The Impact of Psycholinguistic Factors

on Second Language Acquisition

M P Shabitha* and S Mekala**
Language learning is part of mental, emotional and physical
development of learners and it takes place in a multidimensional
context of the society. Psychological factors play a significant role in
learners success in acquiring and using a second language. Every
individual has unique character traits that enable him to function in
different ways. Psycholinguists believe that the individual differences
that are inherent in language learner can predict success or failure in
language learning. The paper aims to explain the psycholinguistic
factors that impact the individuals second language acquisition
process. The paper also elucidates the importance of some factors
for successful language acquisition and further examines the potential
role of aptitude and motivation and their relation to proficiency in
second language.

Introduction
Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study which deals with how people acquire
language, how people use language to speak and understand one another and how language
is represented and processed in the brain. Learners of second language (L2) vary in both
the ways of learning an L2 and also in what they actually succeed in learning. Second
language learners differ in their level of attainment. This paper tries to explain the
psychological factors such as age, gender, motivation, language aptitude, anxiety, attitude,
self-esteem, language shock, culture shock, and language learning experiences that impact
the second language acquisition process. These factors affect learners as individuals and
they are psychological in nature (Ellis, 1999).

Theoretical Framework
Second language acquisition is a process which is affected by many factors. While
responding to learning situations, learners find themselves in a variety of affective ways.
According to Gardner (1985), Integratively-oriented learners are more highly motivated,
have a stronger desire to learn the language, have more positive attitude towards the
learning situation, and be more likely to expend more effort in learning the language.
*

Research Scholar, Department of Humanities, National Institute of Technology, Trichy 620025,

Tamil Nadu, India. E-mail: jasshabidgl@gmail.com

* * Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities, National Institute of Technology, Trichy 620025,

Tamil Nadu, India. E-mail: mekala.mohan@gmail.com
The2013
Impact
Psycholinguistic
Factors on Second Language Acquisition

IUP.ofAll
Rights Reserved.

According to Collier (1988), the factors that affect second language acquisition and
advancement in language learning depend on the learners cognitive style, socioeconomic
background and formal schooling in first language and so on. Second language acquisition
researcher Schumann (1975) explores the concept of language shock, which affects
the process of second language acquisition. He states that language shock is a fear of
appearing comical or making fool of oneself when attempting to communicate in second
language. The individual personality differences produce variation in the rate of learning
and the level of L2 attainment. Guiora (1981), whose research focuses on personality
factors in second language acquisition, claims that second language learning in all of
its aspects demands that the individual, to current extent, take on a new identity.

Age
Age is one of the most important affective factors in second language acquisition. It
determines the way in which an individual approaches second language learning.
Psycholinguists believe that children are better language learners than adults in the sense
that young children typically gain mastery over second language whereas adults cannot
(Grass and Selinker, 2001). This is reflected in what is known as the Critical Period
Hypothesis (CPH). The original formulation of the CPH came from Lennenberg (1967)
who noted that automatic acquisition from mere exposure to a given language seems to
disappear after puberty and foreign language has to be taught and learned through a
conscious effort. Early observations of this phenomenon came from Penfield and Roberts
(1959), who had been concerned with the biological and neurological advantages that
humans have for learning language as children rather than adults. According to this
hypothesis, there is an age-related point (generally puberty) beyond which it becomes
difficult to learn a second language.
There are neurological changes that prevent adults from using their brains in the same
way children do to carry out language learning tasks. This is usually presented as a loss of
flexibility in the brain.

Gender
The ability of learning a second language varies between genders. Gender differences in
language learning are due to cognitive and culture differences. Labov (1972) states that
women are better language learners; they are ready to incorporate the new linguistic
forms into their speech. They have more positive attitudes to learn the second language
than men. Men and women do not speak different languages, rather they speak different
varieties of the same language, and the differences exist in the lexical category alone.

Anxiety
The relationship between language anxiety and second language proficiency has been
investigated in many studies. Anxiety is one of the internal factors of second language learners
that might hinder success in second language acquisition. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991)
mentioned that anxiety is one of the best predictors of success in second language learning.
8

The IUP Journal of English Studies Vol. VIII, No. 1, 2013

Anxiety has been investigated in terms of two perspectives: trait anxiety and situationspecific anxiety. Trait anxiety is defined as an individual tendency to be anxious in any
situation (Spielberger, 1983). Situation-specific anxiety is defined as an individual tendency
to be anxious in a particular situation. Scovel (1978) talks about third type of anxiety,
which is called state anxiety. State anxiety can be defined as apprehension that is
experienced at a particular moment as a response to a definite situation.
Many researches indicate that learners competitive natures can act as a source of
anxiety. Bailey (1983) analyzed the diaries of 11 learners and found that they tend to
become anxious when they compared themselves with other learners in the class and
found themselves less proficient. She noted that as the learner perceived themselves
becoming more proficient, they were able to compete better and their anxiety level
decreased.
Ellis and Rathbone (1987) reported that the learners have admitted in their diaries that
they are anxious and nervous when questioned by teachers.
I was quite frightened when asked questions again. I do not know why;
the teacher does not frighten me, but my mind is blocked when Im asked
questions. I fear lest I give the wrong answer and will discourage the teacher
as well as be the laughing stock of the class maybe. Anyway I felt really
stupid and helpless in class (cited in Ellis, 1989, p. 257).
Language anxiety falls into three categories: communicative apprehension, text anxiety
and fear of negative evaluation (Horwitz et al., 1986). Learners with low language anxiety
will be able to succeed in their second language learning.

Motivation
Motivation is the impulse, emotion or desire that causes one to act in a certain way.
Motivation enhances the level of second language acquisition (Gardner, 1985). According
to Gardner (1985), motivation is categorized into two types: instrumental and integrative.
Instrumental motivation is defined as learning a language because of the perceived value
in the language for learner. On the other hand, integrative motivation is defined as learning
a language because the learner wishes to identify or become integrated with the society
of the target language. Cooper and Fishman (1977) mention a third type which refers to
motivation relating to personal development or personal satisfaction.
According to Gardner (1985), in second language learning motivation is a construct
composed of three characteristics.
The attitude towards learning a language;
The desire to learn the language; and
Motivational intensity.
According to him, a highly motivated individual enjoys learning the language.
The Impact of Psycholinguistic Factors on Second Language Acquisition

Reece and Walker (1997) express that motivation is a key factor in the second language
learning process. Shulman (1986) believes that when students are highly motivated, learning
is facilitated more effectively. Such motivation can be enhanced through the creation of a
positive affective climate.

Language Shock and Culture Shock

Language shock refers to the fear of appearing comical to speakers of the target language,
whereas culture shock refers to the anxiety relating to disorientation from exposure to a
new culture. Learners can also experience anxiety as a result of fear of experience of
losing oneself in the target culture. Brown (1977) states that culture shock refers to the
phenomenon ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis. Culture
shock is associated with feelings of estrangement, anger, hostility, indecision, frustration,
unhappiness, sadness, loneliness, homesickness and even physical illness. Persons
undergoing culture shock view their new world with resentment and alternate between
self-pity and anger at others for not understanding.
Adler (1975) defines that Culture Shock is primarily a set of emotional reactions to
the loss of perceptual reinforcements from ones own culture to new cultural stimuli
which have little or no meaning and to the misunderstanding of new and diverse
experiences. A similarity attraction hypothesis suggests that people are more willing to
communicate, understand, enjoy, trust, work or play with others who share similar salient
characteristics with themselves, such as language, religion, values, age and interests
(Byrne, 1969).

Language Learning Experiences

The learners previous learning experiences can also affect their learning style. It makes
them to expect and even require similar experiences in new learning situations. For example,
an L2 learner used to traditional form focused method of language teaching or to a
transmission mode of education in general, may respond negatively if he is confronted
with a more communicative method.

Self-Esteem
A large part of a persons feelings revolve around the way the person feels about himself/
herself. According to Schumann (1975), there are three aspects of self-esteem:
Global (overall assessment of ones worth).
Specific (self-evaluation in various life situations such as personality and
intelligence).
Task (self-evaluation in particular tasks).
High self-esteem causes language success. Teachers should encourage students
to feel proud of their successes and abilities, because that facilitates language learning.
Competence in communicating with others is the key ability and central to the
10

The IUP Journal of English Studies Vol. VIII, No. 1, 2013

individuals self-esteem. Brown (1977) states that the person with high self-esteem is
able to reach out beyond himself more freely, to be less inhibited and because of his ego
strength, to make the necessary mistakes involved in language learning with less threat
to his ego.

Learners Attitude
Attitude of the learner is the responsible factor for language acquisition. Learners manifest
different attitude towards the target language, the target language speakers, and their
culture. In general, positive attitude towards L2 and its speakers can enhance learning;
negative attitude can impede learning. Gardner et al. (1979) have done extensive research
on attitude and motivation and their correlation with the linguistic performance of learners.
They suggest that L2 learners need to be psychologically prepared to acquire a second or
a foreign language as it is a part of different ethno-linguistic community.

Language Aptitude
Aptitude has to be viewed as a capacity that enhances the rate and ease of learning.
Carroll (1981) has characterized aptitude in terms of the ability to learn quickly. A learner
with high aptitude may learn quickly with greater ease and speed. Carroll (1965) identified
four factors in language aptitude:
1. Phonemic coding ability (the ability to code foreign sounds in a way that they
can be remembered later).
2. This ability is seen as related to the ability to spell and to handle sound-symbol
relationship.
3. Inductive language learning ability (the ability to identify patterns of
correspondence and relationships involving form and meaning).
4. Rate of learning ability (the ability to form and remember associations between
stimuli). This ability is hypothesized to be involved in vocabulary learning.
Aptitude will have an effect on learning outcomes if the learners are sufficiently
motivated to learn. Ellis (1991) states that a fairly strong relationship has been consistently
found between language aptitude and learning. Horwitzs (1987) study suggests that
language aptitude is related to both linguistic and communicative competence. Ellis claims
that classroom learners language aptitude has a major effect on their success in learning
an L2. As Gardner and MacIntyre (1992) comment, Research makes it clear that in the
long run language aptitude is probably the single best predictor of achievement in a second
language.

Learning Strategies
Learning strategies are defined as specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques such
as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult
language task used by students to enhance their own learning (Scarcella and Oxford,
The Impact of Psycholinguistic Factors on Second Language Acquisition

11

1992, p. 63). Second language acquisition research divides the individual learner strategies
into two types:
Communication strategies, which are employed to transmit an idea when the
learner cannot produce precise linguistic forms;
Learning strategies, which are related to the individuals processing, storage,
and retrieval of language concepts.

Conclusion
Second language acquisition is a mental process of how the L2 knowledge system is
developed and used in communication. The success in second language acquisition depends
on psychological factors such as positive attitude towards second language, learning before
puberty, low level of anxiety, high self-esteem, personal motivation and instrumental
orientation. The facilitator needs to be aware of the impact of the psycholinguistic factors
on learners and promote second language learning conducive to the ESL (English as
a Second Language) context. B

References
1. Adler P S (1975), The Transitional Experience: An Alternative Way to View Culture
Shock, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 15, pp. 13-23.
2. Bailey K M (1983), Competitiveness and Anxiety in Adult Second Language
Learning: Looking Through Diary Studies, in H W Seliger and M H Long (Eds.),
Classroom-Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition, Newbury House,
Rowley, MA.
3. Brown H D (1977), Cognitive and Affective Characteristics of Good Learners, Paper
Presented at Los Angeles Second Language Acquisition Research Forum, UCLA.
4. Byrne D (1969), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Academic Press,
New York.
5. Carroll J B (1965), The Prediction of Success in Foreign Language Training, in
R Glaser (Ed.), Training Research and Education, Wiley, New York.
6. Carroll J B (1981), Twenty-Five Years of Research on Foreign Language Aptitude,
in K Diller (Ed.), Individual Differences and Universals in Language Learning
Aptitude, Newbury House, Rowley, MA.
7. Collier V P (1988), The Effect of Age on Acquisition of a Second Language for
School, National Clearing House for Bilingual Education, Washington, DC.
8. Cooper R L and Fishman J A (1977), A Study of Language Attitudes, in
J A Fishman, R L Cooper and A W Conrod (Eds.), The Spread of English, Newbury
House, Rowley, MA.
12

The IUP Journal of English Studies Vol. VIII, No. 1, 2013

9. Ellis R and Rathbone M (1987), The Acquisition of German in a Classroom

Context, Mimeograph, Ealing College of Higher Education, London.
10. Ellis R (1989), Classroom Learning Styles and Their Effect on Second Language
Acquisition: A Study of Two Learners, System, Vol. 17, pp. 249-262.
11. Ellis R (1991), Second Language Acquisition and Language Pedagogy,
Multilingual Matters, Clevedon.
12. Ellis R (1999), Learning a Second Language Through Interaction, John
Benjamins, Amsterdam.
13. Gardner R (1985), Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The
Role of Attitude and Motivation, Edward Arnold, London.
14. Gardner R and MacIntyre P (1992), A Students Contributions to Second Language
Learning. Part 1: Cognitive Variables, Language Teaching, Vol. 25, pp. 211-220.
15. Gardner R C, Smythe P C and Clement R (1979), Intensive Second Language
Study in a Bicultural Milieu: An Investigation of Attitudes, Motivation and Proficiency,
Language Learning, Vol. 29, pp. 305-320.
16. Grass S M and Selinker L (2001), Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory
Course, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah.
17. Guiora A Z (1981), Language, Personality, and Culture, in M Hines and
W Rutherford (Eds.), On TESOL 81, Washington DC.
18. Horwitz E (1987), Linguistic and Communicative Competence: Reassessing Foreign
Language Aptitude, in B Vanpatten, T Dvorak and J Lee (Eds.), Foreign Language
Learning: A Research Perspective, Newbury House, New York.
19. Horwitz E K, Horwitz Michael B and Cope Joann (1986), Foreign Language
Classroom Anxiety, The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 70, No. 2, pp. 125-132.
20. Labov William (1972), Sociolinguistic Patterns, University of Pennsylvania Press,
Philadelphia.
21. Lennenberg E (1967), Biological Foundations of Language, Wiley and Sons,
New York.
22. MacIntyre P D and Gardner R (1991), Methods and Results in the Study of
Anxiety and Language Learning: A Review of the Literature, Language Learning,
Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 85-117.
23. Penfield W and Roberts L (1959), Speech and Brain Mechanisms, Athenaeum
Press, New York.
24. Reece I and Walker S (1997), Teaching, Training and Learning: A Practical
Guide, Business Education Publishers, Sunderland.
The Impact of Psycholinguistic Factors on Second Language Acquisition

13

25. Scarcella R and Oxford R (1992), The Tapestry of Language Learning: The
Individual in Communicative Classroom, Heinle and Heinle, Boston.
26. Schumann J H (1975), Affective Factors and the Problem of Age in Second
Language Acquisition, Language Learning, Vol. 25, pp. 129-142.
27. Scovel T (1978), The Effect of Affect on Foreign Language Learning: A Review
of the Anxiety Research, Language Learning, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 129-142.
28. Shulman L S (1986), Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching,
Educational Researcher, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 4-31.
29. Spielberger C D (1983), Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y),
Mind Garden, Palo Alto, CA.

Reference # 43J-2013-03-01-01

14

The IUP Journal of English Studies Vol. VIII, No. 1, 2013

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
permission.