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Course Overview
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0.1 sin(1t)
0
!1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Time, t
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Amplitude
0.7 sin(2t)
0
!1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Time, t
0.6
0.7
Amplitude
0.8
0.9
0.2 sin(3t)
0
!1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
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Time, t
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.2
0.3
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Time, t
0.6
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0.8
0.9
Amplitude
1
0
!1
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Simpler for many types of signals (AM radio signal, for example)
Many systems are easier to analyze from this perspective (Linear
Systems).
Reveals the fundamental characteristics of a system.
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0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.5
2
Time, seconds
2.5
3.5
0.2
Amplitude
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.7
0.71
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0.72
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Time, seconds
0.77
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0.79
0.8
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The time series plot shows the time the chord starts, and its decay,
but it is difficult tell what the notes are from the waveform.
If we represent the waveform as a sum of sinusoids at different
frequencies, and plot the amplitude at each frequency, the plot is
much simpler to understand.
40
Magnitude
30
20
10
0
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1000
Frequency, Hz
2000
3000
4000
5000
40
Magnitude
30
20
10
500
1000
1500
Frequency, Hz
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Input: Curb
Car Dynamics
Differential
Equations
Output
?
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After transforming the input and the differential equations into the
frequency domain,
Input: Curb
Car Dynamics
Output
Differential
Equations
Frequency
Domain
Input
Transfer
Function
Easy to Solve,
Multiplication
Frequency
Domain
Output
Frequency
Domain
Solving for the frequency domain output is easy. The time domain output
is found by the inverse transform. We can predict what happens to the
system.
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Example: Controlling a cars speed. Applying more gas causes the car to
speed up
gas
speed
Car
speed
Car
You
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requested
error
speed
+
k
+
-
gas
speed
Car
This can easily do something you dont want or expect, and oscillate out
of control.
Frequency domain analysis explains why, and tells you how to design the
system to do what you want.
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Course Outline
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Signals
Typical think of signals in terms of communication and information
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radio signal
broadcast or cable TV
audio
electric voltage or current in a circuit
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Systems
Typical systems take a signal and convert it into another signal,
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radio receiver
audio amplifier
modem
microphone
cell telephone
cellular metabolism
national and global economies
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f [n]
-4
-2
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Types of Systems
Systems are classified according to the types of input and output signals
Continuous-time system has continuous-time inputs and outputs.
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AM or FM radio
Conventional (all mechanical) car
PC computer game
Matlab
Your mortgage
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p(t), Pa
-1
3 t, us
Ultrasound Pulse
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-4
-2
Discrete time signals may not represent uniform time samples (NYSE
closes, for example)
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Summary
A signal is a collection of data
Systems act on signals (inputs and outputs)
Mathematically, they are similar. A signal can be represented by a
function. A system can be represented by a function (the domain is
the space of input signals).
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Time scaling
Time reversal
Time shift
Combinations
Signal characteristics
Periodic signals
Complex signals
Signals sizes
Signal Energy and Power
Cuff (Lecture 1)
Amplitude Scaling
The scaled signal ax(t) is x(t) multiplied by the constant a
2
-2
-1
x(t)
-2
-1
2x(t)
x[n]
1
-2
-1
2x[n]
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-2
-1
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b=1
x(t)
b=2
x(2t)
b = 1/2
x(t/2)
-2
-1
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-2
-1
-3
-2
-1
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y[n] = x[2n]
x[n]
-4
-3
-2
-1
-2
-1
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y[n] = x[n/2]
x[n]
-2
-1
-4
-3
-2
-1
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Time Reversal
Continuous time: replace t with t, time reversed signal is x(t)
x(t)
x(t)
x[n]
-4
-2
-4
-2
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Time Shift
For a continuous-time signal x(t), and a time t1 > 0,
Replacing t with t t1 gives a delayed signal x(t t1 )
Replacing t with t + t1 gives an advanced signal x(t + t1 )
2
1
-2
-1
x(t + 1)
1
2
-2
-1
x(t 1)
x(t)
1
-2
-1
2
1
0
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x[n + 1]
1
-4 -3
-2
-1
0 1
x[n]
1
2
-4 -3
-2
-1
0 1
1
2
-4 -3
-2
-1
0 1
x[n 1]
2
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Combinations of Operations
Time scaling, shifting, and reversal can all be combined.
Operation can be performed in any order, but care is required.
This will cause confusion.
Example: x(2(t 1))
Scale first, then shift
Compress by 2, shift by 1
2
-2
-1
x(t)
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x(2t)
-1
x(2(t 1))
1
-2
-1
1
0
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Incorrect
2
-2
-1
x(t)
x(t 1)
-1
-2
x(2(t 1))
1
-2
-1
1
0
-2
-1
x(t)
x(t 2)
-1
-2
Correct
2
1
x(2t 2)
1
-2
-1
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x(t)
-4
-2
x(2(t + 2))
-4
x(t + 1)
-4
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x(t/2)
-4
-2
-2
-2
t
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x(t) = x(t)
-2
-1
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Even
1
1
x(t) = x(t)
2
-2
-1
Odd
1
0
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1
[x(t) + x(t)]
2
1
[x(t) x(t)] .
2
Check that
xe (t) = xe (t),
xo (t) = xo (t),
and that
xe (t) + xo (t) = x(t).
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Example
x(t)
-1
-1
-1
1
xe(t) = [x(t) + x(t)]
2
-1
x(t)
1
1
xo(t) = [x(t) x(t)]
2
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x(t)
-1
-1
-1
0
2
1
xe(t) = [x(t) + x(t)]
2
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x(t)
t
1
xo(t) = [x(t) x(t)]
2
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-2
-1
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0
-2
x[n]
x(t)
2
1
-2
-1
-2
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Periodic Signals
Very important in this class.
Continuous time signal is periodic if and only if there exists a T0 > 0
such that
x(t + T0 ) = x(t)
for all t
T0 is the period of x(t) in time.
A discrete-time signal is periodic if and only if there exists an integer
N0 > 0 such that
x[n + N0 ] = x[n]
for all n
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Example:
x(t)
1
-2
-1
x(t 1)
1
-2
-1
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x(t) = A cos(2t/T0 )
Periodic Extension
x[n] = A cos(2n/N0 )
Is
x1(t)
One Period
1
x[n] = A cos(2na
)
I
I
x(t)
1
-2
-1
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Causal Signals
Causal signals are non-zero only for t 0 (starts at t = 0, or later)
2
Causal
-2
1
-1
-2
-1
1
0
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Anticausal
Complex Signals
-2
-1
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1
0
1.
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j = 1 (engineering notation)
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Im
z = x + jy
Im
z = re j
Re
Re
complex exponential of z = x + jy :
e z = e x+jy = e x e jy = e x (cos y + j sin y )
Know how to add, multiply, and divide complex numbers, and be able to
go between representations easily.
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=
=
Cuff (Lecture 1)
lim
T T
lim 2T
|x(t)|2 dt
1
2T
|
|x(t)|2 dt = .
{z
}
Px >0
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-1
et
2
t 2
cos(2 f t)
-2T
-T
2T
2 t
2 t
et sin(2 f t)
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