature of the thallus tissue, presence of large intercellular spaces, the gelatinous sheath of
algal cells and swollen hyphal wall allows them to hold good amount of water. The thalli
often can absorb considerably more water during a prolonged immersion of several hours.
The lichens are hygroscopic in nature and absorb moisture from the surroundings even at low
humidity. The lichen can be hydrated and activated quickly by the snow, dew, mist or glacier
meltwater and resume photosynthesis. Some lichens such as Umbilicaria having dark
coloured thalii by absorbing sunlight become much warmer and can melt snow crystals
deposited over them. Further, moistened thalli can reach an over-air temperature of nearly 23
K, which means that they can become as warm as 20C at maximum that induce maximal
productivity. Some lichens are capable of gaining enough moisture from the humidity at the
edge of a temporary snow patch on the rock without any visible melting process. Blum (1973)
enumerated the water content (water holding capacity) of saturated thali of some lichens
which ranged from 116 738 % of dry wt. (maximum in cyanolichen Collema flaccidum
(Ach.) Ach.). Umbilicaria pustulata (L.) Hoffm. held 201 % of dry wt. of water, in 5 min. of
immersion, 203 % in 1 hr and 209 % in 15 hr. Similarly, Xanthoria parietina (L.) Beltr. held
178, 188 and 227 % of dry wt. of water in 5 min, 1 and 15 hr respectively. However, in case
of Antarctic U. aprina, U. decussata and X. elegans their thallus reached full saturation within
30 min. of immersion with maximum of 229.12, 220.62 and 208 % of dry wt. of water
respectively. This indicates the quicker response of Antarctic lichens when water is made
available and an adaptation to combat water scarcity. The water holding capacity of crustose
lichens in both the regions, i.e. main land (Blum 1973) as well as in Antarctica was lesser
compared to foliose lichens.
Unlike vascular plants, lichens can stay longer in desiccation state and their metabolic
activity can recover after their tissues have been reduced to very low RWC. Such plants are
called resurrection plants and have evolved desiccation tolerance (Alamillo and Bartels
2001, Bartels 2005; Tuba et al. 1998). The lichen can photosynthesize at low water potentials
such as 20 MPa at 20C. Experiments in hot deserts have shown that lichens are able to
photosynthesize even at low water potentials as low as 38 MPa (Nash et al. 1990). As soon
as availability of moisture stops lichens thallus quickly desiccates, loses up to 97% of its
water, and falls into an anabiotic state. Under low water potential photosynthesis rate will be
low and can be considered as a means of keeping the photosynthetic apparatus intact and
170
producing frost-protective carbohydrates than for actual dry matter. The psychrometric
technique explores new possibilities to elucidating the water status of plants including
cryptogams such as lichens, bryophytes, pteridophytes. According to several studies utilizing
PV curve, an ideal desiccation tolerant lichen would have low OP at full turgor, lesser
apoplastic water content, low RWC at turgor loss and more importantly less elasticity
modulus. The low OP at full turgor indicates that the cell sap has low salt concentration and
water potential would be high or near to zero. The lower apoplastic contents mean little
quantity of water is present in the cell wall pores and more within in the cell (symplast),
which contributes to high water potential. It is always necessary for a desiccation tolerant
plant that it maintains turgidity of the cell even at lower amount of water. Hence, low RWC at
turgor loss would be beneficial. Similarly, elasticity modulus indicates the stretchability of the
cell wall. The low elasticity modulus value means high elasticity of cell wall and more
tolerance for desiccation. Becket (1997) studied the PV isotherm of several poikilohydric
plants including lichen Roccella hypomecha (Ach.) Bory., and also provided explanation for
varied values of PV isotherms. The lichen R. hypomecha consisted low OP, low RWC at
turgor loss, low elasticity modulus and low solute concentration. Proctor et al. (1998) studied
the water contents of several bryophytes including a lichen Cladonia convoluta (Lam.) Cout.,
using PV relationship, where the lichen contained low OP, low RWC at TLC and low bulk
elasticity modulus. In the present study all the lichens studied exhibited varied values for
measured parameters. U. decussata had lowest OP (1.63 0.22 MPa) at full turgor, but
slightly higher water content at TLP (58.75 8.46) and apoplastic water (21.38 9.24). B.
frigida had lowest apoplastic water fraction (12.0 5.66), but higher OP at full turgor (-1.02
0.46 MPa). Similarly, L. epibryon had lowest water content at TLP (48.25 5.91), but
higher elasticity modulus (15.01 5.12 MPa), apoplastic water content (19.75 7.50) and OP
at full turgor (-0.90 0.26). Hence, it is has become necessary to relay on one strong
parameter, compare other parameter accordingly and decide the desiccation tolerance of the
lichens. The elasticity modulus is thought to be determined by the mechanical properties of
cell walls (Cheung et al. 1975, Tyree and Hammel 1972). In leaf cells that have turgor
elasticity modulus has a critical role in water relations. Advantage of the small elasticity
modulus in the drought environment is that it contributes to the turgor maintenance of the leaf
cells under conditions of low water content (Kozlowski et al. 1991). Hence, in the present
study desiccation tolerances of lichens are compared based on their elasticity modulus. The
lichens growing on moraine or rock in exposed areas are better desiccation tolerant and have
lesser elasticity modulus. Among them R. melanophthalma exhibited lowest (3.98 2.95)
elasticity modulus indicating its highest desiccation tolerance. It is followed by U. decussata
(4.55 2.59), U. aprina (5.75 3.03) and B. frigida (6.42 0.43). It is obvious that lichens
growing in exposed areas are the one who first experience the extremes of Antarctic
conditions. They lose water either due to high irradiation, wind or low temperature and such
conditions are very frequent in Antarctica. Hence, the cells of the lichens probably have
become more stretchable or elastic. Where as in X. elegans, a lichen growing in partial shade
at Trishul hill elasticity modulus is moderate (9.50 4.50) indicating its medium level of
desiccation tolerance. L. epibryon, a muscicolous lichen that grows in partial shade has
highest elasticity modulus. The moss cushions acts like sponge and hold water for longer
duration. Further, the mosses have many dead cells in their leaf tissue which again holds
water. The moss in Antarctica usually grows in shaded area, between or under the rocks. The
lichen by growing over them can obtain water for longer duration and hence developed less
171
desiccation tolerance. In general, by considering all water relation parameters studied the
foliose lichens R. melanophthalma can be considered as highly desiccation tolerant species.
As discussed earlier it has low elasticity modulus, but also has comparatively lower low OP at
full turgor (0.90 0.29 MPa), lower apoplastic water fraction (12.29 7.34) and lower
water content at TLP (67.43 8.02). Further, water holding capacity of R. melanophthalma is
considerably high which ranges from 120.83 187.2 % of dry wt.
CONCLUSION
Among all the theories, the adaptation theory explains best the dominance of lichens in
Antarctica. The lichens are adapted both morphologically as well as physiologically to the
stress components of the continent. The water relation study carried out with the help of
psychrometric method clearly indicates the differential levels of desiccation tolerance in
Antarctic lichens. The habitat selection and restricted distribution of lichens is a clear strategy
for the survival. Hence, X. elegans is found only on shelf facing side of Trishul hill in SO
which receives shade at least for half a day during summer. The muscicolous lichen L.
epibryon grows only on moss so that it gets water for longer duration. As per elasticity
modulus desiccation tolerance is higher in sun exposed lichens, moderate in partially shaded
and least in muscicolous. Hence, desiccation tolerance in Antarctic lichens is of following
sequence; R. melanophthalma > U. decussata > U. aprina > B. frigida > X. elegans > L.
epibryon. Further, water absorbance ability is faster and water holding capacity is higher
which reaches up to 200% of their dry weight. Apparently, lichens did not develop unique
adaptive mechanisms in the extreme Antarctic environment. The high desiccation tolerance
and some morphological features of Antarctic lichens are also been observed in lichens
growing in harsh climate of elsewhere (Kappen, 1988). However, the ability to tolerate stress,
survive and evolve is high in Antarctic lichens.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are thank full to the Director, National Botanical Research Institute for providing the
necessary facilities, to Dr. U.V. Pathre for allowing us to utilize facilities of Plant Physiology
Laboratory, to Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi for financial
assistance, to National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Vasco da Gama for
selecting S.N. for 28th Indian Antarctic Expedition, to the leaders and members of the
expedition for their cooperation during the collection of lichen samples, to Dr. Ajit Pratap
Singh and members of Plant Physiology Laboratory for their cooperation during the study.
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relations of plants by the pressure-bomb technique. J. of Exp. Bot. 23, 267-282 (1972).

Chapter 9
SOLAR WIND INFLUENCE ON ATMOSPHERIC

PROCESSES IN WINTER ANTARCTICA
O.A.Troshichev *, V.Ya.Vovk and L.V.Egorova
ABSTRACT
The paper presents a summary of the experimental results demonstrating the strong
influence of the interplanetary electric field on atmospheric processes in the central
Antarctica, where the large-scale system of vertical circulation is formed during the
winter seasons.
The influence is realized through acceleration of the air masses, descending into the
lower atmosphere from the troposphere, and formation of cloudiness above the Antarctic
Ridge, where the descending air masses enter the surface layer.
The cloudiness formation results in the sudden warmings in the surface atmosphere,
since the cloud layer efficiently backscatters the long wavelength radiation from the ice
sheet, but does not affect the adiabatic warming process of the descending tropospheric
air masses.
The acceleration is followed by a sharp increase of the atmospheric pressure in the
near-pole region, which gives rise to the katabatic wind strengthening above the entire
Antarctica.
As a result, the circumpolar vortex about the periphery of the Antarctic continent
correspondingly decays and the cold air masses flow out to the Southern ocean. The latter
phenomena evidently destroys the regular relationships between the sea level pressure
fluctuations in the Southeast Pacific high and the North Australian-Indonesian low. It
seems that the El-Nio beginnings are related exactly to the anomalous atmospheric
processes in the winter Antarctica.
Keywords: Solar wind, Antarctica, atmosphere, anomalous winds, El-Nio.
* Eg225
mail: olegtro@aari.nw.ru, Fax:+7-812-352-2688, Phone: 7-812-337-3134
Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St.Petersburg, 199397, Russia
174
O.A.Troshichev, V.Ya.Vovk and L.V.Egorova
INTRODUCTION
Existing models of the atmospheric variability and change do not take into consideration
the short-term changes of solar activity. Indeed, the total energy, contributed by the solar
wind and the cosmic rays in the Earths atmosphere, is extremely insignificant in comparison
with the total solar irradiance. But, as distinct from the total solar irradiance, the energy of
solar wind and cosmic rays can increase in hundreds and more times in periods of high solar
activity. The attempts to find the cause-effect relations between the solar activity variations
and weather and climate changeability have a long story (Wilcox, 1975; Herman and
Goldberg, 1978). The galactic cosmic rays (GCR) altered by solar wind were usually
regarded as the most plausible agent of the solar activity influence on the Earths atmosphere.
The experimental data were presented showing the influence of the varying GCR flux on the
Earths weather and climate (Tinsley et al., 1989), on high cloud coverage (Pudovkin and
Veretenenko, 1995), on temperature in the polar troposphere (Pudovkin et al., 1996, 1997), on
the global total cloud cover (Svensmark and Friis-Christensen, 1997; Todd and Kniveton,
2001), on low cloud coverage (Marsh and Svensmark, 2003). These results suggest that just
cloudiness variation affected by cosmic rays lead to changes in the atmospheric and
meteorological characteristics.
However, the hypothesis about the determining influence of the galactic cosmic rays on
the cloudiness was not always supported by the subsequent, more detail research. It was
indicated that the correlation with GCR disappears when the cloud coverage is decomposed in
fractions by cloud type or height, by region (reduce for ocean basis), or by latitude (patterns
in the tropical zone are better associated with concurrent El-Nino) (Farrar, 2000). A
comprehensive study of the low cloud coverage for the last 120 years (Palle and Butler, 2002)
revealed that the global cloudiness increased during the past century regardless of variations
of GCR. The solar irradiance turned out to be correlated better and more consistently with
low cloud cover than the cosmic ray flux (Kristjansson et al., 2002). As a result, the
conclusion was maid that the mechanism linking the cosmic ray ionization and cloud
properties cannot be excluded, but its high efficiency is not obvious (Harrison and Carslaw,
2003).
At the same time it is well known that severe reductions in the galactic cosmic rays flux,
known as Forbush decrease (FD), are related to the disturbed, high speed solar wind,
emerging by the most intense solar flares. The disturbed solar wind is characterized by the
largest changes in such parameters as the solar wind pressure PSW = m n (VSW) 2 and the
interplanetary electric field ESW = VSW x BZ (or simply the southward component of the
interplanetary magnetic field (IMF BZS). The velocity VSW might vary with a factor of 2-3 at
maximum, whereas the IMF BZ components might change the sign and increase by some
factors of ten. The geoeffective solar wind parameters strongly affect (impact) the Earths
magnetosphere. It was noted that the FD beginnings at the Earths orbit are recorded
simultaneously with dramatic disturbances in the solar wind, and therefore, the atmospheric
effects, assigned to Forbush decreases, can be, in reality, influenced by the geoeffective solar
wind parameters (Troshichev et al., 2003).
Figure 1. shows, as an example, response of the cloudiness above Vostok station
(Antarctica) to Forbush decrease (left column) and to the IMF BZ minimum (right column)
during the winter season of 1974-1992 (Troshichev et al., 2008). The list of 24 Forbush
Solar Wind Influence on Atmospheric Processes in Winter Antarctica
175
decreases was taken from the widely known analysis (Todd and Kniveton, 2001), but in our
case the Forbush decrease maximum has been used as a key date in the epoch superposition
method unlike to Todd and Kniveton (2001), who used the Forbush decrease beginning.
Indeed, in many cases it is difficult to determine the FD beginning unambiguously, as a result
the FD beginning dates sometimes are identified with as large a scatter as 5 days in various
studies. On contrast, the Forbush event maximum is easily and uniquely identified by
minimum in the galactic cosmic ray flux in each case.
The same list has been used to separate the IMF BZ minimum dates, related to the FD
events. Unfortunately, the IMF BZ data turned out to be available only for 15 events of 24. So,
the left column in Figure 1. is for the data of cloudiness above Vostok, allocated relative to
the FD maximum, whereas the right column is for the data allocated to the appropriate IMF
BZ minimum.
Figure 1. Behavior of the average Forbush decrease (FD), the average interplanetary magnetic field
(IMF) BZS component, and the appropriate cloudiness above Vostok for the most powerful FD events
during the winter season of 1974-1992 (list of Todd and Kniveton, [2001]). A key date (t = 0) was
taken as a day with FD maximum in the left column and a day with the IMF BZ minimum in the right
column (from Troshichev et al.,2008).
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The results presented in the left column demonstrate that Forbush decrease coincides with
increased cloudiness, which starts three days ahead of the key date (FD minimum) and
reaches the 55 % maximum by the key date, the statistic significance being equal to 0.96. The
results presented in the right column demonstrate, with no less evidence, that cloudiness
above Vostok starts to increase one day before the IMF BZ minimum and reaches its
maximum next day after the key date. The statistical significance in this case is less, ss=0.91,
but we have to take into account that number of the available events was reduced in 1.5 times
while examining the Bz indicator instead of Forbush decrease. This example clearly shows
that changes of cloudiness may be successfully explained by Forbush decrease as well as by
the IMF variations.
IMF VARIATIONS AS A DETERMINING FACTOR

FOR THE CLOUDINESS ABOVE VOSTOK
To demonstrate that variations in the interplanetary magnetic field by themselves can
produce an effect on cloudiness we need to examine such solar wind disturbances, which
were accompanied by the quite insignificant Forbush decreases. Taking into account that the
Forbush decrease magnitude is negligible for the solar minimum epochs, the relation between
the interplanetary magnetic field and the cloudiness above Vostok was examined for the years
of the solar minimum (1974-1977 and 1985-1987) (Troshichev et al., 2008). The cloudiness
at Vostok station was determined by two methods. The first method is based on estimation of
cloudiness power in reports from the visual man-made observations (0 is for clear sky, 10 is
for heavy cloudiness). The second method is based on measurement of the radiation balance
(BR) value in MJ/m2 produced by balancer. It has been known that during the winter season,
under conditions of the dark polar night, the radiation balance at Vostok is always negative.
The larger negative BR values correspond to more intense radiation cooling, the less negative
BR values indicate the cooling reduction as a consequence of the cloud layer formation above
Vostok station.
Figure 2. demonstrates the response of the radiation balance (second panel), the
cloudiness balls (third panel) to the negative deviation in the daily averaged IMF Bz
component (top panel) for three groups of BZ values: -2 < BZ < -1 nT (18 events), -2.5 < BZ <
-2 nT (11 events), and BZ < -2.5 nT (13 events) in years of solar minimum (1974-1977, 19851987), the day of maximal negative BZ deviation being taken as a zero date (t = 0). One can
see the evident response of cloudiness to influence of the interplanetary magnetic field: the
greater the negative IMF BZ component, the larger is the cloudiness, the more pronounced is
the reduction in the cooling. The cloudiness formation starts simultaneously with the negative
BZ deviation (-1st day) and reaches the maximum at 0 or +1st day. It is important that
statistical significance of all effects, being minor for the first BZ gradation, quickly grows
with the increase of the negative BZ (in spite of the events number diminishing) and reaches
92% level in case of radiation balance for third BZ level.
The crucial role of the interplanetary magnetic field was confirmed when examining the
effects of the strong negative (BZ<-2 nT) and positive (BZ>2 nT) deviations of the IMF BZ
component (Troshichev et al., 2008). As Figure 3. shows the intensification of the negative
BZ deviation is followed, with a delay time of about 1 day, by the cloudiness enhancement
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and the corresponding warming in the ground layer, whereas the rise of the positive BZ
deviation is followed by the opposite reaction: the cloudiness decays and the cooling starts on
the ground layer. It should be reminded that Vostok is located at the ice dome at an altitude of
3.45 km above sea level, and, therefore, h=3.5 km corresponds to ground level at Vostok,
whereas h= 6 km corresponds to an altitude of ~ 2.5 km above the ice sheet level.
The results of the analysis (Troshichev et al., 2008), completed for conditions of the
negligible Forbush decrease, demonstrate that the sign of the BZ component defines the trend
of the cloudiness change (growth or decay), the cloudiness power being determined by the
value of the southward IMF component. It seems reasonable to suggest that the formation of
the cloud layer occurs at altitudes higher than ~ 5 km above the ice sheet.
Figure 2. Mean changes in cloudiness estimated from the radiation balance measurements (second
panel) and by the visual man-made observations (third panel), obtained for three gradations of the
negative deviation in the daily averaged IMF BZ component (-2<BZ< 1 nT, -2.5<BZ< 2 nT, BZ< 2.5
nT) during the winter season of 1974-1977 and 1985-1987 (from Troshichev et al., 2008).
178
Figure 3. Run of the daily averaged IMF BZ component for cases of strong negative and positive B Z
deviations (upper panel) and the appropriate effects in the cloudiness (second panel) and in temperature
at heights 3.5 km and 6 km above Vostok (third and forth panels) in years of the solar activity minimum
1974-1977 and 1985-1987 (from Troshichev et al., 2008).
A DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE ATMOSPHERIC

CIRCULATION ABOVE ANTARCTICA
The Antarctic continent is dominated by the ice dome rising above 3.5 km in the
Antarctic ridge area. A unique feature of the atmospheric circulation in the winter Antarctica
is the continental-scale katabatic wind regime (Egger, 1985; Parish and Bromwich, 1987,
1991). It is a powerful drainage stream of the near-surface air masses flowing roughly radially
from the Antarctic ridge to coastline (Figure 4). This drainage is determined by the negative
air buoyancy supported by severe radiation cooling of the atmosphere on the ice sheet
surface. Since mass continuity requires a permanent substitution of the air masses draining in
the near-surface layer, the air masses are supplied from the troposphere over the Antarctic
ridge area. As a result, a large-scale system of vertical (meridional) circulation is formed in
the winter Antarctica (Figure 5). The system includes drainage of the air masses along the
slope of the Antarctic ice sheet, ascending flow near the coast line, return movement in the
lower and middle troposphere, and descending flow in the near-pole region (Parish and
Bromwich, 1991).
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Figure 4. Drainage pattern of near-surface katabatic winds (from Parish and Bromvich, 1991). Location
of the inner-continental stations Vostok, Dome C and South Pole is shown.
Figure 5. A conceptual scheme of the vertical mass circulation forced by the katabatic wind regime in
Antarctica (from Parish and Bromwich, 1991).
The spatial structure of katabatic winds is one of the most stable atmospheric phenomena
on the Earth (Schwerdtfeger, 1984). Phases of weak and strong katabatic winds alternate with
each other at regular intervals from few days (Egger, 1985; James, 1989) to 30-50 days
(Yasunari and Kodama, 1993). The model-based studies (Egger, 1985; James, 1989; Parish
and Bromvich, 1991; Parish, 1992) showed that the Antarctic katabatic wind regime appears
to be an important forcing mechanism for the circumpolar vortex around the periphery of the
Antarctic continent. As the experimental study of Yasunari and Kodama (1993) demonstrates,
the weak katabatic wind phase corresponds to a deep upper tropospheric circumpolar vortex,
whereas the strong katabatic wind phase corresponds to a weak circumpolar vortex. Thus, the
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low atmosphere is not static above the Central Antarctic ridge: there is a powerful vertical
channel, where the air masses go down from upper troposphere to the Antarctic ice sheet.
SUDDEN WARMINGS IN THE CENTRAL ANTARCTIC

AND THEIR RELATION TO THE DISTURBED SOLAR WIND
It was suggested (Troshichev and Janzhura., 2004) that superposition of the constant
radiation cooling of air situated at the ice sheet and adiabatic warming of air masses, which
arrive from above, maintains the atmosphere on the Antarctic ridge in the state of thermal
quasi-equilibrium. A cloud layer formation at altitude about 5-10 km would efficiently
backscatter the long wavelength radiation from the ice sheet, but it will not affect the
adiabatic warming process, when the air masses go down from troposphere to the Antarctic
ice dome. As a result of the reduction in the radiative cooling, the atmosphere should be
warmer below the cloud and give rise to sudden warmings at ground level, which happen
sometimes in the Central Antarctica during the winter seasons.
The particular events of sudden warmings were studied in (Troshichev et al., 2003;
Troshichev and Janzhura, 2004) on the basis of three sets of meteorological data: (1) daily
meteorological observations (temperature, pressure and winds) at the ground level at Vostok
station (h =3.45 km) for 1978-1992, (2) hourly temperature values derived from the 10-min
observations provided by the automatic stations (AWS) at Dome C, South Pole and Vostok
for 2000-2001, and (3) daily aerological measurements of temperature, pressure and winds
above Vostok station (h =3.520 km) for 1978-1992. It was found that warmings came after
large increases in the amplitude of the negative (southward BZS) component of the
interplanetary magnetic field. The time of the maximum deviation in the solar wind parameter
(BZS, or ESW, or PSW) was used as a key (zero) date. The temperature variation (T) was
calculated as the difference between the temperature values for the key moment and for the
preceding and succeeding days (or hours).
The results (Troshichev et al., 2004) demonstrated the clear correlation between BZ and
T and between ESW and T. As Figure 6. shows, the correlation of the temperature
variations with the electric field deviations ESW is markedly higher than with BZ and can
expressed as
T [deg] = 3.5 - 0.0047ESW [nTkm/s],
where ESW is regarded as negative for negative values of BZ. The correlation is best for
larger values of the leaps in BZ, the regression line slope being determined by the end points
(maximal negative or positive values BZ).
Figure 7. shows the statistical response of the ground hourly temperature T at stations
Vostok, Dome C and South Pole to variations in ESW in 2000-2001 as a function of the
duration of southward IMF (Troshichev and Janzhura, 2004). The abscissa axis presents the
duration of events, the ordinate axis is for the number of successive hourly intervals with
negative BZ< -2 nT. One can see that the increase in the ground temperature is determined by
the power of the negative BZ action: the longer the BZS field exposure (and the higher electric
field intensity) lasts, the larger is the temperature deviation and the shorter is the delay time
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between the key moment and the temperature change. At stations Vostok and Dome C a 15hours exposure affects the effective warming (up to T > +10) after 12 hours at a level of
statistical significance equal to 0.99.
However, the warming at station South Pole may be observed only under conditions of
very strong interplanetary electric field, and this link is not statistically significant. The
different effects in the ground temperature at stations Vostok and Dome C, on the one hand,
and South Pole, on the other hand, are easily explained by their different locations relative to
the katabatic wind system. Indeed, stations Vostok and Dome C are located on the Antarctic
ridge, which is the region of the descending tropospheric air mass flow, whereas South Pole is
located in the regions of the developed drainage stream.
As the results (Troshichev and Janzhura, 2004) showed, there is a weak tendency to
ground temperature decrease after the pressure pulses: the coolings at Vostok follow the large
pressure pulses within 2 hours and last about the next 24 hours (Figure 8). However, we have
to keep in mind that pressure pulses in the interplanetary shocks usually pass the Earth some
hours (from 0 to 12) ahead of the interplanetary electric field disturbances. So, the isolated
effects of the pressure increases can be seen, in principle, only whithin the first hours after the
pressure pulses. When the electric field comes into play, the influences of the pressure pulses
and interplanetary electric field would superpose on one another, and their combined effect in
the temperature deviations is observed.
Figure 6. Correlation between daily changes in ground temperature (T) at Vostok station (1978-1992)
and daily deviations in the interplanetary magnetic field BZ (upper panel) and in the geoeffective
electric ESW field (lower panel) (from Troshichev et al., 2003).
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Figure 7. Character of temperature hourly changes T at stations Vostok, Dome C, and South Pole as a
function of number of the hourly interval with B Z <-2nT. Dotted line marks the key moment. Rate of
the warming is presented by dark signatures (from Troshichev and Janzhura, 2004).
183
Figure 8. Response of the ground temperature T at Vostok to pulses in the solar wind dynamic
pressure in 2000 2001, the key moment being determined by sharp increase in the dynamic pressure.
(from Troshichev and Janzhura, 2004).
It is meaningful that the response in temperature to the ESW influence is quite opposite in
the lower and upper troposphere. Figure 9. shows the profiles of the averaged daily
temperature deviations above Vostok station for negative and positive variations of ESW
(Troshichev et al., 2004). The temperature profile for the 1st day, preceding the zero day
(i.e. day of the maximum ESW deviation), is taken as the level of reference for all succeeding
days. The average warming at the ground level (h = 3.45-3.5 km) responds, within 1-2 days,
to the negative step in ESW, but at altitudes more than 10 km a cooling is observed (upper
panels). The opposite behaviour is typical of the positive step in ESW: the atmosphere gets
cooler at ground level, and gets warmer at h > 10 km (lower panels). Such regularity would
be observed if a cloud layer appears at altitudes 5-10 km under the influence of the negative
ESW variations, and disappears under the influence of the positive ESW variations.
184
Figure 9. Mean height profiles of the daily temperature deviations above Vostok under conditions of the
negative and positive ESW changes (from Troshichev et al., 2003).
Impact of the Disturbed Solar Wind on Atmospheric Pressure

The aerological data from Vostok station for 1978-1992 have been used to study
relationship between the daily values of the interplanetary electric field and atmospheric
pressure at altitudes h=3.520 km (Troshichev et al., 2004). A day of negative or positive leap
in the interplanetary electric field has been taken as a key date in the epoch superposition
analysis. The magnitudes of ESW (difference between daily values for the key date and for
the preceding and succeeding days) were compared with the appropriate value of the
atmosphere pressure. The results presented in Figure 10. show that atmospheric pressure at all
altitudes from 0 to 15 km sharply increases in response to negative leap ESW and keeps this
level in subsequent four days. In response to positive ESW the atmospheric pressure
decreases at all altitudes at the zero day and then starts gradually to increase starting at 15 km
185
at the first day and lowering to the ground level by the third day. In the context of the going
down air masses flow it implies that the interplanetary electric field effectively accelerates or
delays the descending tropospheric air masses.
Figure 10. Mean height profiles of the daily atmospheric pressure deviations above Vostok under
conditions of the negative and positive ESW changes (from Troshichev et al., 2004).
To check this concept, the aerological measurements of the atmospheric winds at

altitudes h = 0-25 km have been also analysed in (Troshichev, 2008). The only horizontal
wind parameters were measured at the air balloons launched at Vostok, and just these data
were used to extract information about changes in the vertical flow of air masses. Figure 11.
shows the mean vertical profiles of the horizontal wind mean direction and mean speed for
zero day with large negative ESW leap, for preceding -1st day (level of reference), and for
succeeding 1st, 2nd, and 4th days. One can see that the wind azimuths lay in range 270-290 at
186
h= 15-25 km, 240-270 at h=10-15 km, and 210-240 at h=5-10 km, i.e. the horizontal winds
blow approximately toward the East.
To understand this regularity we have to remember that the masses falling vertically in
the rotating Earths system are deviated toward the East under the action of Corioles force.
Speed of this deviating motion is determined by formula ve = x r , where is the angle
speed of the Earths rotation ( = 1/240 /s), and r is radius-vector in the point of observation
(r ~ 880 km at latitude of Vostok station, = 82). Taking into account these quantities and
making allowance for angle ~ 8 between vectors and r, a rough measure of the deviation
speed is obtained, ve 10 m/s. It is just mean value of the horizontal speed that was observed
in aerological observations at altitudes 10-15 rm above Vostok station. Thus, we can suggest
that direction and speed of the regular wind in the surface atmosphere at a top of the Antarctic
ice dome is determined by deviating action of Corioles force on the descending air masses.
Figure 11. Dependence of the height profiles of the horizontal wind mean direction and mean speed
above Vostok on the negative ESW influence. The wind profiles for the -1st day preceding the ESW
impact (dotted lines) are taken as a level of reference (from Troshichev et al., 2004).
187
In response to the negative ESW leap the wind horizontal speed decreases in a key
(zero) day at altitudes higher 12 km and sharply increases at altitudes from 5 to 12 km (up
to 35 % at h = 8-9 km), the vertical wind profile for -1st day being taken as a level of
reference. The opposite regularity is typical of the positive ESW leaps. By the forth day the
wind speed recovers to the quiet level. Taking into account that Corioles acceleration should
be directly dependent on speed of the descending air masses, we suggest that increase or
decrease of the wind horizontal speed is indicative of acceleration or slowing-down of the
descending air masses. In such a case we came to conclusion that formation of cloud layer at
h=5-10 km is favourable to acceleration of the descending masses, whereas clear sky favours
their slowing-down. The mechanism of this linkage is unclear.
The acceleration (slowing-down) process should lead to the strong enhancement (or
reduction) of the atmospheric pressure just for day of the negative (positive) ESW leap, as we
have seen in Figure 10. It should be noted that the enhanced atmospheric pressure keeps
during some days in the surface level (~ 3.5 km at Vostok station). One might expect that
occurrence of the enhanced atmospheric pressure in the Central Antarctica will led to
violation of the wind regime above the whole Antarctica.
ANOMALOUS WINDS AT THE ANTARCTIC STATIONS

AND THEIR RELATION TO THE IMF BZ
The wind azimuth distribution at each Antarctic station is a specific feature, which is
determined by the large-scale katabatic wind system and by local orography at a particular
coast stations. Two separated extremes in the wind occurrence are observed at the coast
stations during the winter season. The main noticeable extreme at 60-120 corresponds
roughly to the westward wind formed due to action of the Corioles force on the moving
radially drainage flow. The secondary minor extreme nearby 180 corresponds to the
anomalous wind flowing from the Antarctic coast toward equator. One wide and rather flat
maximum in a range from 180 to 270 is typical of the near-pole station Vostok, but the
high-speed winds (V > 6 m/s) are observed exclusively at azimuth around 200. In view of it,
the winds at Vostok station falling within the range 180-210 were examined as anomalous
winds. Figure 12. shows directions of the main and anomalous winds plotted on the map of
Antarctica for all 13 stations. Thus, two wind patterns are typical of the winter Antarctica: the
main pattern is the regular circumpolar circle surrounding the continent, and the secondary
pattern is system of the anomalous winds flowing from Antarctica toward the equator.
Analysis of relationship between the anomalous wind occurrence and changes in IMF BZ
component demonstrated (Troshichev et al., 2008) that the anomalous winds were preceded
by the southward IMF coupling with the magnetosphere. Figure 13. shows, as an example,
behavior of the mean anomalous wind observed at near-pole station Vostok in 1981-1989,
and the mean anomalous winds observed simultaneously at the coast stations Neumayer,
Casey, Russkaya, situated, correspondingly, in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific ocean sectors.
The mean variation of the appropriate IMF BZ component was calculated separately for each
station taking into account only the events with anomalous wind observed at this certain
station. The day with anomalous wind occurrence at each particular station was taken as a
zero date.
188
One can see from Figure 13. that occurrence of the anomalous winds at the coast stations
was preceded by the increase of southward IMF BZ and was delayed one-two days relative to
the wind strengthening at Vostok. Not all wind violations starting at the Antarctic Ridge are
extended to cover the overall coast area: only 82% of anomalous winds detected at Vostok
reach Casey, located in the Indian ocean sector and as few as 41% reach Neumayer, located in
the Atlantic sector.
Figure 12. Distribution of the regular (solid arrows) and anomalous (dashed arrows) winds at the
Antarctic stations (from Troshichev et al., 2008).
Figure 13. Anomalous winds at stations Vostok, Neumayer, Casey and Russkaya in their relation to
changes in the IMF BZ for winter seasons of 1981-1989, the day with anomalous wind occurrence at
each particular station being taken as a key date (from Troshichev et al., 2008).
189
It seems likely that extent of the coast station involvement in the process of the wind
violation varies from one event to other. The anomalous winds at the coast stations,
associated with high speed (V > 6m/s) anomalous wind at Vostok, were accompanied by the
sharp reduction of the westward wind speed and by the succeeding wind turning toward the
equator. This regularity corresponds to decay of the circumpolar vortex while increasing the
katabatic winds, noticed in (Yasunari and Kodama, 1993). The efficiency of the anomalous
winds influence on the circumpolar vortex turned out to be dependent on duration of the
southward IMF action: the 3-days influence of southward IMF with average BZ ~ 3 nT (10
events) preceded the anomalous winds, which were observed simultaneously at the all coast
stations.
SOI AND ITS RELATION TO ANOMALOUS WIND

SYSTEM IN ANTARCTICA
Southern Oscillation (SO) is determined (Philander and Rasmussen, 1985) as a negative
correlation between the sea level pressure fluctuations in the Southeast Pacific high and the
North Australian-Indonesian low. A coupled system linking an anomalous warming of
surface water in the eastern Pacific (El Nio) to an atmospheric branch SO, was named
ENSO. During the years between warm events the opposite regularity often occurs and a cold
phase of ENSO, the La Nina, exists (Van Loon and Shea, 1987). Nature of the ENSO action
is unknown. Stable links between Southern Oscillation and atmospheric processes in
Antarctica was revealed in many studies (Trenberth, 1980; Mo et al., 1987; Van Loon and
Shea, 1985, 1987; Parish and Bromwich, 1987; Bromwich et al., 1993; Smith and Stearns,
1993). The conclusion was made, that propagation of the katabatic winds from Antarctica is a
phenomenon that is accompanied by changes that involve the entire southern hemisphere
(Bromwich et al., 1993). To characterize the phase and intensity of the ENSO activity the
Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is used. SOI presents difference between the monthly
pressure anomalies at Tahiti (Central Pacific) and Darwin (North Australia) (Van Loon and
Shea, 1987). The SOI is a nondimensional index, which is negative when ENSO is in a warm
phase (El Nio events) and positive when ENSO is in a cold phase (La Nina events).
One of the most intriguing feature of El Nio events is the seasonal regularity in their
occurrence: formation of ENSO occurs mainly during the southern autumn-winter season
(Van Loon and Shea, 1987). Troshichev et al. (2005) examined all large negative SOI
deviations during 1868-2002 and separated them in two groups in accordance with their
duration: the short-lived deviations, lasting less than 3 months (17 events), and long-lived
deviations, lasting more 6 months (23 events). It turned out that the long negative deviations
(Figure 14), which correspond to real El-Nino events, start usually between March and June,
and their mean early variation (thick line) reaches the minimum in June and tends to restore in
November/December. The short deviations of SOI can begin in any time of year and their
mean monthly values are close to zero.
To demonstrate the possible relation of SOI to the anomalous winds the mean angular
distribution of the monthly winds (the wind roses) at each station were examined for
months preceding and succeeding the El-Nio beginning (Troshichev et al., 2005). The ElNio events with sharp onset (decrease of SOI value more than 1 during the month) have
190
been only included in the examination. The wind rose for the 4th month, preceding the ElNio onset, has been taken as a level of reference for all succeeding months, and the
appropriate differential wind roses, characterizing the changes in the wind azimuths for -3d,
-2d, -1st, and zero (El-Nio onset) months have been constructed. Results of the analysis
testified that the evident excess of winds above the level of reference was observed at angles
195-210 for Vostok, 185-215 for Russkaya, and 270-300 for Leningradskaya, which just
correspond to azimuths of the anomalous winds at these stations. As Figure 15. shows, the
anomalous winds are observed during -2d and -1st months, preceding the El-Nio onset, and
did not typical of -3th and zero months (as well as of succeeding months, which are not shown
in Figure 15).
Figure 14. Behavior of SOI index in course of large negative long-lived and short-lived SOI deviations
during 1868-2002 (from Troshichev et al., 2005).
191
Figure 15. Differential wind roses, characterizing the changes in wind occurrence in course of El-Nio
events for stations Vostok (a), and Russkaya (b) (from Troshichev et al., 2005).
Availability of statistically significant relationships between the disturbed solar wind and
anomalous winds above the Antarctica, on the one hand, and between the anomalous winds
and SOI, on the other hand, makes it possible to suggest that linkage between the disturbed
solar wind and development of SOI would be presented. Unfortunately, the monthly IMF data
are very incomplete for years preceding 1998, and the relation of SOI to AE index (instead
of IMF) was examined in (Troshichev et al., 2005). Only sharp SOI events, in which
the monthly value of SOI (negative or positive) was changed by 1 or more, have been
included in the analyses. The month of this sharp change has been taken as a zero date in the
superposition analysis.
Figure 16. shows behavior of SOI index for three types of changes in the southern
oscillation: (a) sharp declination of SOI with subsequent keeping of negative value during
many months (basically, it is real El-Nio events with sudden onset) observed in 1969, 1972,
1982, 1986, 1991, 1994, (b) sharp short-lived declination of SOI (1959, 1961, 1979, 1980,
1984, 1985), and (c) short-lived increase of SOI (1962, 1964, 1970, 1975). The low panel in
Figure 16 presents the proper changes in AE index. One can see, that in case of long negative
SOI deviations the mean magnetic activity starts to increase 2-3 months before the beginning
of El-Nio and reaches maximum just in month of the beginning (s.s. = 0.96).
192
Figure 16. Relationship between changes in monthly values of SOI and AE indices for long-lived
negative deviation of SOI (a), and short-lived negative and positive deviation of SOI (b) (from
Troshichev et al., 2005).
Figure 17. A conceptual sketch of generation of the electric currents in the low-latitude boundary layer,
while the solar wind coupling with the magnetosphere (adopted from Troshichev, 1982). It is shown the
magnetosphere dawn-dusk cross viewed from the Sun. The arrows denote the electric currents. The
field-aligned currents, flowing in the southern and northern polar caps at the dawn side and flowing out
at the dusk side, provide the polar cap electric voltage.
193
On the contrary, in cases of short-term positive or negative deviations of SOI, the

magnetic activity does not show the noticeable changes before and after the SOI impulses.
These results make it possible to conclude, that changes, negative or positive, in the southern
oscillation occur irrespective of the solar wind influence, but development of the veritable ElNio events, happening during southern winter, is likely influenced by the intense and lasting
disturbances in the interplanetary electric field and correlate with corresponding magnetic
activity.
MECHANISMS SUGGESTED TO EXPLAIN THE SOLAR WIND

INFLUENCE ON THE ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES
A suggestion about the influence of the interplanetary electric field on cloudiness in
Antarctica was made in (Troshichev and Janzhura, 2004) and based on the well-established
fact of the solar wind impacting the magnetosphere. While the magnetosphere solar wind
coupling the interplanetary electric field, bearing by solar wind, generates the field-aligned
currents, connecting the boundary magnetosphere with the polar ionosphere. The fieldaligned currents flow into the polar ionosphere at the dawn side and flow out of the
ionosphere at the dusk side, and provide the overhead polar cap ionospheric potential. The
corresponding impact scheme is presented in Figure 17, adopted from (Troshichev, 1982).
Although some details of this process continue to be unknown, the linkage between the
interplanetary electric field and the polar cap voltage is principally resolved and well defined.
Sharp changes of the ionospheric potential should intensify or reduce the electric currents
between the polar ionosphere and the surface, passing through the layer at 5-8 km, where the
atmospheric conductivity sharply declines (Handbook of Geophysics, 1985). The connecting
link between the polar cap voltage and the polar atmosphere is realized by the global electric
circuit. There is a constant potential difference ~ 250 kV between the ionosphere and the
Earths surface, which is provided by the tropic thunderstorms. This potential drives the
return downward currents (see Figure 18), which are most intense and variable in the polar
areas (3-5 pA/m2) due to the effects of cosmic and magnetospheric energetic particles, and,
what is more important, the influence of the polar cap voltage. The influence of the solar wind
on the global electric circuit is well documented (Tinsley, 1996). The actual changes of the
polar cap atmospheric electric field represent the combination of so-called Carnegie curve
(describing the daily course of the tropic thunderstorms) and the deviations controlled by the
SW changes (Frank-Kamenetsky et al., 1999, 2001). It means that the interplanetary electric
field affects the overhead ionospheric potential above the station.
According to Tinsley and Deen (1991) and Tinsley and Heelis (1993), who examined the
cloud layer properties in relation to the global electric circuit, the space charges are
accumulated at the boundary of sharp changes of atmospheric conductivity, in proportion to
the downward current density through the cloud. It was shown that the ionosphere-Earth
current density is modulated, particularly, by the polar cap ionospheric potential (Tinsley and
Zhou, 2006). The changes in tropospheric ionization might affect the rate of freezing of
supercooled water droplets in high clouds. Since the mechanism of electrofreezing acts
irrespective of the solar irradiation input, it would be workable also in the near-pole region
under conditions of the polar night.
194
Figure 18. Diagram illustrating the global atmospheric electric circuit and the causes of its temporal and
spatial variation (from [Tinsley and Zhou, 2006]). The vertical scale is greatly exaggerated below 120
km and greatly compressed above.
CONCLUSION
Thus, the concept of the solar wind influence on processes in the Antarctic atmosphere
seems to be convincingly verified with use of all available meteorological and aerological
observations (Troshichev et al., 2003, 2004, 2005, 2008; Troshichev and Janzhura, 2004;
Troshichev, 2008). The disturbed solar wind has a greater impact on atmosphere processes in
the central Antarctica, where the large-scale system of vertical circulation is formed during
the winter seasons. The impact is realized through the interplanetary electric field ESW, which
influences the magnetosphere field-aligned currents, creating the appropriate polar cap
electric voltage. The ionospheric electric potential strongly affects the global electric circuit,
which is generated by the tropic thunderstorms and is closed mainly in polar caps.
Two processes are brought into operation when the IMF BZS component and the
appropriate electric field ESW strongly increase. The first of them is formation of the cloud
layer above the Antarctic Ridge, where the air masses income into the central Antarctica from
above troposphere. Under the usual conditions the atmosphere on the Antarctic ridge is in
state of the thermal quasi-equilibrium owing to superposition of the adiabatic warming of the
descending air masses and stable radiation cooling of air situated at the ice sheet. The cloud
layer will efficiently backscatter the long wavelength radiation going from the ice sheet, but it
will not affect the adiabatic warming process. As a result of the radiative cooling reduction,
the atmosphere should be warm below the cloud layer and would be cool above the layer. Just
such regularity is observed during specific events of the sudden warmings, happening from
time to time in the central Antarctica.
The second process is acceleration of the air masses incoming into the central Antarctica
from troposphere. This process causes the sharp increase of the atmospheric pressure in the
surface layer and gives rise to collapse of the regular large-scale wind system above the entire
195
Antarctica. The draining winds are strongly strengthened and the circumpolar vortex about
the periphery of the Antarctic continent correspondingly decays.
Both processes are strongly linked and lead to the cold air masses flow out to the
Southern ocean. The latter process evidently destroys the regular relationships between the
sea level pressure fluctuations in the Southeast Pacific high and the North AustralianIndonesian low and promote the El-Nio beginning.
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Chapter 10
ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS AT DOME C,

ANTARCTIC PLATEAU, ONE OF THE COLDEST PLACE
IN THE WORLD
S. Argentini * and I. Pietroni
ABSTRACT
Atmospheric field experiments were made during several years at the French-Italian
plateau station of Concordia at Dome C (Lat. 75 06.06 S, Long. 123 20.74 E, 3250 m
a.s.l.) in Antarctica. On 2005 Concordia became a permanent station, this allowed to
carry out the one year atmospheric field experiment STABLEDC (Study of the STABLE
boundary layer environmental at Dome C). The aim of STABLEDC was to study the
processes occurring in the long-lived stable, and the weak convective atmospheric
boundary layers, observed during winter and summer respectively, and to collect the
relevant input parameters for atmospheric models. Both in situ and ground based remote
sensing instruments were used to monitor meteorological parameters. This paper book
summarize the main results from STABLEDC.
1. INTRODUCTION
Antarctica has a fundamental role in the global climate system. However due to its
remoteness and inaccessibility, relatively little is known about the processes occurring in the
interior of the ice sheet. In the long Antarctic winter, with no short-wave radiation, the surface
is cooled continuously through negative net long-wave radiation which is enabled by clear
sky conditions and the very cold and dry overlying atmosphere. This energy loss is partially
compensated by the turbulent and sub-surface heat fluxes which extract heat from both the
atmosphere and the ice sheet, cooling the near surface air and snow. As a consequence of this
*
E-mail : s.argentini@isac.cnr.it
ISAC-CNR via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00133 Roma, Italy
200
radiative cooling strong surface-based inversions develop. Phillpot and Zillman (1970)
studied the climatology of the temperature inversion across the Antarctic continent, they
found that the inversions over South Pole are on average about 20 K in winter, while those
over the highest parts of the plateau are on average 25 K. Connolley (1996) gives an overview
of the temperature inversion at 21 Antarctic stations (whose 3 in the interior); following
Jouzel and Merlivat (1984) he derived a regression between the surface temperature and the
inversion strength all over the Antarctic continent also showing the dependence of this
relationship on the terrain slope. Other analyses were done to investigate the link between the
near-surface winds and the temperature inversions (Dalrymple et al., 1966 and Lettau and
Schwerdtfeger, 1967). Hudson and Brandt (2005) studied the surface-based inversion over the
Antarctic plateau; they focused on the measurements from South Pole and Dome C, but the
analyses were done for a short period and limited to the first 30 m of atmosphere at South
Pole, and restricted to the summer season at Dome C.
In presence of a surface slope, the denser and colder air masses of air adjacent to the
surface are forced down-slope due to the horizontal pressure gradient, and deflected to the left
by the Coriolis force. As a result the well known katabatic winds take place. The katabatic
wind regime can be occasionally interrupted by the horizontal advection of warm air masses,
or the presence of strong large-scale winds.
On the other hand, during the Antarctic summer, the absorption of short-wave radiation
introduces a diurnal cycle in the behaviour of the solar radiation. Although the amount of
solar radiation available to heat the surface is limited by the high surface albedo the surface
warming may cause a weak convection and the formation of a Convective Boundary Layer
(hereafter CBL) during daytime (Mastrantonio et al., 1999, Argentini et al., 2005).
Reliable measurements of the radiation balance at the surface on the Antarctic ice sheet
are important to assess its role as heat sink in the climate system of the earth, as ground truth
for satellite observations (e.g., to distinguish between clouds and the snow surface) and for
validation of atmospheric models (King and Connolley 1997). They may also be used to
develop albedo parameterizations of dry snow for atmospheric models or, for radiation
parameterization in energy and mass balance and ice dynamical models (Van de Wal and
Oerlemans 1997). A reliable estimate of the Surface Energy Balance (hereafter SEB) is not
possible without an accurate measurement of the radiation components (Bintanja and van den
Broeke 1995; Van As et al. 2005b) which can be affected by several problems related to snow
properties and sun elevation angle. Long-wave fluxes dominate the surface heat budget in
Antarctica because of the regions high solar albedo and prolonged periods of darkness.
The Antarctic atmosphere is highly transmissive for solar radiation, especially in the high
interior plateau where the atmosphere is thin and the concentrations of clouds, water vapour
and aerosol are low. Even in full summer, when the solar zenith angles are large, the finegrained, dry and clean snow surface absorbs only 525% of the incoming short-wave
radiation (Carroll and Fitch, 1981). On the other hand the snow, like most natural surfaces,
has a high long-wave emissivity (0.98) (Wiscombe and Warren, 1980) so that it effectively
looses heat in the form of long-wave radiation. In combination with an atmosphere that is
cold, dry, thin, clear and clean, this leads to a pronounced (long-wave and all-wave) radiation
deficit at the surface in winter. An average turbulent transport of sensible heat from
the atmosphere to the surface compensate for this heat loss. This loss of energy makes
the Antarctic ice sheet a major heat sink in the Earths atmosphere and introduces a strong
Atmospheric Observations at Dome C, Antarctic Plateau, One of the Coldest Place 201
coupling between the radiation balance and near-surface climate (Dutton et al., 1991; Stanhill
and Cohen, 1997).
Despite the number of observational studies of SEB carried out in Antarctica, only few
measuring campaigns have been done during the winter and in the interior, due to the dearth
of occupied stations on the polar plateau and the enhanced difficulty of maintaining
instruments on robotic platforms. The above notwithstanding, the number of winter time
experimental campaigns in Antarctica during the winter is slowly increasing, although with
often unknown quality of data.
A short history of the SEB studies from unmanned stations is available, from Weller,
1980; Carroll, 1982; King and Turner, 1997; Wendler et al., 1988; Bintanja and van den
Broeke, 1995; Reijmer et al., 1999; Argentini et al., 2005; van As et al., 2005a. Some of these
studies evidenced that the magnitude of the surface heat fluxes exhibit strong spatial and
temporal variations, which reflect the differences in the prevailing meteorological conditions
and in the state of the surface. King et al. (2006) describe the summer SEB at two contrasting
Antarctic sites: the interior site of Dome C (75S 123E) at 3306 m a.s.l and the coastal site at
Halley (75S, 26W) at 30 m a.s.l. At both stations, the short wave radiation produces a
diurnal cycle in net radiation, which results in a diurnal cycle of surface temperature. Despite
this similarity, the summer-time SEB differs significantly at the two sites for what regards the
behaviour of the sensible heat flux. Convection signature is observed on acoustic radar
echograms at the cold Dome C site, while is absent at Halley. This is due to the large
summer-time net radiation at Halley generating melt, which limits the partitioning of the SEB
into convection.
Due to the extreme temperatures, dryness and the high altitude the Antarctic plateau is a
potential ideal site for astronomical observations otherwise possible only from space. For this
reason in the last years the optical turbulence over the Antarctic plateau has been object of
studies by astronomers (for ex. Hagelin, 2008), the optical turbulence intensity depending on
vertical gradients of the wind velocity and on the temperature inversion strength (Marks et al.,
1999).
A large atmospheric field experiment STABLEDC (Study of the STAble Boundary Layer
Environmental at Dome C) was held at the French-Italian station of Concordia located on the
Antarctic plateau at Dome C during 2004-2005. This was the first over wintering at
Concordia. The aim of the field experiment was to test an observing system to study the
processes occurring in the long-lived stable, and the weak convective atmospheric boundary
layers, observed during winter and summer respectively, and to collect the parameters
relevant for the atmospheric models. The results obtained during this experiment are shown in
the following sessions.
2. SITE AND INSTRUMENTATION

Concordia is a permanent station located at Dome C, Antarctica (74.1S, 123.3E, 3233
m a.s.l.), on the East Antarctic plateau approximately 1000 km from the nearest coast (Figure
1). It is jointly operated by the French IPEV (Institut Polaire Franais Paul-mile Victor) and
Italian PNRA (Programma Nazionale Ricerche in Antartide) polar institutes. Dome C is set
on a regional topographic maximum on the plateau where the local slopes do not exceed 1%.
202
The climate consists of a synoptic coastal influence which brings relatively warm and cloudy
air masses, and gravity driven flow occurring under cold, clear, sky conditions. Low wind
speeds combined with frequent stable boundary layers and small surface roughness result
most of the time in low atmospheric thermal turbulence at Dome C.
Figure 1. Position of Dome C (red dot DC) in Antarctica.
The annual mean wind speed is 3.4 m s-1 with extreme values up to 16 m s-1. Monthly
mean temperatures were 39 C in summer and 61 C in winter. Most of the time, strong
surface inversions occur at Dome C, creating a large cold air source feeding the katabatic
winds observed in some zones of confluence along the East Antarctic coast.
In situ and ground based remote sensing sensors were used to monitor the behaviour of
the meteorological parameters. The instrumentation as well as the measurements done during
the field experiment are listed in Table 1.
Turbulence and radiation measurements were made in the period November 2004 January 2006. Turbulent heat and momentum fluxes were derived from eddy covariance
measurements (Lee et al., 2004) using a Metek USA-1 sonic thermo-anemometer sampling at
10 Hz installed 3.6 m above the snow surface; long- and short-wave radiation components
were measured using a Kipp and Zonen CNR-1 net radiation sensor system installed 1 m
above the snow surface. The heat flux within the snowpack was measured at a depth of 50
mm using a Campbell Scientific HFP01 heat flux plate. A mini-SODAR (Sound Detection
and Ranging) Doppler system (Mastrantonio et al., 1999) provided a continuous record of the
structure of the atmospheric boundary layer along the year. A passive Meteorological
Temperature Profiler (MTP-5P) (Kadygrov and Pick, 1998) was used for the remote
measurement of the air temperature profile.
The instrumentation was placed approximately 1000 m South of the main base buildings.
Since the dominant wind direction is from the sector 150-210 this ensured an unobstructed
fetch over the measurement site.
In addition to the measurements described above, standard meteorological parameters provided by the AWS (Automatic Weather Stations), and radiosonde profiles (once a day) were available from other projects.
Table 1. Sensor and measured micrometeorological variable
SENSOR
Radiometer mod.CNR-1 (Kipp and
Zonen) with
two pyranometers (CM3) up and down
two pyrgeometers (CG3 ) up and down
Conventional HFP01 heat flux plates
0, 5, 15, 30, 50 cm
A sonic anemo-thermometer mod.
USA-1 (Metek) and a fast response
LICOR Lyman-alpha-hygrometer (only
summer )
13-m Tower : thermometers,
hygrometers and wind probes at 1.25,
2.5, 5, 10 and 13 m
A triaxial Doppler mini-SODAR
Range 12 - 400 m , Resolution 13 m
Micro-lidar 532 nm wavelength , Range
300 m
Passive Microwave radiometer MTP5P by Kipp and Zonen. Range 0-600 m
Radio soundings
MEASURE
Radiative budget: - Incoming and outgoing
short-wave and long-wave radiation.
-Net Radiation
-Albedo
Sub-surface energy fluxes, snow temperature
profiles:
-Snow heat fluxes
Energy budget:
-Turbulent Fluxes (Heat, Latent, Momentum)
Surface layer profiles of mean variables
PBL measures : -Thermal structure of the ABL,

Boundary layer depth, wind speed
PBL measures: -Aerosols content; - Aerosol
phase (liquid water or ice crystal), - Particles
size
PBL measures: - Temperature, Development
and break down of atmospheric inversions
Atmosphere: - Temperature; - Pressure; -Wind
speed
For convenience, all subsequent results are presented with reference to local time. The
terms night-time and nocturnal are referred to the periods of negative surface radiation
balance.
3. THE CLIMATOLOGICAL SETTING

The average values of the mean wind, temperature, and sensible heat flux for the period
15 November 2004 - 13 January 2006 and for the different seasons are shown in Table 2. The
seasons have been defined as follows:
1 Summer: 15 November 2004 - 1 February, 2005
2 Summer: 15 November 2005 - 13 January, 2006
Autumn: 1 February - 1 April, 2005
204

Winter: 1 April - 15 September
Spring: 15 September - 15 November
The annual mean wind speed is 4.4 ms-1 with extreme values up to 12 ms-1. The mean
annual temperature is 45 oC. The lowest temperatures (-72 C was the minimum) are
observed during the winter while the highest temperatures (-29 C was the maximum) are
observed during the summer.
Table 2. Mean values of the wind speed, temperature and sensible heat flux
for the measurement periods: summer, autumn, winter and spring
Period
All
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Parameter
2004/12/14
to
2006/01/13
2004/12/14
to
2005/01/31
2005/02/01
to
2005/03/31
2005/04/01
to
2005/09/14
2005/09/15
to
2005/11/14
2005/11/15
to
2006/01/13
Mean wind
speed (m/s)
4.4 2.0
3.5 1.6
4.2 1.7
4.9 2.0
4.8 2.2
4.0 2.0
Mean
temperature
(C)
-44.8
12.2
-29.3 4.7
-47.2 7.8
-54.8 6.9
-46.8 7.6
-30.2 5.7
Mean
sensible
heat flux
(Wm-2)
-4.5 10.4
3.2 8.9
-4.8 8.1
-10.6 8.8
-6.1 9.5
2.4 9.0
Strong long-lived ground based inversions occur most of the time at Dome C with the
exception of the summer days during the hours of maximum insulation (and positive values
of net radiation). These inversions contribute to create a large cold air source producing and
feeding the katabatic winds observed in most of the glaciers confluence zone along the East
Antarctic coast.
Few clouds are generally present in the sky above Dome C since cloud cover and
precipitation decrease as one moves inland from the coast, and the frequency of occurrence of
active weather systems is low (King and Turner, 1997). However Argentini et al. (2001) have
shown that warming events are periodically observed at Dome C during the winter; during
these periods the surface temperatures sometimes may reach the summer values. In
correspondence of the warming events the wind direction changes from 180 (the most
frequent wind direction) to 0 (which is from the coast), indicating that the warming events
are correlated to phenomena originating along the coast (i.e. advection of warm air).
4. BEHAVIOUR OF SOME METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS

4.1. Wind Speed
The frequency distribution of the wind is shown in the polar graph of Figure 2. The wind
direction is separated in 12 intervals whereas the wind speed in 4 classes: 0-2 ms-1, 2-4 ms-1,
4-6 ms-1 and greater than 6 ms-1. Most of the time the winds blows from the sector 150-300,
in this sector are also observed the strongest (greater than 4 ms-1) winds. The peak in this
sector is observed between 180-210, that is from the continent.
The wind (Figure 3) reaches the highest velocities (11 ms-1) during the winter warming
events. The rest of the time the wind velocity periodically varies between 2 ms-1 and 7 ms-1.
0
30 %
330
30
24 %
18 %
300
60
12 %
6%
0 v < 2 ms -1
90
270
2 v < 4 ms -1
4 v < 6 ms -1
240
120
v 6 ms -1
210
150
180
Figure 2. Wind rose for four different velocity ranges.
The wind speed during the summer (Figure 4.a) exhibits a clear diurnal variation with a
peak during the warmest hours of the day. As shown also by King et al. 2006, a little variation
in wind speed occurs between 1900 and 0600 local time (LT). After 0600 LT, the wind speed
increases gradually until local noon, when it is about 1.5 ms-1 higher than it was at 0600 LT.
The wind speed then remains fairly constant until 1500 LT, after which it falls off at a rate
somewhat faster than it increased during the morning, reaching its night-time value at
around 1900 LT.
206

11
10
Speed (ms-1)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan
Figure 3. Wind velocity behaviour at Concordia station from January 2005 to January 2006.
Figure 4. a-d. shows the diurnal behaviour of the wind speed for summer (a), autumn (b),
winter (c) and spring (d). The diurnal variations observed at Dome C during the summer are
typical of those seen at locations where a convective boundary layer develops in response to
daytime heating. During the autumn the wind velocity is fairly constant around 4.2 ms-1
(Figure 4.b.), 5 ms-1 in winter (Figure 4.c.), and 4.8 ms-1 in spring (Figure 4.d.).
4.2. Temperature
The temperature histogram in the range -70 C / -20 C at steps of 5 C is shown in
Figure 5. The ordinate axis gives the percentage of temperature values observed in a given
temperature range. This frequency distribution shows two peaks. One peak is centred at -50
C, the other between -35 C and -20 C. The peak at -50 C corresponds to winter, spring
and autumn temperatures. The secondary peak includes instead the summer values.
Figure 6. shows the daily average of the 3-meters AWS (Automatic Weather Station)
temperature. The temperature has a strong seasonal cycle with values varying between -20
C, during the short summer, and -70 C in the long and coreless winter. Period of warming
events are evidenced during the winter, when the temperature in few cases may reach values
typical of summer.
6
15/11 - 01/02 ( SUMMER )
(a)
5
4
3
6
Wind Speed (ms-1)
01/02 - 01/04 ( AUTUMN )
(b)
5
4
3
6
01/04 - 15/09 ( WINTER )
(c)
5
4
3
6
15/09 - 15/11 ( SPRING )
(d)
5
4
3
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Time (Hour)
Figure 4. Average diurnal cycles of the wind (a) summer, (b) autumn, (c) winter, (d) spring, at
Concordia station from January 2005 to January 2006.
16
14
Occurrence (%)
12
10
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
Temperature (C)
Figure 5. Temperature histogram at Concordia station from January 2005 to January 2006.
-20
22
23
208
-10
Temperature (C)
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
N D
F M A M J J A S O N D
Time (Months)
Figure 6. Temperature behaviour at Concordia station from January 2005 to January 2006.
The warming events last for about 5 days and have a periodicity of about 15 days. During
these periods the temperature may increase of several degrees (Argentini et al., 2001).
Carroll, 1982, Stone et al. 1990, Stone and Kahl, 1991 and Stone, 1993 on a study at
South Pole evidenced that these warming events were mostly observed in presence of
cloudiness. Neff (1999) analysing the periods of cooling and warming at South Pole
correlated these phenomena to the variations in wind direction in the elevated layer toward
Nord-East, sometimes this variation was accompanied by cloud advection from the West or
from the Weddel sea. Carrol (1982) suggested two possible mechanisms: advection of warm
air and/or vertical mixing of air from different layers. Othake (1978) analysed the particles
trajectory across Antarctica; he showed that the warming was mostly due to the intrusion of
warm and moist air and to the condensation of nuclei which originate from the Wedding sea
and reach the pole producing a variety of clouds type. Schwerdtfeger and Weller (1977)
related the surface warming to the variation of long-wave radiation emitted by clouds
associated at moist air from the upper part of atmosphere.
Figure 7.a-d. show the mean diurnal variation of the temperature at Dome C for summer
(Figure 7.a.), autumn (Figure 7.b.), winter (Figure 7.c.), spring (Figure 7.d.). The sonic
temperature behaviour is similar in summer, autumn and spring, with the peak of the
temperatures 23 hours after the local noon. The amplitude of the diurnal temperature
variation is ~10C during the summer (the maximum and minimum temperatures are
respectively -25C and -35C) and ~5C during the spring and autumn (maximum
temperature -45C, minimum temperature -50C ). During the winter the average value of the
temperature is ~ -55C.
-20
15/11 - 01/02 ( SUMMER )
-25
(a)
-30
-35
-40
Temperature (C)
-40
01/02 - 01/04 ( AUTUMN )
-45
(b)
-50
-55
-60
-40
01/04 - 15/09 ( WINTER )
-45
(c)
-50
-55
-60
-40
15/09 - 15/11 ( SPRING )
-45
(d)
-50
-55
-60
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Time (Hour)
Figure 7. Average diurnal cycles of the sonic temperature (a) summer, (b) autumn, (c) winter, (d)
spring, Concordia station from January 2005 to January 2006.
Figure 8. shows the profiles for summer (a), autumn (b), winter (c) and spring (d) in the
vertical range 0-300 m. Each figure contains three profiles corresponding at averages over
different hours of the day. A diurnal profile (averages between 1000 - 1400 LT), an all
day profile, and a nocturnal profile (averages between 2200-0200 LT). An unstable profile
is observed in summer when the sun elevation reaches a peak. For all the other hours/seasons
a stable boundary layer is observed. The temperature increases of about 5 C in the first 100
meters during the summer and 20 C during the winter.
The result of a detailed analysis of the potential temperature gradients over all the winter
is given in Figure 9. The graph shows the density contour plots of potential temperature
gradients in the first 150 m of atmosphere. It is evident that the temperature gradient generally
ranges between 0.1 and 1 (C/m). However the strongest gradients occur below 40 m. This
result is in general agreement with the observations by Agabi et al., 2006.
210

300
300
250
Diurnal
Mean
Nocturnal
a)
250
Height (m)
Height (m)
150
100
50
50
0
-40
-35
-30
-25
Temperature (C)
0
-60
-20
300
-55
-50
-45
-40
Temperature (C)
-35
-30
300
Diurnal
Mean
Nocturnal
c)
250
200
Diurnal
Mean
Nocturnal
d)
200
Height (m)
Height (m)
150
100
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
-70
b)
200
200
250
Diurnal
Mean
Nocturnal
-65
-60
-55
-50
Temperature (C)
-45
-40
0
-60
-55
-50
-45
-40
Temperature (C)
-35
-30
Figure 8. Temperature profiles diurnal (crossed line), averaged (black dotted line), nocturnal (black
dotted line), during a) Summer, b) Autumn, c) Winter, d) Spring at Concordia station at Dome C from
January 2005 to January 2006.
Figure 9. Iso-Colour zone graphic of potential temperature gradient during the 2005 winter at Dome C.
4.3. Sensible Heat Flux

The sensible heat flux H0 = C p w 'T ' is derived directly from the turbulence data using
the eddy correlation technique; in this equation is the air density ( = 0.95 Kg m-3 at
Dome C), C p is the specific heat of dry air constant pressure (1005 J kg-1 K-l), w'T ' is the
covariance of the potential temperature with the vertical wind velocity as measured by the
ultrasonic anemometer.
The sensible heat flux on average is negative (Figure 10). Positive values occur in full
summer (months of December and January) and in a few cases in correspondence of the
winter warming events. The minimum of the sensible heat flux is observed at the end of June
- beginning of July.
Carefully analysing the high frequency data we realized that when the temperature drops
below 70 C the sonic anemometer does not work properly and the fluxes could not be
estimated.
15
10
H0 (Wm-2)
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan
Figure 10. Sensible heat flux behaviour at Concordia station at Dome C from January 2005 to January
2006.
5. ANALYSIS OF RADIATIVE BUDGET

The energy budget of a non-melting snow surface may be written as
Rnet H 0 H L G 0
(1)
where Rnet is the net radiation, H0 is the sensible heat flux, HL is the latent heat flux and G is
the conductive heat flux through the snowpack. We use the sign convention that fluxes of
212
energy directed towards the snow surface are positive. Rnet may be broken down into its
components
Rnet SW SW LW LW = SWnet+LWnet
(2)
where SW is the incoming short wave radiation, SW is the reflected short-wave radiation,
LW is the incoming long-wave radiation, LW is the outgoing long-wave radiation, SWnet
and LWnet are the net short wave and the net long wave respectively. Careful quality control
of these radiation data is essential due to the large absolute values generated by the
instruments, from which a relatively small difference is extracted.
The annual behaviour of the daily mean of the radiative budget components and the
Radiation at Top Of Atmosphere (RTOA) for 2005 are shown in Figure 11. As expected an
annual variation and a diurnal variability are present. The SW reaches the peak value during
the summer (480 Wm2 ) and decreases to 50 Wm2 at the beginning of the winter.
600
RTOA
-2
Radiation (W m )
500
400
SW
SW
LW
LW
300
200
100
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Local Time (day)
Figure 11. Time series of daily mean of RTOA (black line), SW (--), SW (dot), LW (--), LW
(circle) at Concordia station from January 2005 to January 2006.
100
SWnet
LWnet
Rnet
80
-2
Radiation (W m )
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Local Time (month)
Figure 12. Time series of daily mean SWnet (dotted line), LWnet (star) and Rnet (circle) at Concordia
station from January 2005 to January 2006.
The LW ranges between 200 Wm2 (in summer) and 80 Wm2 in winter. In winter during
cloudy days the LW increases of 20-30 Wm2. The seasonal variation of LW reflects the
cycle of the surface temperature with maximum values (~ 200 Wm2) in summer and
minimum values (~ 100 Wm2) in winter. During the summer the short-wave radiation
absorption helps in reducing the intensity of the surface inversion, instead, during the winter,
surface based inversion may also decrease during the warming events as the surface
temperature increases. Figure 12. shows time series of SWnet, LWnet, and Rnet. The LWnet is
the only component contributing to the net radiation during the winter. In summer LWnet and
SWnet have opposite sign, as a result Rnet (20 Wm2), although small, is positive. For each
season the diurnal cycle of the four components of the radiative budget is shown. The diurnal
cycles of SW is shown in Figure 13. The SW peaks around local noon. During the summer
the peak is about 800 W m-2. In spring and autumn the peak value reduces to 400 W m-2 while
in the full winter night the SW is zero.
The diurnal variation of incoming long-wave radiation at Dome C is shown in Figure 14
a-d. A clear diurnal cycle is apparent at Dome C in the outgoing solar radiation for all seasons
with the exception of the winter. This suggests that there is a diurnal cycle in temperature in
the lower part of the atmospheric column at Dome C as well as at the surface. In summer such
diurnal variability is consistent with our hypothesis of a diurnal CBL at Dome C. Outgoing
long-wave radiation is simply related to snow surface temperature, Ts, through Stefans law
LW Ts 4 (1 ) LW
(3)
where is the long-wave emissivity of the snow surface and is Stefans constant. Since
is approximately constant and has a value close to unity, the first term on the right hand side
of (5) dominates and variations in LW closely follow those in Ts. The diurnal variation of
LW during the summer reflects the larger diurnal range in near-surface air temperature at
Dome C. In the other seasons such variation it is not observed. Figure 15. a-d illustrate the
diurnal variation of Rnet obtained by eq. 2 at Dome C. During the night time, Rnet at Dome
C is typically -50 W m-2.
214
1200
15/11 - 01/02 ( SUMMER )
(a)
Shortwave Radiation Down (Wm-2)
800
400
0
600
01/02 - 01/04 ( AUTUMN )
(b)
400
200
0
600
01/04 - 15/09 ( WINTER )
(c)
400
200
0
600
15/09 - 15/11 ( SPRING )
400
(d)
200
0
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Time (Hour)
Figure 13. Shortwave daily radiation down for (a) summer, (b) autumn, (c) winter and (d) spring at
300
LW
(a)
LW
15/11 - 01/02 ( SUMMER )
200
100
Longwave Radiation (Wm-2)
0
300
01/02 - 01/04 ( AUTUMN )
(b)
200
100
0
300
01/04 - 15/09 ( WINTER )
(c)
200
100
0
300
15/09 - 15/11 ( SPRING )
(d)
200
100
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Time (Hour)
Figure 14. Longwave radiation up and down for (a) summer, (b) autumn, (c) winter and (d) spring at
100
15/11 - 01/02 ( SUMMER )
50
(a)
0
-50
-100
Net Radiation (Wm-2)
100
01/02 - 01/04 ( AUTUMN )
50
(b)
0
-50
-100
100
01/04 - 15/09 ( WINTER )
50
(c)
0
-50
-100
100
15/09 - 15/11 ( SPRING )
50
(d)
0
-50
-100
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Time (Hour)
Figure 15. Diurnal cycle of net radiation for a) summer, b) autumn, c) summer, d) spring at Concordia
station from January 2005 to January 2006.
A regular diurnal cycle is observed for all the seasons with the exception of the winter
when there is not solar radiation. The peak of Rnet is about 80 W m-2 and 50 W m-2 during
the spring and autumn respectively.
6. BOUNDARY LAYER STRUCTURE DURING THE YEAR

The thermal structure of the atmosphere may be clearly shown by the mini-SODAR
facsimile. The mini-SODAR facsimile represents the intensity of the acoustic backscattered
echo within the mini-SODAR range. Being the main tracers the thermal fluctuations, it gives
a picture of the thermal structure of the atmosphere. Figure 16.a. shows the 24-hour miniSODAR facsimile for 7 January, 2005. During the night the turbulent activity, if exists, is
confined in a very shallow layer (< 50 m) that is below the first mini-SODAR range gate.
From about 0700 LT the surface-based turbulent layer deepened and mini-SODAR returns
characteristic of a growing CBL started to appear. These are a strong echo associated with the
rising capping inversion at the top of the CBL with a spiky echo structure associated with
convective plumes below, indicative of strong mixing within the CBL. The capping inversion
reached a maximum height of around 200 m by 1300 LT. Around 1500 LT the echoes
associated with mixing within the CBL started to fade and by 1800 LT the capping inversion
had disappeared, leaving only the shallow nocturnal layer. The rate at which a CBL grows is
controlled to a large extent by the sensible heat flux from the underlying surface and the
subsidence velocity at the top of the capping inversion. The mini-SODAR record in Figure
16.a is the typical thermal structure observed at Dome C over the entire summer. However as
shown by Argentini et al. (2005), the depth of the CBL strongly depends on the amount of
216
solar radiation reaching the surface, consequently its depth varies from November to end of
February depending on the solar elevation angle. Figure 16.b shows the 1-hour averaged
temperature profile for the same day of Figure 16.a at 1400 LT. A weak convective activity is
observed close to the ground with a strong temperature inversion above this confirming the
mini-SODAR observations. By contrast, mini-SODAR records during the winter show no
echoes during the all day. The only exception is given by the days in which the arrival of
perturbations produce a thermal fluctuation that is strong enough to be revealed by the miniSODAR. Figure 17.a gives as an example of the thermal structure for 21 July, 2005, no
echoes are present during the entire day. Again if some echoes exists they are confined below
the first mini-SODAR range gate. Some field experiments carried out by astronomers
interested in site testing to the estimate the atmospheric optical seeing at Dome (Agabi et
al., 2006, Aristidi et al., 2005) have shown a poor ground seeing mainly due to a strong
turbulent boundary layer confined in the first 20 m 30 m close to the ground. In the future
we then plan to set the mini-SODAR in a configuration which will allow to study the
structure and depth of this shallow layer close to the ground.
600
b)
500
Height (m)
400
300
200
100
0
-25
-24.5
-24
-23.5
-23
Temperature (C)
-22.5
-22
Figure 16. (a) Thermal structure of the atmosphere during summer as seen by mini-SODAR for day 7
January 2005, (b) temperature profile by MTP-5P for the same day at 1400 LT.
600
b)
500
Height (m)
400
300
200
100
0
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
Temperature (C)
-45
-40
Figure 17. (a) Thermal structure of the atmosphere during winter as seen by a mini-SODAR for day 21
July 2005, (b) temperature profile by MTP-5P for the same day at 1400 LT.
Figure 17.b. shows the 1-hour averaged temperature profile for the same day of Figure
8.a at 1400 LT. A strong ground-based inversion of the order of 0.125 C/m is observed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the Piano Nazionale Ricerche in Antartide (PNRA) in the
frame of French-Italian Dome C project. The authors would like to thank the logistics staff
at Concordia for their support during the experimental fieldwork and all people which
contributed to the field experiments. A special thank to Ing. Guillaume Dargaud
overwintering at Concordia station during 2005, and to Sig. A. Conidi which participated to
the summer field operations during STABLEDC.
The authors also wish to thanks Dr. G. Mastrantonio, Dr. A. Viola, and Dr. Igor Petenko
which contributed to some of the results showed in these papers, for useful comments, and all
the work which has been done in the realization of STABLEDC.
218
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energy balance on the high Antarctic Plateau. Antarctic Sci., 17, 121-133 (2005b).
Van de Wal and Oerlemans: Modelling the short-term response of the Greenland ice-sheet to
global warming. Clim. Dyn., 13(10), 733-744 (1997).
Weller, G.: Spatial and temporal variations in the South Polar surface Energy Balance.
Monthly Weather Rev., 108, 2006-2014 (1980).
Wendler, G., N. Ishikawa, Y. Kodama: The heat balance of the icy slope of Adelie Land,
Eastern Antarctica. J. Appl. Meteorol., 27, 52-65 (1988).
Wiscombe, W. and S. Warren: A model for the Spectral albedo of Snow. I: Pure snow. J.
Atmosp. Sci., 37, 2712-2733 (1980).

Chapter 11
IMPACT OF INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY

IN CHANGING GLOBAL WARMING?
Nitosh Kumar Brahma*
ABSTRACT
Global Warming may be influenced by an individual contribution by burning of
fossil fuel (energy), and the total carbon content of fossil fuel. The energy used globally
may be determined by the measure of direct use of energy applicable to an individual.
It must be counted in the form of total carbon dioxide (CO2) emission, influencing
the increasing global warming and the ice melting. 75 % of the total global energy has
been used by the developed nations, compared to developing nations.
However the density of fine carbon particulates, floating at stratospheric layers,
perhaps to be differentiated between developed and developing nations. Carbon(C)
particles at stratospheric layers would perhaps be higher, in developing nation due to
direct burn of coal.
Thermodynamically this may be written in the form of entropy (S = Q/ T; or G =
H TS; or T S = H-G; S = H- G/ T or Q / T), moving towards the
maximum orderly situation, i.e. S < O at frequent up and down chaos (small disorders),
i.e. small delta S.> O; the fluctuation of environments. 0.1 degree of Celsius/ year could
be a disaster for sustainability of earth and cannot be estimated at long perspective of
earth cooling. The recycling of CO2 is however be considered for ultimate solution to
control the increasing Global Warming, where third world countries would be seriously
affected, due to vast uses of coal and agrocellulosic residues (ACR) as fuel and for
generating nano- and pico- C- particles.
Keywords: Global warming, Ice-melt, Carbon dioxide, Greenhouse gases (GHGs).
E-mail:nkbrahma@yahoo.com Faculty, Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,

Kharagpur-721302, W.Bengal, India
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Nitosh Kumar Brahma
INTRODUCTION
Global warming and ice melt is directly proportional to the rate of carbon burn of agrocellulose residues (ACR), coal and petroleum, partially differentiated in case of developing
countries and developed nations. Freon and fossil fuel consumptions, perhaps to be
considered more seriously, 1000 X time intensified, compared to the emission of CO2 caused
by burning of coal and ACR. Due to increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) emission, the physicochemical properties of stratosphere, amplifying the stratospheric reflections and solar (sun)
rays heat. This is equally being important in case of GHGs (CH4, CO, N2 and CO2) effects
in the history of mankind. The same phenomenon has happened on ancient earth, about 3.7
billions of years ago during Golden age of Reptiles, and caused the extinction of reptiles.
Ice changes to liquid water, if warmed above 4oC to its melting point and Vis- a Vis
changed to ice, if cooled to its freezing point. Earth's Polar Regions consists largely of ice and
exhibit dramatic change in temperature.
An increase of 0.1oC in temperature resulting from global warming may affect drastically
the extent of polar ice and the habitats of polar region. However this will not affect the change
of sea level, since the floating of ice follows the Archimedes principle, corresponding to the
displacement of water. The melt of continental ice (such as glaciers and ice sheets) raises sea
level. This happens because, ice on land when melts adds its water into the ocean which was
not there before. This extra water raises sea level.
For example, if the ice of Himalaya starts to melt it will affect the change of sea level of
bay of Bengal and Indian ocean and subsequently the same will affect the increase of water
level of Ganges and Bramhaputra belt and subsequenly may cause flood and the increase of
wastewaters, compared to potable drinking water. Although the melting of ice doesn't
significantly affect the sea level, if floats, there are other consequences which have to be
considered. Ice melt may cause the variations in salinity and temperature drive, global ocean
circulations, because the density of ocean water differs. Fresh water is less dense than salt
water and warm water is less dense than cold water. This thermohaline circulation may
sometimes refer the great ocean "conveyor belt" because it is one of earth's main mechanisms
for transporting energy (Edgerton, 2008).
The formation of sea ice, which is primarily made of pure water, leaves behind salt in the
water beneath the ice, resulting saltier and colder water that sinks through the water below it,
and thereby promoting the circulation. When ice melts, it adds fresh water to the ocean,
decreasing salinity and affecting the circulation pattern.
Any change to ocean circulation could have damaged the water cycle and weather
patterns. In addition, a change in the temperature or salinity of ocean water disrupts the
habitats and could have harmful effects on marine life forms that are sensitive to such
changes. The loss of sea ice in Polar Regions also threatens the survival of certain species,
such as the polar bear, which depend on the ice for hunting and breeding. Increasing
population will cause the increasing global warming due to higher CO2 emissions. Socioengineering (SE) application shows its significant application to control population and global
warming, in third world developing countries.
Application of Microbial engineering (ME) and microbes may play a significant role to
change the social impact in pollution abatement. So the reform of social economical
structure in third world in support of ME (microbial Engineering) may change the
Impact of Individual Responsibility in Changing Global Warming?
223
engineering concept of sociology, the exploitation of natural resources in an appropriate, ecofriendly and cost-effective applications.
Such application may reduce the global warming. One example would be the reform of
water resources, and their recycling, which is exponentially growing as basic demand, with
increasing population. Although ME and SE are existing in two different boundaries, have
shown their common interest in technological innovations to optimize the demand of food,
health and shelter, the entropy (S) and chaos (Brahma and Basu, 2008). As per the
"Darwins Laws of Evolution, mankind belongs to the highest group of "Animal Kingdom"
adapting to all kinds of environmental factors in the course of 50 billions of years in early
earth evolution.
The best example may be giving by The Golden Age of Reptiles" and their extinctions.
This is to be considered seriously with the present global warming, ozone depletion,
population and pollutions. Since food, shelter, health and biological essential demands are
predominating. In addition to competition for better life, with material gains and
consumptions the increasing population proportionally relates the increasing pollution.
In this case the SE - application the reduction of population perhaps would be the best
solutions to resolve the problem of present world crisis of global warming. SE and
technological innovations essentially affect independent to color, race, religion, and
population control. This will ultimately be imposed by Enforced appropriate technology
(EAT) for specific technical applications Zero Effluent Discharge (ZED), waste to energy
(WTE), Microbial Enhanced Technology (MET) perhaps would integrate SE along with ME.
The global population and pollution will ultimately cross the boundaries of Life and
engineering Interfacial Phenomena, where animate and inanimate reactions will predominate
and perhaps will show the guideline to explain how the hybrid technology and innovations
will be essential for clean environment. Clean water, air and soil will be essential to utilize
Time and Energy as Human Factor (Brahma, 2004; 2007).
Important Observable Facts

Global climate change is a major threat to biodiversity worldwide (Kondrat, 2004; Petry,
1995). One way it motivates the changing behavior of animals and is being documented by
films. Since May 24, 2006, millions of people have seen Al Gores films. Several countries
have proposed such AIT films to schools in classrooms as part of their academic curricula.
The purposes of the present set of studies have been evaluated to which AIT accomplishes its
apparent goals, convincing at the same time the methods for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. Two studies were conducted; one is with a sample of the concept of AL Goers
Global warming and its relation to ice melt.
Participants were randomly assigned to complete a survey either before or after watching
AIT. The survey was designed to measure attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral intentions related
to global warming. The results of both studies showed that watching An Inconvenient Truth
does increase the concern and motivation to reduce greenhouse gases.
However, the results of the second study suggest that the willingness to take action does
not necessarily be translated into action. Recommendations are made for how the movie
should be used to create behavioral change (Brahma, 2004; 2007; 2008).
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Nitosh Kumar Brahma
Some Mathematical Derivations

Earth is already showing many signs of worldwide climate change. To realize the fact, it
would be interesting to design the concept of entropy, both an individual human aspects,
industry and environmental aspects. First it is essential to know the climate is changing, as
per the www.google.com. It is said, that;
(a) Average temperatures have climbed 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degree Celsius)
around the world since 1880, much of this in recent decades, according to NASA's
Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
(b) The rate of warming is increasing. The 20th century's last two decades were the
hottest in 400 years and possibly the warmest for several millennia, according to a
number of climate studies. The United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) reports that 11 of the past 12 years are among the dozen warmest
since 1850.
(c) The Arctic is feeling the effects of the most average temperatures in Alaska, western
Canada, and eastern Russia and has risen at twice the global average. According to
the multinational Arctic Climate Impact Assessment report, it is said that between
2000 and 2004, there were some reduction of temperature profile and thereafter the
climate observed the temperature rise.
(d) Arctic ice is rapidly disappearing, and the region may have its first completely icefree summer by 2040 or earlier. Polar bears and indigenous cultures are already
suffering from the sea-ice loss.
(e) Glaciers and mountain snows are rapidly melting. For example, Montana's Glacier
National Park now has only 27 glaciers, versus 150 in 1910. In the Northern
Hemisphere, this has shown its impact a week earlier the incoming of spring and
freezes the environment.
(f) Coral reefs, which are highly sensitive to small changes in water temperature,
suffered the worst bleaching since 1988. Seventy percent bleach rate is increased in
last decades. Experts expect these sorts of events to increase in frequency and
intensity in the next 50 years as sea temperatures rise.
(g) An upsurge in the amount of extreme weather events, such as wild fire, heat wave
and strong tropical storms, is also attributed in part to climate change by some
experts. The report, based on the work of some 2,500 scientists in more than 130
countries, concluded that humans have caused all or most of the current planetary
warming. Human-caused global warming is often called anthropogenic climate
change.
(h) Industrialization, deforestation, and pollution have greatly increased atmospheric
concentrations of water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, all
greenhouse gases that help trap heat near earth's surface.
(i) Humans are pouring carbon dioxide into the atmosphere much faster than plants and
ocean absorb it. These gases persist in the atmosphere for years, meaning that even if
such emissions were eliminated today, it would not immediately stop global
warming.
(j) Some experts have pointed out, that natural cycles in Earth's orbit can alter the
planet's exposure to sunlight, which may explain the current trend. Earth has indeed
225
experienced warming and cooling cycles, roughly every hundred thousand years due
to these orbital shifts, but such changes have occurred over the span of several
centuries. Today's changes have taken place over the past hundred years or less.
(k) Other recent research has suggested that the effects of variations in the sun's output
are "negligible" as a factor in warming, but other, more complicated solar
mechanisms could possibly play a role.
How the Above Points Would Be Realistic and How

This May Be Controlled?
A follow-up report by the IPCC, release in April- 2007 warned that global warming could
lead to large-scale food and water shortages and have catastrophic effects on wildlife. The
following points are relevant;
(a) Sea level could rise between 7 and 23 inches (18 to 59 centimeters) by century's end.
The IPCC's (United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) February
2007 reports that the rises of just 4 inches (10 centimeters) could cause flood to many
South Sea Islands and swamp up large parts of Southeast Asia.
(b) Some hundred million people live within 3 feet (1 meter) of mean sea level, and
much of the world's population is concentrated in vulnerable coastal cities. In the
U.S., Louisiana and Florida are especially at risk.
(c) Glaciers around the world could melt, causing sea levels to rise while creating water
shortages in regions dependent on runoff for fresh water.
(d) Strong hurricanes, droughts, heat waves, wildfires, and other natural disasters may
become commonplace in many parts of the world. The growth of deserts may also
cause food shortages in many places.
(e) More than a million species face extinction from disappearing habitat, changing
ecosystems, and acidifying of oceans.
(f) The ocean's circulation system, known as the ocean conveyor belt, could be
permanently altered, causing a mini-ice age in Western Europe and other rapid
climate changes.
(g) At some point in the future, warming could become uncontrollable by creating a socalled positive feedback effect. Rising temperatures could release additional
greenhouse gases by unlocking methane in permafrost and undersea deposits, freeing
carbon trapped in sea ice, and causing increased evaporation of water (Walter et al.,
2006).
ALTERNATIVE CONCEPT
Global warming is caused by green house gases (GHGs), which traps the suns infrared
rays in the earths atmosphere, which in turn heat up the earths atmosphere. This green house
effect warming is called as Global warming. The effects of green house are visible more
prominently in the recent years, with number of natural calamities on the rise in the whole
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Nitosh Kumar Brahma
world. The global warming has happened in the past few years and is evident from the rise in
mean temperature of the earths atmosphere. The main causes for the global warming are
attributed to release of green house gases by human activities. The main gases contributing to
green house effect are carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane and nitrous oxide. The largest
producers of these gases are the thermal power plants, which burn the fossil fuels and produce
these gases in large quantities. The second biggest sources of these green house gases are the
road vehicles and industries (Archer, 2006; Brahma and Basu, 2008). The global warming has
led to an increase in mean earth surface temperature and thus melting of polar ice. There are
frequent melt down of glaciers that result in floods and other natural calamities. The melting
of polar ice had lead to increase the mean sea level. And further increase in temperature may
further melt the ice and lead to further increase in mean sea level, which will engulf low lands
of the continents. The effect of global warming is very important for animal kingdom. Some
animals have become extinct due to loss of their natural habitat or their inability to evolve to
the rapid changes in the climate. Also there is a change in their life style because of the
changes in the seasons. The migrating birds have changed their time of travel and also their
place of migration. The effect of global warming can be seen on seasons too. There is shift in
season cycle, as the summers are getting longer than the winters. This has affected the
animals and made them to change their lifestyle accordingly, and those who failed to do so
are perished or on the verge of extinction. The global warming is also responsible for the
introduction of some new diseases. The bacteria are more effective and multiply much faster
in warmer temperatures compared to cold temperatures. The same concept has been
introduced by the author in the form microbial engineering (ME), affecting the environment
and health. The increase in temperature has led to increase in the microbes that cause
diseases; subsequently the survival attitudes of microbes from ambient temperature to
mesophilic and to finally to thermophilic are increasing causing thereby pollution. Global
warming is also affecting the crop production. The sudden change in temperatures or sudden
set of rains destroys the crops productions. Also the flash floods and other natural calamities
affect the crop. As a matter of fact, global warming changes the earths atmosphere and is
getting more unpredictable rainfalls in areas, where the scanty of rainfall or drought were
predominated. The annual rainfall pattern may also be affected by Global Warming.
BASELESS COUNTER ARGUMENTS

But there are some people, who believe that the global warming is a natural process and
cannot disturb our ecosystem. The earths mean surface temperature was even higher in a
long time ecosystem. But the changes that are happening now are faster compared to earlier
times. In this case the author will discuss the concept of entropy in form of S and S, small
delta versus big delta. The skeptical view of global warming is that, that global warming is
not an ecological trouble. It is trouble of population explosions. Some of the facts have been
highlighted:
(a) The Green house gases are the main culprits of the global warming. The green house
gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are playing hazards in the
227
present times. GHGs are the ingredients of the atmosphere that add to the
greenhouse effect.
(b) 0.7-meter increase of sea level may act as a problem of environmental adaptations,
affecting directly to the ocean plankton, flora and fauna. Adaptation has an adverse
to biodiversity. CO2, Freon and Chlorofluorocarbons are all contributing the
disbalance of ecosystems effects and global warming. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA); analyze the reports of Global climate changes. Research Resources
Defense Council indicates, that in their action plan, the sea rise and climate change
may be caused due to rapid change of global warming and the change of
Stratospheric Ozone structures. The same study was included in Washington Water
Zone Management Program, where they have marked the potential threat areas of the
earth surface.
Figure 1 .
Figure 2. a.
Figure 2. b.
Figure 1. Figure 2. (a.b.) represents the sectors, which influence percentile the global warming, caused
by various types of fossil fuel burns and the increasing propagation of warming with increasing the
years. Figure 2.b. shows the separate effect of Greenhouse Gases.
CONCLUSION AND ENTROPY RELATED FUNCTIONS

Entropy is defined by the measure of order. The concept of order may goes from macro-,
micro- to nano- and finally to pico level of molecules. Atmospheric layers covered by
Magnetosphere and Stratospheric layers basically cover the surface of earth at least 3-10
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Nitosh Kumar Brahma
kilometer. GHGs like CH4, NOx, CO and CO2 may increase the effect. Among them CO2
may be considered as major culprit and may cause stratospheric hole as shown in Figure 3.
Once the sufficient solar rays enters the earth atmosphere, automatically by the theory of
light it will try to reflect, and be amplified in the cover of CO2 emitted GHG and will reflect
back to the earth surface, causing Global Warming.
The same will continue to change the entropy. Greeneries and plantations are prone to
absorbed the sun ray, photosynthetically to make their food in the form of glucose and
ultimately to cellulose, liberating at the same O2. This O2 is converting to O3 (Ozone) on the
surface of ocean in presence of sunlight, that absorbs IR (Infrared) and thereby the reduction
of thermal wave.
However in case of GHG and CO2 this IR could perhaps be captured by CO2 to protect
the reactions of O3 and reduce the photosynthetic activities of planktons, flora and fauna.
Therefore it is essential, that greeneries and increase of plantation may capture CO2.
Moreover sea planktons, algae and microbes are involved to capture CO2 as part of their
biosynthetic process.
Since there are variations of population on the surface of earth, CO2 emission may also
vary accordingly i.e., CO2 emits form carbon (in fossil fuel) burning, might be different
compared to CO2 emits by the burns of coal and ACR residues as fine particulates (Fick,
2004).
This is a type of formulation to describe the increasing of entropy due to stratospheric
hole and amplifications of sun-light as source of thermal energy, characterized by S = Q/
T. So the capturing of solar energy could be variable on the surface of the earth and may be
influenced by CO2 emission. Alternative concept could be the increasing population and
survivals demand.
More population means more pollution, which automatically generate CO2 emission.
Compared to developed nations, developing nations are consuming less energy, i.e., less
consumptions and burns of fossil fuel.
However they commit more CO2 emission, since they burn coal and ACR as direct
source of their survivals and energy resources, generating at the same time, nano- and pico
particles of CO2. From the part of population dense, it is also true that third world countries
will suffer from various types of environmental hazards and global warming, compared to
that of developed nations (Hasselmann, 1997).
Developed nations are basically controlled by low dense population, free of pollution and
cold atmosphere. So statistically even if they consume more energy, by burning fossil fuel,
they are in position to emit less CO2 compared to developing thick populated nations. It might
be true that to control cold, the developed nation burns coal in thermal power stations and use
strategic measure to heat their automobiles, if compared to third world nations, where Freons
are used for cooling, emits CO2 , 10,00 times more than fossil fuel burn. This relies the change
of entropy (Levi et.al., 1992).
Entropy will influence the change of biological system, chaos in biodiversity and
automatically the danger for the extinction of living system. Markovn relation; spatial
propagation of Markov truncated electrostatic interactions, existing between one amino acid
and the others at the protein 3D backbone, show, that there are the change of molecular
interaction Figure 4.
229
Figure 3. The progress of amplification has been demonstrated.
Figure 4. The molecular interaction of one amino acid at Z direction increases according to the order.
In doing so, the elements of (x, y, z, q) may be considered as the probabilities (pij) with
which the amino acid I presents a truncated electrostatic interaction of energy E ij , with
the amino acid j placed at a distance d ij.
(1)
The truncated electrostatic interactions are those, which occur between amino acids at a
cut-off distance (din) shorter than the half of the sum of their van der Waals radius. Here, a
shifting function (ij) was used to indicate the presence (ij = 1) or absence (ij = 0) of the
truncated electrostatic interaction between aminoacids I and j occurs by the above
interactions (Fick, 2004; Molina and Uriarte, 2004; Nordhaus and Shellenberger, 2007;
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Nitosh Kumar Brahma
Philander, 2009). The theory of Doom guard Factotum states that Entropy leads everything
in the multiversity to its ultimate doom. And Entropy always wins. It can be delayed, but
never defeated. Energy consumption will not decrease, so humanity needs to find a way to
control its needs for energy, so Global Warming can be controlled if the energy
consumptions are reduced. The humanity also needs to find more efficient ways to generate
energy. These two things would help a lot towards controlling this problem, but anyway, the
increase of heat will continue. (Hasselmann, 1997) cited further that as I believe in the laws of
thermodynamics, and I don't believe in a perpetual energy source 100% efficient, the only
way to solve this problem would be to produce energy using sources outside the Earth. The
most straightforward answer for this comment is the use of Solar Energy. That is the only
actual way of reducing Global Warming on Earth currently approached. The Sun is like a
battery, there is no known way of pulling more energy than it generates, but it produces
energy enough to sustain life on Earth for billions of years yet. Using the Sun energy we
can lower the Entropy (S) of the Earth, and in this way we can reduce the problem of
increasing Global Warming of the planet. Eventually the Sun's Entropy will reach the
values so high that it will become a red giant, almost enveloping the Earth orbit, and
destroying this beautiful planet, and all traces of civilization here(Hasselmann, 1997;
Willium, 2008; Nordhaus and Shellenberger, 2007; Ptry, 1995). In the present chapter author
has described the said concept in the form of big and small delta ( and ). In India there are
sufficient program have been initiated by Prime Minister Council of Climate Change, wherein
the NAVARATNA companies are earmarked. Two percent of their profit to be invested in
the control program of Global warming as part of CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility).
Global warming can also be captured, recently by catalytic membrane process, by increasing
the culture of algae, either in algal ponds, or in photo bioreactor, various biodiesel programme
can be initiated. We can surely create a lot of power plants in our planet, which can generate
enough energy to sustain the earths life, interplanetary energy transfer methods, yet
unknown, to bring this energy from one place of earth to other, through microwave
propagation. Big Bang could also be used as a clean energy source in plasma fusion. There
are many possibilities, but currently the only feasible one, is to rely on biodiesel, and the use
of solar radiation as a source of energy. Photovolticells, Fuel cells and solar cookers are
falling in these categories. While most of the energy generated on earth comes from earthly
sources, there will still be heat being generated and the Entropy will still be increased. This
is an Entropy factor to describe Global Warming. It can be delayed but never defeated. So,
lets embrace Global Warming, because we cannot run away from it, yet. Solar power is
somewhat a reality, that human being use it to sustain humanity and mankind on the earth.
There is a long and winding road ahead of us before humanity can use the Sun as its most
important source of energy again. Decay, Death and Destruction will be always in our
doorsteps, one way or another, so being used to it. So it might be concluded, that to prevent
flood, to prevent ice melt and to prevent Global warming mankind can really develop,
several possibility and among them the use of solar and wind energy and the reductions of
population, recycling and NCER (Nonconventional Energy Resources) would be essential
and as an utmost factor (Philander, 2009).
231
REFERENCES
Archer, D.: Global warming Understanding the Forecast, Blackwell. 256 (2006).
Brahma, N.K.: Sustainable design in Chemical and Bioprocess Industries, Recoveries and
recycling for Ecofriendly applications. NIT. Rourkela, September 27-29 (2004).
Brahma, N.K.: Zero-effluent Discharge and Global warming: the role of MBST, UV and
Microbial Engineering, OISOZED All India Seminar on Zero Effluent Discharge. IEI22-23 December (2007).
Brahma, N.K. and S. Basu: Sequestration and Conversion of CO2: The way to recover Global
Warming, Chemical Business. Nov.ISSN:0970-3136-.Issue: 22(11), 24 (2008).
Edgerton, L.T.: The rising tide global warming and world sea levels. Island Press. Publisher
Place, Washington, DC (USA) (2008).
Fick, S.: Global warming impact is already evident in Canada. In the Northwest Territories,
warmer-than-usual, Reader's Digest Association (Canada), Canadian Geographic
Enterprises, Science, p 40-43 (2004).
Hasselmann, K.: Are we seeing global warming? Science, 276, 914-915 (1997).
Levi, B. G., D.W. Hafemeister. and R.A. Scribner: Global warming: physics and facts:
Washington, D.C., published by American Institute of Physics, Science, 311 (1992).
Molina, R. and E. Uriarte: Markov entropy backbone electrostatic descriptors for predicting
proteins biological activity. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry., 14, 4691-4695 (2004).
Nordhaus, T. and M. Shellenberger: Break through: from the death of environmentalism to
the politics of possibility -Political Science, 142 (2007).
Ptry, F.: Sustainability issues in agricultural and rural development policies, Vol.2. Policy
Analysis Division, FAO, 1.45-1.50. (1995).
Philander, S. G.: Encyclopedia of Global Warming and Climate Change. Nature, page 59
(2009).
Willium, M. J.: Entropy shows that Global warming should cause increase viability in the
weather, Global warming, American Physical Society, Vol.17: (2008).
Walter, K.M., S.A. Zimov, J.P. Chanton, D. Verbyla and F.S. Chapin: "Methane bubbling
from Siberian thaw lakes as a positive feedback to climate warming". Nature., 443(7107),
71-75 (2006).

Chapter 12
NAVIGATION WITH GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

IN ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
Rajesh Tiwari 1 *, Smita Tiwari 1, P. K. Purohit 2 and A. K. Gwal 3
ABSTRACT
The solar energetic charged particles from the Sun carry a tremendous amount of
energy in the form of solar wind which hits the earth magnetic field. However, the
magnetic field of the earth protects earths atmosphere from this incoming charged
particles of sun. In spite of it, some of the charged particles (called plasma) enter the
magnetosphere on the day side of the earth eventually drifted and elongates the magneto
tail. The elongated magneto tail reconnects across the neutral sheet, thus those charged
follows the magnetic lines of earth and drifted to high latitude of earth. This return flow
of plasma is associated with the sudden onset of auroral storm in the ionosphere at E
layers. The auroras are visualized as green, yellow or purple curtains. The oval curtains
cover the higher latitude and are known as auroral ovals. Generally, the location of the
auroral oval is between 60 and 70 N or S. The radio waves propagating through auroral
oval get degraded in terms of signal strength. This research studies the effect of auroral
storms on GPS-based navigation. The experiment was conducted with GISTM (GPS
Ionospheric Scintillation and TEC Monitoring) based NovAtel 4004A GPS receiver
installed on board of M. V. Emerald, a Russian cargo ship during its journey from Indian
Bay (69.60 S, 12.43 E) to Larsemann Hills (69.06 S, 76.03 E). Position error was
computed and correlated with auroral activities during eight nights of the journey within
the Antarctic Circle. During the eight nights, it was found that mean energy flux of aurora
above 7 keV of energy degraded the SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) of GPS signal. This
degraded signal produced a few meters of error in GPS-based navigation.
E-mail: rajesh.tiwari@ncl.ac.uk, Phone No: +441912227272

Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
2
National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research, Shamla Hills,
Bhopal, India
3
Department of Physics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
1
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Rajesh Tiwari, Smita Tiwari, P. K. Purohit et al.
INTRODUCTION
The Global Positioning Systems (GPS) developed by US for air-land- and marinenavigation, which primarily available for US DoD (Department of Defence) and latter on it is
made available for civilian users. Nowadays most of the navigation services uses GPS tool for
movement. However, the most important element of GNSS services is safety measure which
does get affected when GPS signal passes through the ionospheric irregularities. The
ionospheric irregularities lower group velocity, or speeds up the phase velocity of the
transionospheric GPS signals. The delay or acceleration of the signal produces a range error,
eventually affecting the position solution obtained from the GPS receiver. The aurora storm is
common phenomena at high latitude which creates ionospheric irregularities and eventually
degradation in GPS performance.
AURORA
The sun continuously emits charged particles in the form of solar radiation known as
solar wind whose speed ranges from a few hundred to one thousand km/sec. In addition to
solar wind thrust, the earth is exposed to the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) of ~5-10 nT,
most of which lies in a heliospheric equatorial plane. The earths magnetic field protects the
earth from the solar wind carrying ~40 TW of solar energy flux at ~50 Re (Re is radius of the
earth) from the center of the earth. However, a fraction of the solar wind energy (~0.4 TW)
enters the magnetosphere, known as leak in (Gordon, 1998) moreover, the amount of leak in
energy depends upon the direction of IMF, if IMF is parallel to the earths magnetic field,
then a very small fraction of solar wind energy manages to get into the magnetosphere while
in the case anti parallel IMF, the maximum amount of solar wind energy flows enters the
magnetosphere. Figure 1. depicts the anti parallel IMF with earths magnetic field and Figure
1. (A) illustrate the flow of energy as indicated by solid arrow which elongates the magnetic
field lines of the earth, termed magnetotail. The field lines reconnect at the magnetotail and
trap the energy. The trapped energy in the earths magnetic field is accelerated along the
magnetic field toward the higher-latitude illustrated in Figure 1.(B) and then strikes the
atmosphere to form the aurora. The aurora is visible at night in the form of dancing of green,
yellow, or purple lights. The shape of aurora is oval (or annulus) and therefore, it is referred
to as the auroral oval. This oval, or annulus, is centered over the magnetic pole during quiet
times. The annulus grows when the magnetosphere is disturbed. The location of the auroral
oval is generally between 60 and 70 N or S. The auroral arc extends equatorward and
maximum at 67 of geomagnetic latitude at midnight illustrated in Figure 2. (A), while at
noon it extends towards pole up to 77 latitude (Feldstein, 1963).
Navigation with Global Positioning System in Antarctic Circle
235
Figure 1. A represents open magnetic lines. B represents the closed magnetic lines.
Figure 2. A. Represents the equatorward extension of aurora in midnight. B. Energy precipitation (E0)
due to aurora, recorded in South Pole at 16:00 UT from TIMED satellite.
Figure 2.(B) depicts an example of auroral precipitate energy at high latitude due to
auroral storm. The auroral precipitate energy at South Pole obtained from TIMED satellite at
16:00 UT time seems to be maximum (between 7 keV to 10 keV) at midnight. The large
precipitate of auroral energy affects the electron density of the ionosphere. A strong
enhancement in TEC (Total Electron Content) was recorded on March 31, 2001 due to strong
auroral precipitate energy (Foster and Vo, 2002). The enhanced TEC adds extra phase
modulation to the satellite signal during propagation through auroral oval. The extra phase
modulation to signal generates a random fluctuation of phase in the original signal. The
random fluctuation of phase or amplitude of the signal, termed as scintillation (Hey et al.,
1946) is very common in the higher latitude due to auroral storms. The phase scintillation of
GPS signal was correlated with auroral activity in the arctic (Smith et al., 2008). The strong
scintillation not only degrades the signal but may lose lock of the satellite. This problem is
severe during the solar maximum cycle (Skone and Canon, 1999) observed RMSE (Root
Mean Square Error) of positional error from 60 to 80 cm during solar maximum period. The
236
next solar maximum cycle is expected around 2013, therefore, scientists and engineers have
been alerted to model its effects.
This research will find the threshold value of the auroral precipitate energy which may
affect the GPS-based navigation at high latitude. The experiment was conducted on a Russian
cargo ship, the M. V. Emerald from Indian Bay (69.60 S, 12.43 E) to Larsemann Hill
(69.06 S, 76.03 E). The ships route was selected within the Antarctic Circle so as to observe
auroral oval.
MEASUREMENT OF AURORA
Ground-Based Measurement
When the highly energized solar particle hits the magnetosphere, the geomagnetic field of
Earth is disturbed. The aurora is produced by the disturbed magnetic field line of the earth, so
in order to take advantage of this effect, magnetometer stations were installed across the
world at high and mid latitudes. The average value of variation of Horizontal component (H)
of earth magnetic field obtained from installed magnetometer gives an idea about the
occurrence of aurora. The commonly used magnetic index to represent magnetic storm is Kp,
and it is global index obtained every three hours. When Kp > 5, it is considered to severe case
of geomagnetic storm; Kp < 4 is a geomagnetic quiet condition; and Kp = 4 is moderate case.
The distribution aurora is not based on luminosity but on the measurement particle energy
(Hardy et al., 1985). Handy studied the zones of electrons and ion flux in terms of Magnetic
Local Time (MLT) at all level of geomagnetic activity quantified by Kp. Chubb and Hicks in
1970 used Kp to study the level and mechanism of aurora; according to them, the equator
boundary of the oval expands about 1.7 equatorward per unit of Kp on the day side of the
earth and 1.3 on the night-side while it moves by 1-3 of latitude during Substorm time
(Chubb and Hicks, 1970).
Satellite-Based Measurement
Satellites with image capturing equipment (ultraviolet image sensing) are sent into the
polar orbit to capture the snapshot of the atmosphere during their passes. Several
projects of NASAs is based on studying auroral activity; the TIMED (Thermosphere,
Ionosphere, Mesosphere, Energetic, and Dynamic) mission is one of them. TIMED is aGlobal
Ultraviolet Imager (GUVI) that provides cross-track scanned images of the Earths ultraviolet
airglow and auroral emission in the Far Ultraviolet (FUV) at wavelengths 115.0 to
180.0 nm, scanning imaging spectrograph that provides horizon-to-horizon images at
five wavelength intervals (TIMED webpage http://www.timed.jhuapl.edu, 2008). It provides
information of the ionosphere and thermosphere by monitoring all three regions: daytime
mid-latitude, night-time low- to mid-latitude ionosphere and the high-latitude auroral zone,
these regions are then characterized by energy and flux of the electrons (TIMED webpage
http://www.timed.jhuapl.edu, 2008).
237
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGY

The experiment was conducted on board of a Russian cargo ice class ship, the M. V.
Emerald Sea, from Indian Bay (69.60 S, 12.43 E) on 27 February, 2007 to Larsemann Hills
(69.06 S, 76.03 E) on 06 March, 2007. A NovAtel -602 GPS antenna installed on the deck of
the ship as shown in Figure 3.(A) and is connected to GISTM based NovAtel 4004A GPS
receiver installed in the radio room of the ship. The NovAtel -602 GPS antenna is choke ring
designed used to minimize the multipath effect and the GPS receiver is operating on L1 C/A
code and L2 carrier signal has 12 channels which can lock 12 satellites at a time. The GPS
receiver has been logged with the following log command: GPGGA, GPGSV at 1 Hz rate,
which we consider as positional file in ASCII format while the raw ionospheric file is binary
file. The positional file provides position of the receiver in Real Time Kinematic (RTK)
mode, satellite geometry, number of locked satellite along with their elevation angle, azimuth
angle and their SNR (signal to noise ratio). The ionosphere file provides the TEC and
ionospheric scintillation over phase and amplitude in binary format. The ship path followed
during the experiment is shown in Figure 3.(B) and the figure represents that the ship
remained in Antarctic circle throughout the experiment in order to observe aurora. The IPP
(Ionospheric Pierce Point) at 300 km computed so as to identify the traces of GPS satellite in
auroral oval. The position solution and IPP computed from receiver are transformed in MLT
(Magnetic Local Time) frame of reference using coordinate transformation model (Alfven
and Falthammar, 1963). The energy precipitation from the aurora was generated from TIMED
satellites at the same time as the experiment; the direct polar plot of mean energy flux (E0) Vs
MLT is archived from the TIMED web page.
Figure 3. A. Experimental set on the ship and GPS signal are shown passing through aurora. B. The red
line indicate the ship path from Indian Bay (69.60 S, 12.43 E) to Larsemann Hill (69.06 S, 76.03 E).
REAL TIME KINEMATIC POSITIONING

The real kinematic position is the process of estimating the position of any object in
motion. Several parameters are used to estimate the position solution and error in any one
238
parameter can degrade the position solution. In this study the position of the ship is estimated
in real time using constant velocity and a constant acceleration model. In marine navigation,
the precise position solution is very important. The GPS provides a position solution that does
not degrade over time. However, the case may be different when there is an ionospheric
storm. In real time kinematics, it is difficult to obtain a high precision position solution,
because the stochastic properties of the system depend on factors, such as the ships dynamic
status and physical environment (e.g., rolling and pitching of ship on a rough sea), which are
not always fixed. Therefore, efficient Kalman filtering algorithms have become an attractive
research topic. In this study, the efficient Kalman modelling is not an issue because the
Kalman filter algorithm has been used to estimate the position solution in real time. In this
study, only the ionospheric condition related to aurora is correlated with the positional error
obtained from the GPS receiver.
The positional error of the ship in real time is computed in three steps. In the first step,
the positional solution is computed by the software of receiver; in the second step, the
position solution is estimated using constant velocity and constant acceleration model and
filtering out the noises using Kalman filter. (The algorithm of the second stage is described in
the next paragraph.) In the third stage, the position error is computed by taking the difference
of the estimated positional solution from model with Kalman filter and position solution
obtained from GPS in Cartesian coordinate frame.
A constant velocity and acceleration model is used here to measure the update of
positions, because it is assumed that the velocity of ship cannot be changed within a minute.
A 9-dimensional state vector contains three components of position (x, y, z), three
components of velocity (vx, vy, vz) and three components of acceleration (ax, ay, az). The
average of velocity and acceleration for a minute is taken as a constant velocity and
acceleration of the model for the next epoch, and each epoch is recorded at 1 sec. Figure 4.
explains the real kinematic state of the ship; consider the ship is at point P at time t1 after one
minute of initial stage the ship reached point Q. The velocity and acceleration obtained for 1
min are averaged to have one constant value which would be used to compute the position of
the ship in next epoch therefore our first computation is at 1min 1 sec. When the ship reached
to point R then the model will take the average value of velocity and acceleration obtained
between points Q and R. The probable noises are filtered out through the Kalman filter
model.
Kalman Filter
The filter estimates the process state at some time and then obtains feedback in the form
of (noisy) measurements. The mathematical process of Kalman filter falls into two groups:
Time Update equations and Measurement Update equations. The time update equations are
responsible for projecting forward solution by using the current state and error covariance
estimates to obtain a priori estimates for the next time. The second is the measurement update
equations, and it is responsible for the feedback (i.e. for incorporating a new measurement
into a priori estimate to obtain an improved a posteriori estimate). Figure 5. shows the
algorithm of the Kalman filter.
239
Figure 4. Real Time Position for Ship.
Figure 5. Kalman filter algorithm.
The state model can be written as:
X k x, v x , a x , y, v y , a y , z, v z , a z
T
k
(1)
Where x, y, z are position vector, v x , v y , v z are velocity vector, a x , a y , a z are acceleration

vector.
The updated state vector of ship is computed based on the previous sate of the ship as
mentioned in equations (2)-(4).
x k 1 x k tv x
t 2
ax
2
(2)
240
y k 1 y k tv y
t 2
ay
2
(3)
z k 1 z k tv z
t 2
az
2
(4)
With the help of transition matrix Fx the relation between previous and current states is
governed by
0
0
0
0
t 2
2
t 2
0
2
t 2
0
2
0
0
t 0
0 t
0 0
1 0
0 1
(5)
Where; t = time step between tk-1 and tk
Wk
q xT 3
3
0
q xT 2
q xT 2
2
q xT
q yT 3
q yT
2
0
q yT 2
2
q yT
q zT 3
3
q zT 2
2
q zT 2
2
q zT
(6)
Where qx, qy, qz are the process noise variance were assumed due to troposphere, multipath
and stream of the sea (rolling and pitching).
241
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mean energy spectrum of precipitating electron varies from eV to tens of keV, which
is responsible for ionization in the E and F region of ionosphere. The lower mean energy
ionizes the F layer; while, the E layer is ionized by the high level of mean energy (Kintner et
al., 2002). The TEC value obtained from GPS depends upon these two layers therefore it is
important to study the auroral effect on GPS to improve the accuracy of GPS based
navigation during auroral storms. These regions are more interesting because they are
accompanied by ionospheric irregularities that cause scintillations (Basu et al., 1985; 1993).
The result of the research has been classified into two groups: one group represents a case
study in which the ship was under the auroral oval region and the consequent effect on
position solution; the second group describes when the ship was not under the influence of
aurora. The horizontal error of both cases is taken into consideration so as to represent the
effect of aurora on position solution.
The position solution obtained here for both cases was taken for 24 hours to clarify the
understanding of the effect of aurora. The whole day analysis of position error leads to a
better understanding and produces consistency in our solution, because the auroral event lasts
for 20 30 minutes of interval but it may range up to several hours during highly disturbed
geomagnetic storms. The third group is statistical analysis of the result obtained during the
ship vogue from source to final destination.
GPS POSITIONAL SOLUTION IN ACTIVE AURORA

On 28th February 2007, TIMED spacecraft observed an aurora at three intervals when the
ship was in the night time zone (according to MLT). The recorded time of auroral oval region
by TIMED spacecraft is at 17:55, 19:32, and 21:09 UT (Figure 6) whose MLT times are
19:20, 20:37 and 22:28 respectively. The solid blue arrow with red boundary indicates the
position of the ship within auroral activity as shown in the upper panel of the Figure 6. The
IPP of locked PRNs are illustrated in the lower panel of Figure 6. The IPP illustrated in the
lower panel of the Figure 6 indicates the signal of the locked PRNs actually passed through
the auroral activity. Due to the presence of aurora activity, the number of satellite locked is 5
between 17:30 UT to 18:30 UT. Compared to the MLT and the IPP it was found that few of
the PRN passed through the auroral oval. The SNR of the locked satellite are illustrated in
Figure 7. and it indicates the most of the PRNs (4, 9, 12, 17, 20, and 28) signal passed
through the aurora has very low SNR value. Out of 10 locked PRN, 5 were found to have
SNR below 15dB, but the required SNR is 23 dB. (Senior and Honary, 2003) found that the
fading of low frequencies is due to D layer of the ionosphere. However, the signal degrades at
GPS L1 frequency due to diffraction of the signal from the precipitation of auroral energy
(Titheridge, 1971).
The fast moving auroral arcs are the evidence of particle precipitation that could cause
ionospheric irregularities that affect the GPS signals in terms of fading of the GPS signal
(Smith et al., 2008).
Previous studies of the production and decay of plasma density from auroral precipitation
in the F region calculate a production rate of 510 min and a decay rate of 1020 min (Sojka
242
and Schunk, 1986). The work in demonstrates the correlation of TEC derived from GPS with
TIROS precipitating energy flux over 0.320 keV (Coker et al., 1995). They mentioned that
short enhancement of TEC correlates with the precipitating electron flux. Aarons et al. (2000)
have used Polar UVI data to study the production of fluctuations in GPS signal produced by
TEC variations correlate well with increased TEC. Similar studies is seen in (Pi et al., 1997)
where author considered worldwide GPS network to investigate GPS TEC fluctuations and
present a case showing high-latitude TEC fluctuations in the evening and early morning
during a magnetic storm. The TEC fluctuation can be produced by precipitating electron flux.
The sum of this evidence is that TEC fluctuations occur in the same regions as active
auroral displays. The tracking performance of GPS receiver can be degraded by the
fluctuation of TEC and during periods of enhanced ionospheric activity in the high latitude
auroral region is very significant (Skone, 2001). Figure 6 represents the case when the GUVI
energy flux is approximately equal to 10 keV and when the GPS satellites are in the line of
sight and the degradation in position solution is greater.
The first panel of Figure 8 represents northing and easting error; the second and third
panels represent the total number satellites locked and HDOP, respectively. Results show that
when aurora activity is observed, a corresponding strong fluctuation in horizontal position is
recorded. The evidence of enhanced TEC degrades the SNR of the signal and the degraded
signal causes significant positional error. These variations are associated with smaller
intensifications in the auroral oval, which are often observed as precursors to the more intense
expansive phase velocity (Murphree et al., 1991).
Due to high auroral activity the number of satellite locked also decreases and reaches the
minimum number of 4 between 19:00 UT and 20:00 UT. With the decreases number of
satellites, the geometry is affected and increased HDOP is also a source of positional error
(Position Accuracy = HDOP x User Range Error).
The easting error in Figure 8. shows one-to-one correlation with the PRNs affected by the
auroral storm. Figure 8. also illustrates that the positional solution is smooth when there is no
auroral storm.
GPS POSITIONAL SOLUTION IN QUIET AURORA

Another event was selected when the auroral oval was not found in the line of sight of
locked GPS satellites. The auroral oval was traced by TIMED satellite at 11:37 UT and 13:16
UT, illustrated in the upper panel of Figure 9. The corresponding MLT has been representing
in polar plots with latitude circle. Based on the above mentioned time (UT), the position of
ship was computed to find its position according to MLT at 11:37 UT. At two time periods,
11:37 UT and 13:16 UT, the ship was found around 14:00 MLT position within 65 degree of
latitude circle.
243
Figure 6. The upper panel represents the auroral precipitate energy and the lower represents the IPP of
the GPS satellite passing through the aurora (computed in MLT reference).
SNR (dB)
PRN:1
PRN:4
PRN:12
60
60
60
60
50
50
50
50
50
40
40
40
40
40
30
30
30
30
30
20
16
18
20
20
22 16
18
20
22
20
16
PRN:17
PRN:14
SNR (dB)
PRN:11
PRN:9
60
18
20
20
16
22
PRN:20
18
20
22
20
60
60
60
60
60
50
50
50
50
50
40
40
40
40
40
30
30
30
30
30
20
20
22 16
20
22 16
18
20
18
20
18
20
UT (hours)
20
22 16
18
Figure 7. SNR plot of all locked satellites between 18:00 22:00 UT.
20
18
20
22
PRN:28
PRN:22
22
20
16
18
20
22
DOP
ary
of S2
244
No. of Satellite H. Error (Meter)

Position Error 28 Feburary 2007
20
10
East Error
North Error
-10
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00
08:00
10:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
00:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
00:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
00:00
10
B
5
0
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00
08:00
10:00
12:00
HDOP
HDOP
12:00
Number of Satellite
2
0
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00
08:00
10:00
12:00
UT(HH:MM)
Figure 8. A horizontal error in terms of Easting and Northing error B. Number of satellite locked on 28
Feb 2007, C. Horizontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP).
An estimation of position of ship is purely based on MLT confined within the auroral
plot, as indicated by the solid red arrow. The IPP of total number of visible satellite are
illustrated in the lower panel of Figure 9. During this event the maximum number of locked
satellites was 7. Figure 10. illustrates the effect of the SNR of the signal and the SNR value
obtained indicate no degradation of the signal in the absence of aurora.
The horizontal position errors are illustrated in the upper panel of Figure 11, the results
show negligible horizontal position errors in terms of easting and northing. The second panel
of the Figure 11. illustrates the number of locked satellites, and the third panel represents
HDOP to study the satellite geometry.
The results show that in the absence of auroral activity the position accuracy was fair and
good. Though position error was recorded high around 06:00 UT to 15:00 UT due to the low
number of satellites locked (4), the HDOP increased to 8.
As mentioned in the previous section, the big value of HDOP is also responsible for
positional error. Therefore, the positional error obtained is due to bad geometry.
245
Figure 9. The upper panel represents the auroral precipitate energy and the lower represents the IPP of
the GPS satellite not passing through the aurora (computed in MLT reference).
PRN:6
PRN:16
50
50
50
50
40
20
11
40
30
12
13
14
20
11
PRN:23
40
30
12
13
20
11
14
PRN:24
50
50
50
30
20
11
SNR
60
SNR
60
40
30
12
13
14
20
11
12
13
14
40
30
12
13
UT (Hours)
Figure 10. Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) of locked satellite.
14
20
11
40
30
PRN:25
60
40
SNR
60
SNR
60
30
SNR
PRN:13
60
SNR
SNR
PRN:2
60
12
13
14
20
11
12
13
14
246
Horizontal Error (Meter)

Position Error (Meter)
01 March 2007
20
East Error
North Error
----------Data Not Available------
-20
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00
08:00
10:00
12:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
00:00
Number of Satellite
No. of Satellite
12
-------Data NotAvailable--------4
0
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00
08:00
10:00
12:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
00:00
HDOP
8
HDOP
--------Data NotAvailable---------
4
2
0
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00
08:00
10:00
12:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
00:00
UT(HH:MM)
Figure 11. A Horizontal error in terms of Easting and Northing error B. Number of satellite locked on
01 April 2007, C. Horizontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP).
STATISTICAL STUDY OF POSITIONAL ERROR

To have a clear picture of positional error during auroral activity, we compute the
statistics of absolute position error for complete ship journey. We divide the data into groups,
according to auroral activity. In the first group, auroral activity is present and in the other,
auroral activity is absent. For this purpose we compute mean, standard deviation and
maximum value for the two groups (Table 1).
From the table we found that on the days when auroral activity was present, the
maximum horizontal and vertical error was more than 6 m and standard deviation was greater
than 1; this is very high. In the absence of aurora, the position error is less than 4 m and
standard deviation is less than 0.4. Due to the high auroral activity, the mean number of
satellite locked is 5; as a result, the maximum HDOP is 7, which increases the probability of
poor geometry.
On the other hand, due to the absence of auroral activity in the Antarctic region, the mean
number of satellites locked is greater than 9, which is sufficient for good geometry; therefore
the maximum value of HDOP is 3.
247
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

We established strong correlations between GPS performance and auroral phenomena in
the Antarctic region during the ships movement. The precipitating energy flux over 0.320
keV correlated well with GPS-derived TEC (Coker et al., 1995). The auroral E region is the
main source of TEC-induced phase fluctuations. The auroral activities are common at high
latitudes.
The performance of the GPS receiver degraded at high latitudes during auroral activities.
Therefore, the higher the auroral energy, the higher the dynamic auroral arcs. TEC
fluctuations produced by discrete auroral arcs will be more common and larger in the night
side auroral ionosphere (Basu et al., 1993). The L1 ranging errors of at least 2 m will be
introduced by auroral arcs into navigation systems for differential and augmentation (Kintner
et al., 2002).
In aurora region, degradation accuracy is of concern for communication and navigation.
This issue is a concern for reliable operation of safety-critical GPS systems, such as marine
DGPS (Differential Global Positioning System) services or SBAS (Satellite-Based
Augmentation Systems) for aviation applications. During ionospheric disturbances over high
latitude regions, users experience degraded position errors, and sometimes exceed tolerable
limits. Our study shows that the precipitating energy flux over 7 keV energy degraded the
position solution.
Table 1. Statistics of Position Error during Auroral Activity
Statistics
Observations
Horizontal Error (m)
Vertical Error (m)
HDOP
No. of Satellite
Auroral Activity Present

Mean
Std
Max
7.2
1. 5
8.9
7.5
1.4
6.4
5.4
1.7
7.0
4.9
1.1
11.0
Auroral Activity Absent

Mean
Std
Max
2.5
0.5
3.3
2.6
0.4
3.1
1.6
0.2
3.0
9.1
0.1
11.0
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support from NCAOR, Goa, Ministry of
Earth Science, Govt. of India, under the Space Weather Programme at Antarctica. The
authors also acknowledge the TIMED mission for providing aurora data.
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INDEX
A
abatement, 222
absorption spectroscopy, 120
access, 248
accessibility, 119
acclimatization, 131
acid, 62, 67, 97, 115, 229
active oxygen, 97, 99, 113
active site, 120
adaptability, 54
adaptation, 40, 68, 72, 74, 82, 95, 108, 139, 146,
163, 164, 169, 171
adaptations, viii, 68, 227
adenine, 119, 128
adjustment, 95, 111
advancement, viii
adverse conditions, 11, 100, 107
adverse effects, 115
adverse weather, 44
aerosols, 18, 196
Africa, 2, 3, 135, 136
age, 24, 28, 40, 41, 222, 225
agriculture, 7
Air Force, 195
air pollutants, 70
air temperature, 5, 22, 67, 69, 74, 75, 79, 141, 169,
202, 213
Alaska, 224
Alaskan North Slope, 82
alcohols, 99, 103
alfalfa, 126
algae, 11, 41, 44, 47, 49, 50, 53, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62,
63, 66, 68, 72, 74, 75, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 95,
98, 99, 104, 109, 129, 131, 133, 164, 228, 230
algorithm, 238, 239
alien species, 41
alpha-tocopherol, 95
alters, 16, 104, 126, 146
amino, 94, 99, 114, 228, 229

amino acid, 94, 99, 114, 228, 229
amino acids, 94, 99, 114, 229
ammonia, 66, 115, 141
amplitude, 85, 180, 208, 235, 237
anatomy, 96
ancestors, 57
antioxidant, 95, 97, 100, 104
antithesis, 126
appropriate technology, 223
aquatic habitats, 138
Arabidopsis thaliana, 104, 125
Argentina, 105, 127, 146, 147
arthropods, 50
Asia, 2
assessment, 34, 51, 52, 53, 58, 82, 84
assimilation, 66
atmosphere, 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20,
22, 24, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34, 43, 67, 70, 72, 75, 84,
86, 89, 91, 164, 173, 174, 178, 180, 183, 184,
186, 193, 194, 195, 196, 199, 200, 208, 209,
215, 216, 217, 218, 224, 225, 227, 228, 233,
234, 236
atmospheric pressure, 9, 43, 173, 184, 185, 187, 194
autecology, 124
authorities, xv
automobiles, 228
avoidance, 68, 111
B
bacteria, 47, 58, 68, 70, 83, 107, 118, 132, 226
bacterium, 58, 68, 70, 83
banks, 53, 54, 61, 143
barriers, 15
base, 14, 57, 97, 118, 119, 126, 203
base pair, 126
behavioral change, 223
behavioral intentions, 223
bending, 116
250
Index
benthic diatoms, 101

Big Bang, 230
biochemistry, 101, 123
biodiesel, 230
biodiversity, 47, 90, 109, 133, 223, 227, 228
biogeography, 150
biological activity, 231
biological samples, 44, 45, 63, 64
biological systems, 72
biomass, 32, 34, 39, 50, 59, 62, 66, 73, 81, 84, 112,
129, 145, 164
biosphere, 67
biosynthesis, 145
biosynthetic pathways, 115
biotic, 47, 48, 49, 63, 81
birds, 39, 40, 44, 48, 50, 53, 56, 57, 58, 70, 80, 81,
226
bleaching, 224
body fluid, 55, 79
bonding, 75, 79
branching, 112
Brazil, 135
breeding, 222
Britain, 90
bryophyte, 97, 98, 108, 112, 114, 125, 128, 133, 140,
145
burn, 133, 221, 222, 226, 228
buttons, 109
C
cabbage, 143
cadmium, 123
calcium, 66
campaigns, 201
carbohydrate, 96, 97
carbohydrates, 59, 101, 121, 142, 143, 145, 148, 170
carbon, 6, 9, 10, 15, 32, 34, 39, 63, 66, 67, 77, 81,
97, 105, 108, 126, 128, 143, 146, 147, 221, 222,
224, 225, 226, 228
carbon dioxide, 6, 9, 15, 34, 105, 126, 128, 146, 147,
221, 222, 224, 226
carbon monoxide, 6
carefulness, 9
carotene, 94, 95, 98
carotenoids, 72, 82, 98, 100, 102, 131
case study, 241
cation, 120
cellulose, 100, 103, 222, 228
chaos, 221, 223, 228
chemical, 5, 9, 10, 11, 63, 222
chemical characteristics, 11
chemical properties, 222
chemical reactions, 9
chemicals, 15, 55, 97

China, 86
chlorine, 7
chlorophyll, 51, 66, 73, 95, 98, 100, 101, 102, 112
chloroplast, 100
chromosome, 118
circulation, 14, 33, 34, 36, 85, 173, 178, 179, 194,
195, 219, 222, 225
cities, 225
civilization, 230
clarity, 22
classes, 59, 60, 61, 68, 116, 205
classification, 57
clean energy, 230
cleaning, 17
cleavage, 121
climate, vii, viii, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 36,
37, 39, 41, 42, 48, 56, 67, 74, 77, 79, 84, 86, 91,
96, 98, 108, 121, 123, 128, 139, 143, 157, 171,
172, 174, 195, 196, 199, 200, 201, 202, 218,
223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 231
climate change, 1, 5, 12, 18, 36, 121, 128, 139, 143,
174, 223, 224, 225, 227
climates, 75, 77
climatic factors, 8, 67, 68
CO2, 9, 31, 32, 85, 124, 128, 221, 222, 227, 228, 231
coal, 3, 221, 222, 228
coastal region, 7, 9, 10, 40, 84, 109
colonization, 40, 84, 105
combined effect, 110, 127, 181
commercial, 3, 4, 7
communication, 163, 247
communities, 40, 50, 51, 52, 53, 77, 80, 82, 86, 97,
98, 108, 111, 131, 143, 144, 145
community, viii, 12, 34, 59, 60, 61, 84, 104, 146
compatibility, 87
competition, 223
complexity, 48, 113
composition, 5, 63, 75, 79, 101, 104, 105, 110, 125,
127, 128, 143, 146, 147
compounds, 9, 18, 97, 99, 100, 101, 104, 113, 115,
116, 121, 122, 127, 140, 142, 143
computation, 238
condensation, 77, 208
conduction, 74, 75
conductivity, 63, 193
conductor, 14
conference, 90
configuration, 216
conservation, ix, 12, 57, 87
consolidation, 158
constant rate, 5
constituents, vii
251
Index
construction, 10
consumers, 11, 49, 50, 51, 54, 56, 59, 101
consumption, 68, 85, 230
consumption rates, 68, 85
contamination, 32
Continental, 32, 108, 109, 133, 142, 144, 196
contour, 209
convention, 211
convergence, 2
cooling, 15, 16, 20, 43, 55, 56, 68, 79, 176, 177, 178,
180, 183, 194, 199, 208, 221, 225, 228
cooperation, 171
coordination, 31
copper, 4
correlation, 87, 174, 180, 189, 211, 242
correlations, 247
cortex, 97, 115, 123
cosmic ray flux, 174, 175, 196
cosmic rays, 174, 195, 196
cost, 112, 223
courtship, 57
covering, 3, 44, 164
critical analysis, 11
criticism, xv
crop, 62, 72, 87, 226
crop production, 226
crops, 10, 105, 128, 226
crust, 3, 158
crystal structure, 126
crystalline, 41
crystals, 70, 167, 169, 219
Cuba, 144
culture, 230
curricula, 223
cuticle, 55, 164, 169
cycles, 40, 108, 112, 125, 142, 145, 207, 209, 213,
224
cycling, 33, 48, 58, 59, 132
cyclones, vii, 15, 16, 17, 18, 31, 39, 40, 42, 43, 46,
67, 69, 70, 79, 85
cytoplasm, 116
cytosine, 126
D
danger, 228
data set, 69
decay, 177, 189, 241, 248
decomposition, 39, 59, 67, 81, 82, 84
defence, 107, 111
deficit, 104, 200
deforestation, 224
degradation, 75, 102, 112, 234, 242, 244, 247
dehydration, 95, 143
deposition, 16
deposits, 3, 10, 123, 225
depression, 47, 141
depth, 6, 7, 26, 28, 35, 40, 42, 47, 66, 67, 73, 110,
139, 202, 203, 215
derivatives, 96, 166, 169
desiccation, 41, 55, 71, 87, 97, 99, 113, 115, 116,
127, 128, 140, 141, 142, 163, 164, 165, 169,
171, 172
destruction, 99, 100, 105
developed nations, 221, 222, 228
developing countries, 222
developing nations, 221, 228
deviation, 176, 177, 180, 183, 186, 192, 246
dew, 41, 70, 75, 77, 80, 169
DHS, 126
diffraction, 241, 248
diffusion, 28
disaster, 221
diseases, 226
displacement, 222
dissociation, 121
dissolved oxygen, 47
distribution, 10, 21, 35, 51, 55, 67, 68, 70, 84, 89, 95,
97, 99, 105, 110, 118, 121, 124, 125, 127, 132,
133, 138, 145, 149, 150, 156, 158, 159, 161,
165, 171, 187, 189, 236
diversity, 8, 39, 40, 47, 77, 80, 82, 96, 108, 147, 150,
172
DNA, 72, 107, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121,
122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129
DNA damage, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 126,
129
DNA lesions, 117, 118, 119, 122, 128
DNA repair, 118, 121, 125
DOI, 34, 35, 36
dominance, 62, 164, 171
drainage, 163, 165, 166, 178, 181, 187, 195
dream, 107
drinking water, 4, 222
drought, 37, 75, 77, 95, 97, 115, 141, 170, 226
dry matter, 170
drying, 47, 55, 98, 116, 128, 142
DS-1, 83
duality, 112
E
ecology, 41, 74, 79, 84, 126, 133, 144, 145, 147,
161, 166, 172
ecosystem, viii, 5, 34, 39, 44, 47, 48, 54, 58, 59, 62,
63, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 79, 81, 83, 84, 85,
122, 123, 143, 146, 226
editors, iv, xv
252
Index
effluent, 231
egg, 57
elasticity modulus, 163, 165, 168, 169, 170, 171
electric current, 192, 193
electric field, 173, 174, 180, 181, 184, 193, 194, 195
electricity, 196
electron, 10, 99, 119, 120, 123, 235, 241, 242, 248
electrons, 236
elongation, 100, 105
emission, 221, 222, 228, 236
enemies, 57
energy, 5, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 29, 39, 41, 45, 47,
48, 49, 58, 59, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 75, 78, 79, 80,
91, 96, 97, 98, 118, 120, 121, 132, 164, 174,
199, 200, 211, 212, 219, 221, 222, 223, 228,
229, 230, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 241, 242,
243, 245, 247
energy consumption, 230
energy transfer, 230
engineering, 222, 223, 226
entropy, 221, 223, 224, 226, 228, 231
environment, iv, vii, viii, ix, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11,
13, 15, 17, 20, 22, 23, 32, 40, 41, 43, 45, 47, 48,
49, 50, 61, 67, 68, 70, 75, 77, 79, 81, 84, 85, 98,
116, 124, 126, 127, 132, 133, 146, 150, 170,
171, 223, 224, 226
environmental aspects, 224
environmental change, viii, 123, 144
environmental conditions, viii, ix, 5, 11, 91, 95, 96,
97, 99, 132, 133, 138, 139
environmental control, 143
environmental factors, 47, 96, 99, 223
environmental influences, 41
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 227
environmental stress, 113
environmental stresses, 113
environmentalism, 231
enzyme, 39, 115, 118, 119, 120, 127, 141
enzymes, 100, 103, 104, 115, 118, 119, 121, 140
epidermis, 114
EPR, 120
equilibrium, vii, 16
equipment, 10, 236
ERA, 35
erosion, 30
eukaryotic, 119
Europe, 2, 159
evaporation, 15, 42, 67, 71, 72, 98, 108, 150, 225
evidence, 5, 77, 98, 100, 112, 113, 176, 196, 241,
242
evolution, 32, 48, 68, 81, 85, 86, 104, 118, 122, 127,
139, 143, 223
excision, 128
excitation, 119, 120

exclusion, 100, 103
exploitation, 223
exposure, 40, 46, 55, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 112, 115,
123, 128, 140, 142, 180, 224
external influences, 40, 85
extinction, 103, 125, 222, 225, 226, 228
extreme cold, 10, 95, 131, 164
F
FAD, 119, 120
families, xv, 55
fat, 57
fatty acids, 142
fauna, 39, 48, 50, 51, 63, 66, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 131
fertility, 66
fertilization, 75, 77, 80
fertilizers, 10
films, 223
filters, 101, 122, 124
filtration, 49
financial, 81, 171, 247
financial support, 247
fish, 57
fixation, 143
flavonoids, 96, 99, 100, 103, 113, 122, 124, 125,
128, 145, 147
flexibility, 104
flight, 58, 70
flights, 70
floods, 226
flora, viii, 3, 4, 11, 39, 40, 41, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,
56, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 86, 87,
90, 91, 95, 96, 100, 102, 104, 105, 108, 121,
128, 131, 132, 133, 139, 143, 146, 149, 153,
157, 159, 160, 161, 227, 228
flora and fauna, 3, 4, 11, 39, 40, 41, 44, 47, 67, 68,
70, 71, 72, 79, 81, 90, 100, 227, 228
flowers, 11
fluctuations, 112, 141, 173, 189, 195, 215, 242, 247
fluorescence, 98, 112, 124
food, 11, 40, 47, 48, 50, 51, 54, 58, 59, 75, 80, 81,
101, 223, 225, 228
food chain, 11, 48, 58, 59, 80
food web, 58, 101
force, 15, 186, 187, 200
formation, vii, 7, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 24,
28, 35, 39, 41, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75, 77, 79, 99,
116, 117, 120, 121, 125, 126, 132, 173, 176,
177, 180, 187, 189, 194, 200, 218, 222
formula, 186
fossils, 4
fragments, 52, 53, 54, 139
253
Index
freedom, 12
freezing, 9, 16, 18, 44, 50, 55, 56, 62, 68, 95, 98, 99,
103, 113, 125, 133, 140, 141, 142, 145, 150,
193, 222
frequency distribution, 205, 206
freshwater, 28, 47, 56, 63, 68, 86, 107, 164
frost, 74, 150, 170
fruits, 11
fuel consumption, 222
functional analysis, 104, 127
fungi, 47, 56, 58, 70, 73, 86, 95, 99, 118, 131, 132,
164
fungus, 121
fusion, 75, 79, 230
G
gametophyte, 142
gene expression, 127
genes, 124, 144, 145
genetic code, 117
genetic diversity, 133
genetic information, 118
genome, 118, 119
genus, 54, 55, 57, 58, 96, 132, 146, 149, 158, 159,
160
geography, 5, 86
geometry, 110, 237, 242, 244, 246
Georgia, 87, 126, 132, 134, 136, 149, 150, 157, 159,
160, 161, 172
Germany, 90, 125, 161
germination, 71, 112
global climate change, 121
global scale, 82
global warming, 5, 7, 17, 22, 27, 33, 35, 36, 82, 219,
221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 231
glucose, 228
glycerin, 99
glycerol, 55
google, 224
GPS, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 241, 242, 243,
245, 247, 248
gracilis, 51, 155
graph, 205, 209
grass, 11, 99, 103, 125, 132, 143, 144
grasses, 133
gravitation, 8
gravity, 15, 16, 202
grazing, 101, 104
green alga, 61, 62, 72, 73, 80, 86, 96, 97, 99, 164
greenhouse, 28, 34, 74, 223, 224, 225, 227
greenhouse gases, 223, 224, 225
growth, 11, 14, 36, 39, 40, 44, 47, 49, 50, 51, 55, 61,
62, 63, 66, 67, 68, 73, 79, 80, 81, 83, 87, 91, 95,
97, 98, 100, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 111,
112, 115, 121, 127, 128, 129, 140, 141, 142,
143, 146, 147, 148, 164, 177, 225
growth rate, 36
growth temperature, 98
Guangzhou, 86
H
habitat, 41, 44, 47, 50, 54, 55, 57, 61, 68, 70, 75, 78,
79, 85, 96, 97, 107, 115, 132, 138, 164, 168,
171, 225, 226
habitats, 41, 49, 51, 52, 53, 67, 95, 123, 125, 127,
131, 132, 139, 141, 142, 149, 164, 165, 172,
222
hair, 99, 144
hardness, 42, 66
harmful effects, 101, 113, 222
harvesting, 119
hazards, 9, 226, 228
health, 104, 143, 223, 226
heat loss, 200
heat transfer, 17, 78, 219
height, 6, 10, 13, 22, 23, 24, 34, 57, 67, 157, 174,
184, 185, 186, 215, 218
hemisphere, 8, 42, 57, 110, 113, 157, 160, 189, 195,
196, 197
heterogeneity, 61, 75, 79
high winds, 14, 27
histogram, 206, 207
histones, 119
history, iv, 1, 5, 11, 31, 86, 103, 127, 147, 201, 222
Holocene, 40, 86
hot springs, 99
House, 10, 12, 160, 172
human, 1, 4, 5, 9, 11, 40, 45, 57, 63, 66, 70, 82, 224,
226, 230
human activity, 1, 5, 66, 82
humidity, 9, 39, 42, 43, 47, 51, 67, 71, 79, 141, 142,
164, 169
humus, 63, 81, 95
Hungary, 127
hunting, 222
hurricanes, 225
hyaline, 136
hybrid, 223
hydrocarbons, 3
hydrogen, 99, 125
hydrogen peroxide, 99
hydroxyl, 99, 113
hydroxyl groups, 113
hypothesis, 174, 213
254
Index
I
ideal, 5, 40, 72, 73, 96, 170, 201
identification, 51, 52, 53, 87, 96, 126, 133, 161, 172
identity, 5
image, 236
images, 236, 247
imagination, 11
IMF, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 187, 188, 189,
191, 194, 197, 234
immersion, 169
immigration, 40
Impact Assessment, 224
impulses, 193
in vitro, 125
incidence, 107, 108
income, 194
India, ix, xi, xii, xiii, xv, 1, 3, 9, 13, 18, 31, 34, 35,
39, 81, 85, 89, 90, 91, 105, 107, 131, 149, 153,
154, 155, 156, 158, 160, 163, 221, 230, 231,
233, 247
individuals, 65, 121
induction, 126, 128
industrialization, 10
industries, 226
industry, 7, 224
ingredients, 227
inhibition, 72, 84, 122
insects, 47, 54, 55, 68
institutions, xv
insulation, 75, 80, 204
integrity, 97, 100
interface, 15
interference, 1
intervention, 9
intrusions, 41
inversion, 13, 16, 20, 21, 24, 25, 29, 30, 200, 201,
213, 215, 217, 218, 219
invertebrates, 40, 50, 51, 68, 74, 75, 80, 118
ionization, 4, 174, 193, 241
iron, 3, 99, 149
irradiation, 103, 104, 105, 128, 147, 170, 193
islands, 2, 3, 39, 40, 108, 109
isolation, 41, 132, 149, 157, 160
isomers, 116, 118, 125
isotherms, 165, 170
isotope, 33
issues, iv, ix, 7, 12, 87, 231
Italy, xi, xii, 34, 86, 199
J
Jamaica, 87
Japan, 86
Jordan, 32
K
kaempferol, 113, 114
L
laboratory studies, 72
lactic acid, 58, 83
lakes, 10, 16, 39, 42, 44, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 56, 61,
63, 66, 78, 81, 85, 91, 98, 99, 108, 138, 139,
141, 144, 145, 164, 165, 231
landscape, 72
landscapes, 145, 146, 164
Late Pleistocene, 86
laws, 230
leaching, 145
lead, vii, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 24, 74, 78, 116, 132,
174, 187, 195, 225, 226
legs, 55
Lepidoptera, 85
lesions, 116, 118
lice, 56
lichen, viii, 11, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 61, 68, 71, 74,
75, 77, 80, 82, 85, 95, 96, 101, 102, 103, 108,
115, 122, 124, 125, 131, 145, 149, 150, 153,
157, 158, 160, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169,
171
life cycle, 11, 67, 68
light, 11, 27, 31, 47, 49, 50, 51, 57, 62, 66, 67, 68,
73, 74, 75, 77, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 106, 116,
118, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 142, 144, 228
lipids, 99, 100, 142
living conditions, 50
logistics, 81, 217
Louisiana, 225
low temperatures, 4, 68, 74, 83, 85, 141
luminosity, 236
lutein, 95
lying, 99, 132
lysis, 62
M
macroalgae, 102
macromolecules, 97
magnesium, 66
magnetic field, 5, 174, 175, 176, 180, 181, 195, 233,
234, 236
magnetism, 4
magnetosphere, 174, 187, 192, 193, 194, 233, 234,
236
magnitude, 176, 201
255
Index
majority, 47, 58, 99, 132, 164
mammal, 87
mammals, 48
man, 149, 176, 177
management, ix
manganese, 4
manipulation, 142
marine environment, 18
mass, vii, 14, 15, 16, 28, 34, 36, 37, 164, 178, 179,
181, 200
materials, 41, 56, 58, 66, 80, 147
matrix, 240
matter, iv, 14, 17, 22, 67, 73, 226
measurement, 5, 10, 44, 96, 143, 172, 176, 200, 202,
203, 204, 236, 238
measurements, 6, 24, 35, 36, 41, 43, 44, 72, 82, 86,
96, 127, 128, 177, 180, 185, 200, 202, 203, 238,
248
mechanical properties, 170
medulla, 115
melanin, 95, 97
melt, 4, 10, 28, 36, 45, 47, 50, 52, 97, 98, 99, 108,
116, 141, 165, 169, 201, 221, 222, 223, 225,
226, 230
melting, 7, 16, 28, 31, 36, 42, 44, 47, 74, 132, 169,
211, 221, 222, 224, 226
melts, 7, 8, 10, 14, 16, 222
membranes, 101
meta analysis, 113, 140
meta-analysis, 123, 127
metabolism, 101, 103, 104, 113, 124, 140, 143, 144
metabolites, 102, 103, 124
metals, 105
meter, 10, 62, 225, 227
microbial communities, 147
microbiota, 77, 80
microclimate, 49, 67, 125, 142
microcosms, 126, 146
microenvironments, 61
micrograms, 56
microhabitats, 81
microorganism, 34, 84
microorganisms, 11, 15, 22, 39, 47, 58, 66, 71, 75,
78, 79, 80, 83, 102, 108, 126
microscope, 50
migration, 40, 226
mineralization, 67
mission, 236, 247
mixing, 16, 22, 27, 29, 70, 85, 208, 215
MLT, 236, 237, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245
model system, 72
modelling, 32, 35, 218, 238
models, 10, 23, 34, 36, 68, 174, 199, 200, 201
modulus, 163, 166, 170

moisture, 11, 15, 17, 49, 67, 70, 71, 77, 80, 109, 112,
142, 164, 169
moisture content, 71, 112
molecular biology, 124, 144
molecular weight, 118
molecules, 97, 104, 107, 111, 113, 114, 118, 227
momentum, 14, 36, 45, 202
monoclonal antibody, 125
Montana, 224
Morocco, 83
morphology, 96, 98, 115, 140, 142, 248
motivation, 223
mutagenesis, 120, 133, 147
mutant, 127
mutation, 117
mutations, 117, 118
N
NaCl, 167
natural disaster, 225
natural disasters, 225
natural gas, 3
natural resources, 223
navigation system, 247
negative effects, 98, 115, 121, 140
nematode, 84
Netherlands, 123, 144, 146
neutral, 233
New Zealand, 3, 90, 102, 110, 125, 144
nitrogen, 33, 61, 66, 68, 95
nitrogen fixation, 61, 68
nitrous oxide, 224, 226
Nitzschia, 92, 94
non-enzymatic antioxidants, 100
North America, 2
Norway, 82
NPL, 31, 33, 43, 81
nucleation, 36, 147
nuclei, 208
nucleic acid, 91, 100
nucleus, 118
nutrient, 40, 47, 48, 50, 59, 66, 73, 81, 91, 132
nutrients, 46, 47, 48, 50, 63, 66, 104, 112, 128
nutrition, 47
O
obstacles, 3, 74
oceans, vii, 3, 5, 10, 15, 107, 225
oil, 3, 4
operations, 217
opportunities, vii, 139
256
Index
orbit, 174, 224, 230, 236

ores, 3, 11
organic compounds, 48
organic matter, 40, 46, 48, 51, 66
organism, 48, 66, 70, 81, 95, 96, 100, 113, 164
organs, 141
oscillation, 33, 191, 193, 196, 197
osmosis, 69
oxidation, 32, 66, 73, 81, 100
oxidative damage, 100, 104, 114
oxidative stress, 100, 103, 106
oxygen, 9, 15, 46, 49, 67, 70, 99, 100, 104
oxygen consumption, 67
oxygen consumption rate, 67
ozone, vii, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 72, 84, 89, 91, 95, 98,
99, 102, 103, 104, 107, 110, 111, 112, 113, 116,
121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131,
140, 223
P
P. sulcata, 155
Pacific, 2, 5, 173, 187, 189, 195, 197, 218
Paraguay, 135
parallel, 234
parasites, 56
parthenogenesis, 55, 56
pasture, 83
peat, 40
percentile, 227
periodicity, 208
permeability, 100
peroxidation, 100
petroleum, 222
phenolic compounds, 103, 113
phenylalanine, 115, 141
phosphate, 66
phospholipids, 97
phosphorus, 95
photosynthesis, 11, 50, 59, 63, 66, 68, 71, 72, 73, 75,
77, 83, 84, 85, 86, 96, 98, 100, 101, 102, 104,
105, 107, 111, 112, 121, 127, 129, 141, 142,
143, 144, 146, 164, 169, 171, 172
photosynthesize, 75, 77, 169
phycocyanin, 95, 99
phycoerythrin, 99
physical environment, 238
physical properties, 1, 4, 68
physical structure, 17
physicochemical characteristics, 63
physics, 231
Physiological, 106, 122
physiology, 87, 99, 101, 146, 163
phytoplankton, 72, 84, 101, 105
pigmentation, 97, 102, 103, 104, 115, 126, 131

pioneer species, 73
plankton, 101, 227
plant growth, 62, 73, 127
plants, 10, 11, 39, 40, 47, 48, 49, 55, 56, 66, 67, 68,
69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 77, 81, 82, 86, 87, 89, 91, 95,
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,
106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,
117, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 127, 128, 129,
131, 133, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 146,
147, 148, 149, 164, 169, 172, 224
plasticity, 97, 132, 141, 142
plastics, 149
platform, 79
playing, 46, 80, 226
polar, vii, viii, 3, 6, 8, 10, 42, 63, 67, 74, 78, 81, 83,
90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
116, 140, 145, 157, 174, 176, 192, 193, 194,
195, 196, 197, 201, 205, 222, 226, 236, 237,
242, 248
polarization, 123, 248
politics, 231
pollen, 70
pollutants, 15
pollution, vii, ix, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 82, 91, 110, 222, 223,
224, 226, 228
polycarbonate, 100
polymer, 95
ponds, 16, 47, 51, 53, 54, 56, 91, 230
pools, 16, 47, 49, 91, 99
population, 48, 50, 55, 58, 62, 66, 84, 222, 223, 225,
226, 228, 230
population control, 223
population density, 50
positive correlation, 98, 114, 140
positive feedback, 225, 231
power plants, 226, 230
precipitation, 39, 40, 42, 43, 46, 70, 75, 77, 79, 80,
108, 131, 141, 164, 204, 218, 235, 237, 241,
248
preparation, iv
pressure gradient, 200
prevention, 111
principles, 247
probability, 246
probe, 7
producers, 11, 49, 59, 80, 226
profit, 230
project, 34, 217
prokaryotes, 164
prokaryotic cell, 62
propagation, 189, 227, 228, 230, 235
257
Index
protection, 72, 74, 75, 80, 95, 97, 98, 105, 110, 113,
115, 116, 117, 131, 132, 140, 142
protective mechanisms, 107
protective role, 97, 125
proteins, 72, 91, 100, 118, 231
protoplasm, 71
publishing, ix, xv
pure water, 4, 222
pyrimidine, 116, 119, 120, 126
Q
quality control, 212
quartz, 49
quasi-equilibrium, 180, 194
quercetin, 113, 114
R
race, 8, 223
radar, 10, 201, 248
Radiation, v, 16, 71, 72, 83, 85, 104, 105, 107, 123,
144, 203, 212
radiation damage, 99, 128
radical formation, 123
radicals, 99
radio, 1, 4, 233, 237, 248
radius, 14, 186, 229, 234
rainfall, 7, 17, 77, 80, 141, 226
reaction center, 102
reactions, 66, 223, 228
reactive oxygen, 111
reactivity, 9
real time, 238
reality, 174, 230
receptors, 72, 121
recognition, 118, 132
recommendations, iv
recovery, 105
recycling, 221, 223, 230, 231
reform, 222, 223
regenerate, 120
regions of the world, 150, 159
regression, 180, 200
regression line, 180
rehydration, 142, 143
rejection, 14, 28
religion, 223
remote sensing, 8, 33, 44, 199, 202
repair, 99, 103, 107, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117,
118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 128, 140,
144
replication, 116, 117, 118
reproduction, 40, 81
requirements, 4, 68
researchers, viii, 6, 7, 90, 157
residues, 221, 222, 228
resilience, 121
resistance, 62, 97, 125, 150
resources, 75, 80, 87, 228
respiration, 75, 77, 82, 85, 123, 143, 164, 172
response, 32, 68, 85, 91, 95, 97, 98, 101, 104, 105,
106, 113, 122, 125, 126, 127, 129, 132, 139,
140, 146, 147, 148, 160, 164, 169, 172, 174,
176, 180, 183, 184, 187, 196, 203, 206, 219
restoration, 118
risk, 7, 116, 225
rods, 149
room temperature, 167
root, 11, 77
root system, 11
roots, 164
rotifers, 47, 50, 51, 59
roughness, 202
runoff, 225
rural development, 231
Russia, xi, xii, xiii, 7, 39, 173, 224
S
safety, 234, 247
salinity, 222
salt concentration, 170
saturation, 75, 77, 80, 169
scale system, 173, 178, 194
scarcity, 169
scatter, 175
scavengers, 97
school, 223
science, viii, 3, 4, 5, 17, 27, 32, 35
scientific observation, 89
scope, 139
sea level, 7, 8, 40, 43, 149, 173, 177, 189, 195, 197,
222, 225, 226, 227, 231
seasonal changes, 142
seasonal flu, 14
secondary metabolism, 100
secrete, 97, 99
security, 132
sediment, 58, 66
sediments, 44, 48, 51, 58, 63, 86
seed, 112, 138
seedlings, 103, 123, 124, 128, 145
selectivity, 119
sensing, 44, 82, 236, 248
sensitivity, 32, 101, 102, 126
sensors, 202
seta, 53
258
Index
shade, 97, 163, 165, 166, 169, 170, 171

shape, vii, 2, 56, 68, 78, 88, 234
shear, 23
sheep, 41
shelter, 80, 132, 223
shoot, 112
shoots, 142
showing, 20, 44, 63, 68, 73, 78, 97, 111, 120, 142,
158, 174, 200, 224, 242
shrubs, 100
signals, 17, 22, 234, 241, 248
signs, 224
silica, 167
simulation, 196
simulations, 34
skin, 4, 57
social welfare, 5
sociology, 223
software, 238
SOI, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193
solution, 167, 221, 234, 237, 238, 241, 242, 247
South Africa, 3, 13, 18, 85
South America, 2, 3, 15, 105, 110, 114, 127, 135,
136, 137, 138, 144, 146
Southeast Asia, 225
Spain, 83
specialists, 133
speciation, 149, 157, 160
species richness, 49
specific heat, 16, 211
speculation, 10
spin, 123
spine, 132
sponge, 170
spore, 99
Spring, 43, 204, 210
St. Petersburg, xi, xii, xiii, 39
stability, 14, 15, 20, 35, 67, 85
stabilizers, 97
staff members, xv
standard deviation, 246
state, 9, 10, 55, 63, 95, 115, 119, 120, 123, 124, 150,
164, 169, 180, 194, 201, 238, 239
states, 172, 230, 240
statistics, 31, 246
sterile, 149
stimulus, 164
stomata, 77, 164
storage, 97, 142
storms, 4, 7, 8, 10, 42, 43, 74, 233, 235, 241, 248
stress, 62, 91, 97, 100, 107, 112, 113, 115, 116, 122,
123, 124, 127, 163, 164, 169, 171, 172
structure, 4, 7, 24, 34, 40, 48, 77, 84, 88, 101, 112,
114, 121, 145, 179, 202, 203, 215, 216, 217,
219, 222, 248
style, 226
substitution, 112, 178
substrate, 39, 75, 77, 81, 121, 127
substrates, 49, 50, 66, 149
succession, 50, 73
Sun, 7, 16, 18, 22, 108, 192, 195, 230, 233
supplementation, 112
suppression, 100
surface area, 90
surface energy, 37, 203, 218, 219
surface layer, 16, 61, 173, 178, 194, 219
survival, 16, 25, 40, 41, 45, 55, 67, 68, 71, 80, 81,
107, 112, 113, 118, 131, 139, 140, 171, 222,
226
survival rate, 71
suspense, 2
sustainability, 221
Sweden, 87, 90
symbiosis, 96
synthesis, 67, 115, 140
T
target, 116, 142
taxa, 138, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157, 158, 166
TBP, 117
teams, 31
techniques, 44, 248
technologies, 9
technology, viii, ix, 223
technology transfer, ix
temperature, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 24, 31, 34,
39, 41, 43, 45, 50, 51, 58, 59, 67, 68, 69, 74, 79,
84, 85, 86, 91, 97, 102, 106, 107, 108, 112, 122,
131, 132, 141, 142, 144, 146, 147, 148, 170,
174, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 196, 197,
200, 201, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, 210, 211,
213, 216, 217, 218, 219, 222, 224, 226
temperature dependence, 68
terrestrial ecosystems, 73, 101, 104, 122, 127, 143,
147
territorial, 58
territory, 57
testing, 97, 216, 218
TGA, 124
thermal energy, 228
thermodynamics, 230
thinning, 89
thymine, 124, 125
time periods, 113, 242
time series, 68, 102, 213
259
Index
tin, 4
tissue, 69, 117, 168, 169, 170
total energy, 174
toxic effect, 100
trajectory, 208
transcription, 116, 117, 119
transcription factors, 117, 119
transformation, 237
transgression, 40
translation, 84
transmission, 4, 116, 118
transparency, 43
transpiration, 67, 70
transport, 7, 14, 28, 34, 36, 78, 99, 164, 200
transportation, 3, 4, 22, 70
treatment, 101
triggers, 17, 118
tropical storms, 224
tryptophan, 120, 125
tundra, 82
turbulence, 20, 24, 66, 75, 85, 201, 202, 211
turbulent mixing, 17, 46
turgor, 116, 163, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172
U
United Kingdom, xii, 33, 82, 85, 104, 218, 233
ultrastructure, 100
uniform, 108
unique features, vii, 13
United, 84, 224, 225
United Nations, 84, 224, 225
universe, 2, 7
uranium, 4
USA, 101, 102, 103, 105, 128, 202, 203, 231
USSR, 144
Ultra-Violet (UV), v, viii, ix, 6, 40, 43, 44, 46, 47,
64, 67, 72, 73, 79, 81, 84, 87, 89, 91, 95, 97, 98,
99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 110, 111,
112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122,
123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 131, 139, 140,
143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 231, 248
UV irradiation, 139
UV light, 43, 122
UV radiation, 6, 47, 72, 91, 96, 97, 98, 100, 104,
107, 115, 119, 122, 125, 128, 140
UV-radiation, 96, 101
V
valence, 118, 128
Valencia, 83
validation, 32, 200
vapor, vii, 14, 15, 84

variables, 121, 123, 144, 203, 219
variations, 36, 51, 84, 96, 174, 176, 180, 183, 195,
196, 197, 201, 206, 208, 213, 218, 219, 222,
225, 228, 242
varieties, 40, 47, 108, 133
vector, 186, 238, 239
vegetation, 11, 34, 41, 50, 62, 63, 66, 67, 71, 72, 74,
84, 87, 95, 96, 101, 108, 121, 122, 124, 125,
139, 145
vehicles, 226
velocity, 7, 9, 10, 16, 22, 174, 201, 205, 206, 211,
215, 234, 238, 239, 242
ventilation, 35
vertebrates, 47, 57, 74, 85, 118
Viking, 248
W
Washington, 145, 195, 227, 231, 248
waste, 223
water ecosystems, 40
water quality, 34, 84
water resources, 223
water shortages, 225
water vapor, vii, 15, 16, 17, 224, 226
wavelengths, 8, 91, 110, 113, 116, 236
wealth, 3
weather patterns, 222
web, 135, 237
websites, 27
Western Australia, 37
Western Europe, 225
whales, 11, 57
wild type, 117
wildlife, 225
wind speeds, 24, 131, 202
windstorms, 7
workers, 55, 58, 62, 68, 70, 74
worldwide, 223, 224, 242, 248
X
xylem, 164
Y
Yale University, 82
yeast, 47, 58
yield, 112, 121
Z
zinc, 4

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ARCTIC REGION AND ANTARCTICA ISSUES AND RESEARCH