A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering.

The formation
of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the
spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosperm plants.

Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after fertilization by pollen and some
growth within the mother plant. The embryo is developed from the zygote and the
seed coat from the integuments of the ovule.

Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and success of

gymnosperms and angiosperms plants, relative to more primitive plants such as
ferns, mosses and liverworts, which do not have seeds and use other means to
propagate themselves. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from
forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates.

The term "seed" also has a general meaning that antedates the aboveanything
that can be sown, e.g. "seed" potatoes, "seeds" of corn or sunflower "seeds". In the
case of sunflower and corn "seeds", what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or
husk, whereas the potato is a tuber.

Many structures commonly referred to as "seeds" are actually dry fruits. Plants
producing berries are called baccate. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold
commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be
split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications,
the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach) have a hardened fruit layer (the
endocarp) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. Nuts are the one-seeded, hardshelled fruit of some plants with an indehiscent seed, such as an acorn or hazelnut.

Development
Angiosperm (flowering plants) seeds consist of three genetically distinct
constituents: (1) the embryo formed from the zygote, (2) the endosperm, which is
normally triploid, (3) the seed coat from tissue derived from the maternal tissue of
the ovule. In angiosperms, the process of seed development begins with double
fertilization, which involves the fusion of two male gametes with the egg cell and
the central cell to form the primary endosperm and the zygote. Right after
fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides
rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant
will consume until the roots have developed after germination

Ovule

The cotyledons, the seed leaves, attached to the embryonic axis. There
may be one (Monocotyledons), or two (Dicotyledons). The cotyledons are
also the source of nutrients in the non-endospermic dicotyledons, in which
case they replace the endosperm, and are thick and leathery. In endospermic
seeds the cotyledons are thin and papery. Dicotyledons have the point of
attachment opposite one another on the axis.
The epicotyl, the embryonic axis above the point of attachment of the
cotyledon(s).
The plumule, the tip of the epicotyl, and has a feathery appearance due to
the presence of young leaf primordia at the apex, and will become the shoot
upon germination.
The hypocotyl, the embryonic axis below the point of attachment of the
cotyledon(s), connecting the epicotyle and the radicle, being the stem-root
transition zone.
The radicle, the basal tip of the hypocotyl, grows into the primary root.

Monocotyledonous plants have two additional structures in the form of

sheaths. The plumule is covered with a coleoptile that forms the first leaf
while the radicle is covered with a coleorhiza that connects to the primary
root and adventitious roots form from the sides. Here the hypocotyl is a
rudimentary axis between radicle and plumule. The seeds of corn are
constructed with these structures; pericarp, scutellum (single large
cotyledon) that absorbs nutrients from the endosperm, plumule, radicle,
coleoptile and coleorhizathese last two structures are sheath-like and
enclose the plumule and radicle, acting as a protective covering.

Seed coat
The maturing ovule undergoes marked changes in the integuments,
generally a reduction and disorganisation but occasionally a thickening. The
seed coat forms from the two integuments or outer layers of cells of the
ovule, which derive from tissue from the mother plant, the inner integument
forms the tegmen and the outer forms the testa. (The seed coats of some
mononocotyledon plants, such as the grasses, are not distinct structures, but

are fused with the fruit wall to form a pericarp.) The testae of both monocots
and dicots are often marked with patterns and textured markings, or have
wings or tufts of hair. When the seed coat forms from only one layer, it is also
called the testa, though not all such testae are homologous from one species
to the next. The funiculus abscises (detaches at fixed point abscission
zone), the scar forming an oval depression, the hilum. Anatropous ovules
have a portion of the funiculus that is adnate (fused to the seed coat), and
which forms a longitudinal ridge, or raphe, just above the hilum. In bitegmic
ovules (e.g. Gossypium described here) both inner and outer integuments
contribute to the seed coat formation. With continuing maturation the cells
enlarge in the outer integument. While the inner epidermis may remain a
single layer, it may also divide to produce two to three layers and
accumulates starch, and is referred to as the colourless layer. By contrast the
outer epidermis becomes tanniferous. The inner integument may consist of
eight to fifteen layers. (Kozlowski 1972)

As the cells enlarge, and starch is deposited in the outer layers of the
pigmented zone below the outer epidermis, this zone begins to lignify, while
the cells of the outer epidermis enlarge radially and their walls thicken, with
nucleus and cytoplasm compressed into the outer layer. these cells which are
broader on their inner surface are called palisade cells. In the inner epidermis
the cells also enlarge radially with plate like thickening of the walls. The
mature inner integument has a palisade layer, a pigmented zone with 15-20
layers, while the innermost layer is known as the fringe layer. (Kozlowski
1972)
Gymnosperms
In gymnosperms, which do not form ovaries, the ovules and hence the seeds
are exposed. This is the basis for their nomenclature naked seeded plants.
Two sperm cells transferred from the pollen do not develop the seed by
double fertilization, but one sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus and
the other sperm is not used. Sometimes each sperm fertilizes an egg cell and
one zygote is then aborted or absorbed during early development.[5] The
seed is composed of the embryo (the result of fertilization) and tissue from
the mother plant, which also form a cone around the seed in coniferous
plants such as pine and spruce.

Shape and appearance

A large number of terms are used to describe seed shapes, many of which
are largely self-explanatory such as Bean-shaped (reniform) resembling a
kidney, with lobed ends on either side of the hilum, Square or Oblong
angular with all sides more or less equal or longer than wide, Triangular
three sided, broadest below middle, Elliptic or Ovate or Obovate rounded at
both ends, or egg shaped (ovate or obovate, broader at one end), being
rounded but either symmetrical about the middle or broader below the
middle or broader above the middle.[6]

Other less obvious terms include discoid (resembling a disc or plate, having
both thickness and parallel faces and with a rounded margin), ellipsoid,
globose (spherical), or subglobose (Inflated, but less than spherical),
lenticular, oblong, ovoid, reniform and sectoroid. Striate seeds are striped
with parallel, longitudinal lines or ridges. The commonest colours are brown
and black, other colours are infrequent. The surface varies from highly
polished to considerably roughened. The surface may have a variety of
appendages (see Seed coat). A seed coat with the consistency of cork is
referred to as suberose. Other terms include crustaceous (hard, thin or
brittle).

Structure
A typical seed includes two basic parts:

1. an embryo;
2. a seed coat.

In addition, the endosperm forms a supply of nutrients for the embryo in

most monocotyledons and the endospermic dicotyledons.

Seed types

Seeds have been considered to occur in many structurally different types

(Martin 1946).[7] These are based on a number of criteria, of which the
dominant one is the embryo-to-seed size ratio. This reflects the degree to

which the developing cotyledons absorb the nutrients of the endosperm, and
thus obliterate it.[citation needed]

Six types occur amongst the monocotyledons, ten in the dicotyledons, and
two in the gymnosperms (linear and spatulate).[8] This classification is based
on three characteristics: embryo morphology, amount of endosperm and the
position of the embryo relative to the endosperm.

Embryo
In endospermic seeds, there are two distinct regions inside the seed coat, an
upper and larger endosperm and a lower smaller embryo. The embryo is the
fertilised ovule, an immature plant from which a new plant will grow under
proper conditions. The embryo has one cotyledon or seed leaf in
monocotyledons, two cotyledons in almost all dicotyledons and two or more
in gymnosperms. In the fruit of grains (caryopses) the single monocotyledon
is shield shaped and hence called a scutellum. The scutellum is pressed
closely against the endosperm from which it absorbs food, and passes it to
the growing parts. Embryo descriptors include small, straight, bent, curved
and curled.

Seed coat

The seed coat develops from the maternal tissue, the integuments, originally
surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper-thin
layer (e.g. peanut) or something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in
honey locust and coconut), or fleshy as in the sarcotesta of pomegranate.
The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury, predators
and drying out. Depending on its development, the seed coat is either
bitegmic or unitegmic. Bitegmic seeds form a testa from the outer
integument and a tegmen from the inner integument while unitegmic seeds
have only one integument. Usually parts of the testa or tegmen form a hard
protective mechanical layer. The mechanical layer may prevent water
penetration and germination. Amongst the barriers may be the presence of
lignified sclereids.[11]

The outer integument has a number of layers, generally between four and
eight organised into three layers: (a) outer epidermis, (b) outer pigmented
zone of two to five layers containing tannin and starch, and (c) inner
epidermis. The endotegmen is derived from the inner epidermis of the inner
integument, the exotegmen from the outer surface of the inner integument.
The endotesta is derived from the inner epidermis of the outer integument,
and the outer layer of the testa from the outer surface of the outer
integument is referred to as the exotesta. If the exotesta is also the
mechanical layer, this is called an exotestal seed, but if the mechanical layer
is the endotegmen, then the seed is endotestal. The exotesta may consist of
one or more rows of cells that are elongated and pallisade like (e.g.
Fabaceae), hence 'palisade exotesta'.[12][13]

In addition to the three basic seed parts, some seeds have an appendage, an
aril, a fleshy outgrowth of the funicle (funiculus), (as in yew and nutmeg) or
an oily appendage, an elaiosome (as in Corydalis), or hairs (trichomes). In
the latter example these hairs are the source of the textile crop cotton. Other
seed appendages include the raphe (a ridge), wings, caruncles (a soft spongy
outgrowth from the outer integument in the vicinity of the micropyle), spines,
or tubercles.

A scar also may remain on the seed coat, called the hilum, where the seed
was attached to the ovary wall by the funicle. Just below it is a small pore,
representing the micropyle of the ovule.

Size and seed set

Seeds are very diverse in size. The dust-like orchid seeds are the smallest, with
about one million seeds per gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature
embryos and no significant energy reserves. Orchids and a few other groups of
plants are mycoheterotrophs which depend on mycorrhizal fungi for nutrition during
germination and the early growth of the seedling. Some terrestrial orchid seedlings,
in fact, spend the first few years of their lives deriving energy from the fungi and do
not produce green leaves.[14] At over 20 kg, the largest seed is the coco de mer.
Plants that produce smaller seeds can generate many more seeds per flower, while
plants with larger seeds invest more resources into those seeds and normally
produce fewer seeds. Small seeds are quicker to ripen and can be dispersed sooner,
so fall blooming plants often have small seeds. Many annual plants produce great
quantities of smaller seeds; this helps to ensure at least a few will end in a favorable

place for growth. Herbaceous perennials and woody plants often have larger seeds;
they can produce seeds over many years, and larger seeds have more energy
reserves for germination and seedling growth and produce larger, more established
seedlings after germination.

Economic importance
Edible seeds
Many seeds are edible and the majority of human calories comes from seeds,
[45] especially from cereals, legumes and nuts. Seeds also provide most
cooking oils, many beverages and spices and some important food additives.
In different seeds the seed embryo or the endosperm dominates and
provides most of the nutrients. The storage proteins of the embryo and
endosperm differ in their amino acid content and physical properties. For
example, the gluten of wheat, important in providing the elastic property to
bread dough is strictly an endosperm protein.

Seeds are used to propagate many crops such as cereals, legumes, forest
trees, turfgrasses and pasture grasses. Particularly in developing countries, a
major constraint faced is the inadequacy of the marketing channels to get
the seed to poor farmers.[46] Thus the use of farmer-retained seed remains
quite common.

Seeds are also eaten by animals, and are fed to livestock. Many seeds are
used as birdseed.
Poison and food safety

While some seeds are edible, others are harmful, poisonous or deadly.[47]
Plants and seeds often contain chemical compounds to discourage
herbivores and seed predators. In some cases, these compounds simply
taste bad (such as in mustard), but other compounds are toxic or break down
into toxic compounds within the digestive system. Children, being smaller
than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds.[48]

A deadly poison, ricin, comes from seeds of the castor bean. Reported lethal
doses are anywhere from two to eight seeds,[49][50] though only a few
deaths have been reported when castor beans have been ingested by
animals.[51]

In addition, seeds containing amygdalinapple, apricot, bitter almond,[52]

peach, plum, cherry, quince, and otherswhen consumed in sufficient
amounts, may cause cyanide poisoning.[52][53] Other seeds that contain
poisons include annona, cotton, custard apple, datura, uncooked durian,
golden chain, horse-chestnut, larkspur, locoweed, lychee, nectarine,
rambutan, rosary pea, sour sop, sugar apple, wisteria, and yew.[49][54] The
seeds of the strychnine tree are also poisonous, containing the poison
strychnine.

The seeds of many legumes, including the common bean (Phaseolus

vulgaris), contain proteins called lectins which can cause gastric distress if
the beans are eaten without cooking. The common bean and many others,
including the soybean, also contain trypsin inhibitors which interfere with the
action of the digestive enzyme trypsin. Normal cooking processes degrade
lectins and trypsin inhibitors to harmless forms.[55]

Please see the category plant toxins for further relevant articles.
Other uses

Cotton fiber grows attached to cotton plant seeds. Other seed fibers are from
kapok and milkweed.

Many important nonfood oils are extracted from seeds. Linseed oil is used in
paints. Oil from jojoba and crambe are similar to whale oil.

Seeds are the source of some medicines including castor oil, tea tree oil and
the cancer drug, Laetrile.

Many seeds have been used as beads in necklaces and rosaries including
Job's tears, Chinaberry, rosary pea, and castor bean. However, the latter
three are also poisonous.

Other seed uses include:

Seeds once used as weights for balances.

Seeds used as toys by children, such as for the game Conkers.
Resin from Clusia rosea seeds used to caulk boats.
Nematicide from milkweed seeds.
Cottonseed meal used as animal feed and fertilizer.
Seed quality
Concept of seed quality:

It is the degree of excellence in regard to the characteristics refer to above

that determines the seed quality. If the seed lots posses high genetic purity
and high germination percentage and a minimum of inert, weed and other
crop seeds and are free from diseases., it is said to have high quality
.Generally the standards fixed for certified seeds are considered quality
standards. It implies that a if a seed lot meets the certification standard, it is
good quality seed and if does not meet the certification standards, it is
obviously of a lower seed quality.
Seed quality characteristics:

Improved variety: The variety must be truly superior than existing ones. It
must be the latest and the best variety suited to the area in regard to
production potential and other desirable characteristics.

Genetic purity: genetic purity of seeds refers to the trueness to type. The
genetic purity has direct effect on ultimate yields

Physical purity: Physical purity of a seed lot refers to the physical

composition of seed lots.. Pure seed considered together with seed
germination determine the planting value of the seed.

Seed germination and vigour: Seed germination refers to the ability of a seed
when planted under normal sowing conditions to give to a normal seedling.
The seed vigour refers to the sum total of all the attributes that give effective
plant stand in the field.

. Both of these have profound effect upon the ultimate yields and also
determines the planting value of the seed.

Planting value: Planting value is the real worth of a seed lot for raising the
crop.

Pure seed % Germination %

Pure live seed = -------------- X ------------------- X 100

Seed health: The health of seeds refers to the presence or absence of

disease organisms/ insect pests on seeds. The quality of the seed lot very
much depends on its health.

Seed moisture: The seed moisture is the most critical factor in the
maintenance of seed germination and viability during storage. The seed
must be dried to safe moisture content.

Quality Characteristics

Seed quality describes the potential performance of a seed lot. Trueness to

variety; the presence of inert matter, seed of other crops, or weed seed;
germination percentage; vigor; appearance; and freedom from disease are
important aspects of seed quality. High-quality seed lots should meet
minimum standards for each of these characteristics. The standards of
official certification agencies are usually accepted as the minimum
requirements for high-quality seed. (For information on standards, see the
Certification Handbook published by the North Carolina Crop Improvement
Association.)

Trueness to variety indicates that the seeds in a bag are of the variety stated
on the label. Trueness is usually determined by records of seed sources and
by field inspections of the plants that produce the seed. Field inspections are
conducted by certification agencies or representatives of commercial seed
companies.

Germination potential and vigor are at their highest potential when the seed
reaches physiological maturity. But because seed moisture is so high, most
crops are not ready to be harvested at that time. It is important that seed be
harvested as soon as the moisture content decreases to a safe level (see
Table 2). After maturity, germination potential and vigor begin to deteriorate.

The rate of deterioration depends on the weather during maturation and on

harvesting, conditioning, and storage practices. Seed can deteriorate rapidly
if excessive damage occurs during harvesting and conditioning (see Figure
9). Harvesting crops at the proper moisture content and keeping equipment
adjusted will minimize mechanical injury to seed.

Seed moisture levels for harvesting and conditioning are slightly higher than
those recommended for safe storage (Table 2). Seed storage conditions,
which can also greatly affect deterioration rates, is discussed in more detail
in a later section.

The quality of a seed lot can be improved by conditioning. Conditioning is

used mainly to eliminate or reduce undesirable contaminants such as
diseased and immature crop seed, weed seed, inert matter, broken or split
seed, or other crop seed. In some crops, conditioning includes the addition of
chemical seed treatment.
QUALITY SEED AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN AGRICULTURE

What is seed?

In broad sense, seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration

purpose. However scientifically, Seed is a fertilized matured ovule together
covered with seed coat is called seed or it is a propagating material i.e., part
of agriculture, sericulture, silviculture and horticultural plants used for sowing
or planting purpose.

Seed may be defined as Structurally a true seed is a fertilized matured

ovule, consisting of an embryonic plant, a store of food and a protective seed
coat, a store of food consists of cotyledons and endosperm

Definition of seed

However, from the seed technological point of view seed may be sexually
produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or
cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). It also refers to propagating
materials of healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, setts,
slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for
production purpose.

Thus seed is the most vital and crucial input for crop production, one of the
ways to increase the productivity without adding appreciably to the extent of
land now under cultivation by planting quality seed.

Characteristics/attributes of quality seed;

1. It must be genetically pure:

Breeder/nucleus: 100 %

Foundation seeds: 99.5%

Certified seeds varieties: 98%

Certified hybrid seeds:95%

Certified hybrid cotton: 90%

Certified hybrid castor: 85%

2. It should have required level of physical purity:

All crops: 98%

Carrot: 95%

Ragi: 97%

1. Free form other crop seeds (number/kg): designated inseparable crop

seeds are the plants seeds cultivated crops found in the seed fields and
whose seeds are so similar to crop seed that is difficult to separate them
economically by mechanical means, cause physical admixtures with the crop
seeds only when these crop mature approximately at the same time when
seed crop matures. Ex. In barley: oats and wheat seeds

2. Free from objectionable weed seeds: these are seeds of weed species
which are harmful in one or more of the following ways;

a. The size and shape of weed seeds are similar to the crop seed and difficult
to separate them by mechanical means

b. Weeds growth habit is determinate type and compete with the crop for all
resources

c. Weed plant parts are poisonous or injurious to human and animals

d. Weed platns also serves as alternative hosts for pests and diseases

Ex. Bersem: chicory

Paddy: wild paddy (Oryza sativa var. fatua)

Cucurbits: Wild cucurbits spp.

Lettuce: wild lettuce

Bhendi: wild Abelmoscous spp

Wheat: Convolvulus arvensis (Hirankuri)

3. Free from designated diseases: it refers to the diseases specified for the
seed certification which may cause contamination of seed lot

Ex; loose smut of wheat (Ustilago tritici)

Kernal smut of sorghum (Sphacelotheca sorghi)

Grain smut of pearl millet (Tolyposporium penicillariae)

Ergot of bajra (Claviceps microcephala)

Early blight of tomato (Alternaria solani)

Little leaf of brinjal (Datura virus-2) etc.,

4. High germination and vigour

5. Optimum moisture content

Cereals: 10-12 %

Pulses: 7-9%

Oilseeds:6-7%

Vegetables: 5-6%

The importance of quality seeds has been recognized from the time
immemorial. The old scripture, Manu Smriti says Subeejam Sukshetre
Jayate Sampadyathe i.e., Good seed in good soil yields abundantly. Seed
quality has been treated as sacred, being an important factor in the
improvement of agriculture and agrarian societies. The Rigveda, 2000 BC
indicate the importance accorded to seed and the mother earth. 5th century
Kautilya Artha Shasthra, surapalas vrikshayurveda mentioned importance of
seed and mentioned about seed treatments to ensure good germination.
Seed dressing with milk, vidanga, cowdung, honey to protect the seed during
germination.

Although the importance of seed was recognized in ancient agriculture, the

need for organized seed production was identified only at the beginning of
20th century when Royal commission of Agriculture (1925) recommended
spread of improved varieties and seed distribution.

Importance of quality seed:

1. Seed is a vital input in crop production;

It is the cheapest input in crop production and key to agriculture progress.

 Crop status largely depends on the seed materials used for sowing

Response of other inputs in crop production depends on seed material used

2. The seed required for raising crop is quite small and its cost is so less
compared to other inputs

3. This emphasis the need for increasing the areas under quality seed
production

4. It is estimated that good quality seeds to improved varieties can

contribute about 20-25% increase in yield.

The advent of modern plant breeding methods and biotechnological

advances in seed industry plays a significant role in developing of high
yielding varieties and hybrids.

Role of improved seeds:

1. Carrier of new technology

2. Basic tool for a secure food supply

3. The principle means to obtain crop yields in less favourable production

area

4. Medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture after natural disasters.

Benefits of using quality seeds

1. They are genetically pure (true to type).

2. The good quality seed has high return per unit area as the genetic
potentiality of the crop can be fully exploited.

3. Less infestation of land with weed seed/other crop seeds.

4. Less disease and insect problem.

5. Minimization of seed/seedling rate i.e., fast and uniform emergence of

seedling.

6. They are vigorous, free from pests and disease.

7. They can be adopted themselves for extreme climatic condition and

cropping system of the location.

8. The quality seed respond well to the applied fertilizers and nutrients.

9. Uniform in plant population and maturity.

10. Crop raised with quality seed are aesthetically pleasing.

11. Good seed prolongs life of a variety.

12. Yield prediction is very easy.

13. Handling in post-harvest operation will be easy.

14. Preparations of finished products are also better.

15. High produce value and their marketability.

Prospects of Seed Industry in Bangladesh

The issue of agricultural development is globally important and especially
crucial to satisfying the needs of the ever-growing population in a developing
country like Bangladesh. Agriculture has been the mainstay of Bangladesh
civilization. Even today, it is the fulcrum of Bangladesh economy, accounting
for over 25 percent of the GDP and involving about 66 percent of over 140
million populations. In Bangladesh, an increasing population with an
improved standard of living and continuously declining arable land continue
to increase the pressure on natural resources.
In spite of the significant gains from the green revolution (1960s), the
average production Bangladesh agriculture is significantly lower than that of
the developed, as well as developing nations. There is an urgent need for the
agriculture sector to grow at > 2.5 percent per annum to achieve sustained
economic growth of >6.0- 6.5 percent in Bangladesh. In order to increase
agricultural productivity, widespread use of genetically improved seeds and
planting material is essential. Seeds area major input and the initial lever for
bolstering agricultural production. Therefore, the Seed Industry is perceived
as a cost-effective instrument of positive change in Bangladesh agriculture.
The development of the Seed Industry in Bangladesh from the 1960s through
the 1970s was dominated by the public sector, with a supporting role played
by the private sector. The growth of the Seed Industry in the private sector
started in the early 1990s. The Government of Bangladesh recognizing the

need for continuous up gradation of seed to maximize agricultural

productivity and the worldwide trend of genetic research moving to the
private sector, introduced a National Seed Policy on Seed Development
(NSPSD) in 1993. The NSPSD has enabled medium and large seed
enterprises and companies with foreign/ technical collaboration to start
playing an increasing role in the development and marketing of high quality
seed varieties thereby boosting agricultural production.
By the remarkable development achieved in the seed sector, with respect to
development of seed quality, awareness to improved seeds and seed
technology yet only 13% quality seed is possible to be supplied by the formal
system against total demand and hence food deficit prevails in the country. A
target has to be fixed for the supply of seed from the formal system and all
out effort such as trained manpower, capital and facilities have to be taken
to fulfill that target. A target (Table- 4) is suggested below:
By the remarkable development achieved in the seed sector, with respect to
development of seed quality, awareness to improved seeds and seed
technology yet only 13% quality seed is possible to be supplied by the formal
system against total demand and hence food deficit prevails in the country. A
target has to be fixed for the supply of seed from the formal system and all
out effort such as trained manpower, capital and facilities have to be taken
to fulfill the target.
The total the requirement of seeds of different crops in 2010-2011will be
218810.26 m. tons against which 117526.2 m.tons in 2005-06, had been
supplied from the formal seed system (Table-4). From table it is easily
understandable that there is a bright prospect of the Seed

Industry Business in Bangladesh.

the total requirement of seed in Bangladesh is increasing gradually.
In Bangladesh, since 1990s economic liberalization along with the move
towards privatization by the government seems to have had a positive
impact on the private seed industry. Many new payers including
multinational companies are entering the seed and agrobiotech market in
Bangladesh. Today in Bangladesh, the private seed sector is playing a major
role in popularizing improved crop varieties, particularly hybrid rice, maize,
pearl millet, sorghum, and vegetable seed and HYV potato seeds. Population
is the major determinant of the potential size of a seed market. Bangladesh,

with a population of over 140 million, presents one of the largest potential
domestic seed markets.
The major issues in the seed industry today are biotechnology, globalization,
the WTO and its regulatory framework. Commercial products related to
biotechnology in seed industry, such as insect resistant crops have more
impact on the seed business than any development in decades. Globalization
of economics and increased importance of WTO have created many
opportunities as well as challenges for the seed industry. Many questions
surround the regulatory framework for protecting owners of seeds as well as
consumers from possible seed related problems, and ensuring that the
industry maintains a market orientation and competitive edge. Other striking
issues facing the seed industry as many chemical companies are now
merging with seed companies to capitalize on new technologies, economics
of scale in research, and access to global market.
Technology advancement in agriculture can lead to a second green
revolution in Bangladesh. The advances in biotechnology and their
integration with plant breeding are likely to open up new vistas in
Bangladesh a prospective food factory. The availability of a large research
network infrastructure and the diversity of agro-climatic conditions make it
possible to grow a specific crop for seed production all round the year in
Bangladesh. Also, the availability of relatively less expensive agricultural
labor could contribute to the growth of the seed industry to cater to the
domestic seed market, seed exports, and contract custom seed production.
Thus an effective Bangladesh Seed Industry with the capacity for a
continuous supply of improved high quality seed varieties at competitive
prices would serve as a catalyst to increase food production and for
sustained agricultural and socio-economic development.
CONCLUSION
Good seed alone can give an increased production to the extent of 1520% over the poor seed.
For that reason government has given a clear mandate to the public
sector through to act as catalyst in promoting private sector through transfer
of technology and providing breeder and foundation seeds.
As a result many private seed companies have been developed in our
country and that company plays a vital role in respect of production and
supply of quality seed to the farmers.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Awareness should be created among the farmers about the quality seed.
Incentive support for both public and private sector seed production and
marketing should be enhanced.
Rules, regulations and procedures for import of seeds should continuously
be revised and adjusted when necessary.
Effective relationships should be established between public, private and
NGOs sectors.
INTRODUCTION
The growth of the market-oriented agriculture is dependent on the
sustainablegrowth and development of an organized production, processing
and marketingsystem. The farmers are usually not organized as groups of
specializedagricultural producers. Therefore, the producers of different
agricultural productsneed stable markets to sustain production using more
and more advancedtechnology. In organizing the agribusiness aiming at
sustainable development of agriculture one has to plan for organized
production of the commodity within anappropriately diversified production
system (Rahman, 1977, 1995, 2001). Thiswill help development of a
processing and marketing system for a product in anygiven area with
ensured price.Agricultural production system is highly dependent on quality
seeds. This is thesub-sector where we are in extreme disorder and totally
dependent on a conceptthat importation of seeds can do the best, a concept
that does not support theagricultural production system of Bangladesh in the
years to come. It is possibleto have this sector organized to help
development of sustainable agriculture inBangladesh. We have a very
resourceful plant genetic base in this country, whichare eroding fast due
mostly to unplanned development of infrastructures, houses, population
pressure, over exploitation of plant species for medicinal business, etc.With
the spread of high yielding varieties of crops, a market for improved
qualityseed has emerged. Side by side with the growth of seed trade in the
private sector,farmers took up production of quality seeds in response to
market demand.Despite notable initiatives towards seed production at a
commercial scale, farmersface constraints in respect of processing,
preservation and marketing of seed.Lack of quality control and efficient seed
certification arrangements often put the farmers at disadvantage. Farmers
do not necessarily get higher prices for better quality seeds. This paper

attempts to discuss the seed development issues withemphasis on

farmersinitiatives to take up seed production and plant nurserydevelopment
as commercial ventures. The paper also discusses the issues relatedto
processing of soybean, a high value oilseed crop that has huge market
potential.
SEED BASE AND THE BUSINESS
There are more than 163 cultivated crop species in Bangladesh (Rekhi et
al.1996), the seeds of which are in fact very important ones in the system of
production. The yields and the quality of the agricultural commodities are
highlydependent on the quality of the seeds, be that a plant variety, or a tree
species or livestock and poultry birds or the fish species. The crop seed
production andsupply in Bangladesh as shown in the Table 1 clearly indicates
that there is highdemand and very low supply of high quality seeds of the
varieties under cultivation, with exceptions to imported seed items of
vegetables and high inputcrops like maize, and hybrid rice. The issues of
sustainable development of agriculture do consist of development and
maintenance of different varieties of crops in different areas of the country
as practiced in China. The demand andsupply situation indicate that the
scope for organized business with quality seed production and marketing
even at regional level is high provided effectivemonitoring of the market is
done as per seed rules and laws of the country.The basic problems in seed
production, processing and marketing in Bangladeshare that the production
system is not organized, the contract growers are nottrained as required, the
private sector companies and traders lack commitment of maintaining
quality, dealers control the quantity in the market thereby the price of the
seeds and packaging are not appropriate. There is no protection for the
farmersagainst any unscrupulous activities of the seed dealers or companies.
Moreover,government has no effectively organized control systems for seed
market price,general product price and purchase system after the harvest.
These result into low price of the products produced using high price seeds
as well as inputs and labour.Considering these issues the farmers need to
save and their own seeds for four major reasons. These are:(i)They know the
variety, the characteristics of the seed, their own system of processing and
preservation and they also know that it may be difficult toget such quality
seeds from the market at the time of their sowing.(ii)The organized
competitive seed markets have not been developed, so the price and the
variation in quality found during the sowing season couldcause difficulties in
getting seeds of the crop for which they have planned

124Bangladesh Journal of Political Economy Vol. 20, No 1

(iii)During sowing season they can market the extra quantity of their seeds
for a good price.(iv)The low seed replacement rate is also due to the lack of
availability,affordability and accessibility of high-quality, dependable
seeds.Alarge portion of the agricultural population of Bangladesh is directly
andindirectly involved in the seed production and marketing system. There
arefarmers producing seeds for own use, for BADC, NGOs and Private
companiesas contract growers. Therefore, many of the farmers do know
about the seedcrops, their production and processing systems. It is
interesting to note that whenthe farmers use their own seeds or sell their
seeds to relatives / neighbours, thegermination is better and the crop is good
than when seeds from the generalmarkets are used (Rahman et.al., 1992). In
a study of BRAC (Hossain et al, 2002),it was observed that the rice yield of
5.5 tons/ha was obtained with the farmerssaved seeds while yield from
private company seeds, BADCs seed, DAEs seedand fellow farmersseeds
were 5.24, 5.86, 5.23 and 5.6 tons per ha. This indicatesthat the farmers own
saved seeds are in no way less productive than those of others. Then why
not we train more farmers to produce high quality seeds for their own use
and encourage development of small-scale seed market within their
neighbourhoods.
3.PRIVATE SEED INDUSTRYDEVELOPMENTISSUES
The private seed sector needs to grow faster so that it can play a major role
notonly in producing and marketing quality seeds to satisfy the demand
(Table 1), butalso in conducting seed-related research and development
activities in Bangladeshwith participation of the farming community. It is a
challenge for any country todevelop a demand-driven seed industry capable
of timely production andmarketing of a perishable product such as seed. But
for Bangladesh, the challengeis even more complex than in developed
countries. Here, seed industry pioneersface many problems like:i)Ahot and
humid climate, usually not suitable for quality seeds of many
varieties/crops.ii)Land fragmentation, which limits the amount of large
agriculturallandholding available at the private level.iii)Alack of contract
growing groups with capabilities of growingquality seeds on their
own.iv)Inadequate govt. policies for supporting seed processing
andmarketing groups.v)Dominance of economically disadvantaged small and
mediumfarmers, and sharecroppers in the farming community.

private seed industries to become contract seed producers. But individuals,

groupsand NGOs trying to produce and market quality seeds are doing their
works inisolation leading to questionable quality and aiming at variable profit
margins.They will need to be brought under one national organization having
capability tomonitor and control quality. This will coordinate the collective
efforts of thecompanies involved in the seed business along with extending
help to plan andexecute the programmes of quality seed replacement
system. Otherwise, the possibility of low quality - high priced seeds
inundating the market cannot beavoided.It appears that the development of
a true private sector seed industry from acollection of seed trading houses is
taking long time since the process began in1990, when a new seed policy
was developed and adopted in 1993 to liberalizethe regulatory environment
surrounding private seed production and marketing.So, the Seed Industry, as
we call them, still consists mostly of traders who importhigh-value lowvolume seeds in large quantities and sell them in the market withhigh profits.
This they do considering that the farmersseed base is likely toremain the
biggest source of crop seeds for some more years to come. Thisattitude is
creating dependence on imported seeds. This is why an effective planning
for establishing a successful seed business in Bangladesh is necessary.Any
business venturing to establish and develop a stable market niche in the
seedindustry in Bangladesh will need careful study and monitoring of the
seed base,and develop a well-defined variety replacement schedule using
the techno-managerial knowledge and skills. Based on the situation
prevailing now, thefollowing support will be needed to encourage investment
in private seed industrydevelopment:i)Land leasingii)Longer tax
holidaysiii)Maintenance of Plant Genetic Resources (PGR)iv)Support for plant
variety rights as per rules framed by Bangladeshv)Support for breedersand
foundation seedsvi)Support for research and development of production
technologiesvii)Support of public sector experts for advancing the
technology even by using Biotechnologyviii)Organizing training on seed
technologyix)Promotional activities on seed use for farmersx)Support for
visits to other countries to get experience for stages of
developmentxi)Support for establishing effective linkage between farmers
andmarket for product marketing at good price to help stable seeddemand.
Rahman and Luthfa : Seed Production and Product Processing127

For a number of years there have been a number of donor-supported and

loan-funded programmes to support seed industry development in

Bangladesh. Manyof their activities are complementary, however, some

avoidable duplications of effort exist. There is no organized center through
which the information on seedsector industries can be obtained. To avoid
these gaps the government has veryrecently established seed industry
development projectwith support from theDANIDA. This programme is
required to help understanding the needed activitiesin developing an
appropriately designed Private Seed Industry with capabilities of effective
technical, managerial and physical facility to serve the seed sub-sector.But
any attempt of developing seed industry and not helping better price of the
products or ensured market at fixed price will not stand the test of time.
WHYFARMERSSEED?
The Bangladeshi seed industry is evolving within the context of a
traditionalagrarian society. Ninety-four per cent of the seeds used for crops
are collected, processed and preserved at the household level.
Unfortunately, many of thetraditional methods used not only fall below the
commercial production standards, but are also sometimes deleterious to the
farmersown crops. The overall qualityof seeds has been deteriorating over
time. The Bangladesh government has beenaware of the need for organized
seed production, processing, storage andmarketing of quality seeds. They
have been trying for the past 30 years throughBADC to find ways to ensure
the wider availability of high quality seeds at areasonable cost. Bangladesh
Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC) is inthe forefront of these
efforts. Despite these efforts, their production levels haveconsistently fallen
short of the increasing needs of the farmers. They have never been able to
meet more than six per cent of the countrys annual seed needs.If more
market research with self-produced seeds could be conducted, we could
better determine how to encourage faster adoption of not only hybrids and
open pollinated varieties, but also of different varieties of the same crop
developedespecially for specific Agro-Ecological Zones. It may also
encourage greater investment in the seed industry. The efforts of selfproduction are contrary to theintention of the farmers purchasing seeds from
companies but with effectivelyorganized programme, which may be
integrated into industrial production systemwith appropriate training and
motivation to maintain quality. This situation iscommon in many developing
countries (Tripp, 1995). Even in India, the amountof truthfully labeled seeds
being used has increased only to a limited degree, andthat also only recently.
128Bangladesh Journal of Political Economy Vol. 20, No 1

Currently, farmers are replacing about 5.8 per cent of their seeds each year.
Somenearby countries such as Pakistan have a similar rate of replacement.
Indiasreplacement rate varies between one and 62 per cent; major crop
seeds vary withinthe range of 7 to 35 per cent (Asian Seeds 5 and 6, 1994).
Seed replacement ratesin Indonesia are 0.8 per cent for maize, but 24.7 per
cent for rice (Asian Seed 5,1994). In UK, during late 80s, about 30 per cent
of seeds used were of farmersown saved ones (Kelly and Bowing, 1990). In
the USA, more than 50 per cent of the wheat, barley and oats sown are from
farmerssaved seeds (Jafee andSrivastava, 1994). In many tropical countries,
however, the proportion of farmerssaved seeds is much higher, reaching up
to 90 per cent (Goosman
et al.,
1990).This is the case in Bangladesh too. And the quality of the farmersaved
seeds arealso not bad as has already been observed through studies
(Rahman, et al 1992and Hussain et al, 2002)
Acomparative study on the performance of the seeds of government, farmers
andmill sources indicate that the variations are not much in respect of yield,
qualityand returns from the products (Table 2). Rahman
et al.
(1992) also found thatfarmersretained seeds tested as good as BADCs
seeds but only when thosewere used by the farmers themselves or their
relatives and not when that was purchased/ sold through general market and
used as seed. The information givenin the Table 1.2 clearly indicate that
giving necessary training to the farmers for production and maintenance of
quality seeds.The farmers of different areas can be trained on crops of their
interest along withthe endangered ones for seed production, processing and
storage in small to largequantities for making those available at the market
during the period of need. This pattern will also make available quality seeds
closest to the farming communityand thereby; the uses of such seeds will
increase in short space of time. Andreplacement rate of quality seeds will be
higher. This will increase the production by increasing the yield per unit of
area where data suggest very high gaps betweenthe average national yield
and the potential yields obtained by some farmers insome years (BBS 1992,
FAO 1992, Hamid 1993). This will also ensure highquality products of similar
nature over years so that commercialization of the crop producing become

easier.The action plan should include participatory breeding,training for easy

seed production, development of attitudes of sharing the goodseeds in time
of the needs, extending facilities for production, processing andstorage of
seed crops in different areas of the country, the bank support for qualityseed
production, seed crops, as well as helping the farming community in
gettinggood price of their products produced using high tech and high quality
seeds
VILLAGE NURSERIES: ABUSINESS AND SUSTAINABLEPGR MAINTENANCE
5.1.The Potentials
There are about 5000 angiosperm species of Plant Genetic Resources (
PGR
) inBangladesh (Khan 1994), many of which are being eroded due to
population pressure, alleged development processes, unplanned housing
andindustrialization, unscrupulous business of herbal medicines and many
other factors. In the recent past, during 1987-88 Swiss Development
Cooperation(SDC) in collaboration with NGOs and Bangladesh Agricultural
University(BAU) introduced plantation in crop fields, roadsides, homestead
and other community places. This attempt did raise the awareness about the
development of a system whereby the villagers got interested in nursery
business. They werehelped to develop nurseries of many different species
wherefrom the villagers
130Bangladesh Journal of Political Economy Vol. 20, No 1

could get the seedlings of their choice for planting, including developing
woodlotsand orchards. They were trained to take care of different issues
related to agro-forestry and nursery. Through this programme, BAU did
participate in developingthe model and appropriate methods to raise
seedlings of diverse species and thoseof endangered type.Gradually, the
nurserymen of various areas of the country started realising that thespecies
of endemic nature are also valuable and can fetch better price; while
thecommercial types are required in large numbers and can be produced to
supportlarge scale needs of timbers, fruits and other needs. Now, these
nurseries are thesafe places for diverse plant types and their preservation
areas. These are also thecollectors of many different species including those,
which many a times areconsidered to be weeds in crop fields, but are highly

valued for medicinal purposes and also needed to be preserved for the sake
of protection of the eco-system. If and when the plant species of special
purposes or of one particular purpose are grown in large numbers in one or
the other areas, the potentials of their higher market facilities grow. This is
more important to sustain the programme as well as help commercialisation
of the production system leading toincreasing the income of the people
involved in the process and in the areawithout undermining the natural
resource base. The study (Rahman and Siddique,1997) observed that most of
the NGOs working in the agro forestry programmesof SDC have raised and
marketed a large volume of seedlings in most of thenorthern zones of the
country
Without much serious attention or approach by the government there has
beenconsiderable change in the patterns of production of vegetables, fruits
and timber
trees in the areas lying on either sides of the highway from Mymensingh
toDhaka. This indicates that the market facilities opened with the opening of
thehighway and the fresh agricultural products and inputs have opened the
possibilities of the farmers to do the production. They were however,
motivatedand trained for taking up programmes of vegetables, fruits and
timber trees of special type by the Bangladesh Agricultural University as well
as the BangladeshSeed Foundation (BSF) during the period from 1987 to
2000. After thecompletion of the BAUs programme on agroforestry, there
has been seriousemphasis by BSF, on village based nursery development in
Mymnesingh belt withsupport from the SDC. During the end year of the
project intervention (1999-2000), a total of 9 Upozilas of Mymensingh (Sadar,
Trishal, Bhaluka,Muktagacha, Fulbaria, Phulpur, Gauripur, Iswarganj and
Gafargaon) werecovered by Agro-forestry programmes of BSF. In these areas
it covered 1606Mouzas of 118 unions, where there were 422 DAE blocks
through 125 Villageand Farm Forestry blocks. They directly served through
training and motivationof 12,700 farm families in these areas with 125
nurseries.However, the spillover effects of the nursery system were much
higher thanexpected. In 1999-2000 alone there were plantation of 11,34,644
saplings inBariland, crop fields, and wood lots in different unions of 9
Upazilas (Table 3).The rate of plantation increased by67.55 percent over that
of the previous year,where the number planted were 6,88,782 with a survival
rate of 83.02. Theseindicate that the people have realized the importance of
tree plantation not only inhomestead, but also in crop field (Khetland) and
making orchards and woodlotsin their land area available. This was also
visible during the last Tree Fair 2003 inMymensingh town hall area, where

except for the government nurseries; all otherswere established in this

profession by intervention of BAU and BSF in this area.Just to note that in the
year 1999-2000, the 125 nurseries of the area sold a totalof 16,76,659
saplings and had a nursery stock of 22,76,379 for the next year.These
information indicate that a huge business can be done by many of the people
of the villages at their own level while serving the cause of
sustainabledevelopment of the area, agriculture and the preservation the
Plant GeneticResources of high value of the country and they can easily be
supported by theexperts like us. The data in the Table 3.1 indicate that the
resource may be limited but the potential is high. The need is the devotion
and sincerity of purpose. Thiseffort does not only help generation of
employment at the rural level, but also helpthe development of the area
through participation of women in great number andthereby many
endangered species can also be protected by sharing the geneticmaterials
available in the area or from outside.
132Bangladesh Journal of Political Economy Vol. 20, No 1

5.2.Measures to be Taken to Exploit the Potentials

There are some specific problems of these nurseries that need to be
addressed by both GO-NGO initiatives in the sector. Afew of the important
ones are given below:i)The owners of the nurseries need to be given
adequate credit facilitiesto organize the programmes and to collect and
preserve more of thespecies that are becoming lost in the process of
development;ii)They need coordination of their programmes so as to share
materialsof interest for the country and of the region;iii)They need training
and motivation to keep themselves in the line of their activities with
networking of nurseries for achieving better market facilities with ensured
price from those buying seedlings inlarge volumes for different programme
areas; andiv)They need research and development support of the
organizationslike the BAU and the NARS, DAE as well as the large NGOs,
(whowould help the small NGOs) to organize local area based nurserieswhere
more of the endemic materials can be preserve
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