Fine and

Coarse
Aggregates
Submitted by
Figueroa, Benjamin E.
Francisco, Joseph A.
Navarro, Crisslynn Joy O.
Reyes, Angelica M.
Tapar, Deanne Ivy P.
Trajano, Bryan A.

REPORT BACKGROUND
Aggregate
Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone,
crushed hydraulic-cement concrete, or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a
hydraulic cementing medium to produce either concrete or mortar.
Coarse Aggregate
Those particles that are predominantly retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4)
sieve, are called coarse aggregate.
Fine Aggregate
Those particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve, almost entirely passing
the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, and predominantly retained on the 75 m (No.
200) sieve are called fine aggregate.
History of Fine Aggregates
6000 B.C. use to grind and polish stones to make sharpened tools.
3,500-3000 B.C. The first beads with a glass glaze appeared in Egypt.
1607 Sand was used to produce glass in United States.
1739 The first sustained glass-making venture was formed in
Wistarburgh, New Jersey, by Caspar Wistar.
1914-1920 In these years, the production of sand for construction
purposes grew significantly to push for paved roads during the World War
I.
Late 1940s-Early 1950s housing boom, coupled with the increased
use of concrete for building construction, provided another boost in
production.
Today the processing of sand is now a multi-billion dollar business.
Cement
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other
materials together. The word "cement" can be traced back to
the Roman term opus caementicium, used to
describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from
crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and

pulverizedbrick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain

a hydraulic binder, were later referred to
as cementum, cimentum, cment, and cement.
Alternatives to Cement used in Antiquity
Cement, chemically speaking, is a product including lime as the primary
curing ingredient, but it is far from the first material used for cementation.
The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind together burnt brick
or alabaster slabs. In Egypt stone blocks were cemented together
with mortar, a combination of sand and roughly burnt gypsum, which
often contained calcium carbonate.

Macedonians and Romans

Lime (calcium oxide) was used on Crete and by the ancient Greeks. There
is evidence that the Minoans of Crete used crushed potshards as an
artificial pozzolan for hydraulic cement. It is uncertain where it was first
discovered that a combination of hydrated non-hydraulic lime and
a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture (see also: Pozzolanic reaction),
but concrete made from such mixtures was used by the Ancient
Macedonians and three centuries later on a large scale by Roman
engineers.

There is a kind of powder which from natural causes produces astonishing

results. It is found in the neighborhood of Baiae and in the country
belonging to the towns round about Mt. Vesuvius. This substance when
mixed with lime and rubble not only lends strength to buildings of other
kinds, but even when piers of it are constructed in the sea, they set hard
under water.

The Greeks used volcanic tuff from the island of Thera as their pozzolan
and the Romans used crushed volcanic ash (activated aluminium

silicates) with lime. This mixture was able to set under water increasing
its resistance.The material was called pozzolana from the town
of Pozzuoli, west of Naples where volcanic ash was extracted. In the
absence of pozzolanic ash, the Romans used powdered brick or pottery as
a substitute and they may have used crushed tiles for this purpose before
discovering natural sources near Rome. The huge dome of
the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla are examples
of ancient structures made from these concretes, many of which are still
standing. The vast system of Roman aqueducts also made extensive use
of hydraulic cement.

Middle Ages
Although any preservation of this knowledge in literary sources from
the Middle Ages is unknown, medieval masons and some military
engineers maintained an active tradition of using hydraulic cement in
structures such as canals, fortresses,harbors, and shipbuilding facilities.
Cements in the 18th Century
Technical knowledge of making hydraulic cement was later formalized by
French and British engineers in the 18th century. Tabby, a building
material using oyster-shell lime, sand, and whole oyster shells to form a
concrete, was introduced to the Americas by the Spanish in the sixteenth
century.

John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of

cements while planning the construction of the third Eddystone
Lighthouse (175559) in the English Channel now known as Smeaton's
Tower. He needed a hydraulic mortar that would set and develop some
strength in the twelve hour period between successive high tides. He
performed experiments with combinations of different limestones and
additives including trass and pozzolanas and did exhaustive market
research on the available hydraulic limes, visiting their production sites,

and noted that the "hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the
clay content of the limestone from which it was made. Smeaton was
a civil engineer by profession, and took the idea no further.

In the South Atlantic seaboard of the United States, tabby relying upon
the oyster-shell middens of earlier Native American populations was used
in house construction from the 1730s to the 1860s.

In Britain particularly, good quality building stone became ever more

expensive during a period of rapid growth, and it became a common
practice to construct prestige buildings from the new industrial bricks, and
to finish them with a stucco to imitate stone. Hydraulic limes were favored
for this, but the need for a fast set time encouraged the development of
new cements. Most famous was Parker's "Roman cement". This was
developed by James Parker in the 1780s, and finally patented in 1796. It
was, in fact, nothing like material used by the Romans, but was a "natural
cement" made by burningseptaria nodules that are found in certain clay
deposits, and that contain both clay minerals and calcium carbonate. The
burnt nodules were ground to a fine powder. This product, made into a
mortar with sand, set in 515 minutes. The success of "Roman cement"
led other manufacturers to develop rival products by burning
artificial hydraulic lime cements of clayand chalk. Roman cement quickly
became popular but was largely replaced by Portland cement in the
1850s.
Cements in the 18th Century
Apparently unaware of Smeaton's work, the same principle was identified
by Frenchman Louis Vicat in the first decade of the nineteenth century.
Vicat went on to devise a method of combining chalk and clay into an
intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an "artificial cement" in
1817 considered the "principal forerunner" of Portland cement and
"...Edgar Dobbs of Southwark patented a cement of this kind in 1811."

In Russia, Egor Cheliev created a new binder by mixing lime and clay. His
results were published in 1822 in his book A Treatise on the Art to Prepare
a Good Mortar published in St. Petersburg. A few years later in 1825, he
published another book, which described the various methods of making
cement and concrete, as well as the benefits of cement in the
construction of buildings and embankments.

James Frost, working in Britain, produced what he called "British cement"

in a similar manner around the same time, but did not obtain a patent
until 1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a similar material, which he
called Portland cement, because the render made from it was in color
similar to the prestigious Portland stone. However, Aspdins' cement was
nothing like modern Portland cement but was a first step in its
development, called a proto-Portland cement. Joseph Aspdins' son William
Aspdin had left his fathers company and in his cement manufacturing
apparently accidentally produced calcium silicates in the 1840s, a middle
step in the development of Portland cement. William Aspdin's innovation
was counterintuitive for manufacturers of "artificial cements", because
they required more lime in the mix (a problem for his father), a much
higher kiln temperature (and therefore more fuel), and the
resulting clinker was very hard and rapidly wore down the millstones,
which were the only available grinding technology of the time.
Manufacturing costs were therefore considerably higher, but the product
set reasonably slowly and developed strength quickly, thus opening up a
market for use in concrete. The use of concrete in construction grew
rapidly from 1850 onward, and was soon the dominant use for cements.
Thus Portland cement began its predominant role.

Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the production of meso-Portland

cement (middle stage of development) and claimed to be the real father
of Portland cement.
Setting time and "early strength" are important characteristics of
cements. Hydraulic limes, "natural" cements, and "artificial" cements all
rely upon their belite content for strength development. Belite develops

strength slowly. Because they were burned at temperatures below

1,250 C (2,280 F), they contained no alite, which is responsible for early
strength in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite
was made by William Aspdin in the early 1840s: This was what we call
today "modern" Portland cement. Because of the air of mystery with
which William Aspdin surrounded his product, others (e.g., Vicat and
Johnson) have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent analysis of
both his concrete and raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's
product made at Northfleet, Kent was a true alite-based cement.
However, Aspdin's methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for
establishing the chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson
established the importance of sintering the mix in the kiln.

In the US the first large-scale use of cement was Rosendale cement, a

natural cement mined from a massive deposit of a large dolostone
rock deposit discovered in the early 19th century near Rosendale, New
York. Rosendale cement was extremely popular for the foundation of
buildings (e.g., Statue of Liberty, Capitol Building, Brooklyn Bridge) and
lining water pipes.

Sorel cement was patented in 1867 by Frenchman Stanislas Sorel and was
stronger than Portland cement but its poor water restive and corrosive
qualities limited its use in building construction. The next development
with the manufacture of Portland cement was the introduction of
the rotary kiln which allowed a stronger, more homogeneous mixture and
a continuous manufacturing process.

Cements in the 19th Century

Calcium aluminate cements were patented in 1908 in France by Jules Bied
for better resistance to sulfates.

In the US, the long curing time of at least a month for Rosendale
cement made it unpopular after World War One in the construction of
highways and bridges and many states and construction firms turned to
the use of Portland cement. Because of the switch to Portland cement, by
the end of the 1920s of the 15 Rosendale cement companies, only one
had survived. But in the early 1930s it was discovered that, while Portland
cement had a faster setting time it was not as durable, especially for
highways, to the point that some states stopped building highways and
roads with cement. Bertrain H. Wait, an engineer whose company had
worked on the construction of the New York City's Catskill Aqueduct, was
impressed with the durability of Rosendale cement, and came up with a
blend of both Rosendale and synthetic cements which had the good
attributes of both: it was highly durable and had a much faster setting
time. Mr. Wait convinced the New York Commissioner of Highways to
construct an experimental section of highway near New Paltz, New York,
using one sack of Rosendale to six sacks of synthetic cement. It was
proved a success and for decades the Rosendale-synthetic cement blend
became common use in highway and bridge construction.

Concrete
The compact whole achieved by bonding fine and coarse aggregate
particles with cement paste, which is a mixture of cement and
water.
A composite material compounded of aggregate bonded together
with a fluid cement which hardens it overtime.
Is the most commonly used construction material on earth.
History of Concrete
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning
compact or condensed), the perfect passive participle of "concrescere",
from "con-" (together) and "crescere" (to grow).
Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve million years
ago.
On a human time-scale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands
of years. The ancient Nabatea culture was using materials roughly
analogous to concrete at least eight thousand years ago, some structures
of which survive to this day.
The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to 476 AD, a span of
more than seven hundred years. During the Roman Empire, Roman
concrete (or opus
caementicium)
was
made
from quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread
use in many Roman structures, a key event in the history of
architecture termed the Roman Architectural Revolution, freed Roman
construction from the restrictions of stone and brick material and allowed
for revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and
dimension.
Types of Concrete
Regular Roman Concrete made from volcanic ash and hydrated
lime
Regular Concrete common concrete mixture (cement paste +
fine aggregate + coarse aggregate)
High Strength Concrete made by lowering the water/cement
ratio

 Stamped Concrete architectural concrete which has a superior

surface finish.
Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC) cohesive, but flowable and
took the shape of the formwork without use of any mechanical
compaction.
Vacuum Concrete stiffens very rapidly so that the formworks can
be removed within 30 minutes of casting even on columns of 20 ft.
high. The bond strength of vacuum concrete is about 20% higher.
The density of vacuum concrete is higher.
Shotcrete also known as Gunite. Uses compressed air to shoot
concrete onto (or into) a frame or structure. The greatest advantage
of the process is that shotcrete can be applied overhead or on
vertical surfaces without formwork. It is often used for concrete
repairs or placement on bridges, dams, pools, and on other
applications where forming is costly or material handling and
installation is difficult.
Limecrete - concrete where cement is replaced by lime.
Pervious concrete used in permeable paving, contains a network
of holes or voids, to allow air or water to move through the concrete.
Roller-compacted concrete is typically used for concrete
pavement, but has also been used to build concrete dams, as the
low cement content causes less heat to be generated while curing
than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete pours.
Glass Concrete - use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete.
Recent research findings have shown that concrete made with
recycled glass aggregates have shown better long-term strength
and better thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of
the glass aggregates.
Asphalt Concrete - asphalt is a form of concrete as well,
with bituminous materials replacing cement as the binder.
Polymer Concrete is concrete which uses polymers to bind the
aggregate. Polymer concrete can gain a lot of strength in a short
amount of time.
Gypsum
concrete
is
a building
material used
as
a
floor underlayment used
in wood-frame and concrete construction
for fire ratings, sound reduction, radiant heating, and floor leveling.
It is a mixture of gypsum, Portland cement, and sand.
Properties of Concrete

 Workability the factors that affect the workability of concrete are

size distribution of aggregate, shape of aggregate particles,
gradation and relative proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate,
plasticity, cohesiveness, and consistency of the mix. Is one of the
physical parameters of concrete which affects the strength and
durability as well as the cost of labor and appearance of the finished
product. Concrete is said to be workable when it is easily
placed and compacted homogeneously i.e without bleeding
or Segregation. Unworkable concrete needs more work or effort to
be compacted in place, also honeycombs &/or pockets may also be
visible in finished concrete.
Durability - is the ability to last a long time without significant
deterioration. Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of
concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion
while maintaining its desired engineering properties. Different
concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the
exposure environment and properties desired.
Strength with a fixed amount of cement in a unit volume of
concrete, the strongest and most impermeable concrete is one that
has the greatest density, i.e., which in a given unit volume has the
largest percentage of solid materials. The use of the absolute
minimum quantity of water required for proper placement ensures
the greatest strength from the concrete.
Air Entrainment reason for entraining air in concrete is to
increase resistance to the destructive effects of freezing and
thawing deicing salts. The entrainment of air also increases the
workability of the concrete for placement purposes and permits a
reduction in the sand and water contents of the mix.
Density the value of high density was addressed indirectly in
connection with other related properties in concrete. The most
impermeable concrete is one that has the greatest density.
Classification of Concrete
Type 1 Concrete this is concrete used without the addition
of an air entraining admixture. Type 1 is for general use.
Type 3 Concrete this is concrete that has an approved air
entraining admixture to produce a specified target air content.
Type 3 cement is for high-early strength.

Uses of Concrete
Concrete is a versatile construction material: it is plastic and malleable
when newly mixed, yet strong and durable when hardened. These
qualities explain why concrete can be used to build skyscrapers, bridges,
sidewalks, highways, houses and dams.
Concrete also enables the reduction of CO 2 emissions and other negative
environmental impacts in many sectors.
Advantage over Other Construction Materials
Provides superior fire resistance compared with wooden
construction and gains strength over time.
Have a long service life.
Lower heat conductivity (fire safety).
Earthquake safety (very strong in compression, but weak in
tension).

Admixture
The chemicals used to aid the properties of concrete or cement.
A material other than water, aggregates, or cement that is used as
an ingredient of concrete or mortar to control setting and early
hardening, workability, or to provide additional cementing
properties.
Types of Admixture
Chemical Admixtures - Accelerators, Retarders, Water-reducing
agents, Super plasticizers, Air entraining agents.
A. Water Reducing Admixture / Plasticizer - To achieve a
higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at the
same workability as an admixture free mix.
B. Super Plasticizer effective type of water reducing
admixtures also known as high range water reducer. The
main benefits of super plasticizers are; Increased fluidity:
Flowing, Self-leveling, Self-compacting concrete, Penetration
and compaction round dense reinforcement
C. Accelerator increases the rate of hydration of hydraulic
cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the
rate of hardening or strength development.
D. Retarders is to delay or extend the setting time of cement
paste in concrete. These are helpful for concrete that has to
be transported to long distance, and helpful in placing the
concrete at high temperatures.
E. Air Entrained Mixture surfactants that change the surface
tension of the water. Traditionally, they were based on fatty
acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely been replaced
by synthetic surfactants or blends of surfactants to give
improved stability and void characteristics to the entrained air.
Mineral Admixture Fly-ash Blast-furnace slag, Silica fume and
Rice husk Ash.
A. Fly- ash Blast-furnace slag Fly ash improves concretes
workability, cohesiveness, finish, ultimate strength, and
durability as well as solves many problems experienced with
concrete todayand all for less cost.
B. Silica Fume used in concrete to improve its properties. It
has been found that Silica Fume improves compressive
strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance; reduces

permeability of concrete to chloride ions; and therefore helps

in protecting reinforcing steel from corrosion, especially in
chloride-rich environments such as coastal regions.
C. Rice Husk Ash a bio waste from the husk left from the
grains of rice. It is used as a pozzolanic material in cement to
increase durability and strength.
Why is Admixture used?
With the use of Admixture, attempts have been made to obtain concrete
with certain desired characteristics such as high compressive strength,
high workability, and high performance and durability parameters to meet
the requirement of complexity of modern structures.
The properties commonly modified are the heat of hydration, accelerate
or retard setting time, workability, water reduction, dispersion and airentrainment, impermeability and durability factors.
Is Adobe a Concrete?
No. Before using concrete, adobe was used first. With the development of
concrete or cement they started coating the bricks with cement, or
aplastado the bricks, or splattering concrete on the bricks.
Why use Lime?
Sticky Material. Porous and permeable, have good workability, allows
building to breath. It is usually made by burning limestone.
Famous Concrete Structures
Hoover Dam. Panama Canal. Roman Pantheon (Largest unreinforced solid
concrete dome).

PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

As implied earlier, the term aggregate generally pertains to a mass or

body of units or particles that is somewhat loosely associated with one
another, meaning that any unit or particle of a whole substance or
material can be labeled aggregate as long as it is loosely assembled.
The term is quite broad, and it may become very confusing to
differentiate with other unconsolidated materials. What makes it distinct
is the fact that aggregates are composed of similarly characterized units
or particles, unmixed with any other matter that is odd.
By that criterion, aggregates become ideal to use in technology most
especially in the construction industry since the units or particles are
proportionally clustered, in uniform characteristics offering a welldeterminable characteristic/property.
Technology nowadays adjusts to our needs. Similarly, materials that are to
be utilized in construction vary depending on how we want a certain
infrastructure to be built; and how we want it to be sturdy, aesthetic
and/or purposive. That makes it essential to know or somehow be aware
of the different properties of construction materials.
In my part of the report, Ill be discussing to you what these properties
are; but it will be limited to the properties present in a construction
aggregate. Ill also be discussing how these particular properties affect
the quality of concretes and infrastructures; how these properties are
measured; and what type of aggregate possesses such property.

Size, Grading and Fineness Modulus

Coarse and fine aggregates are primarily classified by particle size as fine
or coarse aggregates.
Fine aggregate is the aggregate most of which passes 3/8-inch IS sieve
and contains only so much coarser as is permitted by specification. Those
that cannot pass the sieve are classified as course aggregates.

The size of the aggregate used significantly affects the quality of concrete
in a way that finer aggregates cohere more than coarser aggregates.

The grading or size distribution of aggregate is an important

characteristic because it determines the paste requirement for workable
concrete. This paste requirement is the factor controlling the cost, since
cement is the most expensive component. It is therefore desirable to
minimize the amount of paste consistent with the production of concrete
that can be handled, compacted, and finished while providing the
necessary strength and durability. The required amount of cement paste
is dependent upon the amount of void space that must be filled and the
total surface area that must be covered. When the particles are of uniform
size the spacing is the greatest, but when a range of sizes is used the void
spaces are filled and the paste requirement is lowered.
Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the
cumulative percentages of aggregate retained on each of the standard
sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and dividing this sum by 100.
Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine
the aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates that the
aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness modulus indicates that
the aggregate is finer.
Shape, Angularity and Surface Texture
The shape of the aggregates affects the quality of concrete in so many
ways.
The shape of aggregate particles on the surface of a volume of aggregate
creates the surface texture.
The development of hard bond strength between aggregate particles and
cement paste depends upon the surface texture, surface roughness and
surface porosity of the aggregate particles.

If the surface is rough but porous, maximum bond strength develops. In

porous surface aggregates, the bond strength increases due to setting of
cement paste in the pores; therefore, a rougher texture is ideal for a
concrete structures to be applied with adhesive those that would be tiled
and applied tile adhesive on, or insulation blankets.
Aggregate angularity can be defined as the measurement of the
sharpness of the corners of a particle.
Rutting performance test results indicated that higher angularity in the
mixture improved rut resistance due to better aggregate interlocking,
which makes a good tensile strength.
The overall effect of angularity on the mixtures resistance to fatigue
damage was positive because aggregate blends with higher angularity
require more binder to meet mix design criteria, which mitigates cracking
due to increased viscoelastic energy dissipation from the binder, while
angular particles produce a higher stress x concentration that results in
potential cracks.
Bulk Density and Bulking Factor
Bulk density is defined as the weight of the aggregate required to fill a
container of unit volume. It is generally expressed in kg/liter.
Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors: Degree
of Compaction, Grading of Aggregates, and Shape of Aggregate Particles.
The density of the aggregates is required in mixture proportioning to
establish weight-volume relationships.
Bulking can be defined as in increase in the bulk volume of the quantity of
sand (i.e. fine aggregate) in a moist condition over the volume of the
same quantity of dry or completely saturated sand. The ratio of the
volume of moist sand due to the volume of sand when dry, is called
bulking factor.
Fine sands bulk more than coarse sand.

When water is added to dry and loose sand, a thin film of water is formed
around the sand particles. Interlocking of air in between the sand particles
and the film of water tends to push the particles apart due to surface
tension and thus increase the volume. But in case of fully saturated sand
the water films are broken and the volume becomes equal to that of dry
sand.
Voids, Porosity and Permeability
The empty spaces between the aggregate particles are known as voids.
The volume of void equals the difference between the gross volume of the
aggregate mass and the volume occupied by the particles alone.
The minute holes formed in rocks during solidification of the molten
magma, due to air bubbles, are known as pores. Rocks containing pores
are called porous rocks.
Water absorption may be defined as the difference between the weight of
very dry aggregates and the weight of the saturated aggregates with
surface dry conditions.
Depending upon the amount of moisture content in aggregates, it can
exist in any of the 4 conditions.
Very dry aggregate ( having no moisture)
Dry aggregate (contain some moisture in its pores)
Saturated surface dry aggregate (pores completely filled with
moisture but no moisture on surface)
Moist or wet aggregates (pores are filled with moisture and also
having moisture on surface)
Permeable aggregates are always porous; however, porous aggregates
are not always permeable. This is simply because not all pores are vessels
of water. Some pores have an end-point somewhere in its molecule. By
that reason, moisture does not effuse and do not pass through the
aggregate particle.
Specific Gravity and Specific Surface

The ratio of weight of oven dried aggregates maintained for 24 hours at a

temperature of 100 to 1100C, to the weight of equal volume of water
displaced by saturated dry surface aggregate is known as specific gravity
of aggregates.
Specific gravities are primarily of two types.
Apparent specific gravity
Bulk specific gravity
Specific gravity is a mean to decide the suitability of the aggregate. Low
specific gravity generally indicates porous, weak and absorptive
materials, whereas high specific gravity indicates materials of good
quality. Specific gravity of major aggregates falls within the range of 2.6
to 2.9.
Specific gravity values are also used while designing concrete mix.
The surface area per unit weight of the material is termed as specific
surface. This is an indirect measure of the aggregate grading. Specific
surface increases with the reduction in the size of aggregate particle. The
specific surface area of the fine aggregate is very much more than that of
coarse aggregate.

Coefficient of Expansion and Soundness

The capacity of an aggregate to expand through a high temperature is
labeled as its coefficient of expansion. Inversely, soundness is defined as
the capacity of an aggregate to compact through a low temperature.
Crushing, Impact and Abrasion Value
The aggregates crushing value gives a relative measure of resistance of
an aggregate to crushing under gradually applied compressive load. The
aggregate crushing strength value is a useful factor to know the behavior
of aggregates when subjected to compressive loads.
The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of
an aggregate to sudden shock or impact. The impact value of an
aggregate is sometime used as an alternative to its crushing value.

The abrasion value gives a relative measure of resistance of an aggregate

to wear when it is rotated in a cylinder along with some abrasive charge.
Chemical Composition and Deleterious Components
Aggregates consisting of materials that can react with alkalies in cement
and cause excessive expansion, cracking and deterioration of concrete
mix should never be used. Therefore it is required to test aggregates to
know whether there is presence of any such constituents in aggregate or
not.
The following are substances that deter the quality of concrete:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Iron Pyrites
Alkalis
Salts
Coal
Mica
Shale

TYPES AND PRODUCTION OF AGGREGATES

Fine Aggregate
Those particles passing the 4.75mm (No. 4) sieve, are called fine
aggregate.
Types of Fine Aggregate:
1. Sand - Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of
finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being
finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to
a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil containing more than
85% sand-sized particles (by mass).
Pit Sand - This type of coarse sand is procured from deep pits of
abundant supply and it is generally in red-orange colour. The coarse
grain is sharp, angular and certainly free from salts etc which is
mostly employed in concreting.
River Sand River sand is procured from river streams and banks
and is fine in quality unlike pit sand. This type of sand has rounded
grains generally in white-grey colour. River sand has many uses in
the construction purpose such as plastering.
Natural river sand is the most preferred choice as a fine aggregate
material. River sand is a product of natural weathering of rocks over
a period of millions of years. It is mined from the river beds and
sand mining has disastrous environmental consequences. River
sand is becoming a scarce commodity and hence exploring
alternatives to it has become imminent.
Sea SandAs the name suggest, sea sand is taken from seas shores
and it is generally in distinct brown colour with fine circular grains.
Sea sand is avoided for the purpose construction of concrete
structure and in engineering techniques because it contains salt
which tends to absorb moisture from atmosphere and brings
dampness. Eventually cement also loses its action when mixed with
sea sand that is why it is

only used for the local purpose instead of structural construction.

2. Stone Dust- Stone dust is a multipurpose material for yard
construction. A compacted layer of stone dust is well suited to a
yard or passageway surface. It is also a great choice for the subbase in laying paving blocks and slabs, and for jointing natural
stone, such as slate. As a stone dust surface is extremely compact
and waterproof, banking must be taken into consideration during
installation. Stone dust is a by-product of crushing, with a typical
grain size of 0 3..4mm or 0 6..8mm. Because stone dust
contains very fine mineral aggregates (grain size 0mm), it forms a
hard, load-bearing surface.
3. Cinder - Those that use cinders (fly ash or bottom ash) are
called cinder blocks.
4. Surkhi - is finely powdered burnt clay and generally made from
slightly under burnt bricks.
Surkhi acts as an binding material.
Coarse Aggregate
Those particles that are predominantly retained on the 4.75mm (No.
4) sieve, are called coarse aggregate.
Types of Coarse Aggregate:
1. Stone Ballast - produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and
breaking the removed rock down to the desired size crushers.
2. Gravel - is a mix of rock pieces or small rocks. These are also called
rounded rocks.
Types of gravel: Bank gravel, Bench gravel, Creek Rock, Crushed
stone, Fine gravel, Fine gravel, Lag gravel, Pay gravel, Pea gravel,
Piedmont gravel, Plateau
3. Brick Ballast - For unimportant works we can use brick ballast in
concrete as coarse aggregates. For this purpose well burned bricks
are chosen. These are the broken brick parts/remains obtained from
well burnt bricks. It is made free of dust before use.
4. Clinker - is used for produced Portland cement. It may also be
combined with other active ingredients or chemical admixtures to
produce. The stony residue from burned coal or from a furnace.
Uses of Aggregate

 Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of aggregates, cement and water. The purpose of
the aggregates within this mixture is to provide a rigid skeletal structure
and to reduce the space occupied by the cement paste. Both coarse
aggregates (particle sizes of 20 mm to 4 mm) and fine aggregates
(particle sizes less than 4 mm) are required but the proportions of
different sizes of coarse aggregate will vary depending on the particular
mix required for each individual end use.
The smaller the aggregate size the greater its surface area and the more
cement will be required to bind it all together, resulting in a higher cost.
However, in general terms, the greater the quantity of cement used the
stronger the concrete will be. Therefore a balance needs to be made
between the strength requirements of the end use and the price that the
customer will be willing to pay.
Asphalt and Roadstone
This category includes not just roads, but also pavements, airport
runways, school playgrounds, car parks, most footpaths or cycleways, and
other similar structures. Although each type of structure will require some
variation in the material, it is useful to look at the basic structure of roads
because they represent the bulk of the aggregate use in this category.
The subgrade represents the natural soil, which will be compacted before
the road construction starts. The capping layer is an optional layer, used
when the local soils require extra strength, and it is not coated with
bitumen. The sub-base is the main uncoated roadstone layer and its role
is to give strength and act as a solid platform for the layers above.
The binder course (previously two layers known as the base course and
roadbase) and surface course (previously known as wearing course) are
commonly called 'asphalt' or 'tarmacadam'. They consist of coarse
aggregates, with particle sizes typically between 2 mm to 28 mm, and
fine aggregates, with particle sizes of less than 2 mm, mixed with a
bitumen binder and occasionally some additional filler if required. The
exact sizes required for the coarse aggregates will depend on the
particular use and the asphalt recipe specified.

The binder course is the main load-bearing layer and provides an even
plane for the surface course.
The surface course provides the road with protection from the weather
because water ingress would be very destructive, but also gives the final
running surface that must be resistant to abrasion and skidding.
Increasingly, proprietary mixes are being developed known as 'thin
surfacing' or 'stone mastic asphalt' which use cellulose fibres or specialist
binders to obtain higher strengths with thinner layers of asphalt. These
materials provide increased resistance to deformation where traffic
density is high and also reduce surface water spray and vehicle noise.

Figure 1.Cross-section through a road.

Railway Ballast
A fully loaded train weighs a considerable amount (> 2 000 tonnes),
added to this is the weight of the track itself and the sleepers it rests on.
It soon becomes obvious that a very tough aggregate is needed to
support this weight and distribute the load of a passing train to avoid
serious damage to the ground, or other structures, underneath. Similarly
the railway track and sleepers must be held in place firmly and not move
as a train passes along them.
Railway ballast generally consists of a tough igneous rock, such as
granite, with large (40-50 mm size) angular pieces that lock together.
Because of the way igneous rock is formed it is highly resistant to
pressure and does not break easily.
Types of Production
Natural
Natural aggregates, which consist of crushed stone and sand and gravel,
are among the most abundant natural resources and a major basic raw

material used by construction, agriculture, and industries employing

complex chemical and metallurgical processes. Despite the low value of
the basic products, natural aggregates are a major contributor to and an
indicator of the economic wellbeing of the Nation.
Manufactured - Manufactured aggregate is often the byproduct of
other manufacturing industries.

Recycled- is produced by crushing concrete, and sometimes asphalt,

to reclaim the aggregate. Recycled aggregate can be used for many
purposes. The primary market is road base. For information on
recycling asphalt pavement into new asphalt pavement.

The Nations Top 9 Construction Aggregates Producers

1. Vulcan Materials Co.
Vulcan Materials Company, is an American company based
in Birmingham, Alabama. It is principally engaged in the production,
distribution and sale of construction materials. Vulcan is the largest
producer of construction materials, primarily gravel, crushed stone,
and sand, and employs approximately 7,000 people at over 300
facilities. Vulcan serves 19 states, the District of Columbia and Mexico.
Vulcan's innovative Crescent Market project led to construction of a
large quarry and deep water seaport on the Yucatn Peninsula of
Mexico, just south of Cancun. This quarry supplies Tampa, New
Orleans, Houston, and Brownsville, Texas, as well as other Gulf coast
seaports, with crushed limestone via large 62,000 ton self discharging
ships.

2. Martin Marietta Aggregates

Martin Marietta (NYSE: MLM), an American-based company and a
member of the S&P 500 Index, is a leading supplier of aggregates and

heavy building materials, with operations spanning 36

states, Canada and the Caribbean. In particular, Martin Marietta
supplies the resources for roads, sidewalks and foundations.
Martin Marietta's Magnesia Specialties business provides a full range
of magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide and dolomitic
lime products. It was established as an independent company in 1996,
spun off from the newly created Lockheed Martin after having been
part of Martin Marietta since 1961. It dates its origins back to 1939,
when Superior Stone, an aggregates company in Raleigh, North
Carolina, was founded.

3. Oldcastle Materials, Inc.

Oldcastle Inc. is the North American arm of Ireland-based CRH plc and
is divided into three organizational units: Oldcastle Building Products,
Oldcastle Distribution, and Oldcastle Materials. Oldcastle Materials
supplies aggregates, asphalt, and ready-mix concrete, and provides
paving and construction services. This group is the largest among
Oldcastle Inc. businesses with over 1,200 locations in 44 states.
Oldcastle Materials is the number one asphalt producer and the
number one asphalt paver in the United States.

4. Lehigh Hanson, Inc.

Lehigh Hanson, Inc. has a big crush on the concrete materials
business in North America. The company, which is part of German
construction materials firm Heidelberg Cement, produces
aggregates (crushed rock, gravel, and sand), cement, ready mixed
concrete, asphalt concrete block, concrete pipe, and pre-stressed
concrete products in the US and Canada. Lehigh Hanson affiliate
companies include Lehigh Cement Company, Hanson Brick,
and Hanson Pipe & Precast, which makes concrete pipes, manholes,
and precast concrete products. Its hardscapes division makes
decorative paving stones for landscaping.

5. CEMEX S.A.B. de C.V.

CEMEX S.A.B. de C.V., known as Cemex, is a
Mexican multinational building materials company headquartered
in San Pedro, near Monterrey, Mexico. It manufactures and
distributes cement, ready-mix concrete and aggregates in more
than 50 countries. It is the second largest building materials
company worldwide, only after LafargeHolcim. Lorenzo
Zambrano was the chairman and chief executive officer until his
death on May 12, 2014. About one-third of the company's sales
come from its Mexico operations, a quarter from its plants in the
U.S., 15% from Spain, and smaller percentages from its plants
around the world. Cemex ready-mix truck departing jobsite after
dispensing concrete for a multi-storey residential project. The
location is Villahermosa, Mexico. CEMEX currently operates on four
continents, with 66 cement plants, 2,000 ready-mix-concrete
facilities, 400 quarries, 260 distribution centers and 80 marine
terminals. The company's world headquarters are in San Pedro
Garza Garca, a city that is part of the Monterrey metropolitan area
in the northeastern Mexican state of Nuevo Len.
6. Lafarge North America, Inc.
Lafarge North America is a subsidiary of the Lafarge Group and the
largest manufacturer of construction materials in the U.S. and
Canada. Similar to its parent company, Lafarge North America's
major markets include cement, aggregates, concrete, asphalt,
and gypsum. Incorporated in 1909 as the Canada Cement Co., the
companys headquarters today are based in Herdon, Virginia, U.S.
With a workforce of 10,000 employees, Lafarge North America
operates over 500 facilities in 44 states and in every Canadian
province. The company trades on the New York, Montreal, and
Toronto stock exchanges under the ticker symbol LAF.

7. Holcim Group/Aggregate Industries Management, Inc.

Holcim is a Swiss-based global building
materials and aggregates company. Founded in 1912, the company

expanded into France and then throughout Europe and Middle East
during the 1920s. They expanded in the Americas during the 1950s
and went public in 1958. The company continued to expand in Latin
America and added Asian divisions during the 1970s and 1980s. A
series of mergers and buyouts made Holcim one of the two largest
cement manufacturers worldwide by 2014, roughly tied with
rival Lafarge. In April 2014, the two companies agreed to a US$60
billion "merger of equals". The deal will face regulatory scrutiny and
likely will take more than one year to complete. As of 2014, Holcim
does business in more than 70 different countries and employs
71,000 people. The company is the market leader in cement
production in Australia, Azerbaijan, India, Slovakia, Switzerland, and
Latin America.

8. Carmeuse Lime & Stone

Carmeuse is a Belgian mining company which
produces lime and limestone. The Carmeuse Group has production
facilities in Europe, North America and Africa. Its head office is
located in Louvain-la-Neuve and the company Chief Executive
Officer is Rodolphe Collinet.
9. Rogers Group, Inc.
The Rogers Group is a Mauritius-based conglomerate. The Group
has a portfolio with interests in sectors such as aviation and
tourism, logistics, financial services, distribution and industrials. The
Group employs almost 3,000 people.Rogers Organization Financial
Logistics is a United States-based subsidiary incorporated in
Wyoming, and located in Phoenix, Arizona. As of December 2013,
Rogers Organization Financial Logistics has been closed and is no
longer operating in the United States. Rogers & Co is one of the
oldest companies in Mauritius, dating back to 1876. Its activities
then involved commerce and shipping. Rogers & Co itself was
founded in 1899 by Walter Rogers. However, it all started in 1876,
when Mr. Rogers bought shares in a trading company and entered
into partnership with FulgenceLaroque. Rogers Group is currently

the no.1 conglomerate in Mauritius in terms of annual turnover of

more than Rs.8 billion or US$300 millions.
Aggregate Producers in the Philippines
1. Northern Cement Corporation
Northern Cement Corporation (NCC) a cement manufacturing
company that was established in February 10, 1967. It is the
brainchild of Mr. Eduardo Cojuangco Jr., CEO of the San Miguel
Corporation. Today, NCC has evolved from being the Jewel of the
North in the Cordillera mountain range in Barangay Labayug Sison,
Pangasinan into a progressive and dynamic organization whose
strength lies in its 100% Filipino made cement, its extensive
experience in production and distribution, and the highly skillful
workforce. The company offers high-class products to continue its
goal of being your partner in building the north. The recent entry of
San Miguel Yamamura Packaging Corporation will ensure its
uninterrupted modernization to continue the pride of being world
class that NCC has established since 1970.
2. Holcim Philippines Incorporated (PSE: HLCM)
Is a publicly-listed company that engages in the business of
manufacturing, selling, distributing cement and clinker. Holcim
Philippines is part of the Holcim Group. It is one of the largest
cement manufacturers in the Philippines and one of the worlds
leading suppliers of cement. It is the first in the Philippine cement
industry to receive ISO 9002 certification (Quality Management
System Standards) from the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). Additionally, all of the Holcim Philippines four
plants are ISO 14001 certified (Environment Management System
Standards) and OH&S 18001 (Occupational Health & Safety
Management) certified.It produces three products of cement, Holcim
Premium Cement, Holcim Excel Cement, and Holcim Wallright
Cement. HLCM also sells to cement producers a semi-finished
product called clinker, which is sold only in bulk. As of December 16,
2010, its total market capitalization is P96.6 billion and share price
is P13.82.

3. Lafarge Republic, Inc.

Lafarge Republic, Inc. (LRI), formerly Republic Cement Corporation, was

incorporated in May 3, 1955 to primarily engage in the manufacture,
development, exploitation and sale of cement, marble and all other
kinds and classes of building materials, and the processing or
manufacture of materials for any industrial or commercial purposes. On
June 26, 2012, the Securities and Exchange Commission approved the
change in name to the present one.

TESTING METHODS OF AGGREGATES

Cement
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind
other materials together.
The word "cement" can be traced back to the Roman term opus
caementicium,
used
to
describe masonry resembling
modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt
lime as binder.
Cement can be considered as:
Hydraulic Cement - set and become adhesive due to a chemical
reaction between the dry ingredients and water. E.g. Portland
Cement
Non- Hydraulic Cement - will not set in wet conditions or
underwater; rather, it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon
dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals
after setting.
Properties of Cement
Setting Time the time required for stiffening of cement paste to a
defined consistency.
A. Initial Setting - the time when the paste starts losing its plasticity.
Initial setting time test is important for transportation, placing and
compaction of cement concrete. Initial setting time duration is
required to delay the process of hydration or hardening.
B. Final Setting - the time when the paste completely loses its
plasticity. It is the time taken for the cement paste or cement

concrete to harden sufficiently and attain the shape of the mould in

which it is cast. Determination of final setting time period facilitates
safe removal of scaffolding or form.
Soundness - defined as the volume stability of the cement paste.
When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability
of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume after setting
without delayed expansion.
Fineness it affects Hydration rate and thus the rate of strength
gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-tovolume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-cement
interaction per unit volume. For a rapid development of strength a
high fineness is necessary.
Strength Cement paste strength is typically defined in three
ways: compressive, tensile and flexural.
A. Compressive Strength is the capacity of a material or
structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size.
B. Tensile Strength the resistance of a material to longitudinal
stress(tension).
A. Testing of Cement
The heart of concrete lies in the cement. Several tests should be
performed to determine the characteristics of cement and its
compatibility with other materials in the concrete mix design. TEC
Services laboratory is approved and/or inspected by AMRL (AASHTO
Materials Reference Laboratory), CCRL (Cement and Concrete Reference
Laboratory) and the US Army Corps of Engineers. TEC Services works
closely with ASTM in the development of test methods, testing guidelines
and
specification
for
all
types
of
cements.
This list consists of tests that we perform on a regular basis.
ASTM C10
Specification for Natural Cement
ASTM C91
Specification for Masonry Cement
ASTM C109
Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (2x2
Cubes)
ASTM C114
Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement
ASTM C150
Specification for Portland Cement
ASTM C151
Autoclave Expansion of Portland Cement
ASTM C185
Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
ASTM C187
Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement
ASTM C188
Density of Hydraulic Cement

ASTM C191
ASTM C204
ASTM C227
ASTM C226
ASTM C266
ASTM C230
ASTM C348
ASTM C349
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM

C359
C430
C451
C452

ASTM C595
ASTM C596
ASTM C563
ASTM C786
ASTM C806
ASTM C807
ASTM C845
ASTM C1012
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM

C1038
C1157
C1328
C1329
C1437
C1506

ASTM C1583

Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle

Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus
Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate
Combinations
Air-Entraining Additions for Use in the Manufacture of AirEntraining Hydraulic Cement
Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore
Needles
Flow Table for Use in Tests of Hydraulic Cement
Flexural Strength of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars
Compressive Strength of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars (Portions
of Prisms Broken in Flexural)
Early Stiffening of Hydraulic Cement
Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the 45-m (No. 325) Sieve
Early Stiffening of Hydraulic Cement (Paste Method)
Potential Expansion of Portland-Cement Mortars Exposed to
Sulfate
Specifications for Blended Hydraulic Cements
Drying Shrinkage of Mortar containing Hydraulic Cement
Optimum SO3 in Hydraulic Cement Using 24-hr Compressive
Strength
Fineness of Hydraulic Cement and Raw Materials by the No.
50, No. 100, and No. 200 Sieves by Wet Methods
Restrained Expansion of Expansive Cement Mortar
Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement Mortar by Modified
Vicat Needle
Specifications For Expansive Hydraulic Cement
Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to A
Sulfate Solution
Expansion of Hydraulic Cement Mortar Bars Stored in Water
Specifications for Hydraulic Cements
Specification for Plastic (Stucco) Cement
Specification for Mortar Cement
Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
Water Retention of Hydraulic Cement-Based Mortars and
Plasters
Tensile Strength of Concrete Surfaces and the Bond Strength
or Tensile Strength of Concrete Repair and Overlays
Materials by Direct Tension
Various Laboratory Test for Cement

Checking of materials is an essential part of civil engineering as the

life of structure is dependent on the quality of material used. Following
are the tests to be conducted to judge the quality of cement.
1. Setting Time of Cement
Setting time is the time required for stiffening of cement paste to
a defined consistency.
Initial setting time is the time when the paste starts losing its
plasticity. It is important for transportation, placing and compaction
of cement concrete. Initial setting time duration is required to delay
the process of hydration or hardening. It is also the time period
between the time water is added to cement and time at which 1 mm
square section needle fails to penetrate the cement paste, placed in the
Vicats mould 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the mould.
Final setting time is the time when the paste completely loses its
plasticity. It is the time taken for the cement paste or cement concrete to
harden sufficiently and attain the shape of the mould in which it is cast.
Determination of final setting time period facilitates safe removal of
scaffolding or form. During this period of time primary chemical
reaction of cement with water is almost completed. In short, it is the time
period between the time water is added to cement and the time at which
1 mm needle makes an impression on the paste in the mould but 5 mm
attachment does not make any impression.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
Glass plate, enamel tray, trowel
Vicat apparatus
Balance
Measuring cylinder
Stop watch
Vicat apparatus

Procedure for Time Setting Test

a. Test block preparation

b. Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the nonporous plate, under the rod bearing the needle.
c. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of
test block and quick release, allowing it to penetrate into the test
block.
d. In the beginning the needle completely pierces the test block.
Repeat this procedure i.e. quickly releasing the needle after every 2
minutes till the needle fails to pierce the block for about 5 mm
measured from the bottom of the mould. Note this time (t2).
e. For determining the final setting time, replace the needle of the
Vicats apparatus by the needle with an annular attachment.
f. The cement is considered finally set when upon applying the final
setting needle gently to the surface of the test block; the needle
makes an impression thereon, while the attachment fails to do so.
Record this time (t3).

Precautions:
Release the initial and final setting time needles gently.
The experiment should be performed away from vibration and other
disturbances.
Needle should be cleaned every time it is used.
Position of the mould should be shifted slightly after each
penetration to avoid penetration at the same place.
Test should be performed at the specified environmental conditions.

2. Soundness

In the soundness test a specimen of hardened cement paste is

boiled for a fixed time so that any tendency to expand is speeded
up and can be detected. Soundness means the ability to resist
volume expansion.

Equipment and Materials

Le-chatelier apparatus
Water bath
Caliper
Measuring cylinder
Balance
Glass sheets (2 nos.)
Enamel tray
Trowel
Le-chatelier apparatus
Procedure for Soundness Test
a. Before commencing setting time test, do the consistency test to
obtain the water required to give the paste normal consistency (P).
b. Prepare a paste by adding 0.78 times the water required to give a
paste of standard consistency (i.e. 0.78P).
c. Lightly oil the Le-chatelier mould and place it on a lightly oiled glass
sheet.
d. Fill the mould with the prepared cement paste. In the process of
filling the mould keep the edge of the mould gently together.
e. Cover the mould with another piece of lightly oiled glass sheet,
place a small weight on this covering glass sheet.
f. Submerge the whole assembly in water at a temperature of 27
20 C and keep there for 24 hours.
g. Remove the whole assembly from water bath and measure the
distance separating the indicator points to the nearest 0.5 mm (L 1).

h. Again submerge the whole assembly in water bath and bring the
temperature of water bath to boiling temperature in 25 to 30
minutes. Keep it at boiling temperature for a period of 3 hours.
i. After completion of 3 hours, allow the temperature of the water bath
to cool down to room temperature and remove the whole assembly
from the water bath.
j. Measure the distance between the two indicator points to the
nearest 0.5 mm (L2).

Note::In the event of cement failing to comply with the specified

requirements, a further test should be made from another portion of
the same sample in manner described above, but
after aeration (done by spreading out to a depth of 75 mm at a
relative humidity of 50 to 80% for a total period of 7 days).

PRECAUTIONS:

All the measurements should be done accurately.

Do not apply extra pressure while filling the moulds.
During boiling water level should not fall below the height of the
mould.

3. Fineness
The principle of this is that we determine the proportion of cement
whose grain size is larger than specified mesh size. Fineness of
cement has a great effect on the rate of hydration and hence
the rate of gain of strength. Fineness of cement increases the rate
of evolution of heat.
Finer cement offers a great surface area for hydration and hence
faster the development of strength. Increase in fineness of cement also
increases the drying shrinkage of concrete and hence creates cracks in
structures. Excessive fineness requirement increases cost of grinding.
Excessive fine cement requires more water for hydration, resulting

reduced strength and durability. Fineness of cement affects properties

like gypsum requirement, workability of fresh concrete & long term
behavior of structure. Coarse cement particles settle down in concrete
which causes bleeding.

Equipment and Materials

Sieve
Balance
Glass rod
Stoppered jar
Pan
Lid (cover)

Procedure to Determine the Fineness of Cement

a. Weigh approximately 10g of cement to the nearest 0.01g and place

it on the sieve.(Optional)
b. Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movements, until
no more fine material passes through it.
c. Weigh the residue and express its mass as a percentage R1 of the
quantity first placed on the sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent.
d. Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve.
e. Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 10g sample to obtain R2.
Then calculate R as the mean of R1 and R2 as a percentage,
expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent. When the results differ by
more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third sieving and calculate
the mean of the three values.

PRECAUTIONS:

Before sieving, air set lumps of cement should be broken.

Sieving should be done by rotating the sieve and not by translation.

4. Compressive Strength
The following covers only that portion of ASTM Designation: C 109
that is required to determine the compressive strength of 50 mm (2
inches) of Portland cement mortar cubes.
Equipment and Materials

A 2kg scale accurate to 0.1 gram

Six 50 mm (2 inch) cube molds

Hard rubber tampers 13 25 mm (1/2 1 inch) cross section and

12 to 15 cm (5 to 6 inches) in height

Rubber gloves

Small steel trowels

Large spoons

Electrically driven mechanical mixer equipped with a paddle and

mixing bowl

500 grams of Portland cement

1375 grams of Ottawa Sand (or Standard sand)

42 cc of water
Procedure for Compressive Strength Test
a. Place the 242 cc of water in the mixing bowl, add the 500 grams of
cement, and mix at a slow speed (1405 rpm) for 30.
b. Add the 1375 grams of Ottawa Sand over a 30-second period while
continuing to mix at a slow speed.
c. Stop the mixing, change the mixer setting to medium speed (2855
rpm), and mix for 30 seconds.
d. Stop the mixer and let the mortar stand for 90 seconds. During the
first 15 seconds, scrape down into the batch any mortar that may

e.
f.

g.

h.

i.

j.

have collected on the sides of the bowl. Cover the bowl for the
remainder of the interval.
Finish preparing the mortar by mixing for 60 seconds at medium
speed.
Immediately upon completion of mixing, start molding the
specimens by placing a 25 mm (i.e. 1 inch) layer of mortar in all of
the six cube compartments. Tamp the mortar layer in each cube
compartment, with the hard rubber tamper, 32 times within about
10 seconds in accordance with Figure 1 in four rounds. Each round
should be at right angles to the other and consist of eight adjacent
strokes over the surface of the specimen. Use sufficient tamping
pressure to ensure uniform filling of the molds. Complete the lift in
each mold in turn before moving on to the next one.
Complete the filling of the molds by adding another layer and
duplicate the tamping procedure. At this point the mortar should be
slightly above the top of the molds. Carefully cut the excess mortar
flush with the edge of a steel trowel.
Place the completed mortar cubes in a moist closet, protected from
dripping water, for between 20 and 24 hours, after which the cubes
are to be stripped from the molds.
Insert the mortar cubes in a saturated lime water bath until ready
for testing. Periodically the lime water should be changed to keep
the water clean.
All specimens should be tested within a specified time period.

k. Prior to testing, the specimens should be wiped clean. Apply the

loads only to the true surfaces of the cubes. Use a straight edge to
check the cube surfaces. Any loose grains of sand or other
extraneous material should be removed from the surfaces in contact
with the testing machine. The specimen should be placed under the
center of the upper bearing block of the testing machine. A light
coating of oil should be applied to the upper platen. The rate of load
application should produce failure of the specimens during a time
interval of 20 to 80 seconds.

5. Tensile Strength Test of Hydraulic Cement Mortar

Determination of the tensile strength of hydraulic cement

mortars using briquette specimens.

Briquette Mold
2 kg scale accurate to 0.1 gram
Briquette molds
Small steel trowels
Clips for holding the test specimens
Testing machine capable of applying the load at a rate of 2.67 11
(600 25 lb/ft2)/minute

Ottawa Sand with at least 85% passing the 850-m (No. 20) sieve
and not more than 5% passing the 600-m (No. 30) sieve.

Portland cement

Procedure for Tensile Test of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

Normal room temperature shall be assumed for the laboratory, curing

facility, and the water used. The specimens will be prepared in briquette
gang molds in multiples of three.
a. The proportions of the standard mortar shall be 1 part cement (300
grams Types I, IA, II, or III) to 3 parts of Ottawa Sand (900 grams)
for 6 specimens or 400 grams of cement and 1200 grams of Ottawa
Sand for 9 specimens. The amount of water required shall be
determined by reference to the following table after the normal
consistency of neat cement is obtained in accordance with ASTM-C187.

b. Weigh and thoroughly mix the dry materials on a smooth nonabsorbent surface and form a crater. Pour the proper amount of
clean water into the crater and completely mix for 30 seconds with
a steel trowel. Permit the materials to absorb the water for an
additional 30 seconds, during which the drier materials on the
edges are turned into the mortar mass in order to reduce
evaporation and promote absorption. For the next 90 seconds,
vigorously mix the mortar with the hands fitted with snug-fitting
rubber gloves.
c. Coat the briquettes with a thin film of mineral oil and place them on
a piece of clean glass or metal.
d. The briquettes should now be filled with the mortar. Fill the molds
heaping full without compaction. Firmly press the mortar into the
molds with the gloved hand, applying the thumb pressure twelve
times for each mold. Again, heap additional mortar on each
specimen and strike off the excess with a steel trowel. Cover the
specimens with a similar piece of glass or metal and turn the
assembly over, reversing top and bottom. Repeat the process of
heaping, thumping, and toweling the excess mortar as performed
on the opposite surface.
e. Place the specimens in a curing room with the upper surface
exposed but not subject to dripping water for between 20 to 24
hours. Then strip the specimens from the molds and place in
saturated lime water until ready for testing. The lime water should
be changed periodically as required to be kept clean.
f. All specimens should be tested within a specified time period.

6. Density Test of Hydraulic Cement

Determination of the density of hydraulic cement in
connection with the design of Portland cement concrete mixtures

Equipment and Materials

Standard Le-Chatelier Flask

Heavy rubber pad about 12 in. 12
in. square
Lead ring weight to fit around stem of
the flask
Funnel
Thermometer
Portland cement
Kerosene

Le-Chatelier Flask
Procedure for Density Test of Hydraulic Cement
a. Fill the flask with kerosene to a mark on the stem between the 0 and
the 1 cm mark. Dry the inside of the flask if there are any drops
above the liquid level.
b. Place the flask in a constant temperature bath and record the initial
height of the kerosene in the flask. The constant temperature bath
should be maintained at a temperature such that its temperature
variation between the initial and final readings within the flask does
not vary by more than 0.2C.
c. Carefully introduce about 64 grams of cement, weighed to the
nearest 0.1 grams. Try to avoid the cement adhering to the inside of
the flask or sticking to the neck. The cement should be introduced
slowly through a funnel. Place the stopper on the flask.
d. Remove the flask from the bath and place it on the rubber mat. Take
off the lead weight and manipulate the flask on the mat so as to
remove all air bubbles from the flask.
e. Return the flask to the bath and check the temperature within the
flask. If it is within 0.2C of the original temperature inside the flask,
take the final reading.

Field Test on Cement

Field tests on cements are carried to know the quality of cement supplied
at site. It is necessary to check the quality of cement on site at the time of
preliminary inspection. It is not possible to check all the engineering
qualities of cement on site but there exist some field test which gives us a
rough idea of quality of cement. It gives some idea about cement quality
based on color, touch and feel and other tests.

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

7.
8.

The following are the field tests on cement:

Date of manufacture should be seen on the bag. It is important
because the strength reduces with age.
The color of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey color
with a light greenish shade.
Open the bag and see that lumps should not be present in the bag.
It will ensure that no setting has taken place.
The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are
formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Any bag
of cement containing such lumps should be rejected.
The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between
fingers. If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should
feel cool and not warm. It indicates that no hydration reaction is
taking place in the bag.
If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the
particles should float for some time before it sinks.
Take 100g of cement and make a stiff paste. Prepare a cake with
sharp edges and put on the glass plate. Immerse this plate in water.
Observe that the shape shouldnt get disturbed while settling. It
should be able to set and attain strength. Cement is capable of
setting under water also and that is why it is also called Hydraulic
Cement.

B. Testing of Aggregates (Fine, Coarse and Recycled)

1.
2.
3.
4.

Grading Test
Moisture Content Test
Abrasion Test
Impact Test

ASTM C 70

Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate

AASHTO T 85 and
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
ASTM C 127
AASHTO T 84 and
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
ASTM C 128
Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate by
AASHTO T 255
Drying
ASTM C 566

Total Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying

AASHTO T
27 and ASTM C
136

AASHTO T
11 or ASTM C
AASHTO T 30

Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates

117Materials Finer than 75-m (No. 200) Sieve in
Mineral Aggregates by Washing
Mechanical Analysis of Extracted Aggregate is used
when performing gradation analysis on aggregates
extracted from an HMA mixture.

AASHTO T
85 and ASTM C
127

AASHTO
TP 61

Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

Determining the Percentage of Fracture in Coarse

Aggregate

Determining the Percentage of Fractured

ASTM D 5821
Particles in Coarse Aggregate
AASHTO
Uncompacted Void Content of Coarse Aggregate (As
TP 56
influenced by Particle Shape, Surface Texture, and
Grading)
AASHTO T
Plastic Fines in Graded Aggregates and Soils by Use
176
of the Sand Equivalent Test
ASTM D
Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and Fine Aggregate
2419
ASTM D
Flat Particles, Elongated Particles, or Flat and
4791
Elongated Particles in Coarse Aggregates
AASHTO T
Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse
96 or ASTM C 131 Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los
Angeles Machine
AASHTO TP
Resistance of Coarse Aggregate to Degradation
58
by Abrasion in the Micro-Deval Apparatus

AASHTO T
304 or ASTM C
1252
AASHTO T
84 and ASTM C
128
AASHTO T
104 and ASTM C
88
AASHTO T
103
ASTM D
5821
ASTM D
3398
ASTM C 125

Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate

Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate

Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate
or Magnesium Sulfate
Soundness of Aggregates by Freezing and Thawing
Determining the Percentage of Fractured Particles in
Coarse Aggregate
Index of Aggregate Particle Shape and Texture
Standard Terminology Relating to Concrete and
Concrete Aggregates

C. Testing of Concrete
A concrete test is performed to learn more about the properties of a
specific sample of concrete. A number of different tests can be
performed on concrete both, on a job site and in a laboratory. Because
concrete is an important structural element, testing is mandatory in
many regions of the world, and construction companies must provide
documentation of their testing and results when asked to do so by
government representatives. Test results are also kept on file in case a
problem develops in the future. There are a dozen different test
methods for freshly mixed concrete and at least another dozen tests
for hardened concrete.
Tests in Concrete (common test)
1. Measurement of workability (slump test)
a. Concrete Slump Test

This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete.

The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The
measured slump must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target
slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter
mixes will be more workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same
consistency may vary in workability. It can also be defined as the relative
plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Importance:
This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made
concrete. Consistency is a term very closely related to workability. It is a
term which describes the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease
with which the concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree
of wetness. Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency
i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable than drier
mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability.

It can also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed

concrete as indicative of its workability. So concrete may have the
following types of consistency:
1)

Plastic Consistency:

When it can be shaped into a ball between the palms of hands and
adheres to the skin.
2)

Semi-Fluid Consistency:

This cannot be rolled into a ball but spreads out

without affecting the cohesion of the constituents so that
segregation doesnt take place.
3)

Fluid Consistency:

Which spreads out rapidly and segregation takes place.

Thus different degree of workability is required at
different occasions. If the structure is RCC and the steel bars too much
close to each other then high workability is required i.e. fluid

consistency. While where the inter bars space is larger than concrete
of semi-fluid or plastic consistency is required.

Procedure of Slump Test for Concrete:

a. Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate.
The slump plate should be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent.
Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum test.
b. Stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone
with the sample. Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times.
Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the concrete to
compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite
pattern, working from outside into the middle.
c. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first
layer.
d. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the
second layer. Top up the cone till it overflows.
e. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean
any concrete from around the base and top of the cone, push down
on the handles and step off the foot pieces.
f. Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the
sample.
g. Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned
cone.
h. Take several measurements and report the average distance to the
top of the sample. If the sample fails by being outside the tolerance
(ie. the slump is too high or too low), another must be taken. If this
also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.

The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the

profile of slumped concrete, the slump is termed as true slump,
shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or collapse slump is
achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated. A
collapse slump is an indication of too wet a mix.

Only a true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse slump will
generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability
mix, for which the slump test is not appropriate dry mixes; having
slump 0 25 mm are used in road making, low workability mixes;
having slump 10 40 mm are used for foundations with light
reinforcement, medium workability mixes; 50 - 90 for normal
reinforced concrete placed with vibration, high workability concrete;
> 100 mm.

Collapse

Shear

True

In a collapse slump
the concrete
collapses
completely.

In a shear slump the top

portion of the concrete
shears off and slips
sideways.

In a true slump the

concrete simply
subsides, keeping more
or less to shape.

2. Compressive strength
The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened
concrete. The compression test shows the best possible strength
concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The compression test
measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should
always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site
is to make a concrete cylinder for the compression test. The strength
is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly specified as a
characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing.

The compressive strength is a measure of the concretes ability to

resist loads which tend to crush it.
Apparatus for compression test
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x
300 mm high) (The small cylinders are normally used for most testing
due to their lighter weight)
Small scoop
Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
Steel float
Steel plate
Procedure for Compression Test of Concrete

a. Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil,
then place on a clean, level and firm surface, ie the steel plate.
Collect a sample.
b. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by
rodding 25 times. Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating
using a vibrating table.
c. Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first
layer, then top up the mould till overflowing.
d. Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from
around the mould.
e. Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at
least 24 hours.
f. After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory
where it is cured and crushed to test compressive strength.