2.

5 WATER SAMPLING

Water samples can come from many sources: ground water, precipitation
(rain or snow), surface water (lakes, river, runoff, etc.), ice or glacial melt, saline
water, estuarian water and brines, waste water (domestic, landfill leachates, mine
runoff, etc.), industrial process water and drinking water. Pollutants are distributed in
the aqueous phase and in the particles suspended in the water. Solids and liquids
with densities less than water (such as oils and grease) tend to float on the surface,
while those with higher density sink to the bottom. The composition of stagnant
water varies with the seasons and also with ambient temperatures. In rivers, lakes
and oceans the concentration of pollutants varies with depth and may also depend on
the distance from the shore.
Precipitation water changes with meteorological conditions and atmospheric
concentrations of the species of interest. The concentration of rainwater components
may be higher when precipitation begins, and drop as the pollutants are washed out
of the atmosphere. Concentration of water soluble gases such as H 2S, SO2, NOx are
also higher in the early part of a precipitation event. Ground water shows seasonal
variation and is especially affected by rain or snow. Many of these sources exhibit
spatial and temporal variation and sampling devices should be chosen with these
variations in mind.
Many different types of manual and automatic samplers are commercially
available. They are designed to collect grab samples or composite samples.
Particular attention is given to material of construction of the sampler. Stainless steel
or Teflon are preferred because of their inert nature.
Surface Water Sampling

Sampling surface water sources such as lakes, ponds, lagoons, flowing rivers
and streams, sewers and leachate streams can be quite challenging. Shallow depths
can be sampled as easily as dipping a container and collecting water. However,
sampling at depth in stratified sources can offer unique challenges. Prior to
sampling, surface water drainage around the sampling site should be characterized.
In a flowing water stream, sampling should be carried out down stream before
sampling upstream, because the disturbance caused by sampling may affect sample
quality. Similarly, if water and sediment samples are to be collected at the same
point, the water sample should be collected before the sediment is stirred up.
The simplest sampling device is a dipper (or a container) made of stainless
steel or Teflon. The device is filled by slowly submerging the sampler into the water
with minimum disturbance and the water is transferred to the sample bottle. This
type of device is not good for volatile pollutants which can be lost during sample
transfer or by sticking to the surface of the dipper. An example of a surface sampler
is shown in Figure 2.4. For sampling from a pond or lagoon, a telescopic pole is
attached to the dipper so that the sample can be collected at a distance.
Several different devices are commercially available for collecting samples at
different depths. Most of them work on the general principle that a weighted bottle is

lowered to the specified depth. At this point, a stopper or a cap is opened and the
bottle is allowed to fill. Then the stopper is closed to prevent any water from flowing
in or out and the bottle is pulled out. An example of such a device is shown in Figure
2.5.
Ground Water Well Sampling

To obtain ground water samples, monitoring wells, from which water samples
can be collected, are drilled into the ground. Care should be taken so that the water
does not get contaminated during the drilling process or contaminants do enter the
water from the surface through the well. To ensure that the sample represents the
water in the well and contaminants from drilling are not present in the sample, some
water is removed from the well before a sample is collected. The amount of water
purged depends upon the diameter, depth and the refill rate of the well. The purge
amount is usually 3 to 10 times the well volume. In some cases, the pH, conductance
or temperature are monitored until a constant value is reached. Then a sample is
collected.
Various bailers and pumps are used in ground water sampling. Bailers are
made of stainless steel or Teflon with a check valve at the bottom. The check valve
opens to fill the sample, but closes when the sample is brought up. A sketch of the
bailer is shown in Figure 2.6. They can be used to obtain samples with minimum
disturbance and are useful for samples containing volatile pollutants or those which
may degrade with contact with oxygen.
Peristaltic pumps, among others, are used in ground water sampling.
Peristaltic pumps are common because the water does not come in contact with any
pump parts. Teflon tubing is inserted into the well and is attached to a flexible tubing
which is wrapped around the pump rotor and connected to the discharge tube. As the
rotor turns, the tubing is squeezed and released and water is forced through the
tubing with a peristaltic action.

9
Methods to Identify and Detect Microbial
Contaminants in Drinking Water
Mark D. Sobsey
The transmission of infectious diseases via contaminated water continues to be
a risk to public health in the United States and throughout the rest of the. world.
Source and finished drinking waters are vulnerable to microbial pathogen
contamination from a variety of sources of human and animal fecal wastes and
from the introduction and proliferation of nonfecal pathogenic microbes.
Throughout most of the modem history of drinking water supply, concerns about
pathogenic microbes have focused on enteric bacteria of human fecal origin.
These concerns led to the development of criteria and standards for

bacteriological quality intended to protect against excessive risks from enteric

bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella typhi and other
nontyphoid Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and Fibrio cholerae. The infectious
disease risks in drinking water supplies from enteric viruses (such as hepatitis A
virus), enteric parasites (such as Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia),
and nonfecal bacterial pathogens (such as Legionella spp.) were not recognized
until more recent times. These risks were recognized initially by the occurrence
of waterborne outbreaks of disease mused by these pathogens.
Until recently there were no formal, legally required processes to identify or
consider new or emerging water. me pathogens in the United States. It was only
with reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1996 that the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was required to identify through a
structured process candidate microbial pathogens for possible regulation in
drinking water supplies. Prior to this the agency used an informal and largely
reactive process to recognize, identify, and prioritize microbial pathogens for
possible regulation. The new requirement for a proactive rational process to
identify and consider microbial pathogens for possible regulation in drinking
water is the essential motivation for this paper. As part of this process it is
necessary to detect and quantify microbial pathogens in drinking water and its
sources; to establish dose-response relationships as an essential step in health
effects characterization for waterborne pathogens; and to identify, characterize,
and quantify the virulence properties of these pathogens that influence their
human health

"9 Methods to Identify and Detect Microbial Contaminants

in Drinking Water." National Research Council.
1999. Identifying Future Drinking Water Contaminants.
Purpose
The purpose of this report is to consider and address the following questions:
How should microbial contaminants for possible regulation in drinking water be
identified, characterized, and quantified with respect to their risks to public
health? What should be the essential elements of the process for waterborne
microbial pathogen identification and characterization? What should be the
basis for prioritizing, ranking, or choosing among the many potential drinking
water pathogens for possible regulation? How should the microbial pathogen
identification and selection process be integrated into the overall process of
improving drinking water quality and reducing health risks through drinking
water regulations? How should analytical methods for detection,
characterization, and quantification of microbial contaminants be applied to the
process of identifying, characterizing, and quantifying the risks from waterborne
pathogens being considered for regulation? What. analytical methods are

available for use in identifying, quantifying, and characterizing microbial

pathogens in drinking water for possible regulation?

Analysis

Need for a Risk-Based Approach

The recognition, identification, prioritization, and characterization of microbial
pathogens in drinking water should be risk based and should consider the
relationships and interactions of the microbes, their hosts, and the environment.
The microbial world consists of a wide variety of different types or classes of
microbial agents potentially present in water. Viruses, bacteria, protozoans,
fungi, and algae are widespread in soil, sediments, water, air, and food and on
objects and surfaces with which humans have contact ("fomites"). Most of these
microbes are not pathogenic (harmless) and are incapable of infecting or
colonizing immunocompetent persons unless they somehow gain access to
sterile internal sites in the body (such as the bloodstream and various organs)
through trauma, surgery, or other such means. However, persons with
immunodeficiencies are at risk of infection, colonization, and illness from
microbes considered nonpathogenic for immunocompetent persons. Therefore,
recognition and identification of a possible waterborne pathogen depends in
part on the susceptibilities of the population to infection, colonization, and illness
from a microorganism. Some pathogens are always potentially pathogenic and
are often referred to as "frank" pathogens. Other pathogens are never or rarely
pathogenic for immunocompetent and otherwise "healthy" people. However,
these microbes can sometimes cause infection, colonization, and illness in
persons who have an immune deficiency, have other conditions that make them
susceptible, or because they encounter the microbe in an unusual or atypical
way. Such microbes are sometimes referred to as "conditional" or
"opportunistic" pathogens. As previously noted, there are nonpathogenic
microbes in the environment that are capable of infecting, colonizing, and
causing illness in humans only if they are able to dramatically breach the body's
natural barriers
and proliferate in normally sterile sites within the body. These nonpathogenic or
"saprophytic" microbes are common in aquatic and other environments.
A waterborne pathogen may emerge or acquire increased public health
importance because of changes in host susceptibility to infection. Factors
influencing host susceptibility in the population include increases in the number
of immunocompromised persons, increased use of immunosuppressive agents
(among persons receiving cancer chemotherapy or undergoing organ
transplants), increases in the elderly segment of the population, and poor
nutrition. In identifying and prioritizing emerging waterborne pathogens the
susceptibilities of these higher-risk population subgroups to specific infectious
diseases is an important consideration (Morris and Potter, 1997).

The relationships between waterborne microbes and their human hosts are
complex and are influenced by a variety of factors involving the characteristics
and conditions of the microbe, the human and in some cases animal hosts, and
the environment. Therefore, it seems necessary to identify, characterize, and
quantify these relationships in order to determine if a potentially waterborne
microbe should be considered or classified as a drinking water contaminant for
possible regulation. Furthermore, the need to prioritize or otherwise determine
the importance of a microbe for possible regulation in water suggests that a
structured and quantitative approach must be used for such an evaluation or
assessment.

How to Identify Pollution

10 Causes of Air Pollution

Pollution in air, water and soil may not always be visible, but it can cause harm to
humans and animals. Pollutants can come from a variety of human-related and natural
sources. Sometimes pollution can be identified by sight and smell, such as seeing
smoke rising from a smokestack. But most times pollutants can only be identified with
physical tests. Identification of pollutants is the first step in reducing pollution in the
environment to ensure cleaner air and water.
Sponsored link

Sources of Pollution
Environmental pollution mostly comes from human-related sources such as industrial
facilities, vehicles, sewage treatment plants, landfills, stormwater, household wood
stoves and lawnmowers. Natural sources include dust, smoke from forest fires and
volcanic eruptions. "Point sources" are single emissions such as a smokestack, while
"non-point sources" are collective emissions over an area, such as exhaust from cars.
Pollutants released into air, water and soil are spread throughout the environment by
wind, water flow and percolation into the ground.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is made up of chemical gases and particulate matter that can spread for
miles from their point of origin. Particulate matter is a mixture of chemicals, acid from
gases, metals or dust held together by liquid droplets. Scientists measure air pollution
directly in terms of mass or concentration per volume using mechanical or optical
devices. Models can be used to predict total pollution volume emitted over time or
distance from a source, based on sample data, wind direction and speed.

Water and Soil Pollution

Pollution enters streams, lakes and wetlands by discharge of wastewater from
industrial facilities, stormwater runoff from roads and parking lots, or accidental spills.
Sometimes pollutants are visible -- you may have seen the rainbow-colored sheen that
oil creates on water -- but metals and other chemicals may be invisible. Specific
pollutants can be identified by using commercial kits that measure concentrations of
specific chemicals. Samples of water and soil can be collected and then chemically
analyzed at a commercial laboratory.

Pollution in Residences
Indoor air pollution sources include cleaning products, vapors from furniture and
carpets, or other sources like mold, asbestos or lead-bearing paint in older homes.

Pollutants can enter homes from external sources like underlying soil and groundwater,
or nearby industrial sites and roads. Homeowners can use commercially available kits
to test for pollutants like mold, dust, asbestos, chemicals and lead in paint. Indoor air
samples can be collected by scientists for more complex laboratory chemical analyses.

Non-Point Source Pollution

Non-point sources of pollution are difficult to identify and control, as opposed to point
sources, which may be controlled through process adjustment or treatment. Some
areas -- like King County, Washington and Fairfax County, Virginia -- have special
programs to reduce overall environmental pollution from non-point sources. These
programs sample surface water to identify sources, monitor sources such as septic
systems and give homeowners tips on reducing pollution.
Sponsored links

Lesson 2. Pollution and Water Quality Keywords: pollutants, water pollution, point source, non-point
source, urban pollution, agricultural pollution, atmospheric pollution, smog, nutrient pollution,
eutrophication, organic pollution, herbicides, pesticides, chemical pollution, sediment pollution,
stormwater runoff, urbanization, algae, phosphate, nitrogen, ion, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, nitrifying
bacteria, proteins, water quality, pH, acid, alkaline, basic, neutral, dissolved oxygen, organic material,
temperature, thermal pollution, salinity Pollution Sources Water becomes polluted when foreign
substances enter the environment and are transported into the water cycle. These substances, known as
pollutants, contaminate the water and are sometimes harmful to people and the environment. Therefore,
water pollution is any change in water that is harmful to living organisms. Sources of water pollution are
divided into two main categories: point source and non-point source. Point source pollution occurs when
a pollutant is discharged at a specific source. In other words, the source of the pollutant can be easily
identified. Examples of point-source pollution include a leaking pipe or a holding tank with a hole in it,
polluted water leaving a factory, or garbage being dumped into a river. These sources of pollution are
easy to identify because the cause of the pollution can be observed. Non-point source pollution is more
common, and contributes more pollution to surface water than does point source pollution. This type of
pollution is difficult to identify and may come from pesticides, fertilizers, or automobile fluids washed
off the ground by a storm. Non-point source pollution comes from three main areas: urban-industrial,
agricultural, and atmospheric sources. Urban pollution comes from the cities, where many people live
together on a small amount of land. This type of pollution results from the things we do around our
homes and places of work. Agricultural pollution comes from rural areas where fewer people live. This
type of pollution results from runoff from farmland, and consists of pesticides, fertilizer, and eroded
soil. Atmospheric pollution comes from small particles that are carried in the air. A good example of
atmospheric pollution is smog. These pollutants are carried around the world by winds, and reach the
ground through rain. Acid rain is rain that has a high concentration of atmospheric pollutants.
PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY 14 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY FALL 2000
NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY Types of Pollution Nutrients Plants living in the water require
a sufficient supply of nutrients to grow and mature properly. The most common nutrients found in our
waters are nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon. However, large amounts of nutrients in the water can
cause problems such as algae blooms. Algae is a general term for small, chlorophyllcontaining plants
such as seaweed and pond scum. When a body of water has a high level of nutrients, aquatic plants will
grow and reproduce quickly. If algae grows in high density on the surface it will block sunlight from
reaching plants at greater depths. This will cause the plants to die. When algae die, the decaying process
uses oxygen in the water. Decreasing the amount of dissolved oxygen will cause aquatic animals to die.
The process of aquatic overgrowth, followed by death, decay, and oxygen depletion is called
eutrophication. Eutrophication can result from human influences on the chemicals that enter our waters.
This process causes an imbalance between plants and animals in the water. Phosphates are one of the

more common nutrients to move through the ecosystem in large quantities. Phosphates enter the
waterways through runoff from natural sources such as phosphate-containing rocks and from human
sources such as fertilizers, pesticides, detergents, and industrial wastes. Organic Pollution Human
sewage, animal waste, and plant residue also contain organic material, which can pollute water. Bacteria
in the water decompose the organic material, producing additional nutrients for plant growth. This can
cause further decreases in oxygen content in the water. Human and animal wastes can also carry harmful
bacteria and viruses that can spread diseases. Pesticides and Herbicides Pesticides and herbicides are
used to kill weed and insects on lawns and food crops. They also kill fish, birds, and beneficial insects
when they are not used properly. They contribute to water pollution through stormwater runoff. When it
rains the water washes these chemicals off the lawns and into water bodies. Chemical Pollution
Chemical pollution is usually caused by improperly disposing of poisonous materials such as paints,
batteries, automobile exhaust, tires, and household cleaners. The pollution from these materials can
harm many organisms, including humans. PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY 15 NEIGHBORHOOD
WATER QUALITY FALL 2000 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY Sediment Pollution Sediment
pollution occurs when loose soil is carried off streets, parking lots, buildings, and construction sites by
rain. When these particles enter the water, they clog the gills of fish, and decrease the amount of
sunlight available to aquatic plants. Sediments are also dangerous because they carry other pollutants
such as chemicals from lawns and petroleum products from automobiles. Stormwater Runoff
Stormwater runoff is the leading cause of water pollution. When it rains, the ground is not able to soak
up all the water. This excess water flows into stormwater drains which often lead directly into nearby
bodies of water such as streams, rivers, and oceans. As the rainwater flows over paved surfaces it picks
up pesticides, fertilizers, bacteria, soil, grease, oil, and litter. Stormwater has become a problem due to
increased urbanization. Urbanization occurs when streets, parking lots, and buildings begin to cover the
soil. These structures do not allow storm water to soak into the ground. When there is not enough open
space for water to soak in, stormwater runs over covered surfaces, washing pollutants into lakes, rivers,
and bays. Stormwater PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY 16 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY
FALL 2000 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY can be treated by using stormwater ponds. These
man-made ponds collect and filter rainwater before it can reach a larger body of water. Saltwater
Intrusion In coastal areas, groundwater can become contaminated through saltwater intrusion. Some
aquifers may contain a layer of saltwater above or below the freshwater aquifer. Freshwater floats on
top of the denser, or thicker, saltwater. When large amounts of freshwater are removed from the aquifer
the saltwater will move upward because it has less pressure (less freshwater) on top of it. Once the
saltwater moves into the freshwater the groundwater is contaminated and becomes very expensive to
clean. The Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen, like phosphate, is essential to plants and animals for proper growth
and productivity. The air we breathe is composed mainly of nitrogen gas (N2). However, this form is
impossible for aquatic plants to use. Therefore, most plants rely on bacteria, which "fix" or convert the
nitrogen gas found in the atmosphere to a form called nitrate. This form of nitrogen can be easily
absorbed by plants. Nirtrate is present as an ion, or charged species in water. The nitrate ion is composed
of a single nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms (NO3). Nitrate forms the important materials
necessary for life, such as proteins and vitamins. PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY 17
NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY FALL 2000 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY When
animals digest these proteins they are converted to ammonia (NH3). Ammonia in high concentrations in
the body is toxic. All organisms, including fish, must get rid of ammonia through excretion. Ammonia is
also produced when plants and animals decay. Two kinds of bacteria work in sequence to transform
ammonia into nitrate. Ammonium oxidizers convert ammonia to nitrite, and nitrifying bacteria convert
nitrite to nitrate. Both types of bacteria require oxygen to perform these reactions. Algae also help
recycle nitrogen by converting ammonia into plant material. Harmful concentrations of ammonia hardly
ever build up in natural waters due to recycling by algae and bacteria. Water Quality Testing Water

quality is a term used to describe the chemical, biological, and physical characteristics of water. Water
quality is not simply "good" or "bad", but usually is applied to its purpose. For example, water that is
suitable for washing a car may not be suitable for drinking. For most purposes water quality refers to
water for drinking, swimming, and fishing. Often these days we hear about illnesses from water
contaminated by microorganisms and chemical pollutants, which are endangering plants and animals.
Water quality has become an important issue because of the increasing population size. As the
population increases so does development, which creates greater potential for harmful substances to
enter our water supplies. Chemical tests have been developed to determine water quality. The factors
that affect water quality are pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and salinity. pH pH is a measure of a
samples acidity and is the most commonly used water quality test. pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion
concentration, which is high in acids and low in bases. pH = -log[H+ ] pH is measured on a logarithmic
scale from 1 to 14, with 1 being the highest concentration of H+ (most acidic) and 14 the lowest (most
basic). Some examples of acids include vinegar and lemon juice. Basic substances include baking soda
and drain cleaner (lye). A substance that has a pH of seven is called neutral. Distilled water has a pH of
7. The groundwater that we drink will have a slightly higher or lower pH depending on the type of rocks
through which it PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY 18 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY FALL
2000 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY flows. Water that flows through granite rocks will have a
slightly lower pH, and water that flows through limestone rocks will have a slightly higher pH. Rain
naturally has a low pH, around 5.5, because it contains dissolved carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
The toxins that enter the atmosphere from automobile exhaust and power plant emissions will combine
with the water in the air and fall to earth as acid rain or snow. pH is a common measurement made when
assessing the quality of water. pH values that are very high or very low can be harmful to living
organisms. Organisms can tolerate pH values of about 5.0 to 9.0, but fish prefer waters between 6.5 and
8.2. Most rivers, lakes, and streams in the United States fall within this range, but acid rain and
pollutants are compromising many of them. Bleach Household Lye Distilled water Seawater ACIDIC
BASIC Oran ge juice Batter Coca-Cola y acid PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY 19
NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY FALL 2000 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY At pH:
Effects on Aquatic Life: 11.0-11.5 Lethal to all fish species 10.5-11.0 Prolonged exposure is lethal to
some species 9.0-10.5 Prolonged exposure is harmful to some species 8.2-9.0 Unlikely to be directly
harmful to fish 6.5-8.2 Optimal for most organisms 6.0-6.5 Unlikely to be directly harmful to fish 5.56.0 Metals trapped in sediments are released in forms toxic to aquatic life 5.0-5.5 Bottom dwelling
bacteria die, detritus accumulates, plankton begin to disappear, snails and clams absent 4.5-5.0 Many
insects absent, most fish eggs will not hatch 4.0-4.5 All fish, most frogs, and insects absent 3.5-4.0
Lethal to some fish species 3.0-3. 5 Unlikely that fish can survive for more than a few. hours in this
range. The pH scale is logarithmic. This means for every one unit change in pH, there is actually a tenfold change in acidity. For example, pH 5 is ten times more acidic than pH 6 and pH 4 is one hundred
times more acidic than pH 6. Dissolved Oxygen Have you ever wondered where the bubbles come from
when water boils? Oxygen molecules are dissolved in water and measured as dissolved oxygen. The
presence of dissolved oxygen in lakes and rivers is good because most aquatic plants and animals need
dissolved oxygen to survive. Therefore, dissolved oxygen is a good indicator of healthy water quality.
Oxygen gets into the water through the air. Wind and waves on the surface of lakes and rivers help mix
the air and water. These and other mixing processes will increase the amount of dissolved oxygen in the
water. Aquatic plants also add oxygen to the water through photosynthesis. Because plants need sunlight
for photosynthesis, dissolved oxygen tends to be highest during the late afternoon. At night, when no
sunlight is available for photosynthesis, plants use oxygen for respiration so dissolved oxygen levels are
lowered and carbon dioxide is elevated. PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY 20 NEIGHBORHOOD
WATER QUALITY FALL 2000 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY Climate can also affect
dissolved oxygen levels. When it rains the water is mixed well with the surrounding air and contains

high dissolved oxygen. During the dry season there is less mixing and dissolved oxygen decreases. The
main human factor causing dissolved oxygen levels to change in a negative way is the build up of
organic wastes. Organic material is anything living or once living. Examples of organic wastes are grass
clippings, leaves, dead plants and animals, and sewage. Organic wastes are broken down by bacteria,
which consume oxygen. When organic wastes are dumped into rivers and lakes it causes dissolved
oxygen to decrease, which causes plants and animals to die. Temperature Temperature is important to
the plants and animals that live within the water. Most organisms cannot tolerate extreme cold or heat.
Many aquatic plants and animals have adapted to survive in a certain range of temperatures.
Temperature also affects how much oxygen the water can hold. Cold water holds more oxygen. Extreme
changes in temperature can place stress on the organisms within an ecosystem. Therefore, temperature is
important to aquatic plants and animals and the overall health of the watershed. Humans can harm the
quality of water by changing its temperature. PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY 21 NEIGHBORHOOD
WATER QUALITY FALL 2000 NEIGHBORHOOD WATER QUALITY Thermal pollution is an
increase in water temperature caused by adding warm water to lakes and rivers. The source of this warm
water is runoff from streets and pavements, or from power plants. Salinity Water is sometimes called the
universal solvent because of its ability to dissolve other compounds. As water travels through the
atmosphere and watershed it dissolves many minerals and carries them away. These dissolved minerals
are called salts. Salts can come from organic material such as leaves, silt, plankton, and sewage or from
inorganic material such as rocks and air. Salinity is the mass of the dissolved salts in a sample of water.
A certain amount of salt necessary for aquatic life. Dissolved salts help water flow in and out of an
organisms cells. However, changes in the amount of dissolved salts can be harmful. Organisms are
adapted to life within a range of salinity. Salinities higher or lower than this range places stress on the
organism and can be harmful, or lead to death. Changes in salinity are a result of variations in
evaporation and freshwater flow rate. These can be natural and occur seasonally or they can be the result
of human influence, such as increasing freshwater flow discharging from power plants or diverting
freshwater for drinking and irrigation of fields.

Drinking Water Testing

Testing for all individual pathogens is impractical and expensive. Instead, the EPA has
designated total coliform bacteria as a standard to determine bacterial safety of
water. Coliform bacteria originate in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and
can be found in their wastes. Coliform bacteria can also be found in soil and on
vegetation. Coliform bacteria are relatively simple to identify and are present in much
larger numbers than more dangerous pathogens. Coliform bacteria react to the natural
environment and treatment processes in a manner and degree similar to pathogens.
By monitoring coliform bacteria, the increase or decrease of many pathogenic bacteria
can be estimated.
Due to this association, the bacterial safety of drinking water is monitored by testing for
coliform bacteria. Bacterial testing is provided, for a fee, by our partners, some

city/county health department laboratories, and most commercial water testing

laboratories. After selecting a laboratory, contact them to obtain a drinking water
bacterial purity test kit or YOU can call the Keystone Clean Water Team and host a
community education and water quality screening program. The kit will contain a
sterilized sampling bottle, an information form, sampling instructions, and a return
mailing box. Use of the bacterial test kit is necessary to help ensure the test is
accurate. The bottle in the kit is completely sterilized. This assures the sample is not
contaminated by bacteria in the bottle. The use of any other container is discouraged.
The kit contains detailed instructions on how to collect the water sample. Follow the
instructions carefully to avoid outside contamination and to obtain a good
representative sample.
To avoid unnecessary delays and possibly a need for resampling, mail or carry the
sample to the laboratory immediately. The sample must be received at the laboratory
within 48 hours after collection or it will not be tested. Avoid mailing samples when they
may be delayed over a weekend or a holiday. In most cases, samples need to arrive at
the laboratory on Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday. Be sure the form accompanying
the sample is accurate and complete. If there is no date or time of collection on the
form, it will be assumed the sample is over 48 hours old. If there is no return address,
test results cannot be sent to you.
When a laboratory receives a water sample, it gives the sample a number and the time
of arrival is stamped on the accompanying form. One hundred milliliters (ml) (about 3.4
fl. oz.) of the sample is then drawn through a membrane filter. This filter is placed on a
nutrient broth culture plate and placed in an incubator for 24 hours at 35C (95F) for
culturing. The plates then are removed from the incubator and the number of coliform
bacteria colonies are counted.

Interpreting Test Results

The EPA establishes standards for drinking water which fall into two categories
-- Primary Standards and Secondary Standards. Primary Standards are based on
health considerations, and are designed to protect people from three classes of toxic

pollutants: pathogens, radioactive elements and toxic chemicals.

Bacterial contamination falls under the category of pathogens. The EPA Maximum
Contaminant Level (MCL) for coliform bacteria in drinking water is zero (or no) total
coliform per 100 ml of water. The number of coliform colonies found in the incubated
water sample, if any, is reported and the form is checked to indicate whether or not the
water meets the EPA bacteriological standard of zero. At times, excessive numbers of
other bacteria in a sample can interfere with the counting of coliform types. These
samples may be classified as "too numerous to count" or "confluent growth."
If the laboratory report indicates the presence of coliforms, or states "too numerous to
count," or "confluent growth," the State Department of Health recommends another
sample be analyzed to help evaluate the contamination. If you suspect bacterial
contamination in your water supply, use an alternative water supply or disinfect your
water supply while waiting for test results.

Options
If laboratory tests confirm the presence of coliform bacteria in your water supply, use
an alternative water supply or disinfect your water supply until the problem can be
corrected. For short term disinfection of small amounts of water, two options exist.
Water can be boiled at a rolling boil for at least five to ten minutes to kill diseasecausing bacteria. Alternatively, water can be treated with chlorine to kill bacteria.
Use chlorine that is suitable for potable water. It might be advisable to shock disinfect
your water supply system. The next step is to attempt to identify and eliminate the
source of contamination. As you attempt to find the source of contamination, evaluate
both well location and well construction. Check the entire water distribution system for
potential problem areas. To evaluate well location, ask the following questions. You
should be able to answer "yes" to all of the following.

Is the well located at least 50 feet from a septic tank or any non-watertight
sewer line?

1.
2.

Is the well located at least 100 feet from any seepage pit, cesspool, tile field,
privy or other subsurface disposal system?
Is the well located at least 100 feet away from any feedlot, manure pit, manure
or sewage lagoon or livestock lot?
To evaluate well construction ask the following questions. You should be able to
answer "yes" to all of the following.
Does the well have a watertight casing, preferably of heavy-gauge metal or
National Sanitation Foundation approved plastic?
Are all joints in the well casing screwed, double-welded or otherwise properly
sealed?
Does the well casing extend at least 12 inches above the grade of the land
surface?
Is the annular space grouted?
Is a sanitary well cap used on the casing?
Is pitless installation used; or, if pit installation of pumping and storage
equipment is used, is the pit at least 10 feet away from the well?
Driven and Sandpoint wells are not acceptable- unless you are located in a very
pristine area and the well points are over 50 feet below grade. If possible, correct any
problems identified in regard to well location or construction.
After addressing the contamination source, the entire water system should be
disinfected usingshock chlorination process. Shock chlorination involves placing a
strong chlorine solution in the well and the complete distribution system to kill nuisance
and disease-causing organisms.

Shock chlorination is recommended:

upon completion of a new well or when an existing well is returned to service;
when any portion of the distribution system is opened for repairs or
maintenance;
3.
following contamination by flood water or surface runoff;
4.
or when lab results indicate a presence of bacteria.
5.
6.
For directions on how to shock chlorinate a water supply, see Help Guide on
Shock Chlorination. Aftershock chlorination, submit another water sample for testing.
The water should test negative before use.
7.

8.

More than one shock chlorination treatment may be needed to effectively treat
the entire water supply. If the source of bacterial contamination cannot be identified or
eliminated, continuous disinfection of the water supply may be necessary. Options
include: continuous chlorination, ultraviolet radiation, distillation, and ozone treatment.
Chlorination is the most common disinfection method.
This is a fieldwork exercise that involves sampling water from streams (ideally) or ponds, in two
different situations. Sample data are provided which could be used to discuss the process if you
cannot repeat the practical work.

This will depend on the access you have to a safe enough area for collecting water samples. If you
do not have a suitable area for students to assess, or do not have time for students to collect their
own samples, you could collect samples yourself and keep the invertebrates in a tray of water for a
day or so. A video or digital camera would be useful to make a record of the animals found
especially to keep information for later identification of unfamiliar invertebrates. Accompanying
adults with photography skills could take on this task. An example set of data from two streams is
provided for analysis and discussion. You could work through this before or after students collect
invertebrates from their own water samples.

Copies of the student sheet

Copies of the indicator animals sheet
Copies of other keys (if available)
Plastic trough or enamel dish (deep enough for water at a depth of 3-5 cm without spilling)
Net
Disposable gloves, optional (Note 2)
Digital still or video camera, optional

Take hygiene precautions to minimise risk of infections from pond water (Note 1).
Before working outside, prepare a risk assessment of the area and put any necessary risk control
measures in place (Note 2).
Read our standard health & safety guidance
1 Pond water could contain disease-causing microbes. Take hygiene precautions, and ensure that
students cover cuts or abrasions on their hands or lower arms with waterproof plasters or gloves.
Ensure students do not eat, scratch their noses, or rub their eyes during the fieldwork. Students will
need to wash their hands with appropriate cleansers after being in contact with the stream water
and before eating or drinking. Refer to CLEAPSS Supplementary Risk Assessment SRA 09 09/06

School ponds for more details. See also the guidance leaflet 'Group safety at water margins'
downloadable from http://www.rospa.com/leisuresafety/Info/WaterSafety/groupsafetywatermargins.pdf.
2 Refer to CLEAPSS handbook section 17 for more information on planning safe outdoor activities,
and to CLEAPSS supplementary risk assessment Practical activities in the school grounds (SRA
08, October 2006). Some elements of these ideas are listed in the safety notes for Biodiversity in
your backyard.
You should also refer to your Local Authority or employers guidelines for working outside the
classroom in planning these activities.

Teachers should be careful to introduce the invertebrate indicator species in a way that promotes a
good ethical attitude towards them, and not a simply instrumental one. Although they are simple
organisms that may not 'suffer' in the same way as higher animals, they still deserve respect.
Animals should be returned promptly to their natural environment or a suitable holding tank after
being identified. Ethical approaches in field work require all animals to be returned to their habitat
after observations have been made.

SAFETY: Observe appropriate hygiene precautions after working with pond or stream water. Carry
out a risk assessment of the area where the students will be collecting freshwater organisms.
Consider trip and slip hazards, particularly those associated with working in or near water.
Consider also specific hygiene issues, for example, excreta left by dogs or other animals, the
location of any sewage outfall, and any hazards from sharp materials in the area. Consider whether
extra adult supervision is needed to reduce risk. Beware that some invertebrates such as dragonfly
nymphs may bite.
Preparation
a Collect all the equipment needed to collect invertebrates, and copies of keys for identifying
invertebrates.
Investigation
b Collect some water in a large container about 2 cm deep.
c Collect samples of invertebrates using the net and transfer them to the tray. Try to use the same
technique each time you collect a sample holding the net in the same way for the same length of
time. Scoop up some of the material from the bottom of the stream, or stir up the bottom material
and place the net downstream to catch it.
d Study the catch in the tray. Try to identify the animals against the chart
of pollution (596 KB).

Invertebrate indicators

e After identifying and counting the animals, pour the water gently back into the pond or stream. If
you cannot identify an animal, count how many there are and make a drawing or take a
photograph to identify later.
f Present the results in a table. Prepare a graph showing how polluted the water samples are.
See
Invertebrate indicators in two streams XLS (15 KB).

Discourage students from trying to catch fish. Encourage them to treat all living things with the
respect they deserve.
The pictures given on the chart you can download from this page are typical of the invertebrates
you are likely find. Be aware that there are other species in each group, so the organisms you find
may look different. The Field Studies Council key to freshwater invertebrates (link below) provides
a more comprehensive list with colour illustrations.
These indicator animals are usually quite easy to find if the students have a bit of patience. They
are all delicate and so students must handle them with care.
Identification clues:
Mayfly nymphs have three tails, whereas stonefly nymphs have two.
Caddis fly larvae collect bits of twig and stone around themselves to make a protective case. If
any pieces of twig or stone seem unusually mobile, they are probably caddis fly larvae.
As well as an exercise in pollution monitoring, students can study ways in which living things are
adapted to survive in their natural habitat. This follows on from considering why some organisms
live only in unpolluted streams, while others survive despite pollution.
For example, bloodworms and sludge worms are red because they contain haemoglobin. They
take in oxygen by diffusion over the whole of their body surface. This allows them to survive in
water with lower oxygen concentrations than other similar organisms. Mayfly and stonefly nymphs
breathe using external gills. They have no haemoglobin, so the oxygen circulates in their bodies in
simple solution. This means they need a higher concentration of oxygen to survive than
bloodworms and sludge worms. In unpolluted water, with a high concentration of oxygen, nymphs
are more mobile than worms and compete more successfully for food than the worms.
Low oxygen level is not an immediate result of pollution with waste high in nitrogen. First there is
an expansion in the population of plant material (a bloom). While growing, these plants will release
oxygen into the water. After the initial bloom, there is not enough nitrate to maintain the population
growth. When the plants die off and rot, the decomposing microorganisms use up the oxygen in the
water and reduce the oxygen level.

Drinking Water Testing and Contaminants

Public water supplies are tested frequently for

contaminants, and suppliers are required to provide test
results to their customers annually. If you are on a public
water supply (whether municipal or a small community
system), get and read a copy of the test report (Consumer
Confidence Report). These tests are usually done on the
water at the treatment plant. Residents may have
concerns about the quality of municipal water reaching
their home (after it has been distributed through water
mains and their home plumbing), and may want to
conduct further tests on their water. Testing a private
water supply is generally the responsibility of the
property owner. Private water supplies should always be
tested before a home is purchased and whenever a new
water supply is being developed. For more information
about the supply of water from private wells and from
public sources, see the Wells and Supply page.
If you suspect that your water supply is unsafe to drink, or
you are having serious nuisance problems such as rust
and hard water, you have several options. Regardless of
your water source, you can have your water tested for
specific contaminants of concern. Information on testing
labs is provided below. You can also seek advice from
professionals in cooperative extension, public health, and
water resource management in your state, and local water
treatment professionals. You will generally have to pay for
testing your water, but some communities may offer free
testing, and in cases such as a fuel spill, it may be
possible to obtain help from your local health department
or state agency.
The New York State Department of Health provides a list
of certified commercial laboratories (sorted by county,
look for "potable water" testing). The U.S. EPA
provides links for other states. Samples must be
collected using proper containers and following the lab's

instructions. Yearly testing for common contaminants such

as bacteria and nitrate is recommended to ensure
continued safety of your water supply. Occasional testing
for specific contaminants, such as pesticides and other
chemicals, may be appropriate depending upon where you
live and what activities take place around your water
supply. Testing results should guide your decisions on
whether you need a water treatment system, and if so,
what kind.
It is important to keep in mind that no individual water
treatment device removes every contaminant from
drinking water. Depending on the severity of
contamination, it may be necessary to replace your source
of drinking water by developing an alternative water
supply or purchasing bottled water. Some of these options
can be costly and inconvenient, so it is important to have
your water tested regularly and remain informed of
community water quality issues and decisions. For more
information about drinking water treatment methods and
devices, also see the Drinking Water Treatment page.
back to top

Decision Table for Water Testing - tests to consider

based on your well water symptoms or your location
Home Test Kits
Microorganisms Including Pathogens (diseasecausing organisms)
Taste and Odor
Color and Solids Problems
Hardness, pH, Acidity, Alkalinity
Sulfur Compounds - common source of "rotten egg"
smells

Nitrate and Nitrite

Metals and Metalloids - including arsenic, lead, and iron
Inorganic Contaminants - Other - including perchlorate
Chlorine, Chloramine, and Disinfection Byproducts
Pesticides
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) - includes gasoline
oxygenates like MTBE; hydrocarbons like benzene; PCE;
TCE. Trihalomethanes are mentioned in some of these
publications, but covered in more detail under disinfection
byproducts above.
Emerging Contaminants including Endocrine
Disrupters, Pharmaceuticals, and Personal Care
Products
Links to other sites about drinking water testing

Water Testing
When should I get my water tested and what should I
test for?
Test if...
Your well does not meet construction codes.
The area around the wellhead has been flooded or submerged.
Back-siphoning has occurred.
You have mixed or used pesticides near the well, or have spilled pesticides or fuel
near the well.
You have a heating oil tank or underground fuel tank near the well that you know has
leaked.
You are pregnant, are planning a pregnancy, or have an infant less than 6 months old.
Your septic system absorption field, or your neighbor's, is close to the well (within 100
feet).
How do I collect a sample?
Where do I get my
sample tested?
Test annually for:
Nitrates
Coliform Bacteria
Testing for fecal coliform and/or total bacteria is a good place to start. Depending on
the results of that test, you may be advised to test for other contaminants such as

metals, sediment, or organic pollutants. A presence of live coliforms in your water is

an indication that there is surface water entering your drinking water. There will likely
be other pollutants in your water as well.
Another common starting test for drinking water is nitrates. A value higher than 10
ppm (mg/L) can threaten your health especially if you are pregnant or nursing, and can
threaten the health of infants. A presence of nitrates in your water indicates surface
water contamination of your drinking water.
Not sure what to test for?
If your water has specific symptoms and you would like to figure out what to
test for check the table below or view North Dakota State University Water
Quality Extension's page, What's Wrong With My Water?.
For more information about managing your well or to take a free class about
private wells check out: The Private Well Class.
Conditions or Nearby Activities:
Test for:
Recurring gastro-intestinal illness
Coliform bacteria
Household plumbing contains lead

pH, lead, copper

Radon in indoor air or region is radon rich

Radon

Corrosion of pipes, plumbing

Corrosion, pH, lead

Nearby areas of intensive agriculture

Nitrate, pesticides, coliform bacteria

Coal or other mining operations nearby

Metals, pH, corrosion

Gas drilling operations nearby

Chloride, sodium, barium, strontium

Dump, junkyard, landfill, factory, gas

station, or dry- cleaning operation nearby

Volatile organic compounds, total

dissolved solids, pH, sulfate, chloride,
metals

Odor of gasoline or fuel oil, and near gas

station or buried fuel tanks

Volatile organic compounds

Objectionable taste or smell

Hydrogen sulfide, corrosion, metals

Stained plumbing fixtures, laundry

Iron, copper, manganese

Salty taste and seawater, or a heavily

salted roadway nearby

Chloride, total dissolved solids, sodium

Scaly residues, soaps dont lather

Hardness

Rapid wear of water treatment equipment

pH, corrosion

Water softener needed to treat hardness

Manganese, iron

Water appears cloudy, frothy, or colored

Color, detergents

What are some common drinking water pollutants?

Arsenic

Lead

Nitrate

Coliform Bacteria
(for more information on E.
coli specifically click here)

Pharmaceuticals

Drinking Water Treatment

Systems

How do I collect a sample?

First, call a lab near you that is certified for the test you need for sample containers
and procedures. (See next section.)
Use the appropriate container for the type of sample.
Store the sample carefully according to the instructions before taking it to the lab.
If you receive a container from the lab for a bacterial test, do not rinse it out. It has
been sterilized and contains a preservative.
Some samples must be kept cool and delivered to the lab within a short period of time
(often less than 24 hours) or they will not be analyzed.
A poorly collected sample wastes your money and is worse than no sample at
all.

Where do I get the water analyzed?

Use the button below for a list of labs in Utah that test water. NOTE: Not all certified
labs test for all pollutants. Check with the lab before you collect any samples collections methods, sample storage, and delivery directions are often important.
Utah Testing Labs
How do I interpret the results? What do they mean?
Find out what the results mean using USU's online interpretation tool.
Compare your results to the Utah drinking water standards.
Look at the EPA's ground water and drinking water web page for more information.
If any values exceed the standards, DO NOT DRINK THE WATER!
Re-test if bacteria, nitrate or organic parameters exceed the standards.
If concentrations are increasing between sampling, try to determine and mitigate the
sources of pollutants.

2.1 Water sampling

Water used for processing fish, washing fish or making ice is supposed to meet drinking water
standards if it is to be considered safe. Reason: contaminated water is the main cause for
pathogen-loading of fish, posing a serious health hazard to its consumer.
WHO has issued guidelines for drinking water quality, a report in three volumes. Vol. 1 deals
with guideline values, Vol. 2 deals with each contaminant and Vol. 3 gives information on how
to handle water supplies in small rural communities. WHO recognizes that very stringent
standards cannot be used universally and so a range of guideline values for more than 60
parameters have been elaborated. Most nations have their own guidelines or standards. The
control exerted by local regulatory authorities may differ from place to place depending on the
local situation. So how can acceptable water quality be defined? What can the harbour-master
do to ensure quality? Ensuring the quality of the harbour basin when it is contiguous with
estuarine or coastal waters is perhaps beyond the scope of the harbour-master except to
ensure that activities in his harbour do not add to the pollution. However, he is duty-bound to
ensure that the water used for drinking, cleaning fish, ice making and fish processing meets
standards of potability set in his country.
Qualitative and quantitative measurements are needed from time to time to constantly
monitor the quality of water from the various sources of supply. The harbour-master
should then ensure appropriate water treatment within the fishery harbour complex as
well as initiate remedial measures with the suppliers when water supply from outside is
polluted.
Water sampling and analysis should be done by ISO-certified laboratories. Wherever
laboratories available locally are not ISO-certified, it is advisable to get their quality assessed
by an ISO-certified laboratory by carrying out collaborative tests to ensure that variation in the
accuracy of results is sufficiently small. Unreliable results exacerbate problems of pollution
when corrective action cannot be taken in time. Sampling and monitoring tests should be
carried out by qualified technicians.
Depending on the actual state of the fishing harbour infrastructure and environmental
conditions in and around the harbour, monitoring should be carried out according to a specific
programme for each source of water supply.

2.1.1 Borewells
Contamination may arise from pollutants entering the water table some distance from the port
or from sewage entering the borehole itself in the port area through cracked or corroded
casings. In cases where overdrawing is evident (water is brackish), tests should be conducted
at least monthly.

2.1.2 Municipal mains

Supply could be contaminated at source or through corroded pipelines leading to the fishery
harbour. Mixing with sewage lines due to defective piping has been known to occur often.
Complete tests should be carried out every half year, and the authorities should be informed
when results indicate contamination.

2.1.3 Water tanks and reservoirs

Both types of structure are prone to bacterial growth if the residual chlorine levels in them are
low or non-existent. Testing may not be necessary if periodic scrubbing is carried out.
Bacteriological tests should be done at least half-yearly.

2.1.4 Harbour basin water

Typically, harbour basins are tested yearly. However, in areas where monsoons are very
active, it may be advisable to test at the peak of the dry season when effluent point discharges
tend to remain concentrated in the water body and again during the wet season when
agriculture run-off may be considerable. Another critical period for harbours is the peak of the
fishing season when the harbour is at its busiest and vessel-generated pollution is likely to be
at its peak.

2.2 Testing procedures

2.2.1 Physical tests

2.2.2 Chemical tests
2.2.3 Bacteriological tests

While the details of sampling, testing and analysis are beyond the scope of this handbook,
what follows is a general description of the significance of water quality tests usually made.
Testing procedures and parameters may be grouped into physical, chemical, bacteriological
and microscopic categories.
Physical tests indicate properties detectable by the senses.
Chemical tests determine the amounts of mineral and organic substances that affect water
quality.
Bacteriological tests show the presence of bacteria, characteristic of faecal pollution.

2.2.1 Physical tests

Colour, turbidity, total solids, dissolved solids, suspended solids, odour and taste are recorded.
Colour in water may be caused by the presence of minerals such as iron and manganese or
by substances of vegetable origin such as algae and weeds. Colour tests indicate the efficacy
of the water treatment system.
Turbidity in water is because of suspended solids and colloidal matter. It may be due to
eroded soil caused by dredging or due to the growth of micro-organisms. High turbidity makes
filtration expensive. If sewage solids are present, pathogens may be encased in the particles
and escape the action of chlorine during disinfection.
Odour and taste are associated with the presence of living microscopic organisms; or
decaying organic matter including weeds, algae; or industrial wastes containing ammonia,
phenols, halogens, hydrocarbons. This taste is imparted to fish, rendering them unpalatable.

While chlorination dilutes odour and taste caused by some contaminants, it generates a foul
odour itself when added to waters polluted with detergents, algae and some other wastes.

2.2.2 Chemical tests

pH, hardness, presence of a selected group of chemical parameters, biocides, highly toxic
chemicals, and B.O.D are estimated.
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. It is an indicator of relative acidity or alkalinity
of water. Values of 9.5 and above indicate high alkalinity while values of 3 and below indicate
acidity. Low pH values help in effective chlorination but cause problems with corrosion. Values
below 4 generally do not support living organisms in the marine environment. Drinking water
should have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5. Harbour basin water can vary between 6 and 9.
B.O.D.: It denotes the amount of oxygen needed by micro-organisms for stabilization of
decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions. High B.O.D. means that there is less
of oxygen to support life and indicates organic pollution.

2.2.3 Bacteriological tests

For technical and economic reasons, analytical procedures for the detection of harmful
organisms are impractical for routine water quality surveillance. It must be appreciated that all
that bacteriological analysis can prove is that, at the time of examination, contamination or
bacteria indicative of faecal pollution, could or could not be demonstrated in a given sample of
water using specified culture methods. In addition, the results of routine bacteriological
examination must always be interpreted in the light of a thorough knowledge of the water
supplies, including their source, treatment, and distribution.
Whenever changes in conditions lead to deterioration in the quality of the water supplied, or
even if they should suggest an increased possibility of contamination, the frequency of
bacteriological examination should be increased, so that a series of samples from well chosen
locations may identify the hazard and allow remedial action to be taken. Whenever a sanitary
survey, including visual inspection, indicates that a water supply is obviously subject to
pollution, remedial action must be taken, irrespective of the results of bacteriological
examination. For unpiped rural supplies, sanitary surveys may often be the only form of
examination that can be undertaken regularly.
The recognition that microbial infections can be waterborne has led to the development of
methods for routine examination to ensure that water intended for human consumption is free
from excremental pollution. Although it is now possible to detect the presence of many
pathogens in water, the methods of isolation and enumeration are often complex and timeconsuming. It is therefore impractical to monitor drinking water for every possible microbial
pathogen that might occur with contamination. A more logical approach is the detection of
organisms normally present in the faeces of man and other warm-blooded animals as
indicators of excremental pollution, as well as of the efficacy of water treatment and
disinfection. The presence of such organisms indicates the presence of faecal material and
thus of intestinal pathogens. (The intestinal tract of man contains countless rod-shaped
bacteria known as coliform organisms and each person discharges from 100 to 400 billion
coliform organisms per day in addition to other kinds of bacteria). Conversely, the absence of
faecal commensal organisms indicates that pathogens are probably also absent. Search for
such indicators of faecal pollution thus provides a means of quality control. The use of normal
intestinal organisms as indicators of faecal pollution rather than the pathogens themselves is a
universally accepted principle for monitoring and assessing the microbial safety of water

supplies. Ideally, the finding of such indicator bacteria should denote the possible presence of
all relevant pathogens.
Indicator organisms should be abundant in excrement but absent, or present only in small
numbers, in other sources; they should be easily isolated, identified and enumerated and
should be unable to grow in water. They should also survive longer than pathogens in water
and be more resistant to disinfectants, such as chlorine. In practice, these criteria cannot all be
met by any one organism, although many of them are fulfilled by coliform organisms,
especially Escherichia coli as the essential indicator of pollution by faecal material of human or
animal origin.

2.3 Investigative analysis

A harbour master's knowledge of the state of the environment in and around the fishing
harbour goes a long way toward preventing outbreaks of contamination or disease with
subsequent loss of resources and income. This is particularly so for the many small-to-medium
fishing ports scattered around coastlines in developing countries, where, more often than not,
environmental help and support from central bodies is meagre and very time-consuming.
The following is a true-life example of an investigative analysis carried out in an ASEAN
country in a harbour that was experiencing problems with hygiene (coliform contaminated
fish).

2.3.1 Test case

The port in question is situated in the mouth of an estuary. The town's water supply cannot
provide the port with potable water and the port draws groundwater from a series of boreholes
in and around the port area. The port's storage infrastructure consists of only one elevated
concrete tank which cannot be taken out of service for cleaning. Ice is supplied by outside
contractors.
Current laboratory test results were examined and found to be too consistent to reflect natural
changes in the environment, pointing a finger of suspicion at the laboratory's Quality
Assurance. A new laboratory with I.S.O. certification was selected to carry out the new
tests.
Water samples were taken by external technicians from the port's borehole, the auction hall's
water taps, each and every one of the external ice suppliers and the harbour basin.
A sample report from the laboratory is shown in Table 2-1.
In this table, the first column indicates the test parameter and the last column indicates the
method used to determine the test result (sometimes, more than one method may be used to
determine residuals).
The second column indicates how the parameters are measured, the third column gives the
actual test result which may then be compared to the values in the fourth column. The values
in the fourth column are national standards or limits set by Governments and may differ from
country to country. The values in the third column should not exceed those in the fourth
column.
Table 2-2 shows the recommended WHO standard limits for potable water.

Table 2-1: SAMPLE WATER ANALYSIS REPORT - PORT TAP WATER

Parameter

Unit

Test Remarks Requirement

Methods

Physical & Chemical *):

Colour

Pt. Co scale

15

Colorimetric

Odour

Pt. Co scale

negative

odourless

Organoleptic

pH

Pt. Co scale

6.50

6.5-8.5

Electrometric

Taste

Pt. Co scale

normal

tasteless

Organoleptic

Turbity

FTU

Turbidity

Aluminum

mg/l

below 0.20

0.2

AAS

Copper

mg/l

below 0.03

1.0

AAS

Iron Total

mg/l

below 0.04

0.3

AAS

Manganese

mg/l

0.06

0.1

AAS

Sodium

mg/l

96.93

200

AAS

Zinc

mg/l

0.047

AAS

Chloride

mg/l

140.41

250

Argentometric

Flouride

mg/l

0.09

1.5

Colorimetric

 Nitrate

mg/l

below 0.11

10

Colorimetric

Nitrite

mg/l

0.96

Colorimetric

Sulphate

mg/l

below 0.94

400

Turbidimetric

Arsenic

mg/l

below 0.001

0.05

AAS

Barium

mg/l

below 0.10

AAS

Cadmium

mg/l

below 0.005

0.005

AAS

Cyanide

mg/l

below 0.01

0.1

Colorimetric

Chrom Hexavalent

mg/l

below 0.006

0.05

Colorimetric

Lead

mg/l

below 0.01

0.05

AAS

Mercury

mg/l

below 0.001

0.001

AAS

Selenium

mg/l

below 0.007

0.01

AAS

Organic Matter by KMnO4

mg/l

3.06

10

Permanganantometric

Dissolved Solid

mg/l

431

1000

Gravimetric

Hydrogen Sulphide as H2S

mg/l

below 0.01

0.05

Colorimetric

mg CaCO3

95.49

500

AAS

Total Hardness

Bacteriological:

 Total Bacteria

*)

per ml

6.9 x 102

1.0 x 102

Pour Plate

Coliform

per 100 ml

nil

nil

Filtration

E. Coli

per 100 ml

nil

nil

Filtration

Salmonella sp

per 100 ml

negative

negative

Filtration

Standard Methods

A. Examination of the port's deep borehole test report revealed that whereas the iron and
manganese levels were over the limit, indicating vegetable matter in the acquifer, the sodium
and chloride levels were low, indicating that the pump was not overdrawing. Both the nitrate
and nitrite levels were low indicating that sewage intrusion into the borehole casing was not a
problem. The total bacterial count, however, was very high, indicating that the water has to be
chlorinated to lower the count.
B. Examination of the auction hall's tap water test report (comparing them to the borehole
water) indicates that the bacterial count is slightly lower but not enough to be considered
sanitary and fit for drinking. The turbidity also dropped dramatically between borehole and tap,
indicating deposition of solids inside the port's only storage tank. The nitrate level also drops
as the nitrates are further converted to nitrites indicating bacteriological activity inside the
overhead tank as well. As it turned out, chlorinating equipment was not installed.
C. Examination of the ice test reports reveals that both sodium and chlorides are over the limit
indicating either leaking cans at the ice plants (dirty brine water enters the ice water during the
chilling operation) or overdrawing at the plant's borehole. Closer examination also revealed
that the nitrite levels are very high (indicating decomposed sewage) and that coliforms were
present in the ice. This pointed a finger at the borehole of one particular plant, which in fact
was found to be overdrawing water to meet an increase in demand. The presence of the
coliforms also indicated that the ice plant's own chlorinating equipment was not functioning
properly.
D. A close look at the river basin water indicated heavy contamination by sewage of the water
course.
The conclusions to be drawn from the above exercise are that:
a) The most likely source of contamination was the ice supplied to the fishermen, which in turn
contaminated the fish in the holds;
b) The port's own water supply and storage system was in need of an overhaul;
c) The port's river water was not to be used in any of the fish handling processes.
Table 2-3 gives the EU recommendations for harbour waters in general.

Harbour water is never suitable for use in fish handling processes destined for human
consumption.
Table 2-2: W.H.O. DRINKING WATER STANDARDS

PARAMETER

UNIT

LIMIT

Aluminium

mg Al/l

0.2

Arsenic

mg As/l

0.05

Barium

mg Ba/l

0.05

Berylium

ug Be/l

0.2

Cadmium

ug Cd/l

5.0

Calcium

mg Ca/l

200.0

Chromium

mg Cr/l

0.05

Copper

mg Cu/l

1.0

Iron Total

mg Fe/l

0.3

Lead

mg Pb/l

0.01

Magnesium

mg Mg/l

150.0

Manganese

mg Mn/l

0.1

Mercury

ug Hg/l

1.0

Selenium

mg Se/l

0.01

Sodium

mg Na/l

200.0

Zinc

mg Zn/l

5.0

Chlorides

mg Cl/l

250.0

Cyanide

mg Cn/l

0.1

Fluorides

mg F/l

1.5

Nitrates

mg NO3/l

10.0

Nitrites

mg NO2/l

Sulphates

mg SO4/l

400.0

Suphides

mg H2S/l

TOTAL "drins"

ug/l

0.03

TOTAL "ddt"

ug/l

1.0

Hydrocarbons

mg/l

0.1

Anionic Detergents

mg/l

pH

9.2

Total dissolved solids

mg/l

1500

Total hardness

mg/l

500

Alkalinity

mg/l

500

MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

Total Bacteria

Count/ml

100

Coliform

Count/100ml

E. Coli

Count/100ml

Salmonella

Count/100ml

ug = microgram or ppb
mg = milligram or ppm
Table 2-3: EU ESTUARY AND HARBOUR BASIN WATER STANDARDS

PARAMETER

UNIT

LIMIT

Mercury

ug Hg/l

0.50 (D)

Cadmium

ug Cd/l

5.00 (D)

Arsenic

mg As/l

0.50 (G)

Chromium

mg Cr/l

0.50 (G)

Copper

mg Cu/l

0.50 (G)

Iron

mg Fe/l

3.00 (G)

Lead

mg Pb/l

0.50 (G)

Nickel

mg Ni/l

0.50 (G)

Zinc

mg Zn/l

50.00 (G)

Tributyltin

ug/l

0.002

Triphenyltin

ug/l

0.008

Aldrin

ug/l

0.01

Dieldrin

ug/l

0.01

Endrin

ug/l

0.005

Isodrin

ug/l

0.005

TOTAL "drins"

ug/l

0.03

TOTAL "ddt" all 4 isomers

ug/l

0.025

para-ddt

ug/l

0.01

Hexachloro-cyclohexane

ug/l

0.02

Carbon tetrachloride

ug/l

12.0

Pentachlorophenol

ug/l

2.0

Hexachlorobenzene

ug/l

0.03

Hexachlorobutadiene

ug/l

0.10

Chloroform

ug/l

12.0

Ethylene Dichloride

ug/l

10.0

Perchloroethylene

ug/l

10.0

Trichlorobenzene

ug/l

0.40

Trichloroethylene

ug/l

10.0

Hydrocarbons

ug/l

300.0 (G)

Phenols

ug/l

50.0

Surfactants

ug/l

300.0 (G)

Dissolved Oxygen

% Saturation

pH

Sulphide

80-120 (G)

6-9

mg/l

0.04 (S)

MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

Faecal conforms

per 100ml

2000

Total coliforms

per 100ml

10000

Salmonella

Entero viruses

ug = microgram
G = Guideline
mg = milligram
S = Suggested
D = Dissolved

2.4 Water treatment methods

Treatment of raw water to produce water of potable quality can be expensive. It is advisable to
determine the quantity of water needing treatment, as not all water used in a fishery
harbour or processing plant needs to be of potable quality. Sizing of the equipment is
crucial to produce acceptable water at reasonable cost. The main point to remember is that

separate systems and pipelines are required for potable and non-potable water to avoid cross
contamination. Each system must be clearly identified by contrasting coloured pipelines.
Water used for drinking, cleaning fish and ice-making must be free from pathogenic bacteria
and may require secondary treatment or even complete treatment depending on chemical
elements that need to be removed. Water for other needs like general cleaning may perhaps
need only primary treatment.

2.4.1 Primary treatment

There are four methods of primary treatment: chlorination; ozone treatment; ultraviolet
treatment; and membrane filtration.
Chlorination: Fresh or sea water can be chlorinated using either chlorine gas or
hypochlorites. Chlorinated water minimizes slime development on working surfaces and helps
control odour.
The main advantages of using chlorine gas are:

It is the most efficient method of making free chlorine available to raw water.
It lowers the pH of the water slightly.
Control is simple; testing simple; and it is not an expensive method.
The main disadvantages are:
Chlorine gas is toxic and can combine with other chemicals to form combustible and
explosive materials.
Automatic control systems are expensive.
Chlorine cylinders may not be readily available at small centres.
Chlorine expands rapidly on heating and hence the cylinders must have fusible plugs set at
70C. It also reacts with water, releasing heat. Water should not therefore be sprayed on a
leaking cylinder.
Figure 9: PERCENTAGE OF AVAILABLE CHLORINE BY WEIGHT

COMPOUND

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

% CHLORINE BY WEIGHT

Cl2

100.0

Monochloramine

NH2Cl

138.0

Diochloramine

NH4Cl2

165.0

Chlorine gas

Hypochlorous Acid

Calcium hypochlorite

HOCl

135.4

Ca(OCl2)

99.2

Hypochlorites are generally available in two forms - sodium hypochlorite solution normally
available at 10% concentration and calcium hypochlorite available as a powder.
The main disadvantages of using hypochlorites are:
Calcium hypochlorite is not stable and must be stored in air-tight drums.
Sodium hypochlorite is quite corrosive and cannot be stored in metal containers
Sodium hypochlorite must be stored in light proof containers.
It is difficult to control the rate of addition of hypochlorites in proportion to water flow.
Hypochlorites raise the pH in water.
They are more expensive than chlorine gas.
It is important to understand the manner in which chlorine or chlorine-releasing substances
behave when added to water, depending on other substances present.
When water contains reducing substances like ferrous salts or hydrogen sulphide, these will
reduce part of the added chlorine to chloride ions.
When water contains ammonia, organic matter, bacteria and other substances capable of
reacting with chlorine, the level of free chlorine will be reduced.
If the quantity of chlorine added is sufficiently large to ensure that it is not all reduced or
combined, a portion of it will remain free in the water. This is termed as residual free chlorine
or free chlorine.
When chlorine reacts chemically as in the first two cases, it loses its oxidising power and
consequently its disinfecting properties. Some ammoniacal chlorides however still retain some
disinfecting properties. Chlorine present in this form is termed residual combined chlorine or
combined chlorine.
From the standpoint of disinfection, the most important form is free chlorine. Routine analysis
always aims at determining at least the free chlorine level.
Ozone treatment: Though the principle is relatively simple, this method needs special
equipment, supply of pure oxygen and trained operators. Ozone is generated by passing pure
oxygen through an ozone generator. It is then bubbled through a gas diffuser at the bottom of
an absorption column, in a direction opposite to the flow of raw water. Retention or contact
time is critical and the size of the absorption column depends on the water flow.
The main advantages of ozone treatment are:

Ozone is a much more powerful germicide than chlorine especially for faecal bacteria.
It reduces turbidity of water by breaking down organic constituents.
The process is easily controlled.

The disadvantages are:

Pure oxygen may not be readily available locally.
Ozonized water is corrosive to metal piping.
Ozone decomposes rapidly into oxygen.
Water has to be aerated prior to use to remove the ozone.
Ultraviolet irradiation treatment: This method is often used to treat drinking water.
Successful commercial installations have been made to purify sea water in large fish
processing plants.
The main advantages of U-V treatment are:
U-V rays in the range of 2500-2600 Angstrom units are lethal to all types of bacteria.
There is no organoleptic, chemical or physical change to the water quality.
Overexposure does not have any ill effects.
The main disadvantages are:
Electricity supply should be reliable.
Turbidity reduces efficiency.
Water may require prior treatment like filtration.
The unit requires regular inspection and maintenance.
Thickness of the water film should not exceed 7.5 cm.
Membrane filtration: Osmotic membrane treatment methods are generally expensive for
commercial scale installations. Combinations of membrane treatment with U-V treatment units
are available for domestic use.

2.4.2 Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment of water consists of sedimentation and filtration followed by chlorination.
Sedimentation can be carried out by holding the raw water in ponds or tanks. The four basic
types of filtration are cartridge filtration, rapid sand filtration, multimedia sand filtration, and upflow filtration.
Cartridge filtration: This system is designed to handle waters of low turbidity and will remove
solids in the 5 to 100 micron range.
The main advantages are:
Low cost and 'in-line' installation.
Change of cartridge is simple.
Operation is fool-proof. Once the cartridge is clogged, flow simply stops.
The main disadvantages are:
Sudden increase in turbidity overloads the system.
Cartridges may not be readily available and large stocks may be required.

Rapid sand filtration: This system consists of a layer of gravel with layers of sand of
decreasing coarseness above the gravel. As solids build up on top, flow decreases until it
stops. This is corrected by back-flushing the system to remove the solid build up on top, Figure
12.
The main advantages are:
Cost of filtration media is negligible.
Operation is simple.
The main disadvantages are:
A holding tank for filtered water is required to provide clear water back flushing.
Pumping loads increase as sediments build up.

Multimedia sand filtration: This system is similar to the rapid sand filtration method.
Up-flow filtration: Filtration can be at atmospheric pressure or by using a pressurised system,
Figures 15a and 15b.
The main advantages are:
High flow rates are easily attained.
Water with turbidity up to 1500 ppm can be handled.
Degree of filtration can be easily adjusted.
The filter bed can be easily cleaned using the filtered water.
The main disadvantage is:
Close supervision is necessary to ensure that the filter bed does not rupture.

2.4.3 Complete treatment

Complete treatment consists of flocculation, coagulation, sedimentation and filtration followed
by disinfection. Flocculation and coagulation will assist in removing contaminants in the water,
causing turbidity, colour odour and taste which cannot be removed by sedimentation alone.
This can be achieved by the addition of lime to make the water slightly alkaline, followed by
the addition of coagulants like Alum (aluminium sulphate), ferric sulphate or ferric chloride. The
resultant precipitate can be removed by sedimentation and filtration.
Chemical treatment may be required to reduce excessive levels of iron, manganese, chalk,
and organic matter. Such treatment is usually followed by clarification. Iron may be removed
by aeration or chlorination to produce a flocculant which can be removed by filtration.
Manganese may be removed by aeration followed by adjustment of pH and up-flow filtration.
Most colours can be removed by treatment with ferric sulphate to precipitate the colours.

General Classes of Water Contaminants for

Comprehensive Water Testing

CONTAMINANT CLASSES, in WATER - CONTENTS: General Classes of Water Contaminants for Comprehensive Water
Testing. Testing for unknown water contaminants. When to order a "general" water test. General water test parameters. W
& alternatives. What water contaminants are included in a general "comprehensive" water test? What is a "thorough" wate
test? How is this different from a "water potability test"?

POST a QUESTION or READ FAQs about comprehensive water testing for pollutants

REFERENCES

InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.

Testing for unknown water contaminants:

This article describes the types of contaminants that may be found in wells or
drinking water and suggests a strategic approach to reduce the chances that
you order a costly test that simply doesn't check for a local water
contaminant that may be or is present in the water source. This article
explains the general classes of water contaminants covered in a general
water test.
What drinking water contamination tests should you order? This article
outlines the general classes or groups of comprehensive water tests that one
would consider when attempting to perform comprehensive water testing for
a broad range of contaminants.
Green links show where you are. Copyright 2015 InspectApedia.com, All Rights Reserved.

General Classes of Water Contaminants Found in

Drinking Water or Water Wells
Categories of water pollution contaminants by contaminant type
Categories of water contaminants by contaminant type: "Animal, mineral or
vegetable" so to speak, include the twelve groups below. Some of these
groups are overlapping, but I include them here as an easily-recognied
digest of various government and private lists of water contaminants.
1. Bacterial contaminants, including coliform from sewage
contaminants or other bacteriological water contaminants that occur in
the water source or well =(BACTERIA TEST GUIDE).

This category also includes bacterial contaminants that may develop in

building water equipment, tanks, or pipes (Legionella BACTERIA in
WATER HEATERS)
2. Bulk organic contaminants in water include hydrocarbons such as oil
or grease*
3. Other biological contaminants (other than bacterial) such as fungal
or viral contaminants, and including more obvious biological
contaminant sources such as a dead animal in a well or fecal waste
from spiders or other insects that may enter a well.
4. Chemical contaminants such as pesticides, herbicides, and in some
cases contaminants that may be harmful though present only at very
low levels, even below current permitted levels in drinking water, such
as ENDOCRINE DISRUPTERS at BUILDINGS. See Halogenated
hydrocarbons polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons listed separately in
that article series.
Mercury contamination in water may be described under this chemical
category or under that of metal contaminants. Similarly, many sources
include nitrogen compounds in water among chemical contaminants.
See CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS in WATER for details about this
category of pollutants.
5. Gases, including radon in water wells, methane (potentyially
explosive, METHANE GAS SOURCES ), and other gases such as
sulphur or other odors (WATER ODORS, CAUSE CURE ). Note that
bactrial or other water organic contaminants can also lead to water
odors.
6. Halogenated Hydrocarbons or Persistent Organics, a group of
chemicals that are very resistant to decay such as DDT and PCBs.* U.S. EPA (2014)

7. Metal contaminants in water. The U.S. EPA cites metals such as iron,
manganese, lead (LEAD IN DRINKING WATER), cadmium, zinc, and
mercury, and metalloids such as arsenic and selenium* - U.S. EPA (2014)
8. Nutrient contaminants in water, principally phosphorous nitrogen.
The U.S. EPA notes ... nitrogen compounds such as ammonia.
Elevated levels of phosphorous can promote the unwanted growth of
algae. This can lead to the amount of oxygen in the water being
lowered when the algae die and decay. High concentrations of
ammonia can be toxic to benthic organisms.* - U.S. EPA (2014)

9. Physical contaminants in water, in a category intended to describe

refuse (plastic bottles, cans, trash or large particles, may be listed as
category separate from "solid contaminants" described below.
10.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), a group of organic
chemicals that includes several petroleum products and byproducts* U.S. EPA (2014)

11.Radioactive contaminants in drinking water such as radon (RADON

IN WATER) are properly listed under chemical pollutants or gaseous
pollutants.
12.
Solid contaminants in water such as sediment (soil, organic
debris)
* The five asterisked contaminants in our longer list above are listed by the
U.S. EPA as the "Five major types of pollutants are found in sediments" that
might also be present in drinking water.
Seven Types of Water Pollution
In the U.K., water-pollution.org.uk, a separate organization, lists the following
more generalized types of water pollution. This list is helpful for
understanding certain common properties held by various water pollutants.
But this list is a bit confusing too as it mixes areas where water is found
(surface water vs ground water) with types of pollution (microbiological and
nutrient pollution).
Groundwater water pollution
Microbiologial water pollution
Nutrient pollution in wagter
Surface water pollution
Suspended matter pollutants in water
Comprehensive tests for water pollutants
Watch out: a "water potability test" may sound like such testing tells you if
water is completely safe to drink. But as the term "potability test" is
commonly used, it refers only to a test for the presence or absence of
coliform bacteria. While potability tests are inexpensive and are a very good
way to start checking on the safety of drinking water, potability testing is no
proof against other possible water contaminants including other forms of
bacteria and various chemicals.

Comprehensive water testing covering the groups listed below may be

appropriate when purchasing a new property, when local environmental
conditions are unknown but suspect, or when building occupants have
unusual health vulnerability or compromised immune systems.
We advise also that you speak with the local health department and
neighbors to ask if there are any known specific issues or contaminants
nearby, as we have by this means discovered very unusual local water
contaminants which otherwise no one would have thought to test.
Be sure to review actual parameters with your home inspector or laboratory:
parameters and costs vary.
Watch out: because the number of individual water contaminating
substances is potentially very large, you risk both wasting money and falsely
presuming that your drinking water is safe if you simply choose a "catchall"
water test for contaminants. See Sampling Guidance for Unknown
Contaminants in Drinking Water (cited below) for the U.S. EPA's comments
on this problem.
Therefore we suggest as a general approach choosing water tests for
unknown contaminants using a strategy that includes the steps listed below.
To avoid an inefficient use of your water testing dollars, an approach that
either raises questions for further investigation or closes off certain lines of
investigation can be particularly helpful. For example if the property was a
farm you might test for fertilizers. If the property was previously an orchard
you might test for certain pesticides used in those businesses.
Check with neighbors & local water test labs for known water
problems in the area. We advise that you speak with the local health
department and neighbors to ask if there are any known specific
issues or contaminants nearby, as we have by this means discovered
very unusual local water contaminants which otherwise no one would
have thought to test.
Check property-specific visual clues: presence of fuel tanks, farm
equipment, even trash that may include chemical or pesticide
containers
Check property history: history of use of a property may disclose
prior uses that involved potential pollutants for which you 'd test. At a
strip mall we observed a pesticide storage trailer parked in the woods
on the property. A test for pesticide spills came up negative. But a
historical review showed a prior metal plating business on the site had
contaminated both soils and a nearby stream with heavy metals.

 Check the history and use of nearby properties whose surface or

groundwater runoff may pass onto the property of interests.
Choose a comprehensive test for common contaminants.
Add special tests for special-suspected contaminants based on
other property review steps.
Comprehensive water testing covering the groups listed below may be
appropriate when purchasing a new property, when local environmental
conditions are unknown but suspect, or when building occupants have
unusual health vulnerability or compromised immune systems.
Water is the universal solvent and it has the capabilities of dissolving just
about anything. Because of this unique property water can easily become
contaminated. Most common complaints are usually odor or staining
problems; like those associated with sulfur and iron. However, serious
contaminates as Lead and E.Coli Bacteria may be toxic affecting your
family's health. This is why testing your water initially and annual monitoring
is important.
COMPREHENSIVE INITIAL WATER TEST
Comprehensive Test would be expected to address four categories of testing
in water:
1. Inorganic (this includes minerals and physical properties)
2. Organic (petroleum products, gasoline, fuel oils and solvents)
3. Microbiology (Coliform and other bacteria)
4. Radiological (radon gas)
This is a good way to start. The comprehensive Test is a powerful tool in
detecting contaminates commonly found in surface and deep well waters. If
there is a suspicion of Pesticides or Herbicides used near the water source it
may be wise to include Pesticides and Herbicides analysis along with the
Comprehensive Test.
ANNUAL MONITORING (Standard Test)
After the initial water test, it is customary to monitor the quality to make sure
that no changes have occurred. Utilizing the Standard Test yearly is a good
way to monitor the water source. If on the original water test,

Organic compounds or high amounts of Radon Gas were found, we would

strongly suggest again testing with the Comprehensive Test.
General vs Comprehensive water test parameters
GENERAL WATER TEST PARAMETERS lists a set of general water test
parameters for property buyers or owners who want to be more thorough
than performing only a simple "coliform" or "bacteria" test (all that most
banks require) but who do not have reason to test for more specific water
contaminants.
One might take this approach after obtaining knowledge of property history,
site inspection, conversation with neighbors, or check with a local health
department. This test is more thorough than a simple coliform test but may
not meet VA or FHA minimum standards for drinking water. Be sure to review
actual parameters with your home inspector or laboratory: parameters and
costs vary.
COMPREHENSIVE WATER TEST lists the parameters in a more
comprehensive water test for common contaminants.

Question: causes of cloudy water

(May 14, 2016) Jeff said:
I replaced my regulator,and added some air in tank,my regulator is a 20,40
but I'm having problems with dirty,cloudy looking water,was cleared up for
couple weeks but now looking dirty again.what do I do,I don't think I have my
regulator adjusted right for 1 thing another I might off blower to much air in
tank,looks like a 25 gallon tank.can you help me?
Reply: air, debris, bacteria, minerals, bad water softener
Jeff:
The pressure regulator settings won't be the cause of dirty water in the
system, though debris in the water supply can clog the sensor port on the
pressure control switch and ultimately cause it to malfunction.
First do this simple test: from your kitchen sink, fill a clear water pitcher with
water. If the water looks cloudy set the pitcher on the countertop and watch it
for a few minutes. If the cloudiness begins to clear up, usually from the
bottom of the pitcher and then moving towards the top, you are seeing fine
air bubbles entrained in the water, not a chemical or mineral contaminant.

If the cloudiness does not dissipate there may be a mineral, bacterial, or

other contaminant in the water supply or a bacterial contamination in the
water pressure tank and piping or in the water heater tank.
Check the incoming water supply for debris; you may need to add a filter or
treatment system; another cause of dirty water can be a change in the water
table or damage to (and leaks into) the well casing.
If you suspect a water tank, you'll need to clean, drain, disinfiect, sanitize the
tank. Search InspectApedia.com for SANITIZSE a WATER SOFTENER for a
nice procedure. Also search for WELL SHOCK PROCEDURE.

References & Research on general classes of contaminants found in

drinking water
"Five major types of pollutants are found in sediments", U.S. EPA,
Major Contaminants, retrieved 5/11/2014, original souce:
http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/sediments/cs/contaminants.cfm
"Sampling Guidance for Unknown Contaminants in Drinking Water",
U.S. EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water (4601M)
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20460, EPA-817-R08-003, retrived 5/11/2014, oreiginal source:
http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/wla/upload/
2008_12_31_watersecurity_pubs_guide_watersecurity_samplingforun
known.pdf
"Understanding the Safe Drinking Water Act (SWD)" (PDF), 19742004, U.S. EPA 816-F-04-030, June 2004,
This website describes the types of water testing available, outlines common
water test fees, describes the details of what parameters are included in
various water test options, and gives advice to assist you in deciding what
tests to order.
...

Water Quality Testing

In many parts of the world, water is not safe enough to drink. There are basic
qualitative observations that quickly determine if water is not safe to consume.
However, there are also many invisible substances that must be tested for
professionally to identify the contaminants and to figure out how the specific
polluted water can be purified. Testing can be done in the field with portable test kits

or mobile laboratories. Water samples can also be collected and sent to a

professional laboratory.

In

Out

Precipitation, Freshwater, Treated Water

Precipitation, Freshwater, Drinking

Water, Treated Water

Introduction
Drinking water can come from different sources depending on where we live in the world. Three
sources that are used to collect drinking water are:

Ground water

Surface water

Rainwater
Water is in continuous movement on, above, and below the surface of the earth. As water is recycled
through the earth, it picks up many things along its path. Water quality will vary from place to place,
with the seasons, and with the various kinds of rock and soil it moves through.
For the most part, it is largely natural processes that affect water quality. For instance, water moving
through underground rocks and soils may pick up natural contaminants, even with no human activity
or pollution in the area. In addition to nature's influence, water is also pollutedby human activities,
such as open defecation, dumping garbage, poor agricultural practices, and chemical spills at
industrial sites (see also water source protection).
Even though water may be clear, it does not necessarily mean that it is safe for us to drink. It is
important for us to judge the safety of water by taking the following three qualities into
consideration (see also pathogens and contaminants):
1.
Microbiological bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and worms
2.
Chemical minerals, metals and chemicals
3.
Physical temperature, colour, smell, taste and turbidity
Safe drinking water should have the following microbiological, chemical and physical qualities:

Free of pathogens

Low in concentrations of toxic chemicals

Clear

Tasteless and colourless (for aesthetic purposes)

When considering drinking water quality, microbiological contamination is the main concern in most
cases since it is responsible for the majority of illnesses and deaths related to drinking unsafe water.
Learn more about water purification.

Basic Design Principles

Qualitative Observations
The first step to check water quality can be done by very simple observations:

Water Observations

Possible Contaminants

Foamy

Detergents

Black in colour

Manganese, bacterial growth

Brown, yellow or reddish in colour

Iron

Dark brown or yellow in colour

Tannins and pigment from leaves and back

White deposits or scale

Hardness, dissolved metals

Earthy, fishy, muddy, peaty odour

Organic matter, algae, bacteria

Rotten egg odour

Hydrogen sulphide

Chlorine odour

Chlorine residual from water treatment process

Bitter or metallic taste

pH, zinc, copper

Laboratory Testing
Water quality testing can also be carried out in a laboratory. This method requires facilities, trained
technicians, equipment and other supporting materials. Laboratory testing can be useful if you are
only taking a small number of samples and your project is located close to an urban area where a
laboratory is present (CAWST 2009).

Advantages

Limitations

Controlled environment

Relatively expensive

High level of precision and accuracy

Requires trained and skilled technicians

High level of quality assurance

Usually located in urban areas, may

require samples to be transported over
long distances

More consistent results

Some laboratories may have very limited

options of test methods

More samples can be processed in a

shorter time

Water Quality Assessment: Chemical

Chemical attributes of a waterway can be important indicators of water
quality. Chemical attributes of water can affect aesthetic qualities such as
how water looks, smells, and tastes. Chemical attributes of water can also
affect its toxicity and whether or not it is safe to use. Since the chemical
quality of water is important to the health of humans as well as the plants
and animals that live in and around streams, it is necessary to assess the
chemical attributes of water. Photo: Professor Ken Rastall using YSI 3800 Water Quality
Logger to measure several chemical parameters of stream water quality at once. Photo courtesy of Dr.
Ben Stout.

Assessment of water quality by its chemistry includes

measures of many elements and molecules dissolved or
suspended in the water. Chemical measures can be used
to directly detect pollutants such as lead or mercury.
Chemical measures can also be used to detect
imbalances within the ecosystem. Such imbalances may
indicate the presence of certain pollutants. For example,
elevated acidity levels may indicate the presence of acid
mine drainage.
Commonly measured chemical parameters
include pH,alkalinit , hardness, nitrates, nitrites and ammonia, ortho- and
total phosphates, and dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand.
The presence of fecal coliform, a bacteria, is also determined using a
chemical test. This microscopic organism is too small to detect during
the biological assessment of macroinvertebrate populations. In addition,
some "chemical" measurements actually indicate the physical presence of
pollutants in water. These include measurements such as conductivity and
density.
Water pollutants and purification
Water pollutants

Nitrate fertilisers are very soluble in water and are easily washed off fields by the
rain and then into rivers and reservoirs. Because nitrates are all soluble they cannot easily
be removed from the water.

Older houses and water supply systems still rely on lead pipes. Poisonous lead
compounds formed on the inside of the pipes slowly dissolve into the water.

Pesticides used by farmers to kill weeds or insects may be washed or blown into
streams and rivers.
Water purification
Raw water may contain dissolved salts and minerals, microbes, pollutants and insoluble
materials like sand and stones. Water is treated to remove any harmful components before
being fed into the public supply. This is achieved is several ways:

Filtration - The water is sprayed onto specially prepared layers of sand and gravel.
As it trickles through, different sized insoluble solids are removed. The filter beds are
cleaned periodically by pumping clean water backwards through the filter.

Sedimentation - A chemical is added which causes tiny solid particles (which

would pass through a filter) to clump together into larger particles. These can then be
allowed to settle out or may be filtered.

Chlorination - Chlorine gas, injected into the water, kills microbes.

Testing water
Particular ions present in solution in water can be detected by precipitation reactions.

Testing for the sulfate ion

A test using silver nitrate

You can test to see if a solution contains sulfate ions by using barium sulfate. If barium chloride
solution is added to a sample of water containing sulfate ions, barium sulfate is formed. Barium
sulfate is insoluble in water, and will be seen as a white precipitate.
Barium chloride solution + sodium sulfate solution sodium chloride solution + solid
barium sulfate

Testing for halide ions

The halogens are the elements in group 7 of the Periodic table, like chlorine, bromine and
iodine. Their ions are called halide ions.
You can test to see if a solution contains chloride, bromide or iodide ions by using silver nitrate.
If silver nitrate solution is added to a sample of water containing halide ions the silver halide is
precipitated. This is because the silver halides are all insoluble in water.

Silver chloride is a white precipitate

Silver bromide is a cream precipitate
Silver iodide is a pale yellow precipitate
For example:
Silver nitrate solution + sodium bromide solution sodium nitrate solution + solid
silver bromide

Water - Higher tier

Some soluble substances are not removed by the treatment processes. For example, nitrate
fertilisers applied to farmland may be washed into rivers and lakes. Nitrates can be poisonous,
particularly for young people or if they are in high concentrations, so care has to be taken to
limit nitrates getting into water sources.

Distillation of sea water

In principle, distillation can be used to make large volumes of fresh water from sea water.
However, it takes a lot of energy to boil water for this process. This would make the fresh water
produced much more expensive than water from traditional sources. In addition, there are
problems disposing of the salt-rich waste water left over by the process. However, distillation is
used in hot countries such as Saudi Arabia.

Balanced symbol equations

You should be able to construct balanced symbol equations for the reactions of barium chloride
with sulfates, and for silver nitrate with halides. You will be given the appropriate formulae. For
example:
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + BaSO4(s)
The 2 in front of NaCl is needed to balance the equation.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
Remember that (aq) means dissolved in water, and (s) means solid (the precipitate here).

Lead in Drinking Water

Find answers to common questions about lead in drinking
water, learn how to determine if your drinking water
contains too much lead, and discover ways to reduce lead in
your water.
Lead contamination poses a serious threat to the safety of drinking water in
Pennsylvania. This colorless, odorless, and tasteless metal can go
undetected in water. Excessive amounts of lead place adults at higher risk
for cancer, stroke, kidney disease, memory problems and high blood
pressure. At even greater risk are children, whose rapidly growing bodies
absorb lead more quickly and efficiently. Lead can cause premature birth,
reduced birth weight, seizures, hearing loss, behavioral problems, brain
damage, learning disabilities, and a lower IQ level in children. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that lead is the most serious
environmental health hazard for children under 6 years old in the United
States. Blood tests for lead are often recommended for very young children
to determine if lead exposure it occurring.

Where Does Lead Come From?

The chemical symbol for lead of "Pb" comes from the Latin plumbum, the
root for "plumbing". Lead is an element so it does not break down into less
harmful substances. Lead has been used as an ingredient of gasoline,
paint, glassware, metal pipes, and food containers, all of which have
contained varying amounts of lead. Therefore, even though lead has been
banned from gasoline and most paint and is no longer used in food
containers, some lead can be found in the food, paint, soil, dust,
housewares, and drinking water of many American homes.
Lead paint and dust are the primary source of lead exposure, especially in
older homes. Leaded gasoline, largely replaced by unleaded mixtures since
the 1970s, has caused lead contamination of soil near roadways and in
urban areas.
Drinking water is usually a smaller source of exposure to lead, but this
varies greatly among homes, schools, and other buildings, and can add to
other lead sources. Infants drinking formula can get half of their lead
exposure from drinking water.

How Does Lead Get Into Water?

In rare instances lead gets into water as a result of pesticides that were
used decades ago or industrial activity that contaminated soil and
groundwater. But lead is much more likely to enter water from household
plumbing. For this reason, lead is a potential concern for all homes whether
on a public (municipal) or private (individual well or spring) water supply.
Depending on its other chemical characteristics, the water itself dissolves

lead from leaded solder or lead pipes in plumbing systems in a process

called "corrosion".
Lead can also corrode from metal faucets and fixtures made from brass, an
alloy of copper and zinc that often contains lead impurities, including
chrome-plated brass fixtures. Brass fixtures can leach lead even in homes
with plastic water lines. Solder is an alloy of tin with lead, antimony, or
silver. Lead may also originate from the corrosion of brass fittings on
certain types of submersible pumps used in groundwater wells through the
mid 1990's. Laws have restricted the amount of lead allowed in new pipes,
fixtures, and solder but many homes contain older materials. Corrosive
water also degrades copper plumbing, which may produce small leaks,
blue-green stains, or metallic tastes, but these are not reliable indicators of
the risk of lead in water.
The amount of lead corroded from metal plumbing generally increases as
water corrosivity increases. Water corrosivity is controlled primarily by the
waters acidity and calcium carbonate content. In general, acidic water that
has a pH less than 7 and that is low in calcium carbonate is more corrosive
than water that has a pH higher than 7 and that is high in calcium
carbonate.
In addition to acidity and calcium carbonate, many other factors can
influence waters corrosivity. Soft water (low in dissolved solids like calcium
and magnesium) tends to be more corrosive than hard water (with high
concentrations of calcium and magnesium), and warm water is more
corrosive than cold water. The common practice of grounding electrical
connections to water pipes also can increase lead corrosion. Despite these
general rules, any kind of waterincluding hard, soft, acidic, or non-acidic
can contain dangerous amounts of lead.
Corrosive water is a common natural problem in Pennsylvania. For
example, of the over 2,000 water samples (mostly from private water
wells) that were tested by the Penn State Agricultural Analytical Services
Laboratory, about 65% were found to be potentially corrosive. Groundwater
and surface waters in Pennsylvania often originate from sandstone and
shale rock types that naturally produce relatively acidic and soft water.
Common exceptions are water supplies in limestone valleys. Here
interaction with limestone produces less acidic water that is higher in
calcium carbonate hardness and is relatively noncorrosive. Water from
cisterns and some springs resembles rainwater, which is naturally corrosive.
For more information on corrosive water, see the Penn State Extension fact
sheet.
Corrosive water acts to dissolve lead from pipes and solder while the water
is in contact with the plumbing. Therefore, lead concentrations in drinking
water usually are the highest in the first water out of the tap; they
decrease as the water is run. If lead pipes, leaded solder, or brass fixtures

are present, even relatively noncorrosive water can dissolve dangerous

amounts of lead if the water sits in contact with these materials for an hour
or more.
Conversely, if your towns water distribution system and your home
plumbing system do not contain lead pipes, lead solder, or brass fixtures,
your drinking water probably does not contain significant amounts of lead.

How Much Lead in Water is Too Much?

Guidance from the Centers for Disease Control suggests that blood lead
concentrations over 5 micrograms per deciliter of blood (g/dL) may
indicate lead poisoning. Various studies have found that blood lead
concentrations are positively and significantly related to the amount of lead
in drinking water.
Accounting for other sources of lead exposure (e.g., food, dust), the U.S.
EPA set the maximum allowable concentration of lead in public drinking
water at 15 g/L. (Many experts on lead toxicology believe the safe level
should be 10 g/L or less, but for purposes of this discussion we will use
the EPAs level of 15 g/L.) Since lead serves no beneficial purpose in the
human body, it is best if drinking water contains no lead. State drinking
water standards must be at least as strict as the EPA drinking water
standard of 15 g/L.

How Common is Lead in Drinking Water?

In Pennsylvania, the prevalence of leaded plumbing components and
corrosive sources of water suggests that lead contamination is a common
problem.
A survey of private water supplies (individual homes using groundwater
wells) across Pennsylvania in 2006 and 2007 found that 12 percent
contained unsafe lead levels of above 15 g/L. The survey also found that
high lead levels could nearly always be explained by corrosion of lead from
metal plumbing components.
Samples submitted to the Penn State Agricultural Analytical Services
Laboratory are not a random sample of water supplies, but do indicate that
lead in drinking water is a problem in the state. Of the 872 first-draw lead
tests from 2007 through 2015, 16% exceeded the 15 g/L drinking water
standard. Of the 1,346 samples that were tested after the water had been
run, only 3% exceeded the 15 g/L level suggesting that most high lead
levels were occurring due to corrosion of metal plumbing.
The prevalence of lead in public water supplies at the tap is difficult to know
because it depends on how corrosive the source water is, whether lead
distribution lines are used, and whether a particular building contains
leaded plumbing materials. If your home is connected to a public water
supply, you may wish to contact your water company or consult their

annual customer report to determine if lead is a problem in your

community. You also may want to have your tap water tested, especially if
you live in an older home (metal plumbing installed prior to early 1990's),
have young children, or have signs of corrosive water discussed above.

How Should You Test Your Water for Lead?

Because lead is colorless, odorless, and tasteless in water, the only sure
way to determine if your water contains lead is to have the water tested.
Some labs calculate a corrosivity index from other test results including the
pH of the water, but a specific lead test is needed to determine the actual
concentration of lead in drinking water.
A list of state accredited water testing labs is available on the PA
Department of Environmental Protection website. On that website, page
down to "Search Environmental Laboratories" and click on the link for the
Quick Reference List. You can sort the list by county and choose a
Commercial or Academic water testing laboratory. Not all labs are equipped
and certified to test for lead. Make sure to ask and pick up bottles and
instructions for testing lead in drinking water. Costs for testing lead in water
normally range from $15 to $100. It is best to have your water tested for
"total lead" which includes particles rather than just "dissolved lead" which
will ignore particulate lead in the water.
You should collect two water samples, including a "first-draw" or firstflush sample and a running sample. Collect the first-draw sample first
thing in the morning from cold water that has sat in the plumbing system
overnight. This sample determines if lead accumulates in your water as it
sits in contact with the plumbing system.
Collect the running sample after allowing the cold water to run for one
minute. Comparing the results helps you determine the source of a lead
problem. A lead concentration that remains above 15 g/L after the water
has run for one to two minutes indicates that lead is probably present in
the water before it enters the household plumbing. The lead may originate
from water supply contamination, from corroding submersible pump parts,
or from corroding lines in a public water system.
Laboratories sometimes use different units in their report. The most
common units are g/L (micrograms per liter, equal to parts per billion, or
ppb) and mg/L (milligrams per liter, equal to parts per million, or ppm).
If your test result is reported in g/L or ppb, then you should compare it
with the safe drinking water standard of 15 g/L. If your result is reported
in mg/L or ppm, then the comparable drinking water standard is 0.015
mg/L.

What Regulations Control Lead in Drinking Water?

Public water suppliers are required under the federal Safe Drinking Water
Act and its amendments (and related EPA and PA DEP regulations) to test
their water for many contaminants including lead, and in some cases, to
provide corrosion control to prevent lead from entering drinking water.
These results are sent to customers in an annual report.
The federal Lead and Copper Rule (1991, revised in 2000 and 2007)
requires that public water suppliers monitor tap water lead concentrations
in high-risk homes they serve (e.g. older homes). If more than 10 percent
of these homes exceed 15 g/L of lead, the water supplier must provide
public education on the lead problem, and the water must be treated at a
treatment plant to make it less corrosive. In addition, the lead service lines
owned by many water companies may have been replaced or may need to
be replaced.
While these regulations help reduce drinking water lead concentrations in
homes using public water supplies, they will not entirely eliminate the
problem. The variability of household plumbing systems within communities
may mean individual homes still contain dangerous drinking water lead
concentrations, even while most of the community does not have a
problem. Also, the regulations provide little protection for homeowners with
private water systems such as drilled wells, springs, and cisterns.
in 1986, Section 1417 of the federal Safe Drinking Water Act was amended
to limit the content of lead in pipes and other materials used in water
supplies, defining "lead-free" as less than 8% lead in pipes or fixtures and
less than 0.2% in solder. The 1989 Pennsylvania Plumbing System Lead
Ban and Notification Act (effective in 1991) and the 1996 SDWA
amendments extended lead regulations further including private water
supplies by requiring "lead-free" pipe, fittings, and fixtures in new
construction and replacement parts.
Since 1991, new homes to be served by public water suppliers must be
certified lead-free before connecting to the system. Some mortgage
programs may also check for lead-free plumbing. If your home plumbing
system is made of copper pipe and was installed before January 1991, it is
likely that lead solder was used.
The 2011 federal Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act redefined leadfree to up to 0.25% lead on surfaces in contact with drinking water for
consumption, with solder still less than 0.2% lead. The PA Lead Ban Act
was amended in 2014 to the same lead levels.
Some independent organizations test and certify products for lead content.
For a current list of organizations and pictures of their certification marks
see the National Sanitation Foundation publication on How to Identify Lead
Free Certification Marks for Drinking Water System & Plumbing Products.

The European Union term RoHS-certified appears on some product labels

which have less than 0.1% lead.
Although regulations are in place to control lead in drinking water, only
water testing of each home can determine the actual presence of lead. If
you are concerned about lead in your drinking water, you should arrange
for a water test from an accredited laboratory regardless of whether you
use a public or a private water supply. Also, because of the large variability
in lead levels among homes, you should have your water tested for lead no
matter what the levels in neighboring houses.

What Can You do to Reduce Lead in Your Drinking

Water?
If your first-draw water test result is greater than 15 g/L, you should take
corrective action. Lead can be removed from water through numerous
treatment methods depending on the cost and effort you are willing to
expend.
If your running water lead concentration is below 15 g/L, the simplest and
least expensive method is to flush your plumbing system by running the
water for one to two minutes before drinking it. Flushing is usually only
necessary if the water has been in contact with the plumbing for at least
one hour.
Flushing your plumbing system is recommended only if the lead
concentration in your running water sample was less than 15 g/L. It may
not be effective in apartment buildings with complex plumbing systems or
in homes on public water sources where lead service lines are the source of
the lead. In these cases, tap water concentrations of lead may exceed 15
g/L even after several minutes of running the water.
If flushing proves effective, you can conserve water by flushing the
plumbing system once in the morning and storing water in bottles for use
during the rest of the day. Only flushed water from the cold water tap
should be used for drinking and cooking, since hot water can dissolve lead
more quickly than cold.
If excessive lead concentrations persist after flushing, or if flushing is an
undesirable method, there are alternatives for reducing lead exposure.
Homeowners who have a groundwater well with a submersible pump may
want to have the pump checked. If some of the pumps metal parts are
corroding, they could be contaminating the groundwater with lead.
Acid-neutralizing filters can be installed to reduce water corrosivity by
adding calcium and by increasing the pH of the water. Unlike other
treatment options, these filters act to prevent lead from entering the
water rather than removing it at the tap. In addition to reducing acidity, the
added hardness produces a thin scale inside the pipes that reduces lead

corrosion. These units normally cost over $1000 and may cause a
noticeable increase in the hardness of your water.
Contrary to some claims, water softener are not recommended for lead
removal. Softeners are inefficient lead removal devices, and they usually
are installed in the plumbing system ahead of the piping and fixtures where
most of the lead originates. Also, softened water is usually more corrosive
than un-softened water.
Reverse osmosis units and activated alumina filters are very effective in
removing lead once it is in the water. These units typically are attached to
the kitchen tap and treat only the water from that tap. Costs vary from
$300 to more than $1,000. Reverse osmosis units of this size can produce
only a few gallons of treated water per day.
Distillation units, also normally placed on the kitchen counter, are effective
in removing lead from drinking water. However, they are relatively
expensive to operate and produce only a gallon or so of water per day,
depending on their size.
Other treatment devices such as granular activated carbon (GAC) filters can
remove lead, but their efficiency is questionable. GAC filters, for instance,
are only efficient at removing lead when the water pH is near 7. Small,
inexpensive counter-top filter units are being marketed for lead removal,
but prospective buyers should beware of salespersons who will not
substantiate their claims or who use devices that involve questionable
treatment methods.
Furthermore, excessively small units are limited in the amount of time that
the filter is effective in removing lead. A National Sanitation Foundation
(NSF) seal on treatment equipment is one method of ensuring that the unit
has been tested for adequate removal efficiency. A NSF seal does not
guarantee, however, that the filter will be effective after many months of
continuous use, and filter replacement is always required periodically.
The most effective and most expensive lead removal method is to replace
the leaded components in the plumbing system with newer, non-leaded
components. This procedure most often involves replacing copper pipes and
lead solder with plastic PVC or PEX pipes. Only plastic PVC or PEX pipes
approved for home plumbing use, as indicated by "NSF-61 or NSF-PW
appearing on the side of the pipe, should be used for replacement.
Replacing home plumbing components will be effective only if the source of
the lead is within the home plumbing system. If the lead originates from
lead service lines within a public water system, this method may be of
limited benefit.
Collecting a sample from a
canal

Our studies of this region included a range of approaches involving land use surveys, an analysis
of the impact of tourism, biodiversity data collection and the assessment of water quality. To carry
out a thorough study of water quality, it was important to strategically choose the points in the area
to collect water samples. Water samples were taken from some 24 different sites in the Les
Grangettes region, covering a range of different locations canals, drainage ditches, lake frontage
and stagnant pools.
We tested water for a range of parameters, such as:

pH

dissolved oxygen

nitrate ion concentration

phosphate ion concentration

turbidity

Some of these tests were carried out immediately in the field, but these were also followed up with
more sophisticated testing back in the lab.

Testing the water samples in both the field and the lab.
A range of equipment was
used, from pH strips to
datalogging sensors
The type of testing that we carried out varied from simple test strip methods for pH and nitrate ion
concentration to electronic sensing (for dissolved oxygen and turbidity, for example), reflectometric
reading of test strip colours (for nitrate and phosphate ion concentration), and the use of specific
ion electrodes (for nitrate ion concentration).
The electronic sensors were linked to data-logging instruments and electronic calculators. The use
of this range of methods not only served to check the reliability of the methods but also introduced
the students to the different levels of sensitivity available for measuring these factors.
A major focus was to assess whether fertilisers were leaching from surrounding agricultural land
into the protected area. Such leaching would result in eutrophication and its consequent impacts on
the ecology of this environmentally sensitive area. There are strict local restrictions on farmers in
the immediate area and we were able to link our data with that from the Grangettes Foundation,
the organisation responsible for the management of wildlife conservation in the protected area.
The analysis of the data from these tests is of crucial importance in increasing the usefulness of
the study. Applying valid statistical methods to the analysis of the results is important in
establishing their meaning. One aspect of our studies that has produced revealing results on
statistical analysis was the testing of nitrate levels. The choice of the most appropriate statistical
test is key here, and, as with the use of practical techniques of differing sensitivity, this gives
students a useful insight into research techniques.

Statistical analysis of nitrate ion results

Our aim was to see if there was any relationship between nitrate concentrations and agricultural
activity at different sites. We first conducted a straightforward rank correlation test (Spearmans,
see box) using all of the data. The test was used to see if there was any correlation between the
distance from the nearest arable land and the nitrate content of the water sample. The results
showed no apparent correlation.

This led us to consider the different nature of the sample sites more closely. Lakefront sites, part of
the large body of water that is Lake Geneva, were likely to have very low nitrate levels through
dilution when compared with, say, drainage ditches. Lakefront samples were therefore discounted
and the other sites were then examined more closely. A pattern did emerge when the origins of the
water in the channels and ponds within the reserve were analysed. The water in some sites had its
origin within the boundaries of the reserve, while other channels flow in, bringing water that has
drained land outside the reserve boundaries. When the results were interpreted with this added
information, it appeared that all the sites that had measurable nitrate ion concentrations contained
water originating from outside the reserve (see Table 1). On the other hand, water bodies and
channels originating within the boundary of Les Grangettes showed no measurable concentrations
of nitrate.
The reliability of this apparent difference was tested using the Mann-Whitney U-test (see box). The
results of the Mann-Whitney test indicated a less than 5% probability that the differences observed
between the two types of site could have occurred by chance. There was more than a 95%
probability that the difference observed between our samples originating within and outside the
reserve reflected a wider pattern.

Concluding remarks
The discovery of a statistically significant difference between the two types of site was important for
two reasons. It was supported by our subsequent finding, in an interview with the Director of the
Grangette Foundation, that there are very strict regulations on the use of fertilisers by arable
farmers within the reserve, whereas such restrictions do not apply to farmers outside the reserve.
The local farmers seem to abide by these regulations. Secondly, the students reactions to
successful data collection and analysis were encouraging; it gave us and them much pleasure to
apply skills from different subject areas to real-life situations.
A number of students took part in different aspects of these studies, and the methods and results
formed the basis of successful examination projects for students taking chemistry and/or
geography courses.
Water analysis techniques can be applied to a variety of local situations and there are useful
websites and Internet-based projects that can be accessed to give further dimensions to local
studies. Two such sites are those of the GLOBE Programw1 and the Global Water Sampling
Projectw2.
Table 1: Nitrate content at different types of site within the Grangettes Reserve

site number
(water from sources inside Les
Grangettes

Nitrate
content
(mg/dm3)

Site number
(water flowing in from outside
sources)

Nitrate
content
(mg/dm3)

11

12

10

18

13

11

Table 1: Nitrate content at different types of site within the Grangettes Reserve

site number
(water from sources inside Les
Grangettes

Nitrate
content
(mg/dm3)

Site number
(water flowing in from outside
sources)

Nitrate
content
(mg/dm3)

19

14

20

17

23

24

Total number of sites

Total number of sites

Statistical analyses
The purpose of the statistical tests used is described below. Details of how the tests are performed
can be found in Lenon & Cleves (2001).

Spearmans Rank Correlation Coefficient

This technique is used to summarise the strength and direction of any correlation between two
variables, such as nitrate [NO3-] content of water and distance from arable land. The correlation
coefficient (numerical index of correlation) varies from +1 (a perfect positive correlation) to -1 (a
perfect negative correlation). A value of 0 indicates no correlation between the two sets of
variables. The greater the sample size and number of measurements, the more significant the
correlation is likely to be. Its significance can be tested by using a test of significance, such as the
t-test.
Remember, this coefficient does not necessarily prove a causal relationship between the variables.
However, it may suggest that it is worthwhile conducting further research to uncover the processes
which may have led to the correlation.

Mann-Whitney U-Test
This is a test of statistical significance, used to establish whether the differences between two sets
of data are really significant or could have occurred by chance. For example, here we are trying to
establish whether there is a significant difference between the nitrate [NO3-] content in water
bodies originating inside the nature reserve, where strict controls on the use of fertilisers exist, and
that of water originating outside the reserve, which is likely to have been more affected by arable
land uses.
Remember, if we find that there is a high probability that the relationship between the data sets
could have occurred by chance, it may indicate that there is no significant difference between the
data sets. However, it could also reflect the fact that our sample size was too small to produce a
significant result.
A statistically significant difference between data sets is obviously a starting point for further
investigation into the processes which may have led to these differences.

Some of these tests were carried out immediately in the field, but these were also followed up with
more sophisticated testing back in the lab.

Understanding Your Drinking Water Chemical Test

Results
To understand what your drinking water chemical testing results mean, check the lab
report and use the information below.
The guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality have limits for some substances in
drinking water that can be harmful to your health (e.g., nitrates, nitrites, and
fluoride). The guidelines are listed as:

maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) - this is listed as a number and it

means how much of a certain chemical is safe to have in water that wont cause
harm. For your protection, the maximum limits are set below levels which can cause
health problems.Drinking water that continually contains substances at a level greater
than its MAC may be harmful.

aesthetic objectives (AO) - this means other limits set on water. If there is a
problem, the water may look, smell, or taste funny.
You do not need to worry about the results for conductivity, cation/anion sum, ion
balance, and percentage difference as these tests are done for lab work purposes only.
When a water sample is sent to the Alberta Centre for Toxicology for routine chemical
testing, its tested for all of the substances listed below. The information below doesnt
cover all chemical parameters of concern outlined in the Guidelines for Canadian
Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ). If you have a specific health concern, please
contact Environmental Health Officer in your area.

Gui
Result deli
ne
pH 6.5

Information

A pH is a measure of how acidic or how basic the water is. A pH of 7 is

to neutral.
8.5
A pH higher than 8.5 can cause scales to form (mineral deposits) on
cookware, plumbing, and appliance parts.
AO
A pH lower than 6.5 can cause rusting or eating away (corrosion) of
plumbing and appliance parts. Corrosive water may dissolve metals from pipes
(lead, cadmium, zinc,copper) into water that could cause health problems.

Sodiu 200
Water with more than 200 mg/L of sodium tastes salty.
m mg/
Drinking water with high sodium isn't a health concern for most people.
L However, it can be unsafe for anyone on a sodium-free or low-sodium
(500mg/day) diet. Water treated by a water softener may add more sodium (over
AO 300mg/L) and may not be safe if your sodium is restricted.Talk to your doctor if
you have any questions.
Potass No
Potassium concentrations in drinking water are usually low and arent a
ium gui

deli problem for healthy people.

ne
Water softeners using potassium chloride can significantly increase the
levels of potassium in drinking water. If you have kidney disease or another health
problem (e.g., heart disease, diabetes) ask your doctor if you can drink water
treated by a water softener.
Calciu No
All people need calcium to stay healthy.
m gui
Calcium makes water harder (see section on total hardness below).
deli
ne
Calcium levels higher than 200mg/L may cause scaling.
Magn No
All people need magnesium to stay healthy.
esium gui
Magnesium makes water harder (see section on total hardness
deli
below).
Levels higher than 150mg/L may cause loose bowel movements if people
ne
are not used to drinking it. Talk to your doctor if you have questions.
Total No
Water collects minerals (e.g., calcium, magnesium) which cause water
hardn gui hardness as it moves through the ground. Soft water can make corrosion worse,
ess deli while hard water increases scaling on pipes, water heaters, and appliances. Keeping
ne the level of hardness between 80 and 100 is a good balance between corrosion and
scaling.
You need to use more soap when washing with hard water.
Water softeners lower hardness to acceptable levels, but will increase
sodium or potassium levels (see sodium and potassium).
Hardness
Level
soft
0 to less than 60 mg/L
medium hard
60 to more than 120 mg/L
hard
120 to less than 180 mg/L
very hard
180 mg/L or more
Iron 0.3
If the level of iron is above 0.3 mg/L, it can cause a red-brown stain on
mg/ laundry and plumbing fixtures. It might also make water taste like metal.
L
High iron levels cause iron bacteria to grow on parts of a well, water
system, and plumbing. Shock chlorination can control iron bacteria (may need to
AO
do this every year). In very bad cases, you might need an iron filter.
Total No
Alkalinity is a measure of the waters ability to neutralize acids and
Alkali gui maintain a fairly stable pH.
nity deli
The amount of bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide in water forms the
ne
alkalinity.
Low levels (less than 80mg/L) can cause corrosion problems. High
levels (more than 120mg/L) can cause more scaling.
Carbo
nate,
Bicar
bonat

No
Carbonates, bicarbonates, and hydroxides are related to alkalinity, salinity,
gui and total dissolved solids.
deli
ne

e, and
Hydro
xide
Chlori 250
de mg/

Chloride levels higher than 250 mg/L can make water taste salty.

High levels of chloride might cause corrosion depending on the alkalinity

L of the water.

AO

A sudden increase in chloride (e.g., road salt, irrigation drainage, sewage)

might mean your water supply is polluted.

Fluori 1.5
Fluoride levels higher than 1.5 mg/L may increase the risk of white spots on
de mg/ tooth enamel (dental fluorosis) in children with developing teeth (newborns to 8
L year old).
Flouride levels of 2.5mg/L or higher may increase the risk of bone fractures
MA or a bone disease called skeletal fluorosis, which causes pain and damage to bones
C and joints in severe cases.
If you are concerned about fluoride levels in your drinking water talk
to your dentist or Alberta Health Services Dental Public Health Office.
Fluoride can be removed by point-of-use devices like reverse osmosis or
distillation. Make sure your devices are CSA or NSF approved.
Nitrat 10
Nitrate and nitrite levels above limits can cause problems with how blood
e mg/
L carries oxygen. This can be very bad for women who are pregnant or breastfeeding
and people with health problems. In children younger than 6 months, it can cause
methemoglobinemia, which means the blood can't carry oxygen through the body
Nitrite MA like it should. These people should not drink water or eat food prepared with water
C if nitrates or nitrites are above the limit.
Agricultural waste (e.g., fertilizer), decaying plant matter and on-site septic
1.0 systems that don't work properly (or poorly designed) can cause nitrate and nitrite
mg/ contamination.
L
Boiling water doesnt decrease or remove nitrates and nitrites from water.
Nitrates and nitrites can be removed by point-of-use devices like reverse
MA osmosis, distillation, or ion exchange. Make sure your devices are CSA or NSF
C approved.
Sulph 500
Water naturally contains sulphates. Sulphates can also get into water when
ate mg/ plants, animals, and organic wastes decompose. Water with sulphates might also
L have bacteria, which can change sulphates into a gas that smells like rotten eggs
(hydrogen sulphide). These bacteria can cause corrosion problems.
AO
To reduce hydrogen sulphide, aerate or chlorinate and then filter well water.
High levels of sulphate can cause loose bowel movements if people are not used to
drinking it. Regular users get used to high sulphate levels. Babies are more
sensitive to sulphate than adults. Dont use water with sulphate level over
400mg/L to prepare formula for babies.
Total 500
TDS is a measure of minerals in the water.
Dissol mg/

ved L
Solids
(TDS) AO

Low TDS can make water taste flat.

High TDS can cause scaling and affect how water tastes and smells. When
the concentration of TDS is higher than 500mg/L, the water may have a bitter,
salty, or medicine-like taste (depending on what salts are in the water).
Reverse osmosis and electrodialysis will remove TDS from water.

What is water pollution?

Water pollution is any chemical, physical or biological change in the quality of water that has a
harmful effect on any living thing that drinks or uses or lives (in) it. When humans drink polluted
water it often has serious effects on their health. Water pollution can also make water unsuited for
the desired use.
What are the major water pollutants?
There are several classes of water pollutants. The first are diseasecausing agents. These are bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic
worms that enter sewage systems and untreated waste.
A second category of water pollutants is oxygen-demanding
wastes; wastes that can be decomposed by oxygen-requiring
bacteria. When large populations of decomposing bacteria are
converting these wastes it can deplete oxygen levels in the water.
This causes other organisms in the water, such as fish, to die.
A third class of water pollutants is water-soluble inorganic
pollutants, such as acids, salts and toxic metals. Large quantities of
these compounds will make water unfit to drink and will cause the
death of aquatic life.
Another class of water pollutants are nutrients; they are watersoluble nitrates and phosphates that cause excessive growth of
algae and other water plants, which deplete the water's oxygen
supply. This kills fish and, when found in drinking water, can kill
young children.
Water can also be polluted by a number of organic compounds
such as oil, plastics and pesticides, which are harmful to humans
and all plants and animals in the water.
A very dangerous category is suspended sediment, because it
causes depletion in the water's light absorption and the particles
spread dangerous compounds such as pesticides through the
water.
Finally, water-soluble radioactive compounds can cause cancer,
birth defects and genetic damage and are thus very
dangerous water pollutants.

More information on health effects of microrganisms

Where does water pollution come from?
Water pollution is usually caused by human activities. Different human sources add to the
pollution of water. There are two sorts of sources, point and nonpoint sources. Point sources
discharge pollutants at specific locations through pipelines or sewers into the surface water.
Nonpoint sources are sources that cannot be traced to a single site of discharge.
Examples of point sources are: factories, sewage treatment plants, underground mines, oil wells,
oil tankers and agriculture.
Examples of nonpoint sources are: acid deposition from the air, traffic, pollutants that are spread
through rivers and pollutants that enter the water through groundwater.
Nonpoint pollution is hard to control because the perpetrators cannot be traced.

How do we detect water pollution?

Water pollution is detected in laboratories, where small samples of water are analysed for
different contaminants. Living organisms such as fish can also be used for the detection of water
pollution. Changes in their behaviour or growth show us, that the water they live in is polluted.
Specific properties of these organisms can give information on the sort of pollution in their
environment. Laboratories also use computer models to determine what dangers there can be in
certain waters. They import the data they own on the water into the computer, and the computer
then determines if the water has any impurities.

What is heat pollution, what causes it and what are the

dangers?
In most manufacturing processes a lot of heat originates that must be released into the
environment, because it is waste heat. The cheapest way to do this is to withdraw nearby surface
water, pass it through the plant, and return the heated water to the body of surface water. The
heat that is released in the water has negative effects on all life in the receiving surface water.
This is the kind of pollution that is commonly known as heat pollution or thermal pollution.
The warmer water decreases the solubility of oxygen in the water and it also causes water
organisms to breathe faster. Many water organisms will then die from oxygen shortages, or they
become more susceptible to diseases.
For more information about this, you can take a look at thermal pollution.

What is eutrophication, what causes it and what are the

dangers?
Eutrophication means natural nutrient enrichment of streams and lakes. The enrichment is often
increased by human activities, such as agriculture (manure addition). Over time, lakes then
become eutrophic due to an increase in nutrients.

Eutrophication is mainly caused by an increase in nitrate and phosphate levels and has a
negative influence on water life. This is because, due to the enrichment, water plants such as
algae will grow extensively. As a result the water will absorb less light and certain aerobic bacteria
will become more active. These bacteria deplete oxygen levels even further, so that only
anaerobic bacteria can be active. This makes life in the water impossible for fish and other
organisms.

What is acid rain and how does it develop?

Typical rainwater has a pH of about 5 to 6. This means that it is naturally a neutral, slightly acidic
liquid. During precipitation rainwater dissolves gasses such as carbon dioxide and oxygen. The
industry now emits great amounts of acidifying gasses, such as sulphuric oxides and carbon
monoxide. These gasses also dissolve in rainwater. This causes a change in pH of the
precipitation the pH of rain will fall to a value of or below 4. When a substance has a pH of
below 6.5, it is acid. The lower the pH, the more acid the substance is. That is why rain with a
lower pH, due to dissolved industrial emissions, is called acid rain.

Why does water sometimes smell like rotten eggs?

When water is enriched with nutrients, eventually anaerobic bacteria, which do not need oxygen
to practice their functions, will become highly active. These bacteria produce certain gasses
during their activities. One of these gases is hydrogen sulphide. This compounds smells like
rotten eggs. When water smells like rotten eggs we can conclude that there is hydrogenpresent,
due to a shortage of oxygen in the specific water.

What causes white deposit on showers and bathroom

walls?
Water contains many compounds. A few of these compounds are calcium and carbonate.
Carbonate works as a buffer in water and is thus a very important component.
When calcium reacts with carbonate a solid substance is formed, that is called lime. This lime is
what causes the white deposit on showers and bathroom walls and is commonly known as lime
deposit. It can be removed by using a specially suited cleaning agent.

What are the properties and dangers of water pollutants?

Many different chemicals are regarded as pollutants, ranging from simple inorganic ions to complex
organic molecules.
The water pollutants are all divided up into various classes. Every class of pollutants has its own
specific ways of entering the environment and its own specific dangers. All classes have major
pollutants in it that are known to many people, because of the various health effects.
Organic pollutants

Organic compounds are compounds that consist of long bonds, usually made up of carbon. Many organic compounds
are basic fabrics of living organisms. Molecules built of carbon and of carbon and hydrogen are non-polair and have little
to no water solubility. They have little to no electrical charge.
The behaviour of organic compounds is dependent upon their molecular structure, size and shape and the presence of
functional groups that are important determinants of toxicity.
It is important to know the structure of organic compounds, in order to predict their fate in living organisms and the
environment. The organic compounds that are dangerous to the environment are all man-made and have only existed
during the last century.

There are many different types of organic pollutants, examples are:

- Hydrocarbons. These are carbon-hydrogen bonds. They can be divided up into two classes, the
first being single-bonded alkanes, double bonded alkenes and triple bonded alkynes (gasses or
liquids) and the second being aromatic hydrocarbons, which contain ring structures (liquids or
solids). Aromatic hydrocarbons such as PAH's are much more reactive than any of the first class
kinds of hydrocarbons.
- PCB's are stable and unreactive fluids that are used as hydraulic fluids, coolant/ insulation fluids
in transformers and plasticizers in paints. There are many different PCB's. None of them are watersoluble. In many countries PCB's are restricted.
- Insecticides such as DDT's are very dangerous because they accumulate in fat tissues of lower
animals and then enter the food chain. They have been restricted for decades.
- Detergents. These can be both polair and non-polair.
Take also a look at detergents in freshwater and organic pollution in freshwater

Inorganic fertilizers
Some inorganic pollutants are not particularly toxic, but are still a danger to the environment
because they are used so extensively. These include fertilizers, such as nitrates and phosphates.
Nitrates and phosphates cause algal blooms in surface water, which causes the oxygen level of the
water to decline. This causes oxygen starvation because of the uptake of oxygen by microrganisms
that brake down algae. This is called eutrophication.

Metals
The first class we will refer to here is metals. Metals are good conductors of electricity and
generally enter chemical reactions as positive ions, known as cations. Metals are natural
substances that have consisted through weathering of ore bodies, where they were deposited
during volcanic action. They can be relocated into situations where they can cause serious
environmental damage. Examples of metals are: lead, zinc, manganese, calcium and potassium.
They can be found in surface waters in their stable ionic forms. Unnatural metals can be very

dangerous, because they often come from man-made nuclear reactions and can be strongly
radioactive.
Metals can react to dangerous products with other ions. They are often involved in electron transfer
reactions involving oxygen. This can lead to the formation of toxic oxyradicals.
Metals can form metalloids and then bond to organic compounds to form lipophilic substances that
are often highly toxic and can be stored in the fat-supply of animals and humans. Metals can also
bond to cellular macromolecules in the human body.
Heavy metals are the most dangerous metals. They have a density greater than 5 and are
therefore called heavy.
Metals cannot be broken down into less harmful components, as they are non-biodegradable. The
only chance organisms have against metals is to store them in body tissues where they cannot do
any harm.
Organisms need metals, as they are essential for their health and are usually essential
components of enzymes.
Radioactive isotopes
The half-lives and the ways of decay of radioactive isotopes determine how dangerous they are to
humans. Humans create all radioactive isotopes in the nuclear industry. There are still debates
going on about whether the benefits of nuclear power exceed the dangers of radioactive radiation.
When an atom of a radioactive substance decays, it can produce four kinds of particles: alpha,
beta, gamma and neutrons.
Alpha particles can only travel a short distance through air and human tissues, but they can be
very damaging if they collide with cells because of their large mass. They are positively charged.
Beta particles are more penetrating, but they do much less damage than alpha particles. They are
negatively charged.
Gamma rays are highly penetrating. Their damage is similar to that of beta rays.
Neutrons are liberated through radiation and react with other elements through collision. They are
the basis for nuclear fission in a reactor.
The radioactivity of a substance is measured in bequerels, but this does not express the amount of
tissue damage the radiation causes. That is why the amount of radiation causing 1 kg of tissue to
absorb 1 joule of energy is now expressed in grays. Different kinds of radiation can do different
kinds of damage, because the energy is imparted into tissues in different ways. This is expressed
in sieverts. An amount of alpha radiation can do twenty times the damage of the same amount of
beta radiation. Radioactive matter has to be held in storage for different periods of time, in order to
erase the danger. How long it has to be stored depends upon the half-life of the isotopes; the time
taken for half of the atoms of a radioactive isotope to decay.

What are the specific ways through which water pollutants

enter the environment?
Discharge of sewage water represents a mayor global source of pollution. Domestic and industrial
wastes are discharged unto surface water through sewage systems. In some cases industrial waste
is released directly unto surface water. The quality of sewage water that enters the surface water
depends upon the pollutants that are present in the sewage water and the extend to which it is
treated before it is brought in contact with surface water.

Domestic sewage water mainly consists of paper, soap, urine, faeces and detergents. Industrial
wastes are varied and depend upon the specific processes of the plants that they origin from.
Heavy metals are associated with mining and smelting operations, chlorophenols and fungicides
with pulp mills, insecticides with mothproofing factories, several different organic chemicals with the
chemical industry and radioactive substances with nuclear power plants.
On land the releases of industrial waste are closely controlled, but offshore oil and manganese
extraction lead to direct discharge of pollutants into the seas. Radioactive waste is dumped into the
sea in large concrete barrels to decay, but often the barrels will start to have defects after a while.
Representatives of factories often ship waste onto sea to dump it illegally, because it is very
expensive to have their water purified.
Oil is released into the sea through oil tankers and shipwrecks and pesticides are applied to water
to control aquatic pests. Paints on boats will decay during long trips on the ocean and will
eventually end up in the water.
During the growth period of crops nitrates and phosphates are absorbed by plants, but when the
plants die they are released from dead plant material into the soil and will often end up in surface
water.
Except for the deliberate causes of surface water pollution, pollutants can also enter the water
environment accidentally, for instance through atmospheric deposition. Pesticides can enter
surface water easily this way, because they are applied as droplets or sprays. Pollutants present on
land can enter surface water through heavy rainfall or infiltrate into the soil and enter surface
waters through groundwater.
The effects of pollutants are noticed mostly in small inland seas and lakes. This is because the
oceans have a natural dilution system for incoming pollutants, whereas lakes have no effective
outlet. Due to this, much depends upon the rate of degradation and precipitation that will remove
the pollutants from water.

How are pollutants transported through water?

Pollutants can exist in water in different states. They can be dissolved or they can be in
suspension, which means that they exist in the form of droplets or particles. Pollutants can also be
dissolved in droplets or absorbed by particles. All states of pollutants can travel great distances
through water in many different ways.
Particulate matter may fall to the bottom of streams and lakes or rise to the surface, depending on
its density. This means that it mostly remains on the same location when the water does not flow
very fast. In rivers, pollutants usually travel great distances. The distance they travel depends upon
the stability and physical state of the pollutant and the speed of flow of the river. Pollutants can
travel farthest when they are in solution in a river that is fast flowing. The concentrations on one site
are then generally low, but the pollutant can be detected on many more sites than when it would
not have been so easily transported.
In lakes and oceans pollutants are transported through currents. There are many currents in the
oceans, which are wind-driven. This enables a pollutant to travel from one continent to another.
We usually count on the ability of the oceans to reduce pollutants in concentration, the so-called
'self-cleaning ability' of oceans. But this does not always work, because the movement of the
currents in the oceans is not uniform. This causes inshore waters to often have substantially higher
levels of pollution than the open sea.
When persistent pollutants accumulate in fish or sea birds they cannot only become a toxic danger

to aquatic food chains, they can also travel great distances within these animals and end up in the
food chains of non-polluted areas.

Which factors determine the movement and distribution of

pollutants in water?
Physical processes determine the movement of chemicals within water; movement depends upon
properties of the chemicals themselves and properties of the water. These processes will be
overviewed here.
Water is a polar liquid. This means that the oxygen atom in a water molecule attracts the electrons
of the hydrogen atoms, so that these develop partial positive charges. The oxygen atom gets a
partial negative charge, through which it can attract atoms of other water molecules to form
hydrogen bonds. In non-polar compounds, such as hydrocarbons, there is hardly any charge
separation and consequently they do not dissolve in water.
Water tends to form aggregates in which four other molecules surround each water molecule.
Cations and anions have an affinity for the parts of water that carry an opposite charge, so that the
water aggregates are disrupted and the ions dissolve. Many organic salts and polar organic
compounds are water-soluble, but non-polar organic liquids are not.
From this we can conclude, that molecules that can perform charge separation can easily dissolve
in water, whereas molecules that do not have charges are not very water-soluble.
A consequence of polarity is the hydrophobic effect. In the process of forming aggregates with
charged molecules water actively excludes non-polar substances. This leads to the formation of
phospholipid bilayers, which contribute to the movement of hydrophobic pollutants though
membranes.
The level of hydrophobicity is determined by the water/ octanol partition coefficient. The
concentration of a compound in octanol is divided through the concentration in water. The higher
the number that results from this calculation, the more hydrophobic the compound in question is.
Whether a compound remains in the water is also determined by its vapour pressure. Vapour
pressure means the tendency of a liquid or solid to volatilise. Vapour pressure increases when
temperatures rise, as surface molecules increase in kinetic energy. Then more molecules in a
watery solution have the tendency to vaporize, which means they are no longer in solution.
The partition of the chemical between different environmental compartments air, water and soil is
another important factor. The escaping tendency or 'fugacity' of a substance determines the
movement from one compartment to another.
Molecular stability is a factor that determines the time a chemical remains in the environment and
the distances it can travel. In the environment chemical and biochemical processes, such as
hydrolyses and oxidation, break down chemicals. The break down is not only determined by the
stability of the chemical, but also by the environmental factors temperature, level of solar radiation,
pH and nature of absorbing surface. For instance, the pH of water determines the water-solubility of
metals. Sometimes biotransformation of a compound in the environment during break down is not
very positive, because it can lead to increased toxicity of a chemical.

How do organisms respond to water pollutants?

When pollution enters the body of an organism it causes a variety of changes. These changes can
either serve to protect the organism against harmful effects or not.
The first response of an organism to pollutants is to bring a protective mechanism into action. In
most cases these mechanisms maintain the detoxification of pollutants, but in some cases they
produce active substances that can cause more damage to the cell than the original pollutant.
Another response is to reduce the availability of pollutants by binding them to another molecule, to
excrete or store them.
Next to protective mechanisms an organism can also bring a mechanism into action that repairs
damage caused by pollutants.
Responds to toxicity and the uptake of pollutants not only depends upon the pollutant that enters
the organisms body, but also upon the kind of organism in question.

What general effects can water pollutants have on

organisms?
Water pollutants can have many different effects on organisms, always depending on the pollutant
and the organism in question. Here the general effects a pollutant can have are discussed.
Genotoxicity
Many compounds that enter the body of an organism are known to cause damage to DNA. These
compounds are called genotoxins, due to their genotoxic effect.
Usually when pollutants damage DNA a natural repair system in an organism will return it to its
usual state, but when this goes wrong for any particular reason cells with damaged DNA can
divide. Mutant cells are than produced and the defect can spread, causing the offspring of the
organism in question to have serious defects that are often very damaging to their health.
Examples of genotoxins are PAH's, aflatoxin and vinyl chloride.
In all of these genotoxins it is not the original compound that reacts with DNA, for this is relatively
stable. Highly reactive short-lived products produced from the original compound by enzymes
usually cause the reactions.
Carcinogenity
Several pollutants are carcinogenic, which means they can induce cancer in the body of humans
and animals. Carcinogenic pollutants are pollutants that play a role in one or more of the stages of
cancer development in an organism.
Pollutants can be inductors; this means that they introduce cancer-forming properties in the cells of
an organism. They can also be promoters, which means that they promote the growth of cells that
have cancer-forming properties. Finally, they can be progressors, which means that they stimulate
unrestrained division and spreading of cancer cells. When one of these substances is absent
cancer cannot be induced.
When cancer cells are malignant, they can spread through the human body rapidly, causing
defects to healthy cells and immunity mechanisms. They will destroy normal body cells and cause
cancer in organs and systems.

Neurotoxicity
The nervous system of organisms is very sensitive to toxic effects of chemicals, both naturally
occurring and man-made. Chemicals that cause neurological effects are called neurotoxins.
Examples of dangerous neurotoxins are insecticides.
Neurotoxins all somehow disturb the normal transmission of impulses along nerves or across
synapses.
The consequences of neurotoxicity are varied. They can be uncoordinated muscular tremors and
convulsions, malfunction of nerves and transmissions, dizziness and depression, or even total
malfunction of body parts. Neurotoxicity can be so serious, that synapses are blocked. Synaptic
block causes death as a result of paralysis of the diaphragm muscles and respiratory failure.
Disturbance of energy transfer
Energy transformation in organisms is done through mitochondria systems in the cells. On the
mitochondrion ATP-molecules are produced, which transfer energy through the body of an
organism. When ATP production is disturbed the energy transfer will cease. This will make an
organism tired and lifeless and unable to function normally.
Reproductive failure
Pollutants that cause reproductive failure due to damage to the reproductive organs are called
endocrine disruptors. There are several ways in which a pollutant can act as an endocrine
disruptor.
The first is an oestrogenic chemical. This is a chemical that can imitate an oestrogen by binding to
the oestrogen receptor. This results in the induction of oestrogenic processes, causing an organism
to experience reproductive failure due to a disturbance in the reproductive system.
An oestrogenic chemical can also block the effects of endogenous oestrogens by binding to the
oestrogenic receptor. This causes masculization of female organisms.
It is also possible that female reproductive chemicals are found in male organisms. This causes
hermaphrodites. Imposex has been widely reported in marine organisms, for instance with dog
whelks by tributyl tin.
Another series of problems is caused when chemicals block the hormone receptor sites. In this
case, the normal action of the hormone is inhibited, as it cannot react with the receptor. This can
cause infertility when it occurs over a longer period of time.

Behavioural effects
All behaviours are vulnerable to alteration by pollutants. Foraging levels can deplete, resulting in
reduced production. Vulnerability to predators can increase, due to a depletion of vigilance. In
these ways, effects of pollutants on behaviour result in lowered production and higher mortality
rates.
A common result of pollution is a loss of appetite and thus less uptake of food. Searching for preys
can also be affected, due to effects of pollutants on learning, search strategy and sensory systems.

These behavioural effects cause lower chances of survival of organisms, mainly animals.
One property of pollutants that should always be kept in mind is their possibility to interact with one
another. Chemical reactions that cause pollutants to combine can reduce their overall chemical
effect, but can also increase it, making a pollutant even more dangerous to organisms.

How is toxicity of water pollutants tested with aquatic

animals?
Toxicity of chemicals in water can be tested with aquatic animals as indicators. Toxicity tests with
aquatic animals are mainly concerned with direct uptake from water. The chemicals may be in
solution, in suspension or both.
To determine values for lethal concentrations organisms are exposed to different concentrations.
When an effect occurs the effect-concentration of the chemical is noted. When the test-animal dies
the lethal concentration is noted. This way the toxicity of a chemical is determined in a laboratory.
When many of the test animals die at low concentrations of a chemical it means that the chemical
in question is very toxic. When we know how toxic a chemical is, we also know the effects of this
chemical when a certain concentration is present at a location.
The toxicity of a chemical for certain aquatic organisms depends upon the present concentration of
the chemical and the time of exposure to the chemical. The time of exposure to a chemical during a
toxicity test depends upon the test animals that are being used. Daphnia are often used for certain
toxicity tests. These tests commonly take only 24 to 48 hours. By contrast, fish toxicity tests take
longer, usually four days up to a week.
Data of such chemical toxicity tests not only show how toxic a certain chemical is, they also give an
indication of the toxicity of a chemical in relation to other chemicals. Not all toxicity tests work to
lethal end-points; sometimes a change in behaviour of an aquatic animal is the indicator of toxicity
of a certain chemical.
Toxicity tests are influenced by both the properties of the chemical and the properties of the test
organism. The availability of the chemical to the test organism is always an important factor,
because the toxicity of a chemical declines when it is not readily available to a test organism.
Laboratories can also perform toxicity tests for chemicals present in water sediment nowadays.

Read more: http://www.lenntech.com/water-pollutants-faq.htm#ixzz4P2JzGXqwIndustry is a huge

source of water pollution, it produces pollutants that are extremely harmful to people and the
environment.

Many industrial facilities use freshwater to carry away waste from the plant and into rivers,
lakes and oceans.

Pollutants from industrial sources include:

o

Asbestos This pollutant is a serious health hazard and carcinogenic. Asbestos fibres
can be inhaled and cause illnesses such as asbestosis, mesothelioma, lung
cancer, intestinal cancer and liver cancer.

Lead This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental problems. It
is a non-biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once the environment is
contaminated. Lead is harmful to the health of many animals, including humans, as it
can inhibit the action of bodily enzymes.

Mercury This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental
problems. It is a non-biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once the
environment is contaminated. Mercury is also harmful to animal health as it can
cause illness through mercury poisoning.

Nitrates The increased use of fertilisers means that nitrates are more often
being washed from the soil and into rivers and lakes. This can cause eutrophication,
which can be very problematic to marine environments.

Phosphates The increased use of fertilisers means that phosphates are more often
being washed from the soil and into rivers and lakes. This can cause
eutrophication, which can be very problematic to marine environments.

Sulphur This is a non-metallic substance that is harmful for marine life.

Oils Oil does not dissolve in water, instead it forms a thick layer on the
water surface. This can stop marine plants receiving enough light for photosynthesis.
It is also harmful for fish and marine birds.

Petrochemicals This is formed from gas or petrol and can be toxic to marine life.

Is my water safe to drink? | Drinking water testing | Drinking and household suitability | Who is responsible for
drinking water safety?

Is my water safe to drink?

If you do not monitor your water quality by having it tested at an accredited laboratory, you cannot tell whether your
drinking water is safe or not.
Harmful bacteria, parasites, and viruses are invisible to the naked eye, so water that looks and tastes good may not
necessarily be safe to drink. These microbes can exist in both ground and surface water supplies, and can cause
immediate health effects if not properly treated for.

People often think that if they have not been sick for a while that there are no concerns with their water quality.
Certain chemical contaminants that are sometimes found in a water source can cause long term health problems
that may take years to develop. This stresses the importance of having an effective treatment system in place to
ensure that your water is being treated to a satisfactory level.

What tests should I have done on my drinking water and how often?
There are many useful tests available to help determine the health, safety and performance of your water supply
depending upon its type and location. Your local health department can assist you in selecting tests important for
assessing your drinking water.
A number of commercial laboratories carry different water quality packages that include a variety of tests to assess

water potability.

Basic drinking and household use suitability

Basic Water Potability Test packages include tests for:
Coliform Bacteria
Nitrate
pH
Sodium
Chloride
Fluoride
Sulphate
Iron
Manganese
Total Dissolved Solids
Hardness
Coliform bacteria tests are used as an indicator test for the presence of microorganisms in the water that are
potentially harmful to human health. Nitrate is a common contaminant found mainly in groundwater. High nitrate
concentrations can be particularly dangerous for babies under six months, since it can interfere with ability of blood
to carry oxygen. Ions such as sodium, chloride, sulphate, iron and manganese can impart objectionable taste or
odor to water. Excessive amounts of sulfate can cause a laxative effect or gastrointestinal irritation, along with a
noticeable taste. Excessive amounts of fluoride can cause dental problems. Total dissolved solids represent the
amount of inorganic substances (e.g. iron, salts) that are dissolved in the water. High total dissolved solids (TDS)
can reduce the palatability of water or cause health problems if specific constituent elements are at high levels.
Other tests may be appropriate if there is a particular reason to suspect that a specific contaminant may be present
or if additional background information is desired. Groundwater sources are sometimes tested for parameters such
as arsenic, selenium and uranium. Both surface and groundwater sources are also sometimes tested for pesticide
contamination.
Private drinking water supplies should undergo basic testing annually at a minimum. Drinking water supplies
obtained from shallow wells and surface water sources should be tested more frequently, such as seasonally as
they are highly susceptible to contamination.
If you have critical water treatment equipment it is important to test both your drinking water at the tap and your
source water. The testing of both will help you interpret if your treatment system is performing correctly or whether
the quality of your source water has changed.
The following is a list of additional potential tests that are sometimes tested for, depending on the detail of
information required.

Bicarbonate

Calcium

Carbonate

Tannin and lignin

Hydroxide

Magnesium

cyanide

orthophosphate

bromate

Conductivity

Sulfide as hydrogen sulfide

radon

Boron

Total Alkalinity Chloride

trihalomethanes

Turbidity

Ammonia, as
nitrogen

Potassium

Sulfate reducing bacteria

Aluminum

Arsenic

Barium

Heterotrophic Plate Count

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

E. Coli

Dissolved organic carbon Lead

Selenium

cyanobacteria

Zinc

Uranium

Total phosphorous

Faecal Coliform

True Colour

pesticides

Dissolved oxygen within 2 minutes of

Iron bacteria

collection
Here are some examples of water tests in Alberta and Saskatchewan:
Typical Alberta drinking water test suite to assess drinking water at the tap (Alberta Health Region labs)
Ground water test suite to assess a source water used as a drinking water supply (Saskatchewan
Watershed Authority)
Surface water test suite to assess a source water used as a drinking water supply (Saskatchewan
Watershed Authority)

Microbiological Indicators
Laboratory results may provide information on levels of Total Coliforms, Escherichia
coli (E-Coli), and Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) which are used as microbiological
indicators of the microbiological quality of the water. This section will briefly outline the
rationale for including these indicators and their significance.
Total Coliform (TC)
The presence of Total Coliform bacteria may indicate contamination in a water supply. The presence of Total
Coliforms alone is not necessarily a health risk, but it does require a further investigation of the water system. The
presence of any coliform bacteria indicates that the sampled water is potentially unsafe and unsatisfactory.

The absence of coliforms in a water supply is usually interpreted as evidence of safe drinking water. This indicates
that the water sample is free of pathogens and contains a low risk of waterborne infectious disease.
Escherichia coli (EC / E. Coli)
E. coli has been demonstrated to be a specific indicator for the presence of fecal (human or animal waste)
contamination. This is a potentially dangerous situation. Immediate steps need to be taken to disinfect the water,
remove the source of contamination or find an appropriate alternate source. Water containing E. Coli bacteria must
not be consumed or used in cases where the water could be a health hazard. Even brushing your teeth with this
water can pose a health risk.
Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC)
Although this test is not normally part of the standard testing for homeowners it can provide some useful information
regarding the microbiological quality of your water. The HPC bacteria enumerates both aerobic and facultative
aerobic bacteria found in water. These bacteria are not normally used as an indicator of disease, and bacteria in
this group are not usually directly associated with a specific illness or disease. However, some bacteria within the
HPC can cause disease, both as primary pathogens and opportunistic pathogens. The HPC is useful for measuring
changes during water treatment and distribution. It is valuable for checking quality of finished water in a distribution
system as an indicator of microbial regrowth and sediment build-up in slow-flow sections and dead ends.

More comprehensive drinking and household use suitability

Groundwater
Recommendations for Testing Rural Water Sources for Drinking and
Domestic Ground Water Usage: test 2 times/year
N.B. For each Level, be sure to sample the water before any treatment devices.
Level A - Basic Ground Water Suite, 3 parameters + targeted problems
This level of testing provides very little information but it is inexpensive (approximately $60), and much better than
not having any tests at all. Sample and record water quality test results at least twice per year.

Parameter

Significance

Total Coliform

Identifies potential microbial contamination. If any Total Coliform are detected, the
additionally tested for Faecal Coliform and E. Coli

Nitrate

Identifies potential contamination from nitrates, septic systems, corrals, etc.

Total Dissolved Solids or

Conductivity

Identifies whether water is mineralized; levels above 500 mg/L indicate more comp
ions and salts

Other suspected problems

Many wells have unique problems with such parameters as arsenic, iron, manganes

Level B - Operational Ground Water Suite, targeted parameters

This is a focused suite to track source water quality problems and manage water treatment (approximately $60 plus
possible additional costs). The parameters recommended are those where problems were detected from the Level
C Diagnostic Suite. On-site turbidity and dissolved oxygen are beneficial if possible.

Parameter

Significance

Total Coliform

Identifies potential microbial contamination. If any Tot

additionally tested for Faecal Coliform and E. Coli

Total Dissolved Solids or Conductivity

Identifies TDS changes; significant changes (say more

quality). Track and determine the reason for changes, a
change.

Turbidity

Turbidity testing at the time sampled (within 2 minutes

be an indicator the groundwater is under the influence o

Parameters identified as problems from Level C Diagnostic

Ground Water Suite

Regularly re-test any parameters that exceeded guidelin

arsenic, iron, manganese, hardness, sulphate, sodium, e

Level C Diagnostic Ground Water Suite, 39 parameters

The cost of this diagnostic suite is approximately $400. It is very useful in determining initial water quality problems,
and designing water treatment systems (appropriate water analysis will subsequently pay future dividends because
treatment success will be more likely.) On-site turbidity and dissolved oxygen are beneficial if possible.

Bicarbonate Calcium

Carbonate

Chloride

Hydroxide

Magnesium

pH

Potassium

Sodium

TDS or Conductivity

Sulphate

Sulphide

Total Hardness

True Colour

Sum of Ions Total Alkalinity

Turbidity

Ammonia, as nitrogen Nitrate

Dissolved organic
carbon

Aluminum

Arsenic

Barium

Boron

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Fluoride

Iron

Lead

Manganese

Selenium

Zinc

Uranium

Total Coliform

Faecal Coliform

E. Coli

Heterotrophic Plate
Count

Dissolved oxygen within 2 minutes of

collection

Surface Water
Recommendations for Testing Rural Water Sources for Drinking and
Domestic Water Surface Water: test 2 - 4 times/year
(and Ground Water Under Direct Influence of Surface Water: GWUDI):
N.B. For each Level, be sure to sample the water before any treatment devices.
N.B. If GWUDI is tested, other parameters may be necessary (e.g. arsenic)
Level A - Basic Surface Water Suite, 3 parameters + targeted problems
This level of testing provides very little information but is inexpensive (approximately $60), and much better than not
having any tests at all. Sample and record water quality test results at least twice per year depending on type of
water source.

Parameter

Significance

Total Coliform

Identifies potential microbial contamination. If any Total Coliform are detected, then
water should be re-tested and additionally tested for Faecal Coliform and E. Coli

Turbidity

Identifies potential water quality change and contamination etc.

Total Dissolved Solids or

Conductivity

Identifies whether water is mineralized; levels above 500 mg/L indicate more
comprehensive testing is needed for ions and salts

Other suspected problems

Many surface water sources have unique problems with such parameters as algae,
chlorophyll a, iron, manganese, hardness, ammonia, nitrate, etc.

Level B - Operational Surface Water Suite, targeted parameters

This suite is a focused suite to track source water quality problems and manage water treatment (approximately
$60+ possible additional costs). The parameters recommended are those where problems were detected from the
Level C Diagnostic Suite. On-site turbidity and dissolved oxygen are beneficial if possible.

Parameter

Significance

Total Coliform

Identifies potential microbial contamination. If any Total Coliform are detect

and
additionally tested for Faecal Coliform and E. Coli

Total Dissolved Solids or Conductivity

Identifies TDS changes; significant changes (say more than 100 mg/L up or d
water quality).
Track and determine the reason for changes, and ensure the treatment proces

Turbidity

Turbidity testing at the time sampled (within 2 minutes of collection) should

may be an indicator the
groundwater is under the influence of surface water, flooding, etc.

Parameters identified as problems from

Level C Diagnostic Surface Water Suite

Regularly re-test any parameters that exceeded guidelines, as determined by

(e.g. arsenic, iron,
manganese, hardness, sulphate, sodium, etc.)

Level C Diagnostic Surface Water Suite, 30 parameters

The cost of this diagnostic suite is approximately $300. It is very useful in determining initial water quality problems,
and designing water treatment systems (effective treatment will subsequently pay future dividends because
treatment success will be more likely.) On-site turbidity and dissolved oxygen are beneficial if possible.

Bicarbonate

Calcium

Carbonate

Chloride

Hydroxide

Magnesium

pH

Potassium

Sodium

TDS or Conductivity

Sulphate

Sum of Ions

Total Alkalinity

Hardness

True Colour Turbidity

Ammonia, as
nitrogen

Nitrate

Orthophosphate

Total
Phosphorus

Dissolved Organic Iron

Carbon

Manganese Mercury

Faecal Coliform

Heterotrophic Plate Count

Total
Coliform

Chlorophyll a

Dissolved oxygen within 2 minutes

of collection

E. Coli

Treated Water
Recommendations for Testing Rural Water Sources for Drinking and
Domestic Water Treated Water:
Test water quality after the treatment system every time the source
water is sampled (2 - 4 times/year)
Rationale for Testing After Treatment
Most water supplies will require some degree of treatment. For example, Environment Canada estimates that 20 to
40% of wells across the country have problems with coliform or nitrate. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, where ground
water supplies tend to be mineralized, over 90% of the wells will exceed one or more Guideline for Canadian
Drinking Water Quality. Most of these problems are not health-related, but it is estimated that about 30% or more of
privately-owned wells will have water quality problems that could affect human health.
Testing the water quality of untreated water sources helps people understand what water quality problems exist,
and what measures can be taken to treat the water and manage the water supply.
It is equally important to test water quality after the water treatment system. This type of monitoring is necessary to
ensure the treatment system is performing as designed, and to ensure the safety of the drinking water supplied in a
rural or remote location.
The treated water tests should be done at the same time as the untreated water quality tests. Problems should be
addressed immediately. Records should be kept. Should a water quality concern exist affecting health, consult a
local public health inspector or doctor for more information on how it may have affected you if the water was
consumed.
Treated Water Suite, targeted parameters
This suite is a focused suite to track source water quality problems and manage water treatment. The parameters
recommended are those where problems were detected from the Level C Diagnostic Suite. On-site turbidity and
dissolved oxygen are beneficial if possible.

Parameter

Significance

Total Coliform

Identifies potential microbial contaminatio

additionally tested for Faecal Coliform an

Total Dissolved Solids or Conductivity

Identifies TDS changes; significant chang

Track and determine the reason for chang

Turbidity

Turbidity testing at the time sampled (with

indicator that groundwater is under the inf

Parameters identified as problems from

Level C Diagnostic Surface or Ground
Water Suite

Regularly re-test any parameters that exce

(e.g. arsenic, iron, manganese, hardness, s

N.B. It is beneficial to periodically test the Treated Water for the full Diagnostic Suite (say once every 3 or 4 years).
This is a measure of safeguarding health and verifies treatment effectiveness.

Who's responsible for drinking water safety?

Privately owned water systems for individuals are not regulated by either the provincial or federal governments. It is
the responsibility of the individual owner to ensure their water is of good quality.
Provincial agencies along with the local health department can provide information, advice, treatment options and
interpretation of water quality analyses, but ultimately the final selection and cost associated with either bottled
water or water treatment devices, including maintenance and follow-up sampling, are the responsibility of the
individual owner.
Individuals accessing or purchasing water from a source other than their own private supply, such as from a
pipeline or tankloader, should understand the quality of the water and their agreement with the supplier. Once
again, it is the responsibility of the individual to ensure that the proper water treatment and safety measures are in
place, unless the water supplier is guaranteeing potable drinking water.

THE MAIN SOURCES OF LEAD

1) Old paint from buildings built prior to 1970. There are at least 3.5 million homes in Australia
with lead based paint and it is not possible to identify it by its "look". Lead paint is often sweet
tasting and therefore children will pick at it and eat it and animals will lick it. Also, when this
paint is sanded, scraped or is peeling it creates a dangerous lead dust that is easily inhaled or
swallowed. This dust also enters soil where it is easily accessed by children or animals. LEAD
does not BREAK DOWN. It remains toxic and unless dealt with safely it will not "go away."
2) Exhaust emissions from leaded petrol driven vehicles were another source of lead particles
which not only polluted the air, but settled on soil and in buildings where people will come into
contact with it.
3) Dust in the roof void (attic), wall cavity or under floor area is often contaminated with lead. So
if a ceiling or wall is to come down, or a skylight or attic ladder is to be installed, care must be
taken to prevent contamination of living spaces.
4) Workers such as furniture restorers, leadlighters, car battery and radiator workers and
painters can bring home lead dust on their clothes and their children are poisoned as a result.
Hobbyists such as fishermen making sinkers, shooters at indoor firing ranges or miniature
collectors are also at risk.
5) The first flush of water in the morning or during the night should not be given to babies or
young children because lead can leach into water. New taps can contain 4.5% lead and older
taps may contain even more. New plumbing may leach lead for up to five years! A water filter
may be the answer for your family.
Some food cans sold in Australia STILL have lead solder. These cans are usually irregular in
shape with a thick seam and horizontal depressions (dents). This is a source of lead that
is EASILY avoided by buying a non lead-soldered product which has a flat welded seam.
7) If you are a gardener some above ground crops such as tomatoes and beans are better grown
in "leaded soils" than root vegetables e.g potatoes and carrots. Also all produce, especially root
vegetables, should be carefully washed or peeled before eating to minimise any risk. Vacuum
cleaner dust should not be put in the compost bin as this dust can contain high levels of lead.
8) Pets often show symptoms of lead poisoning before people. If your pet is unwell and a vet
diagnoses lead poisoning, you should see that ALL members of the household have a blood test
for lead. Pets should be kept outside and definitely off childrens beds because they collect lead
dust on their coats. Regular washing of the pet and handwashing for the family members is
important.
ARE YOU AT RISK?

Have you renovated a pre 1970 home or do you live on a busy road?

Does your pre 1970 home have peeling or chalking paint?

Was the paint on your or your neighbours pre 1970 property ever sand or water blasted
or renovated using sanding or some other unsafe dust creating method?

Does a member of the household work with lead or use it in a hobby?

Do you live near a source of lead contamination (e.g lead smelter, market garden once
sprayed with lead arsenate, municipal incinerator, car repairer where paint is stripped,
battery breaking yard).

Special Report #3: Lead In Drinking

Water - Is There Lead In My Drinking
Water ?
Is there lead in my drinking water? Lead can be harmful to your health, but just how
harmful depends on how much lead gets into your body, your health, and where the
lead becomes stored in your body. This website provides information about lead in
drinking water. If you are looking to get lead, metal, and corrosive water testing done
on your drinking water - send your information to the Water Guy (Mr. Brian Oram,
PG) (please include the source of your water and any specific concerns).
Like nitrate, it is difficult to understand why lead in drinking water is a potential health
hazard or even a concern. Most people believe that there water comes from pure
sources without any contamination or that the water has been treated, so there is not a
problem. This is not the cause for lead. The primary source for lead in most drinking
water sources is the piping used within a distribution system or the household pluming.
Other routes of lead exposure include: lead paint used in homes prior to 1978, dust or
soil containing lead, food grown in contaminated soil or stored in poorly glazed pottery,
and more.
Lead The Concern:
Lead is a toxic metal that is harmful to human health; there is NO safe level for lead
exposure. The degree of exposure depends on the concentration of lead, route of
exposure (air, water, food), current medical condition, and age. It has been estimated
that up to 20 % of the total lead exposure in children can be attributed to a waterborne
route, i.e., consuming contaminated water. In addition, infants, fetuses, and young
children are particularly vulnerable to lead poisoning. This is because they usually
consume more water and their bodies are actively developing, which facilitates the
bioaccumulation of lead.

High levels of lead contamination in a child can result in convulsions, major

neurological damage, organ failure, coma, and ultimately death. Moderate to low levels
of exposure may result in hearing loss, inhibit growth, and cause learning disabilities.
There may be no signs of lead poisoning or the signs could mimic a flu or other
gastrointestinal disease. The symptoms may include: cramps, irritability, fatigue,
vomiting, constipation, sleep disorder, poor appetite, and trouble sleeping. Unlike other
contaminants, lead will accumulate within the body over time, i.e., bioaccumulate.
Lead will tend to be stored in the brain, bones, kidneys and other major organs. It can
be stored in childs blood for months and bones for many decades. Some of the effects
of lead poisoning can not be cured, but it is possible to reduce exposure to lead.
The Lead Source- One Source Drinking Water:
Drinking water is only one of the possible routes of exposure to lead contamination,
but it is one of the easiest routes of contamination to reduce. The primary route for
lead poisoning in drinking water is not old contamination of the water by leaded fuels,
old batteries or some hazardous waste site, the primary route is the distribution system
used to carry water to your home and more importantly the plumbing within your
home. That is right: YOUR household plumbing may be the cause for lead in your
drinking water. In older homes, lead was used to make the piping and/or solder. In
homes, built prior to 1930s water pipes were primarily made from lead. These pipes
can be identified because the piping tends to have a dull gray color, can be scratched
with a key, and a magnet will not stick to the piping. In buildings built between the
1930s and early 1980s, copper pipes were often used, but the solder contained
elevated levels of lead. This does not mean that a newer home is safe from lead
contamination; in fact, the available data suggests that buildings less than 5 years old
can have high levels of lead. In fact, buildings built prior to 1986 likely contain some
lead plumbing. Prior to 2014, the legal definition for "lead free" was plumbing fixtures
with a lead content of less than 8 %. In 2014, the term was redefined to include only
fixtures with a lead content of 0.25% and newly installed fixtures must use the "lead
free" materials, but this did not apply to fixtures currently in use.
Water Quality as it relates to Lead:
The water quality of your drinking water can have a great impact on the lead level of
your water. If your water is soft or corrosive, this type of water can accelerate the
leaching of lead and copper and other metals from your household plumbing and

water fixtures. The signs of this type of problem would include: greenish rings (copper)
around basins, metallic or bitter taste to your water especially in the mornings, and
frequent leaks/ evidence of corrosion of you household plumbing.
Lead Testing:
If you suspect that your water contains lead, it needs to be analyzed by a certified
laboratory, not someone giving a free analysis to sell you some type of treatment
systems. You can usually receive a free listing of commercial laboratories from your
local county health department or state department of environmental protection. Have
you water evaluated for lead, the certified laboratory should request a first draw, after
flushing take a second sample and provide you with sampling instructions and
containers. At this time, I would also recommend that you have the samples tested for
copper and at least one of the samples tested for pH, alkalinity, calcium hardness,
chloride, sulfate, and total dissolved solids, plus have the laboratory calculate
acorrosivity index. If the water has an odor or there are slime coatings, you may need
to test the bacterial quality of the water and have a slime bacteria test conducted. It is
possible, the water is chemically and biologically corrosive and maybe you have MIC
(Microbiologically Induced Corrosion) problem.

Sulfates and Hydrogen Sulfide

Sulfates are a combination of sulfur and oxygen and are a part of naturally occurring
minerals in some soil and rock formations that contain groundwater. The mineral
dissolves over time and is released into groundwater.
Sulfur-reducing bacteria, which use sulfur as an energy source, are the primary
producers of large quantities of hydrogen sulfide. These bacteria chemically change
natural sulfates in water to hydrogen sulfide. Sulfur-reducing bacteria live in oxygendeficient environments such as deep wells, plumbing systems, water softeners and
water heaters. These bacteria usually flourish on the hot water side of a water
distribution system.
Hydrogen sulfide gas also occurs naturally in some groundwater. It is formed from
decomposing underground deposits of organic matter such as decaying plant material.
It is found in deep or shallow wells and also can enter surface water through springs,
although it quickly escapes to the atmosphere. Hydrogen sulfide often is present in
wells drilled in shale or sandstone, or near coal or peat deposits or oil fields.

Occasionally, a hot water heater is a source of hydrogen sulfide odor. The magnesium
corrosion control rod present in many hot water heaters can chemically reduce
naturally occurring sulfates to hydrogen sulfide.

Sulfate
Sulfate minerals can cause scale buildup in water pipes similar to other minerals and
may be associated with a bitter taste in water that can have a laxative effect on
humans and young livestock. Elevated sulfate levels in combination with chlorine
bleach can make cleaning clothes difficult. Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria produce effects
similar to those of iron bacteria. They convert sulfide into sulfate, producing a dark
slime that can clog plumbing and/or stain clothing. Blackening of water or dark slime
coating the inside of toilet tanks may indicate a sulfur-oxidizing bacteria problem.
Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria are less common than sulfur-reducing bacteria.

Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide gas produces an offensive "rotten egg" or "sulfur water" odor and
taste in the water. In some cases, the odor may be noticeable only when the water is
initially turned on or when hot water is run. Heat forces the gas into the air which may
cause the odor to be especially offensive in a shower. Occasionally, a hot water heater
is a source of hydrogen sulfide odor. The magnesium corrosion control rod present in
many hot water heaters can chemically reduce naturally occurring sulfates to hydrogen
sulfide.
A nuisance associated with hydrogen sulfide includes its corrosiveness to metals such
as iron, steel, copper and brass. It can tarnish silverware and discolor copper and
brass utensils. Hydrogen sulfide also can cause yellow or black stains on kitchen and
bathroom fixtures. Coffee, tea and other beverages made with water containing
hydrogen sulfide may be discolored and the appearance and taste of cooked foods
can be affected.
High concentrations of dissolved hydrogen sulfide also can foul the resin bed of an ion
exchange water softener. When a hydrogen sulfide odor occurs in treated water

(softened or filtered) and no hydrogen sulfide is detected in the non-treated water, it

usually indicates the presence of some form of sulfate-reducing bacteria in the system.
Water softeners provide a convenient environment for these bacteria to grow. A "saltloving" bacteria, that uses sulfates as an energy source, may produce a black slime
inside water softeners.

Health Issues
Sulfate
Sulfate may have a laxative effect that can lead to dehydration and is of special
concern for infants. With time, people and young livestock will become acclimated to
the sulfate and the symptoms disappear. Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria pose no known
human health risk. The Maximum contaminate level is 250 mg/L.

Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is flammable and poisonous. Usually it is not a health risk at
concentrations present in household water, except in very high concentrations. While
such concentrations are rare, hydrogen sulfide's presence in drinking water when
released in confined areas has been known to cause nausea, illness and, in extreme
cases, death. Water with hydrogen sulfide alone does not cause disease. In rare
cases, however, hydrogen sulfide odor may be from sewage pollution which can
contain disease-producing contaminants. Therefore, testing for bacterial
contamination and Sulfate Reducing Bacteria is highly recommended.

Testing Options
Sulfate
The Option 1 testing kit includes the sulfate test, but for sulfur problems the laboratory
must be notified to provide a special container that has a chemical preservative. The
testing kits include the sampling instructions, a questionnaire, and information on
returning the sample. Hydrogen Sulfide- If this is a problem that laboratory must be
told in advance to provide the necessary sampling container with preservatives.
Since hydrogen sulfide is a gas that is dissolved in water and can vaporize (escape)

from it, laboratory analysis of hydrogen sulfide in water requires the sample be
stabilized immediately following collection. Since the odor may be caused by a number
of factors, it is critical that the questionnaire be completed and it is highly
recommended that both the Option 1 and Option 3 water testing packages are
conducted..

Drinking Water Standards

Sulfate
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards for drinking water fall into two
categories -- Primary Standards and Secondary Standards. Primary Standards are
based on health considerations and are designed to protect people from three classes
of toxic pollutants -- pathogens, radioactive elements and toxic chemicals. Secondary
Standards are based on taste, odor, color, corrosivity, foaming and staining properties
of water. Sulfate is classified under the secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL)
standards. The SMCL for sulfate in drinking water is 250 milligrams per liter (mg/l),
sometimes expressed as 250 parts per million (ppm).

Hydrogen Sulfide
Although many impurities are regulated by Primary or Secondary Drinking Water
Standards set by the EPA, hydrogen sulfide is not regulated because a concentration
high enough to be a drinking water health hazard also makes the water unpalatable.
The odor of water with as little as 0.5 ppm of hydrogen sulfide concentration is
detectable by most people. Concentrations less than 1 ppm give the water a "musty" or
"swampy" odor. A 1-2 ppm hydrogen sulfide concentration gives water a "rotten egg"
odor and makes the water very corrosive to plumbing. Generally, hydrogen sulfide
levels are less than 10 ppm, but have been reported as high as 50 to 75 ppm.

The Options
If excessive sulfate or hydrogen sulfide is present in your water supply, you have three
basic options:

1) Obtain an alternate water supply, bottled water, or use some type of treatment to
remove the impurity. The need for an alternate water supply or should be established
before making an investment in treatment equipment or an alternate supply. Based the
decision the results of a chemical analysis water, by a reputable laboratory, and after
consulting with your physician to help you evaluate the level of risk. It may be possible
to obtain a satisfactory alternate water supply by drilling a new well in a different
location or a shallower or deeper well in a different aquifer.
2)Another alternate source of water is bottled water that can be purchased in stores or
direct from bottling companies. This alternative might be considered especially when
the primary concern is water for food preparation and drinking.
3)The typical recommendation is the installation of a whole-house treatment system.
The section of the most cost effective system is a function of the overall water quality,
cause of the sulfur odor, and other water treatment issues.

Sulfate Treatment
Several methods of removing sulfate from water are available. The treatment method
selected depends on many factors including the level of sulfate in the water, the
amount of iron and manganese in the water, and if bacterial contamination also must
be treated. The option you choose also depends on how much water you need to treat.
For treating small quantities of water (drinking and cooking only) the typical methods
may be distillation or reverse osmosis. The most common method of treating large
quantities of water is ion exchange. This process works similar to a water softener. Ionexchange resin, contained inside the unit, adsorbs sulfate. When the resin is loaded to
full capacity with sulfate, treatment ceases. The resin then must be "regenerated" with
a salt (sodium chloride) brine solution before further treatment can occur.
Distillation boils water to form steam that is then cooled and then recondense the
water. Minerals, such as sulfate, do not vaporize with the steam and are left behind in
the boiling chamber. Reverse osmosis membranes have a porosity that permits water
molecules to pass through but leaves the large ions in solution.

Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide may be temporarily controlled by conducting a shock chlorination /
disinfection of the well or water source. Please visit the Shock Chlorination page to

get more information on this protocol. If the problem with the well is because of Sulfate
Reducing Bacteria, a high level of chlorination, mixing, and turbulence may be needed.
If hydrogen sulfide odor is associated primarily with the hot water system, a hot water
heater modification may reduce the odor. Replacing the water heater's magnesium
corrosion control rod with one made of aluminum or another metal may improve the
situation.
To remove low levels of hydrogen sulfide, install an activated carbon filter. The filter
must be replaced periodically to maintain performance. Frequency of replacement will
depend on daily water use and concentration of hydrogen sulfide in the water.
Hydrogen sulfide concentrations up to about 5 to 7 ppm can be removed using an
oxidizing filter. These filters are similar to the units used for iron treatment . This filter
contains sand with a manganese dioxide coating that changes hydrogen sulfide gas to
tiny particles of sulfur that are trapped inside the filter. The sand filter must be
backwashed regularly and treated with potassium permanganate to maintain the
coating. Hydrogen sulfide concentrations exceeding 7 to 10 ppm can be removed by
injecting an oxidizing chemical such as household bleach or potassium permanganate
followed up by filtration. The oxidizing chemical should enter the water upstream from
the storage or mixing tank to provide at least 30- 45 minutes of contact time between
the chemical and water. The length of the holding time is a function of the chemical
dosage, tank configuration, and water temperature. Sulfur particles can then be
removed using a sediment filter and the excess chlorine can be removed by activated
carbon filtration. When potassium permanganate is used a manganese greensand
filter is recommended.
Often the treatment for hydrogen sulfide is the same as for iron and manganese, for
more information please visit the iron and manganese webpage.

Nuisance Problems
Sulfates and hydrogen sulfide are both common nuisance contaminants. Although
neither is usually a significant health hazard, sulfates can have a temporary laxative
effect on humans and young livestock. Sulfates also may clog plumbing and stain

clothing. Hydrogen sulfide produces an offensive "rotten egg" odor and taste in the
water, especially when the water is heated. If the odor is stronger in the hot water, we
recommend the following:
a. Turn off the system and drain the tank. Note any anolomies, such as: the color and
odor of the water, coatings, precipitates, or other solid materials.
b. Allow the tank to refill, but raise the temperature setting of the tank to a level above
140 F.
c. Allow the tank to stay at this level for at least 6 to 10 hours.
d. Turn off the system and reduce system to the normal temperature setting.
e. Drain any discolored water and then allow the tank to refill.
f. If the odor goes away, it was most likely a bacteria growing in the tank that is causing
the problem.
g. If the odor returns immediately, it is likely a chemical reaction between the water and
the sacrifical anode used in the system. It would be advisable to check the quality of
the entering the tank.
If you have a well, we recommend that you also shock disinfect the well and
distribution system. For guidance on disinfecting a water heater, go here.

Treatment options depend on the form and quantities in which sulfates and/or
hydrogen sulfide occur in untreated water- Therefore, it is critical that a comprehensive
water analysis be conducted.. Small quantities of sulfate may be removed from water
using distillation or reverse osmosis, while large quantities may be removed using ion
exchange treatment. Hydrogen sulfide gas may be associated with the presence of
Sulfate Reducing Bacteria. Hydrogen sulfide may be reduced or removed by shock
chlorination, water heater modification, activated carbon filtration, oxidizing filtration or
oxidizing chemical injection. Often treatment for hydrogen sulfide is the same as for
iron and manganese, allowing the removal of all three contaminants in one process.
Note: If the cause of the problem is associated with the presence of Iron Reducing
Bacteria, Sulfate Reducing Bacteria, and elevated levels of hydrogen sulfide, iron,
manganese and other problems. It is critical that the water be tested prior to selecting
a treatment system, we recommend the Water Testing . Also, if you plan to shock
disinfect your well or distribution system - we recommend using Sanitizing Pellets (Well

Safe) over bleach.

WHAT IS SULPHATE ?
Magnesium sulphate is better known as the purgative, Epsom salts.
Sulphate is the oxi-anion of sulphur.

SULPHATE IN WATER
If the sulphate concentration in a water source is less than 10 mg/l, it is an indication that
the water source is fresh and unpolluted.
Higher levels of sulphate in any water source can be indicative of some form of pollution.
Typical pollution sources are mine drainage and effluent return flows, which can contain
sulphate concentrations of as high as 500 mg/l

WHAT PROBLEMS CAN SULPHATE CAUSE?

When new water users (new residents or travellers) are initially exposed to higher levels
of sulphate in drinking water, it can have adverse health effects, causing
diarrhoea. Adaptation after prolonged exposure can take place.

Aesthetically elevated sulphate levels in water can impart a bitter, astringent taste and a
rotten egg smell to water.
High sulphate concentrations in water can accelerate corrosion of metals, especially iron.
Children under the age of 2 years, water users or travellers and people who drink large
volumes of water can be at risk and suffer from adverse health effects, such as
Travellers diarrhoea.

HOW CAN SULPHATE IN WATER BE TREATED?

Sulphate removal from water can be done by means of the following processes:
Ion exchange with a resin.
Precipitation with salts of calcium, followed by settlement and filtration.
Desalination processes, such as ion-exchange demineralisation, reverse
osmosis or distillation.
All of the above treatment processes require a high level of operator and maintenance
skills.
Home treatment kits, using ion-exchange processes are expensive and treat only small
volumes of water.

CHLORIDE AND SULFATE

1|2
Almost all natural waters contain chloride and sulfate ions. Their concentrations vary
considerably according to the mineral content of the earth in any given area. In small

amounts they are not significant. In large concentrations they present problems. Usually
chloride concentrations are low. Sulfates can be more troublesome because they generally
occur in greater concentrations. Low to moderate concentrations of both chloride and
sulfate ions add palatability to water. In fact, they are desirable for this reason. Excessive
concentrations of either, of course, can make water unpleasant to drink.
Chloride is commonly found in streams and wastewater. Chloride may get into surface
water from several sources including:
Wastewater from industries and municipalities
Wastewater from water softening
Road salting
Agricultural runoff
Produced water from gas and oil wells
The EPA Secondary Drinking Water Regulations recommend a maximum concentration of
250 mg/1 for chloride ions and 250 mg/1 for sulfate ions (expressed as Cl- and S04--, not
as CaC03).
Sulfate is a constituent of TDS and may form salts with sodium, potassium, magnesium,
and other cations. Sulfate is commonly found in nature and can be present at
concentrations of a few to several hundred milligrams per liter. Water containing calcium
sulfate ions is likely to have a characteristic taste ... somewhat bitter and astringent. In
fact, it has been compared to the way dissolved gypsum might taste in water. When 30 to
40 grains per gallon of calcium sulfate are dissolved in water, most people can detect the
taste.
Does the presence of nitrates affect water quality?
Unlike temperature and dissolved oxygen, the presence of normal levels of nitrates usually does not have a direct
effect on aquatic insects or fish. However, excess levels of nitrates in water can create conditions that make it
difficult for aquatic insects or fish to survive.
Algae and other plants use nitrates as a source of food. If algae have an unlimited source of nitrates, their growth is
unchecked. So, Why is that a problem?
A bay or estuary that has the milky colour of pea soup is showing the result of high concentrations of algae. Large
amounts of algae can cause extreme fluctuations in dissolved oxygen. Photosynthesis by algae and other plants can
generate oxygen during the day. However, at night, dissolved oxygen may decrease to very low levels as a result of
large numbers of oxygen consuming bacteria feeding on dead or decaying algae and other plants.
Eutrophication The process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, especially
phosphates and nitrates. These typically promote excessive growth of algae. As the algae die and decompose, high
levels of organic matter and the decomposing organisms deplete the water of available oxygen, causing the death of
other organisms, such as fish.
Anoxia Anoxic Event: Anoxia is a lack of oxygen caused by excessive nutrients in waterways which triggers
algae growth. When the plants die and decay, oxygen is stripped from the water, which then turns green or milky
white and gives off a strong rotten egg odour. The lack of oxygen is often deadly for invertebrates, fish and shellfish.
Can the presence of nitrates affect human health?
People who use wells as a source of drinking water need to monitor the level of nitrates in their well water. If you
drink water that is high in nitrates, it can interfere with the ability of your red blood cells to transport oxygen.
Infants who drink water high in nitrates may turn bluish and appear to have difficulty in breathing since their
bodies are not receiving enough oxygen.

Just like dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH, the amount of nitrates in water is determined by both natural
processes and human intervention. A body of water may be naturally high in nitrates or have elevated nitrate levels
as a result of careless human activities.
Why do we need nitrogen? What are the sources of Nitrogen?
Nitrogen is essential for all living things: animals and plants. Nitrogen forms a part of the proteins and DNA that
are found in cells. Animals get nitrogen by eating plants and other animals.
Just like animals, plants require nitrogen to grow and survive. But they do not get nitrogen by consuming proteins
like animals do. Plants get nitrogen from water and from the soil. They get nitrogen by absorbing it in the form of
nitrates and ammonium. Nitrates are the major source of nitrogen for aquatic plants .
Nitrates are not utilized by aquatic organisms such as fish and aquatic insects, but nitrates are used by aquatic
plants.
Where do Nitrates come from?
All aquatic organisms excrete wastes and aquatic plants and organisms eventually die. These activities create
ammonia. Some bacteria in the water change this ammonia to produce nitrite which is then converted by other
bacteria to nitrate. Nitrates (NO3-) are an oxidized form of nitrogen and are formed by combining oxygen and
nitrogen.
Nitrates also come from the earth. Soil contains organic matter, which contains nitrogen compounds. Just like the
ammonia in water, these nitrogen compounds in the soil are converted by bacteria into nitrates.
Although nitrates occur naturally in soil and water, an excess levels of nitrates can be considered to be a
contaminant of ground and surface waters. Most sources of excess nitrates come from human activity. The source
of excess nitrates can usually be traced to agricultural activities, human wastes, or industrial pollution .
Nitrogen fertilizers have been applied to yards, fields, golf courses to promote the growth of plants. Rainwater can
wash nitrates in the fertilizer into streams and rivers or the nitrates can seep into ground water. This can also occur
with animal waste and manure.
In addition to animal waste, untreated human sewage can contribute to nitrate levels in surface and ground water.
Leaking or poorly functioning septic systems are a source of such nitrates. City sewage treatment plants treat
sewage to make it non-hazardous, but treatment plants still release nitrates into waterways. In addition, industrial
plants and agricultural processing operations are potential sources of nitrate pollution.
How do nitrates affect human health?
Nitrate concentrations are monitored in municipal water supplies and foods to prevent exposing people to the
potential harmful effects of high levels of nitrates. Nitrates are highly soluble, meaning that they easily dissolve in
water. For many people in rural areas, the primary source of drinking water is well water, which may be
contaminated with nitrates. Nitrates are colorless and odorless, so their presence cannot be determined without the
use of special testing equipment.
Nitrates can interfere with the ability of our red blood cells to carry oxygen. Infants are more at risk of nitrate
poisoning than older children or adults. Babies can turn blue when there is not enough oxygen being transported
by their blood. This blue baby syndrome (technically known as methemoglobinemia) is a serious condition that
can cause brain damage or death.
How do nitrates affect the health of aquatic animals?
Fish and aquatic insects can be affected indirectly by increased nitrate concentrations in the water.
Basically, any excess nitrate in the water is a source of fertilizer for aquatic plants and algae. In many cases, the
amount of nitrate in the water is what limits how much plants and algae can grow. If there is an excess level of
nitrates, plants and algae will grow excessively.
Excess plants in a body of water can create many problems. An excess in the growth of plants and algae create an
unstable amount of dissolved oxygen. During the day, there will be usually be high levels of dissolved oxygen, and
at night the levels of oxygen can decrease dramatically.

This will create stressful conditions for fish. If they are stressed for a significant part of the
day, they will not behave normally or reproduce. If the conditions persist for a long period of
time, the stressed fish species may choose to leave that area or die off.
o
Excess algae or plant growth is also unsightly. If youve ever been to a beach where mats of
rotting algae wash up on shore or the bottom of the lake is teaming with weeds, its probably
because excess nitrates are available for plant growth.
Excess plants and algae will also create conditions where organic matter accumulates. High densities of algae will
create a condition where sunlight cannot reach very far into the water. Since plants and algae require some
sunlight, plants and algae not receiving sunlight will die off. These dead plant materials will settle to the bottom of
the water and bacteria that feed on decaying organic material will greatly increase in numbers. These bacteria will
consume oxygen and, therefore, the level of dissolved oxygen in this water will fall to levels that are too low for
many aquatic insects and fish to survive. Also, this can cause extreme changes in habitat. Fish that need gravel or
sand for spawning may find nothing but mats of vegetation and muck so will be unable to produce offspring.
o

What could be in your water?

Water can be made up of a wide range of substances or organisms. They are not
necessarily harmful, but may become a contaminant or a nuisance at higher levels.
Most contaminants in water cannot be detected by smell, taste or sight.

For tap water / drinking water stored in tanks: Although most water suppliers
deliver reliably clean and safe water, contamination can happen on the way into
your home, or even within the home. This could be through old plumbing or
leaking pipes, leaching lead or copper pipes or bacteria contamination in water
tanks. Increasing environmental pollution also affects the water, which is used to
supply us with drinking water.
For private water supplies: Regular testing of water from wells/springs/streams
etc is very important as heavy rainfall, seasonal changes in agriculture as well as
seasonal changes can affect water quality.

We have explained some elements typically found in

your water:
Click on each element to jump down to the explanation.

Aluminium
Alkalinity
Ammonia
Arsenic
Bacteria
Chloride
Chlorine
Chlorine Dioxide
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Hardness
Hydrogen Sulphide
Iron

Lead
Manganese
Nitrates and Nitrites
Peroxide
Pesticides
pH
Sulfate

Aluminium
Aluminium is probably the least toxic of all the metals. It is widely used in industry for
cans, foils, modern aircrafts etc. In some water sources, aluminium occurs naturally. It
can be removed from drinking water by water treatment.
It is not clear how aluminium interferes with activities in the human body. Acute
aluminium poisoning has been associated with constipation, colicky pain, anorexia,
nausea and gastrointestinal irritation, skin problems and lack of energy. Slower and
longer-term increases in body aluminium may create muscle twitching, numbness,
paralysis, and fatty degeneration of the liver and kidney.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralise acids. Alkaline compounds
in the water such as bicarbonates (baking soda is one type), carbonates, and
hydroxides remove H+ ions and lower the acidity of the water (which means an
increased pH). Alkalinity is normally due to the bicarbonate salts of calcium and
magnesium, and very occasionally sodium bicarbonate may also contribute.
Alkalinity & pH of water are very closely linked. Testing both, the pH & alkalinity of
water is important, as a very low or very high pH can be an indicator for problems with
water quality. This is especially the case for water in swimming pools & spas,
aquariums and private water supplies. Alkalinity in water can protect against sudden
changes of the pH level. Spas should have Alkalinity of 80 - 160mg/l (ppm). If the
alkalinity is below 80mg/l (ppm), then the pH can suddenly change. If a pH is too low,
then water can be corrosive for metal parts, ie. lead from lead pipes can leach into
water or metal parts may be damaged. If the pH is too high, then a desinfectant can
not work properly. If the alkalinity is too high, then it can be very difficult to adapt or
change the pH of water. Should it be necessary to change the pH as well as alkalinity
of water, then it is recommended to adapt the alkalinity first.

Ammonia
NH3, Ammonia Gas, is extremely soluble in water. It is the natural product of decay of
organic nitrogen compounds. Although it is widely used and common in our society,
ammonia can be both; hazardous and caustic. Ammonia gets into water supplies most
frequently as runoff in agricultural areas where it is applied as fertiliser and it easily
finds its way into underground aquifers from animal feedlot runoff. Ammonia itself is
not often found in well water because bacteria in the soil convert it to nitrates.
Ammonia can be very corrosive to some copper plumbing systems. Ammonia is not

regulated by current drinking water standards (only guide values). Ammonia is toxic to
fish and to dialysis patients. Its toxicity varies with the pH of the water.
Treatments: The natural zeolite clinoptilolite, also regenerated with salt, is an effective
ammonia treatment. For drinking water, distillation is an effective treatment.
Chloramination is an alternative means, which is used to disinfect the water, whereby
ammonia is added to chlorine to form a long-lasting disinfectant. It has been in
common use within the water industry for many years. The advantage of
chloramination is that it persists longer through the distribution pipework and the taste
is usually less noticeable to consumers than chlorine alone.
Treatment: Chloramine is more difficult to remove from water than free chlorine. It can
be removed with exactly the same treatment strategies that are used for chlorine, but
greater contact time is needed. Activated Carbon and reverse osmosis units (with at
least two carbon prefilters) should remove chloramine nicely, although in both cases
ammonia must still be dealt with.

Arsenic
Low levels may occur naturally in water after it has passed through various mineral
deposits and rock strata. Arsenic is present in small amounts in soil and therefore is
present in our food. It is also in the ocean, which transfers to seafood, especially the
filtering mollusks, such as clams and oysters. Some arsenic may also be present as a
contaminant in meats.
Arsenic is also found in many fuel oils and coal, and hence it is added to the
environment when these are burned. Weed killers and some insecticides (particularly
lead-arsenate sprays) are the main sources of arsenic contamination. This is
responsible for a twentyfold increase in the level of arsenic found in humans.
The toxic effects of arsenic contamination can be poisonous. Ingestion of arsenic can
be dangerous and lead to illness and in some cases can be fatal. The possible effects
of arsenic toxicity include hair loss, dermatitis, diarrhoea and other gastrointestinal
symptoms, fatigue, headaches, confusion, muscle pains, red and white blood cell
problems, neurological symptoms and liver and kidney damage. Acute arsenic
exposure may cause a rapid series of symptoms. Arsine gas exposure is very toxic to
the lungs & kidneys and is often fatal. Death from low-level, chronic arsenic exposure
has the appearance of death from natural causes.

Total Coliform Bacteria

Bacterial contamination can not be detected by taste, smell or sight. Floods, human or
animal waste, or insects, rodents or animals entering a well can be a cause for
bacteria. Water supplies should be regularly tested. Tests for Total Coliform Bacteria
are generally used as a sanitary indicator for the quality of water. Typical types of
Coliform Bacteria include Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Hafnia, Klebsiella and Escherichia
coli (E.coli).
Illnesses caused by E.coli bacteria and other potentially harmful bacteria occur every
year. Many strains of bacteria are not toxic, but even mild cases can cause minor

illnesses like diarrhea, vomiting, cramps, and other gastrointestinal symptoms.

Bacterial infections can be potentially dangerous or fatal, especially in people with
weaker immune systems like children or the elderly.
The presence of bacteria indicates that treatment systems are not working properly.

Bacteria - E.Coli
E.Coli stands for Escherichia Coliform bacteria, which normally live in the intestines of
humans and animals. Most strains of this bacteria are harmless, but one particular
strain called O157 can cause severe kidney damage and diarrhea and in some cases
renal failure and death. Infection by the O157 strain are regarded as the most
dangerous causes of food poisoning in the UK.
Because E.coli are always present in human and animal faeces in high numbers, they
are used as an indicator of faecal pollution in drinking water. When E.coli are detected,
this does not mean that O157 is present but it requires immediate action. All E.coli
bacteria can be rapidly inactivated by chlorine and other disinfectants used in the
treatment of water supplies. Outbreaks of illnesses are mostly related to poor
maintenance of disinfection systems or private water supplies which are not
disinfected.
E.Coli is part of the group of total coliform bacteria. A total coliform bacteria test kit can
detect high levels of such bacteria in the water.
The presence of bacteria indicates that treatment systems are not working properly.

Chloride
Chloride can occur naturally in source water and is a component of common salt. In
small amounts, chloride is found in most natural waters and the concentration depends
on the mineral content of the earth through which the water flows. Naturally occurring
high levels of chloride generally means you will be likely to have hard water, because
of chloride's ability to combine with calcium and magnesium. Low to moderate
concentrations of chloride may actually make water more palatable and desirable to
drink. Chlorides contribute to the total mineral content of water.
Chloride will produce a salty taste in water and in high concentrations, it will produce a
brackish or briny taste which is undesirable.

Chlorine
Although its health risks are comparatively small, chlorine has a strong taste and
smell. Chlorine in large amounts causes corrosion of metals and hence reduces the
working function of common household appliances like washing machines and
dishwashers. Chlorine in water may be present in two forms, free and combined. Free
chlorine does the hard work of killing bacteria and oxidising contaminants. When you
add chlorine to water, you are actually adding free chlorine. When the free chlorine
combines with other contaminants, it becomes combined chlorine, or chloramines. In

water, this form of chlorine has very little sanitising ability and no oxidising ability. Total
chlorine is the sum of both - combined chlorine and free chlorine. Levels of chlorine
should be kept as low as possible whilst ensuring the quality of the water. Typically
water companies keep the level of residual disinfectant in the form of free or
combined chlorine to 0.5 mg/l (ppm) or less. Should you notice a smell or taste of
chlorine occasionally, then this could be due to maintenance work.
Health Effects - Chlorine can react with organic matter in the water, such as vegetation
decay, and disinfection by-products called Trihalomethanes (THM's). THM's are
suspected human carcinogens. Chlorine may also create objectionable taste and
odour problems in water. Chlorine can be irritating to the skin upon contact as well as
an eye, nose and lung irritant when exposure to the air is encountered. Ingestion of
Chlorine can cause stomach discomfort.
Chlorine in water can sometimes react with plastics and rubber in plumbing or kitchen
appliances. This can make the water taste bitter, metallic, like medicine or disinfectant
or TCP. Apparently this taste is not harmful, although it does not taste very nice.
Water treatment companies are advised to keep levels of Chlorine in water as low as
necessary.

Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine Dioxide is one of several oxides of chlorine. It is a potent and useful oxidising
agent used in water treatment (desinfection) and in bleaching (it is mostly used for
pulp bleaching in paper production). It is highly water soluble, especially in cold water.

Chromium
Low levels of chromium can naturally occur in water after it has passed through
several mineral deposits and rock strata. Chromium is rarely found in drinking water.

Copper
Copper is an essential nutrient for good health when ingested in very small quantities,
and is a naturally occurring element found in natural deposits. Copper is also used
extensively in household plumbing. Copper can be found in drinking water from
contamination from mining operations, municipal incineration deposits leaching into
groundwater or through corrosion from household copper plumbing (usually caused by
acidic water).
Short term exposure above the recommended levels can cause gastrointestinal
problems such as nausea and vomiting. Long term exposure can cause liver or kidney
damage. Excessive levels of copper can cause blue/green staining of plumbing
fixtures and a metallic taste.

Cyanide

Low levels of cyanide can naturally occur in water after it has passed through several
mineral deposits and rock strata. It is rarely found in drinking water. The maximum
standards of 50 g/l (0.05mg/l / ppm)* are health related with a large safety factor
built in.

Hardness
Hard water is generally not seen as a health risk, but it is a nuisance, because of a
mineral build up around taps and white goods. It can contribute to the inefficient
operation or failure of water-using appliances and it reduces soap and detergent
performance.
Hard water is high in dissolved minerals, most commonly calcium and magnesium.
Different sources classify the effect of hard water in slightly different ways, but here is
a general guide (that we have found to be quite accurate):

Hardness greater than 80PPM: Detergents with softening agents are not
completely effective in cleaning
Hardness greater than 120PPM: Some scaling will occur in pipes and
appliances
Hardness greater than 250PPM: Dishwasher invariably produces a film on
dishes

Hydrogen Sulphide
A flammable and corrosive gas, present in some waters, that produces an easily
detected offensive "rotten egg" smell to water. It is produced by decaying organic
matter, petroleum refining and from sulphate reducing bacteria (bacteria that can
convert sulphates and sulphur to sulphide). Hydrogen sulphide is also a weak acid and
can also promote corrosion in plumbing lines. More common to well waters than to
treated municipal water supplies.
Excess hydrogen sulphide can cause an objectionable smell to water and be corrosive
to plumbing lines. Odour can be detected in water with a level of 0.5 milligrams per
litre (mg/l) by most people. A "swampy" or "musty" odour can be detected below 1.0
milligrams per litre (mg/l). Concentration of hydrogen sulphide over 1.0 milligrams per
liter (mg/l) will give water a "rotten egg" smell and makes water corrosive to plumbing.
Hydrogen Sulphide smell in tap water: One cause of this smell could be from
dissolved hydrogen sulphides (H2S). The methods for treatment vary based on the pH.
Options include manganese greensand filter, to chlorination (followed by
dechlorination) and then open aeration (followed by an oxidising catalyst filter). It is
best to consult a water quality professional for assistance with this issue.
Another cause is sulfate-reducing bacteria found in water that feeds on sulfates,
creating trace H2S quantities and is generally found on the hot water side of your
water. Treatment is to disinfect all plumbing with household bleach and pre-treat the
water supply with chlorination to eliminate the bacteria. To remove the chlorine smells,
one can use an activated carbon filter.

Iron
Considered one of the "Troublesome Trio" (along with manganese and hydrogen
sulphide) because of the complexity in removing this excess contaminant. More
common in private wells than municipal water supplies. Iron can be present in four
different forms in water:
Ferrous iron is colourless and is the result of changing the insoluble element
iron to a soluble form in acidic and low oxygen environments.

Ferric iron is the result of exposure to air to form insoluble iron (rust) and redbrown staining of plumbing fixtures and laundry.

Organic iron or iron bacteria occur when specific microorganisms utilise ferrous
iron and air to produce a gelatinous compound.

Colloidal iron is observed as suspended matter causing red-pink discoloration

to water.
Water quality guidelines for iron are provided to assist in managing drinking water for
such considerations as taste, colour and odour as well as for corrosion control.
Excessive iron will create a rusty color with reddish or orange staining of plumbing
fixtures and a metallic taste. If iron bacteria is present, gelatinous sludge may be
present on plumbing fixtures or cause pipe encrustation.

Lead
Drinking water is only one possible source of lead contamination, but it is one of the
easiest to tackle. Lead in drinking water is mostly caused by lead pipes especially in
houses built prior to the 1930s. If your water is soft or corrosive, this type of water can
accelerate the leaching of lead and copper and other metals from your household
plumbing and water fixtures. The lead concentration is normally higher when the water
is softer, ie. has a lower pH. Lead can be harmful to health, but just how harmful
depends on the amount of lead, which has entered the body and where the lead is
stored in the body. Until the 20th century, it wasnt known how dangerous even a small
amount of lead can be to humans.
When lead enters the body, it can cause damage to the central nervous system as well
as cause developmental harm (especially in children and infants), neurological and
kidney damage. Once lead has entered the body it is released very slowly, which
means ongoing exposure will cause a build up of lead in the body.
The amount of lead in water caused by lead piping is greater when the water has been
sitting in the pipe for a while, ie. in the first water which is drawn in the morning. It is
therefore important to let the water run for a while to flush the pipe before using it.
Because lead levels in the water can vary throughout the day, it is recommended to
test your drinking water more than once - ideally throughout one day whenever you
use your water for consumption.

Manganese

This is a naturally occurring metal, that is found in many types of rocks. It combines
with other substances such as oxygen, sulfur or chlorine. Manganese can also be
combined with carbon to make organic manganese compounds. Common organic
manganese compounds include pesticides, such as maneb or mancozeb and
methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT), a fuel additive in some
gasolines.
Manganese is an essential trace element and is necessary for good health.
Manganese can be found in several food items, including grains and cereals, and is
found in high amounts in other foods, such as tea. Longterm exposure to high levels
may lead to mental and emotional disturbances and slow and clumsy body
movements (called manganism). New studies also seem to suggest that it may
contribute towards Parkinson's disease at elevated levels. Manganese is known to
block calcium channels and with chronic exposure results in CNS dopamine depletion.
Exposure to Manganese can happen in several ways:

Everyone is exposed to small amounts of manganese in air, water and food.

Individuals who work in occupations that mine or use manganese are likely to
be exposed to excess levels in their work environment.

People who improperly use pesticides such as maneb and mancozeb, may be
exposed to excess levels.
At concentrations exceeding 0.1 mg/l, the manganese ion imparts an undesirable taste
to beverages and stains plumbing fixtures and laundry (Griffin, 1960). When
manganese (II) compounds in solution undergo oxidation, manganese is precipitated,
resulting in encrustation problems. At concentrations as low as 0.02 mg/l, manganese
can form coatings on water pipes that may later slough off as a black precipitate
(Bean, 1974). A number of countries have set maximum standards for manganese of
0.05mg/l, above which problems with discoloration may occur.

Nitrates and Nitrites

When animal and human wastes or soil fertilisers come into contact with water, they
show up as nitrates and nitrites. There has been a 20 fold increase of the use of
nitrogen fertilisers in the UK over the past 40 years. These fertilisers are very easily
washed off the land into streams and rivers and can eventually end up in drinking
water supplies. Only specialised water treatment processes can reduce the amount of
nitrate in drinking water. Nitrates and nitrites are especially harmful tor the
development of babies and young children and can be a cause of the potentially fatal
Blue Baby Syndrome. Since levels of nitrates in waters are being controlled carefully,
instances of this illness have reduced massively in the UK.
Nitrates are thought to be associated with cancer, because the resulting nitrite can
react with amino acids in our body to form nitrosamines, which are thought to be
initiators of cancerous growths. Although (to our knowledge) some studies haven't
found a definite positive link yet.

Some experts recommend testing drinking water for nitrates if a baby is expected,
during the early months of a pregnancy, before bringing an infant home and again
during the first 6 months of the baby's life.

Peroxide
Hydrogen Peroxide can be used for water desinfection as well as bleaching of hair and
other materials. Hydrogen peroxide solutions look like water and can be dissolved in
water unrestrainedly. At high concentrations these solutions give off an irritating, acidic
smell. Hydrogen peroxide is inflammable. At low temperatures it becomes solid.
Hydrogen peroxide is versatile and is used for different applications, because it is very
selective. By changing the reaction conditions (temperature, pH, dose, reaction time
and the addition of a catalyser), hydrogen peroxide will attack different pollutions.
Hydrogen peroxide is most commonly used to remove pollutants from waste water
and from air. It contests bacterial growth (for example bio fouling in water systems)
and it can enhance bacterial growth (for example bio remediation of polluted soils and
ground water) through oxygen addition. It can also be used to treat pollutions that can
be easily oxidised (for example iron and sulphides) and pollutions that are difficult to
oxidise (for example dissolved solids, gasoline and pesticides).
Finally, it can be used to bleach paper, textile, teeth and hair or to produce food,
minerals, petrochemical substances or washing powder.

Pesticides
Pesticides are used to eliminate weeds, insects and other harmful elements in crops.
An increased use of pesticides in agriculture means that these toxic substances
sometimes leak into the soil, rivers, lakes and groundwater, which is used for our
drinking water. Public water supplies are encouraged to test water for pesticides, but
this is not always the case. It is difficult to test reliably for all pesticides, due to the high
number of pesticides available. In addition, often more than one pesticide is used. This
means that the chemical compounds in them may react with each other, creating
different elements altogether.
Tests for coliforms and nitrates are typically used as early indicators of well
contamination. But they will not necessarily tell you if you have pesticides or not.
The Watersafe City 8-inOne kit includes a test for 2 Pesticides, Simazine and Atrazine.
Their use has been prohibited in Europe, but they are still used in many other
countries across the globe.
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pH
The pH scale is the measure of acidity or alkalinity ranging from 0 to 14. The pH of tap
water should be in the range of 6.5 to 9.5, which is around neutral and close to
alkaline. Acidic water can be corrosive to metals, especially the lead in lead piping. It is
important to control the pH of water as a too high or too low pH can be an indicator of
other problems in the water. If the pH is too high, then a desinfectant can not work

properly, which increases the possibility of the presence of bacteria. Tap water should
have a pH of 6.5 to 9.5, rain water can have a pH < 5. Pure water should have a pH of
approx 7.

Sulfate
Sulphates are naturally found in most waters and the amount will vary depending on
geographic area. It is a colourless and odourless compound of sulphur and oxygen
and exists as a dissolved salt in water. High sulphate generally means you are likely to
have hard water, because of sulphate's ability to combine with calcium and
magnesium. High sulphates will usually also correspond to high sodium levels and
high acidity in your water. Low to moderate concentrations of sulphate may actually
make water more palatable and desirable to drink. Sulphates contribute to the total
mineral content of water.
High levels of sulphates will produce a medicinal taste and can have a laxative effect
on the digestive system if you are not accustomed to drinking water with high
sulphates. Health concerns regarding sulphate in water have been raised, because of
particular concern for groups who may be at greater risk from the laxative effects.