Korie Wagner

Mr. Mills
English IV AP
10/5/16

Research Paper on Genetic Engineering

I.

Intro
A. Thesis

II.

History

III.

Age Old Issues

A. Disease
B. Genetic Malignancies

II.

Enhance Human Capabilities

A. Improve Human Genome
B. Aging

II.

Improve the Human Condition

A. Increase Crop Yields
B. Better Medicine

II.

Rebuttal
A. Genetic Elite
B. Less Genetic Diversity

C. Playing God
II.

Conclusion

Genetic engineering should be embraced because it possesses enormous

potential for the advancement of humanity. Genetic engineering provides the

opportunity to eradicate age old issues, enhance human capabilities, and generally
improve the human condition. It has the potential to do everything from allowing human
immortality to solving world hunger. For these reasons, and the lack of solid objections,
the technology should be treated as the path to the future that it truly is.
The study of genetics began in 1859 with Charles Darwin's discovery of Natural
Selection, or evolutions mechanism for promoting favorable traits and weeding out
unfavorable traits in a species. The next great discovery came in 1865, with Gregor
Mendel's experiments on peas demonstrating that discrete units called genes determine
heredity but the individual genes remain distinct despite the apparent mixing. Gregor
Mendel had discovered genetics, even though the existence of DNA would not be
confirmed until Frederick Miescher isolated it in 1869. The next great advance came in
1902, when Walter Sutton came up with the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance, where
upon observing that the segregation of chromosomes during cell division matched the
pattern of Mendels pea experiments. In 1902, an interesting discovery came along
when Archibald Garrod asserted that some diseases were inherited. This was the first
time that a condition was ascribed to a genetic cause and marked the beginning of the
medical fields heightened interest in genetics. Possibly the most momentous discovery
in genetics came in 1911, when Thomas Hunt Morgan, after an extensive study of fruit
flies, discovered that chromosomes carry genes. This discovery set up the foundation
for a momentous revelation about the nature of inheritance in the coming years. In 1944
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty realized that DNA transforms the
properties rather than proteins. This discovery was supplemented by Alfred Hersheys
and Martha Chases 1952 discovery that genes are made of DNA. These two

discoveries cemented DNA and Chromosomes as the forces that drive nearly all life. All
of these discoveries finally climaxed when in 1966 Marshall Nirenberg cracked the
genetic code. (A History of Genetic Engineering).
The information learned from Nirenbergs discovery was finally put to use in 1973
when researchers successfully cloned the first animal gene. This marked the beginning
of human manipulation of DNA and laid the groundworks for later endeavors such as
gene therapy. Three years later in 1976 the first genetic engineering company,
Genentech, was founded and soon began marketing the first recombinant DNA drug,
human insulin. Finally, the sky opened with limitless opportunities in the field of genetics
when in 2003 the sequencing of the human genome was finally completed. This final
great achievement provided the opportunity to use the techniques learned from earlier
experiments on the human subjects, giving humanity the ultimate weapon against
almost any threat. (A History of Genetic Engineering).
Genetic engineering provides the perfect solution in dealing with some of the
most ancient problems that still plague society today. One major issue is that of the
prevalence of diseases, principally among which is Malaria. Malaria is a life-threatening
disease of the blood caused by the Plasmodium parasite, which is transmitted from
person to person through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. Malaria is an
ancient disease, having been responsible for the decline of many city-state populations
in ancient Greece, with its symptoms first being described in the Nei Ching in 2700 BC.
Many deaths can be traced back to this terrible disease and it continues to be a looming
threat to this day. Currently 3.2 billion people, almost half of the world's population, are
at risk of Malaria and in 2015 there were an estimated 214 million cases of the disease

with 438,000 deaths. Malaria has proven to be a persistent disease and has survived
ongoing eradication initiatives reaching back as far as the 1950s, when the World
Health Organization submitted a proposal for its eradication at the World Health
Assembly in 1955. (CDC Malaria Facts).
In fighting malaria some success has been found in the use of insecticide-treated
mosquito nets, antimalarial drugs, and indoor spraying of residual insecticides.
However, these methods are not permanent and have run into significant barriers, such
as a change in mosquito behavior to bypass nets, an increasing resistance to
pyrethroids (The only insecticide allowed to be used on mosquito nets), and a
resistance in the malaria parasite against artemisinin (The main component of drugs
used to treat malaria patients). This is where genetic engineering provides a better
method to combat the disease. A gene drive, a system capable of spreading a desired
trait rapidly through a population, would allow the source to be attacked. The process
focuses on exploiting selfish genetic elements that bias the odds of inheritance in their
own favor. These are called homing endonuclease genes (HEGs). It works like this; An
HEG codes for an enzyme that recognizes and cuts a sequence on chromosomes that
lack a copy of the HEG. The broken chromosome is then repaired using the HEG as a
template. Thus, the HEG transcribes itself onto any chromosomes that lack the trait.
This means that the HEG trait can be passed on to more than 90 percent of the
offspring, instead of the 50:50 ratio of typical Mendelian inheritance. (New Hope for
Malaria Control). Through this process, a handful of genetically modified mosquitoes
(GMMs) could be released to rapidly spread a trait that gives mosquitoes a resistance,
or immunity, to the malaria parasite. This would rob the disease of its transmission

vector, as the female Anopheles mosquito is the only transmitter of malaria, and the
disease would quickly die off. (New Hope for Malaria Control).
In addition to being multitudes more effective than any other kind of control
method, and being a much more permanent solution, the genetic modification of
mosquitoes would be far more cost effective than any alternate method. The world
health organization estimates that it would cost nearly US$7.83 Billion annually to fight
malaria effectively in order to reduce deaths and illnesses caused by 90% . (The Cost of
Fighting Malaria). The use of genetically modified mosquitoes would be a fraction of this
price and would provide a more hands off approach to combating the disease. After the
initial release of a sufficiently large enough population of genetically modified
mosquitoes, the trait would pass on the subsequent generation and the interbreeding of
mosquitoes with and without the genetic modification would allow the trait to assert itself
outside of the host population, exponentially shrinking the number of possible
transmitting mosquitoes. This would have the long lasting effect of permanently halting
the spread of malaria. However, the method serves to suppress many more diseases
than just malaria. The same gene drive that is used to fight malaria can be used to fight
other illnesses such as Dengue Fever, West Nile Virus, Eastern Equine Encephalitis
Chikungunya, Yellow Fever, and most recently Zika. Essentially, the frequency of
transmission of any mosquito borne disease has the ability to be drastically reduced, if
not eradicated, through the same method now being prepared in the fight against
Malaria. This would in effect prevent the over 1 million deaths that are attributed to
mosquito borne illnesses every year. (Mosquito-Borne Diseases). It is because of this

immense versatility and efficiency that genetic engineering is the ultimate weapon
against disease. (Mosquito Borne Diseases, The Cost of Fighting Malaria).
In addition to eradicating disease, genetic engineering provides the ability to
correct genetic disorders. A genetic disorder is an inherited medical condition that is the
result of an abnormality in the DNA. These are often debilitating and horrific lifelong
affairs that have no form of a cure. Often the only treatment offered to those that suffer
from these kind of medical conditions is aimed only at mitigating the impact rather than
curing it. Currently it is estimated that 350 million people worldwide suffer from these
kind of diseases. (Rare Disease Facts). These people suffer without any form of lasting
relief because there is no way to fix the disorder unless the defective genes are
removed. This is where gene therapy comes in. Gene therapy allows doctors to treat
such disorders by inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or
surgery. It can be done in a few different ways: By replacing a mutated gene that causes
the disease with a healthy copy of the gene, inactivating a mutated gene that is
functioning improperly, or introducing a new gene to help fight a disease. However,
gene therapy can work for more than just these kind of disorders, gene therapy is a
promising treatment option for a number of diseases (including inherited disorders,
some types of cancer, and certain viral infections). (What is Gene Therapy). Once
again, genetic engineering proves to be a success where all else failed. (Rare Disease
Facts, Gene Therapy, What is Gene Therapy).
Through genetic engineering it is possible to improve human capabilities. Due to
the massive influence that ones genetic code has on their development, it is possible to
change many physical traits through the modification of a person's DNA. It would be

possible to improve eyesight, strength, endurance, or intelligence. Basically anything

could be improved through the process. Exploiting this ability would allow humans to
become healthier and even live longer.
Aubrey De Grey, a Cambridge University researcher and head of the Strategies
for Engineered Negligible Senescence (SENS) project, has established that aging is
caused by a buildup of cellular damage over time. The SENS project has identified the
seven major factors that contribute to the damage as being: The development of
cancerous cells, Mitochondrial mutations, the growth of death-resistant cells,
extracellular aggregates, intracellular aggregates, and a combination of cell loss and
tissue atrophy. (A Reimagined Research Strategy for Aging). These factors are all side
effects of metabolism and have the ability to be treated, if not cured, through genetic
engineering. It would be possible to splice immune programs into human DNA that
would have the ability to clean up aggregates, the equivalent of cellular garbage, and
possibly even prevent cancer cells from developing in the first place. DNA could also be
rewritten to allow cells to remove mutations on their own and to prevent the depletion of
stem cells by endlessly replacing them. It might even be possible to implant DNA from
the Turritopsis dohrnii jellyfish, which is able to revert from its adult state to its immature
polyp state in order to effectively achieve immortality, into human DNA so that the
human body could revert periodically and rejuvenate itself. Genetic engineering holds all
of the answers and opens up infinite possibilities at every turn. (The Immortal Jellyfish,
Introduction to SENS Research).
The use and popularization of genetic engineering will improve the human
condition. The potential to end famine, and to create medicines that are both cheap and

wildly efficient lies in the exploitation of genes. Genetically modified crops have proven
to be very useful in dealing with food demands, and even been able to help reduce the
environmental impact of agriculture. They have proved to leave a significant impact, A
pair of agricultural economists at Germanys University of Gttingen, found that GM
technology increased crop yields by 22 percent, reduced pesticide use by 37 percent,
and increased farmer profits by 68 percent. (Arguments in Favour of GeneticallyModified Crops). These GMOs can also be designed to be more resistant to drought, a
trait in dire need as global warming continues to ravage the planet, and to grow in harsh
environments. Crops with abilities like this could be used to solve world hunger and
ensure that the growing population is always well fed. Possibly crops could be designed
that do not require the normal amount of resources to grow properly, or even crops that
have a significantly increased nutritional value. Genetic engineering could even lead to
drugs tailor made for the patient to fight off specific diseases, this would increase
efficiency and prevent the abuse of prescription drugs. The design of tailor made drugs
would also eliminate the threat of antibiotic resistance in diseases because they would
cut out the need for antibiotics all together. This would be an excellent weapon against
cancer, that way the cancer cells could be directly attacked rather than poisoning the
whole body in an attempt to kill off the cancer cells before the patient is killed. (Genetic
Modification in Medicine).
Although genetic engineering does invoke some ethical and practical issues,
these issues amount to nothing when compared to the immense good that can come
out of the practice. One such ethical objections is the idea that genetic engineering in
humans will lead to a Genetic Elite, where a distinct class of people with genetic

enhancements emerges and perpetuates itself. This class of the genetic elite, although
entirely possible, does little to abridge equality. This is because nature is inherently
unequal, and a large majority of people could be considered genetically inferior to those
who are naturally smarter, stronger, or generally more fit. In effect the distribution ends
up being wildly skewed in favor of a very small minority of genetically superior people.
Through the popularization of genetic engineering this gap between the small minority
of genetically superior and the vast majority of genetically inferior can be negated. The
gap would shrink as enhancements were spread throughout the population, leaving
everyone a lot more equal than nature had made them. One practical issue created by
genetic engineering is the possibility of lessening genetic diversity. However, genetic
diversity could easily be created the same way genes are modified, thus negating its
own impact. (Reproductive Cloning).
The most fervent argument against the use of genetic engineering is that of
playing God. The argument states that it is no humans place to tamper with the nature
of life or play God by creating and modifying genes. This argument comes off as
ludicrous because it has no basis other than a religious one, and such speculation
should never stand in the way of progress, especially progress to the magnitude offered
by genetic engineering. If humans were not meant to make use of the knowledge they
acquire, then they would either never acquire it in the first place or the knowledge
simply would not exist. (Reproductive Cloning).
Genetic engineering should be embraced because of its enormous capacity for
progress and good. The technology has the ability to single handedly pull society into
the future, creating a better world in the process. It can eradicate disease permanently

and end the ravages of hunger in a single stroke of the DNA altering sword. It is
because of its enormous utility and versatility that genetic engineering should be treated
as the miraculous opportunity that it truly is.

Works Cited

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"Gene Therapy and Genetic Engineering - University of Missouri." N.p., n.d. Web. 18
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"Genetic Modification in Medicine." Gmorg RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2016.

"Ifgene Home Page: Student's Help Desk -- A History of Genetic Engineering." Ifgene
Home Page: Student's Help Desk -- A History of Genetic Engineering. N.p., n.d. Web.
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"Malaria Facts." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 15 Apr. 2016. Web. 18 Nov. 2016.

Mameli, M. "Reproductive Cloning, Genetic Engineering and the Autonomy of the Child:
The Moral Agent and the Open Future." Journal of Medical Ethics. BMJ Group, Feb.
2007. Web. 18 Nov. 2016.

"Mosquito-Borne Diseases." Mosquito-Borne Diseases. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2016.

"New Hope for Malaria Control." Oxford Journals | Science & Mathematics | BioScience.
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November 16, 2016 By Ilana Jacqueline Leave a Comment, and November 15, 2016 By
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"The Cost of Fighting Malaria, Malnutrition, Neglected Tropical Diseases, and HIV/AIDS,
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"The Immortal Jellyfish." Immortal Jellyfish. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2016.