2

Biological
Classification
Important Points
1. The first attempt to classify organisms on scientific basis was
done by Aristotle. He classify the plants on the basis of their
morphological characters and categorise them into tree, shrubs
and herbs.
2. Two kingdom classification was given by Linnaeus. Plantae
and Animalia kingdom were developed including plants and
animals.
3. RH Whittaker (1969) proposed five kingdom classification
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Classification was done on the basis of following characters
(i) Cell type Prokaryotic and eukaryotic
(ii) Cell wall Non-cellulosic/ cellulosic/ chitinaceous
(iii) Nuclear membrane Present or absent
(iv) Body organisation Unicellular/ multicellular
(v) Mode of nutrition Autotrophic/heterotrophic/ saprophytic.
4. KingdomMonera includes prokaryotic microorganism like
bacteria.
5. Bacteria are prokaryotes. They do not have well defined
nucleus. Membrane bound cell organelles are absent. They live
in extreme habitats like springs, snow, deep oceans as free
living or parasites.

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6. On the basis of their shape they are divided into

Coccus (cocci)
Spherical
Bacillus (bacilli) Rod-shaped
Vibrium (vibrio)
Comma-shaped
Spirillum (spirilla) Spiral-shaped.
7. Bacteria shows wide range of mode of nutrition. They may be
autotrophic, chemotrophic, saprophytic or heterotrophic.
8. Bacteria are further divided into Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria.
9. Archaebacteria lives in extreme environmental conditions.
These include
(i) Halophiles Bacteria residing in salty areas.
(ii) Thermoacidophiles Bacteria residing in hot springs.
(iii) Methanogens Bacteria which survive in marshy areas
(these are present in gut of many ruminant animals like
cows and buffaloes.
(vi) Basophiles Bacteria which survive in alkaline medium.
10. Archaebacteria differs from other bacteria in having different
cell wall structure. Their cell wall is made up of murein and
contain high amount of unsaturated fafty acids, which is
responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
11. Another classEubacteria is also known as true bacteria.
12. These have rigid cell wall made up of peptidoglycan.
13. They could be photosynthetic autotrophs, chemosynthetic,
autotrophs and heterotrophic bacteria.
14. Photosynthetic autotrophs include blue-green algae, which
have chlorophyll-a similar to green plants. Also known as
cyanobacteria.
15. They could be unicellular, colonial or filamentous, fresh
water/marine or terrestrial algae.
16. Some bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen in a specialised
cells known as heterocyst, e. g. , in Nostoc and Anabaena.
17. Some bacteria utilises inorganic substances like nitrate,
nitrite, ammonia, etc., for oxidation and release of energy for
ATP production. These are known as chemosynthetic
autotrophic bacteria.
18. Heterotrophic bacteria are dependent on other organism for
nutrition. These include N2-fixing bacteria pathogens, etc.
19. They reproduce asexually by binary fission.

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20. During unfavourable conditions these form spores.

21. They also show conjugation. Sort of sexual reproduction in
which DNA is transferred from one bacteria to another
through conjugal tube.
22. Pleumorphic bacteria, which lacks cell wall is known as
mycoplasma. They are pathogenic and smallest microorganism
known.
23. KingdomProtista includes unicellular eukaryotes.
24. These include chrysophytes, dinoflagellates, euglenoid, slime
mould, protozoans.
25. They shows well defined nucleus and membrane bound
organelles.
26. They reproduce sexually and asexually.
27. Chrysophytes includes diatoms and golden algae known as
desmids.
28. They resides in marine water and photosynthetic.
29. The cell wall of diatoms is embedded with silica and form two
thin overlapping sheat as in soap box.
30. Diatomoceous earth is the large amount of cell wall deposits
of diatoms in their habitat. These are used in polishing,
filtration of oils and syrups.
31. Dinoflagellates
are
marine
and
photosynthetic
microorganisms.
32. As the name suggest they have two flagella one lies
longitudinally and other transversely in furrow between wall
plates.
33. Due to presence of different pigments they appear yellow,
green, brown and red.
34. Gonyaulax is a red dinoflagellate, which undergoes rapid
multiplication and forms red tides.
35. Euglenoids are freshwater organism found in standing water.
36. Cell wall is absent, a protein rich layer called pellicle is
present over the surface.
37. In presence of sunlight, they behave as autotrophs, while in its
absence they behave as heterotrophs, e. g. , Euglena.
38. Slime moulds are saprophyte, which are dependent on dead
and decaying organic matter.
39. They form an aggregation called plasmodium.

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40. During unfavourable conditions they forms spores, which are

highly resistant.
41. Protozoans are heterotrophs. They are predators or live as
parasites. These include
(i) Amoeboid protozoans They live in fresh and marine
H 2O. They have irregular body. They can change their
shape due to the formation of broad finger-like
pseudopodia.
(ii) Flagellated protozoans They are free-living parasitic
microorganisms. They have flagella, e. g. , Trypanosoma.
(iii) Ciliated protozoans They have cilia all over their body.
They have cavity, which opens outside the cell surface,
e.g., Paramecium.
(iv) Sporozoans These include spore forming infectious
agents, e. g. , Plasmodium, which causes malaria.
42. KingdomFungi include heterotrophic organism. They rely on
extracellular digestion.
43. These resides in air, water, soil or animals.
44. Yeast are unicellular fungi.
45. Usually fungi are filamentous in nature and forms long,
slender, thread-like structure called hyphae. A network of
hyphae is known as mycelium.
46. Hyphae could be coenocytic Continuous tube filled with
multinucleated cytoplasm or septate or cross walls in the
hyphae.
47. Cell wall is made up of chitin.
48. They may be saprophytic or parasitic in nature.
49. They exist in symbiotic relationship with algae known as
lichens and with roots of higher plants called mycorrhiza.
50. Algal component in lichen is known as phycobiont and fungal
component as mycobiont. Algae prepare food for fungi and
fungi provide shelter to algae.
51. Fungi reproduce asexually by vegetative means like
fragmentation, fission, buddy or by forming spores called
conidia/sporangia spores/zoospores.
52. Sexual reproduction occurs with the help of oospores,
ascospores and basidiospores.
53. Sexual cycle includes three steps
(i) Plasmogamy Fusion of protoplasm between two motile
or non-motile gametes.
(ii) Karyogamy Fusion of two nuclei.
(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.

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54. In some fungi two haploid cells, results in diploid cells. In some
cases dikaryon stage occurs in which two nuclei are present
within a cell. This phase is known as dikaryophase of fungus.
55. Fungi is divided into various classes on the basic of mycelium
mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies.
56. Phycomycetes are obligate parasite on plants. The mycelium is
aseptate and coenocytic.
57. Asexual reproduction take place through zoospores, which are
motile or through non-motile aplanospores.
Gametes formed by these spores could be
(i) Isogamous (similar in morphology)
(ii) Oogamous (dissimilar in morphology female gamete is
bigger than male gamete).
(iii) Anisogamous, e. g. , in case of Mucor, Rhizopus and Albugo.
(iv) Ascomycetes are known as sac fungi usually multicellular
like Penicillium.
58. They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or ceprophilous.
Mycelium is branched and septate.
59. Asexual spores are formed in special mycelium called
conidiophores.
60. Sexual spores are produced in fruiting body called ascospores
e. g. , Aspergillus claviceps and Neurospora crassa.
61. Basidiomycetes include mushrooms/bracket fungi/ puffballs.
62. Their mycelium is branched and septate.
63. Mode of reproduction is fragmentation sex organs are absent.
64. Vegetative or somatic cells fuses known as plasmogamy and
give rise to dikaryon.
65. Dikaryon give rise to basidium which produces four
basidiospores.
66. Basidiospores are produced on basidium.
67. The basidia are arranged in fruiting body called basidiocarp,
e. g. , Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia.
68. Deuteromycetes are known as imperfect fungi, since sexual
reproduction is not reported in them.
69. They reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia.
70. Mycelium is septate and branched, e. g. , Alternaria,
Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
71. KingdomPlantae includes eukaryotic autotrophic chlorophyll
containing organisms.

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72. These may be partially heterotrophic as in case

of
insectivorous plants like Cuscuta.
73. They have distinct nucleus, chloroplast and cellulosic cell wall.
74. It includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophyte, gymnosperms
and angiosperms.
75. They show alteration of generation, diploid sporophytic
phase and haploid gametophytic phase.
76. KingdomAnimalia
includes
heterotrophic
eukaryotic,
multicellular organisms.
77. Their cells do not have cell walls.
78. Mode of nutrition is holozoic, i. e. , ingestion of food.
79. They reserve food material as glycogen or fat.
80. Capable of locomotion and have specialised sensory and
neuromotor system.
81. They show definate growth pattern.
82. They show sexual mode of reproduction.
83. Viruses and viroids are the non-cellular organised, which are
not characterised in the classification of Whittaker.
84. They have both living and non-living characteristics.
85. They form inert crystalline structure outside the living cell,
but inside the host cell they can multiply.
86. They take over the host machinery and replicate themselves.
87. Pasteur DJ Ivanowsky give the name virus, which means
venom or poisonous fluid.
88. MW Bejerinck in 1898, called fluid obtained from infected
tobacco plant as contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living
fluid).
89. Viruses are obligate parasite. They are inert outside specific
host cell and exist in crystallise form as demonstrated by
WM Stanley.
90. Genetic material of viruses could be DNA or RNA.
91. Nucleic acid is protein by protein coat called capsid, which is
made up of capsomeres. Capsomeres are arranged in a helical
or polyhedral geometric form.
92. Viruses which infect plants are ssRNA, while which infect
animals are either ssDNA/RNA or dsDNA/RNA.
93. Viruses which infect bacteria are known as bacteriophage.
They are usually dsDNA viruses.

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94. In humans, virus causes various diseases like AIDS, mumps,

small pox, herpes and influenza.
95. In plants, it causes leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein
clearing dwarfing and stunted growth.
96. Viroids are the infectious agent, which have naked nucleic
acid (mainly RNA). It was discovered by TO Diener in year
1971.
97. It causes potato spindle tuber disease.

Exercises
Question 1. Discuss how classification systems have undergone
several changes over a period of time?
Answer
(i) Linnaeus proposed a two kingdom system of classification with
Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that included all
plants and animals respectively. But as this system did not
distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and
multicellular organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and
non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms, so scientists found it an
inadequate system of classification. Classification systems for the
living organisms have hence, undergone several changes over time.
(ii) The two kingdom system of classification was replaced by three
kingdom system, then by four and finally by five kingdom system of
classification of RH Whittaker (1969).
(iii) The five kingdoms included Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia. This is the most accepted system of classification of living
organisms.
(iv) But, Whittaker has not described viruses lichens. Then, Stanley
described viruses, viroids, etc.
Thus, over a period of time, classification system have undergone several
changes.

Question 2. State two economically important uses of

(a) Heterotrophic bacteria

(b) Archaebacteria

Answer
(a) Heterotrophic bacteria

Maintain soil fertility by nitrogen fixation, ammonification and

nitrification, e.g., Rhizobium bacteria (in the root nodules of
legumes).

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The milk products such as butter, cheese, curd, etc., are obtained
by the action of bacteria. The milk contains bacterial forms like
Streptococcus lacti, Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus lactis and
Clostridium sp., etc.

(b) Archaebacteria
Metanogens are responsible for the production of methane
(biogas) from the dung of these animals.

Archaebacteria help in the degradation of waste materials.

Question 3. What is the nature of cell wall in diatoms?

Answer In case of diatoms, the cell wall forms two thin overlapping cells,
which fit together as in a soap box. The cell wall is made up of silica. Due to
siliceous nature of cell wall, it is known as diatomite or diatomaceous Earth.
Diatomaceous Earth is a whitish, highly porous, chemically inert, highly
absorbant and fire proof substance.

Question 4. Find out what do the term algal bloom and red tides
signify?
Answer Sometimes, green algae such as Chlorella, Scenedesmus and
Spirogyra, etc., grow in excess in water bodies and impart green colour to
the water. These are called algal blooms. Red dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax)
grow in abundance in sea and impart red colour to the ocean. This looks
like red tides. Both due to algal blooms and red tide the animal life
declines due to toxins and deficiency of oxygen inside water.

Question 5. How are viroids different from viruses?

Answer

Viroids different from viruses

S.N. Virus

Viroids

1.

These are smaller than bacteria.

2.

Both RNA and DNA present.

Smaller than viruses.

Only RNA is present.

3.

Protein coat present.

Protein coat absent.

4.

Causes diseases like mumps and

AIDS.

Causes plant diseases like spindle

tuber diseases-potato.

Question 6. Describe briefly the four major groups of Protozoa?

Answer Protozoans are divided into four phyla on the basis of locomotory
organellesZooflagellata, Sarcodina, Sporozoa and Cilliates.
(i) Zooflagellates These protozoans possess one to several flagella for
locomotion. Zooflagellates are generally uninucleate, occasionally
multinucleate.

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The body is covered by a firm pellicle. There is also present cyst
formation.
Examples
etc.

Giardia, Trypanosoma, Leishmania and Trichonympha,

(ii) Sarcodines These

protozoans
possess
pseudopodia
for
locomotion. Pseudopodia are of four types, i.e., lobopodia, filopodia,
axopodia and reticulopodia. Pseudopodia are also used for engulfing
food particles. Sarcodines are mostly free living, found in freshwater,
sea water and on damp soil only a few are parasitic. Nutrition is
commonly holozoic. Sarcodines are generally uninucleates.
Sarcodines are of four typesAmoebids (i.e., Amoeba, etc.),
radiolarians (i.e., Acanthometra, etc.), foraminiferans (i.e., Elphidium,
etc.) and heliozoans (i.e., Actinophrys, etc.).
(iii) Sporozoans All of them are endoparasites. Locomotory organelles
(cilia, flagella, pseudopodia, etc.) are absent. Nutrition is parasitic
(absorptive). Phagotrophy is rare. The body is covered with an elastic
pellicle or cuticle. Nucleus is single. Contractile vacuoles are absent.
Life cycle consists of two distinct asexual and sexual phases. They
may be passed in one (monogenetic) or two different hosts
(digenetic), e.g., Plasmodium, Monocystis, etc.
(iv) Ciliates These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of
the presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that
opens to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated movements
of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to enter into the
gullet, e.g., Paramecium.

Question 7. Plants and autotrophic can you think of some plants

that are partially heterotrophic?
Answer Plants are autotrophs, i.e., they prepare their own food through
the process of photosynthesis. But, in nature there are also some other
plants which are partially heterotrophic, i.e., they partially depend upon
another organisms for food requirements, e.g.,
(i) Loranthus and Viscum are partial stem parasites which have leathery
leaves. They attack several fruit and forest trees and with the help of
their haustoria draw sap from the xylem tissue of the host.
(ii) Insectivorous plants have special leaves to trap insects. The trapped
insects are killed and digested by proteolytic enzymes secreted by
the epidermis of the leaves, e.g., pitcher plant.
(iii) Parasitic plant, e.g., Cuscutta develops haustoria, which penetrate,
the vascular bundles of the host plant to absorb water and solutes.

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Question 8. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify?

Answer In case of lichens (i.e., an association of algae and fungi), the
algal partner which is capable of carrying out photosynthesis is known as
phycobiont, whereas the fungal partner which is heterotrophic in nature is
known as mycobiont.

Question 9. Give a comparative account of the classes of kingdom

fungi under the following
(i) Mode of nutrition
(ii) Mode of reproduction
Answer
Fungal Class
Myxomycetes

Mode of Nutrition
Heterotrophic and mostly
saprophytic
Phycomycetes
Mostly parasites
Zygomycetes
Mostly saprophytic
Ascomycetes
Saprophytes or parasites
Basidiomycetes Saprophytes or parasites
Deuteromycetes Saprophytes or parasites

Mode of Reproduction
Asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual and sexual methods
Asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual and sexual method
Only asexual reproduction

Question 10. What are the characteristic features of euglenoids?

Answer
The characteristic features of euglenoids are as follows:
(i) They occur in freshwater habitats and damp soils.
(ii) A single long flagella present at the anterior end.
(iii) Creeping movements occur by expansion and expansion of their
body known as euglenoid movements.
(iv) Mode of nutrition is holophytic, saprobic or holozoic.
(v) Reserve food material is paramylum.
(vi) Euglenoids are known as plant and animal.
Plant characters of them are
(a) Presence of chloroplasts with chlorophyll.
(b) Holophytic nutrition.
Animal characters of them are
(a) Presence of pellicle, which is made up of proteins and not a
cellulose.
(b) Presence of stigma.
(c) Presence of contractile vacuole.
(d) Presene of longitudinal binary fission.
(vii) Under favourable conditions euglenoids multiply by longitudinal
binary fission, e.g., Euglena, Phacus, Paranema, etc.

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Question 11. Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their

structure and nature of genetic material. Also name four common
viral diseases.
Answer Viruses are non-cellular, ultramicroscopic, infectious particles.
They are made up of envelope, capsid, nucleoid and occasionally one or
two enzymes. Viruses possess an outer thin loose covering called
envelope. The central portion of nucleoid is surrounded by capsid that is
made up of smaller sub-units known as capsomeres.
The nucleic acid present in the viruses is known as nucleoid. It is the
infective part of the virus which utilises the host cell machinery. The genetic
material of viruses is of four types (i) Double stranded DNA (dsDNA) as
found in pox virus, hepatitis-B virus and herpes virus, etc. (ii) Single
stranded DNA (ssDNA) occur in coliphage fd, coliphage fx174. (iii) Double
stranded RNA (dsRNA) occur in Reo virus, (iv) Single stranded RNA :
(ssRNA) occur in TMV virus, polio virus, etc.
Four common viral diseases are (i) Polio, (ii) AIDS, (iii) Hepatitis-B,
(iv) Rabies.

Question 12. Organise a discussion in your class on the topic are

viruses living or non-living?
Answer Viruses are non-living features intermediate between non-living
and living organisms. On the basis of characters, such as non-cellular
organisation, inactivity outside the host organism, lack of respiration and
cellular metabolism, these are caused non-living. Moreover, similar to
non-living objects viruses can be crystallised and precipitated.
Living Feature Similar to living beings, they possess genetic material
(DNA or RNA), property of mutation, irritability, can grow and multiply inside
the host cell. They are intracellular obligate parasites and attack specific
hosts. Thus, keeping these points in mind, it is quite difficult to ascertain
whether viruses are living or non-living.

Selected NCERT Exemplar Problems

Very Short Answer Type Questions
Question 1. What is the principle underlying the
cyanobacteria in agricultural fields for crop improvement?

use

of

Answer Cyanobacteria such as Anabaena, Nostoc, Aulosira, Stigonema

and Cylindrospermum, etc., can perform nitrogen fixation due to the
presence of heterocysts while performing oxygenic photosynthesis.
Nitrogenase a nitrogen fixing enzyme is present in heterocysts. These

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organisms fix the soil nitrogen and make it available to the plants. Thus,
they increase the fertility of agricultural fields. Anabaena oryzae is an
important nitrogen fixer in rice fields.

Question 2. Suppose you accidentally find an old preserved

permanent slide without a label. In your effort to identify it, you
place the slide under microscope and observe the following features
(a) Unicellular, (b) Well defined nucleus, (c) Biflagellate-one flagellum
lying longitudinally and the other transversely.
What would you identify it as? Can you name the kingdom it belong to?
Answer

It is a dinoflagellate. It belongs to the kingdomProtista.

Question 3. How is the five kingdom classification advantageous

over the two kingdom classification?
Answer As the five kingdom classification is based upon cell structure,
(whether complex eukaryote or simple prokaryote), body structure
(unicellular or multicellular, nutrition (autotrophic or heterotrophic) and life
style, so it is more useful as compared to two kingdom system of
classificaton.

Question 4. Polluted water bodies have usually very

abundance of plants like Nostoc and Oscillatoria. Give reasons.

high

Answer Sewage which contains phosphate containing detergents when

added to water bodies, stimulate the algal growth due to nutrient
enrichment. The increased nutrient content of polluted water bodies
increase the rapid growth of water plants, i.e., algae especially Nostoc and
Oscillatoria, etc.

Question 5. Are chemosynthetic bacteria-autotrophic or heterotrophic?

Answer Chemosynthetic bacteria are autotrophs. These bacteria oxidise
various inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and
use the released energy for their ATP production.

Question 6. The common name of pea is simpler than its botanical

(scientific) name Pisum sativum. Why then is simpler common name
not used instead of the complex scientific/botanical name in
biology?
Answer The common or vernacular names change with the change in
place, so they cause confusion regarding specimen identification. In spite
of this, the botanical names being in Latin are universally same as
understood. Thus, botanical names are commonly.

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Question 7. A virus is considered as a living organism and an

obligate parasite when inside a host cell. But virus is not classified
along with bacteria or fungi. What are the characters of virus that are
similar to non-living objects?
Answer Viruses are considered living organisms and cause diseases
inside a host cell but outside the living host, they are inert, cannot reproduct
on their own. Morever, they can be crystallised in crystalline form and lack
cellular organisation, incapable of growth and division. These characters
make them identical to non-living objects.

Question 8. In the five kingdom system of Whittaker, how many

kingdoms are eukaryotes?
Answer In the five kingdom classification of Whittaker the four kingdoms,
i.e., Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia are eukaryotes.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Diatoms are also called as pearls of ocean. Why? What
is diatomaceous Earth?
Answer Diatoms are the main producers in the ocean. Being siliceous in
nature, after death they add silica in the ocean. They prepare food not only
for themselves, but for other plants also in the ocean. So, they are also
called as Pearls of Ocean.
Diatomaceous Earth is the deposits of highly siliceous cell walls (frustules)
of unicellular diatoms (algae). It is a whitish, highly porous, insoluble,
chemically inert, highly absorbent and fire proof substance. It is used in
making sound proof buildings, living furnaces and boiless, as insulating
material and also as a filter for oils.

Question 2. There is a myth that immediately after heavy rains in

forest, mushrooms appear in large number and make a very large ring
or circle, which may be several metres in diameter. These are called as
fairy rings. Can you explain this myth of fairy rings in biological
terms?
Answer The fruiting bodies also known as basidiocarps of Agaricus arise
in concentric rings from the mycelium present in the soil. As these
basidiocarps resemble button in shape and develop in rings, they are
known as fairy rings or fungal flowers. In fact, these are the fruiting bodies
of this fungus. These rings of underground mycelium spreads centrifugally,
the diameter of fairy ring also increase every year.

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Question 3. Neurospora an Ascomycetes fungus has been used as a

biological tool to understand the mechanism of plant genetics much
in the same way as Drosophila has been used to study animal
genetics. What makes Neurospora so important as a genetic tool?
Answer Neurospora fungus was selected and proved to be a very good
genetic tool because this fungus can very easily be grown under laboratory
conditions by providing a minimal medium (i.e., certain inorganic salts, a
carbohydrate source and the vitamin biotin). By X-rays treatment, a number
of mutations can be induced. The products of all four meiotic divisions can
be observed directly and finally, the individual ascospores can be
separated from an ascus and can be grown on a separate culture.

Question 4. Cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria have been

clubbed together in eubacteria of kingdomMonera as per the Five
Kingdom Classification even though the two are vastly different from
each other. In this grouping of the two types of taxa in the same
kingdom justified? If so, why?
Answer Both these groups are prokaryotic in nature, i.e., they do not have
well defined nucleus. Their nucleus lacks nucleolus and nuclear membrane.
Their genetic material, i.e., DNA lies freely in the cytoplasm. They have 70 S
type of ribosomes. That is why these are placed together in eubacteria
group.

Question 5. Fungi are cosmopolitan, write the role of fungi in your

daily life.
Answer

Role of Fungi
(i) Some fungi are used as nutritious and delicious foods, e.g., Agaricus
bisporus and A. compestris (mushrooms). Morchella is an important
source of our food. Similarly, some yeasts are used as an important
source of vitamin-B. A food called sufu is produced from Mucor and
anti Mucor.
(ii) Saprophytic fungi live upon dead organic matter and thus breakdown
complex subtances into simple ones, which are again absorbed by
the plants.
(iii) Absidia, Aspergillus, Mucor, Penicillium and Rhizopus have soil
binding properties and they make the soil good.

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(iv) Yeast (Saccharomyces) has the property of fermentation, thus it is

used for the preparation of alcohol and dough.
(v) Many fungi such as Empusa, Ferinosa, etc., can be used to control
insect pests.
(vi) Soil inhabiting fungus Trichoderma kills root rot fungus, i.e., Pythium.

Question 6. What observable features in Trypanosoma would make

you classify it under kingdomProtista?
Answer Trypanosoma is classified under kingdom Protista because like
protists it is unicellular, having flagella as the organ of locomotion. It is
uninucleate with centrally located nucleus and contains prominent
nucleolus or endosome. It resembles protistians in mode of asexual
reproduction, i.e., by binary fission and the reserve food material is in the
form of granules.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Algae are known to reproduce asexually by a variety of
spores under different environmental conditions. Name these spores
and the conditions under which they are produced.
Answer In algae, usually spores are reproductive units specialized for
asexual reproduction.These are of following types:
(i) Zoospores It Chlorophyceae and Phaeophyceae, motile and
flagellated zoospores are produced from zoosporangia during
favourable conditions. Zoospores may be biflagellate as in
Chlamydomonas and Ulothrix. In Vaucheria, the zoospores are
multi-flagellate and called as synzoospores.
Flagella

Nucleus

Pyrenoid

Zoospore of Chlamydomonas

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(ii) Aplanospores These are unicellular, uninucleate, non-motile and

thin-walled spors, produced under unfavourable conditions,
e.g., Spirogyra.
Protoplast
Nucleus

Membrane

Aplanospore of Spirogyra

(iii) Hypnospores These are thick-walled spores produced under

unfavourable conditions, e.g., Vaucheria, Ulothrix.
(iv) Akinetes These are special thick-walled vegetative cells in the
filaments, which germinate on return of favourable conditions and
can withstand unfavourable conditions as in Spirogyra.
(v) Statospores

These are thick-walled spores produced in diatoms.

(vi) Neutral spores In certain algae, the protoplast of vegetative cells

directly function as spores. These are called neutral spores,
e.g., Ectocarpus.

Question 2. Apart from chlorophyll, algae have several other

pigments in their chloroplast. What pigments are found in
blue-green, red and brown algae that are responsible for their
characteristic colours?
Answer Apart from chlorophyll, algae have pigments such as -carotene,
xanthophyll and fucoxanthin. The characteristic pigments of class
Rhodophyceae are phycocyanin and phycoerythrin which give red colour,
the classPhaeophyceae, i.e., brown algae have characteristic pigment
fucoxanthin. Similarly, the pigments which impart blue-green colour to the
members of classCyanophyceae are phycobilins, i.e., phycocyanin,
allophycocyanin an phycoerythrin. These pigments play an important role in
the classification of algae.

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Question 3. Make a list of algae and fungi that have commercial

value as source of food, chemicals, medicines and fodder.
Answer

Some Important Algae and Fungi used as Food

S.N. Organism Food Sources

Chemical

Medicine

1.

Algae

Porphyra,
Laminaria, Alaria,
Monostroma,
Undaria, Ulva,
Chlorella, Nostoc,
Durvillea, Codium,
Spirulina and
Scenedesmus

Macrocystis,
Chlorella, Cladophora,
Laminaria,
Lyngbya, Digenea, Codium,
Ascophyllum,
Alsidium and Durvillea
Lessonia, Ecklonia
and Eisenia

2.

Fungi

Agaricus
compestris,
Variela volvacea,
Armillaria mellea,
Agaricus
bisporus, Lentinus
edodes,
Lycoperdon,
Morchella,
Pleurotus,
Saccharomyces,
Rhizopogon,
Mucor

Aspergillus niger,
A. wentil and
Mucor (Citric
acid), Aspergillus
niger and
Penicillium
purpurogenum
(gluconic acid), P.
glacum and A.
gallomyces (gallic
acid), A. oryzae
(kojic acid),
Rhizopus stolonifer
(fumaric acid),
Fusarium
moniliforme
(gibberellic acid),
Saccharomyces
sp. (Vitamin-B
and D)

Penicillin (Penicillium
notatum and P.
chrysogenum), Glyotoxin
(Trichoderma sp.), Chitrinine
(Penicillium citrinine),
Baccatin-A (Gibberella
baccata),
Ergotine (Claviceps
purpurea], Clavicin
(Aspergillus clavatus),
Flavicin (Aspergillus flavus
and A. fumigatus), Fumigallin
(Aspergillus fumigatus),
Jawaharine (Aspergillus
niger), Chaetomin
(Chaetomium cochloides),
Proliferin (Aspergillus
proliferans), Griseofulvinium
[Penicillium griseofulvum
(used in skin diseases)]

Question 4. Peat is an important source of domestic fuel in several

countries. How is peat formed in nature?
Answer Peat is produced by Sphagnum moss. This moss occurs in
acidic bogs. It is usually formed after the deposition of plants of Sphagnum
in the acidic soils of the bogs. In due course of time, these preserved
Sphagnum plants get harderned and change into peat. Peat find its
applications in the preparation of ethyl alcohol, peat tar, ammonia, paraffin,
etc. It is also used to tie gifs and in seed beds because of its high water
retention capacity. Peat is also used to cover the roots during
transportation. This shows enormous values of peat for human kind.
Sphagnum is the chief constituent of peat.