CHAPTER 1

STONES
Rock in the term used to name a solid portion of the earths, crust. It has generally
no definite shape and chemical composition. It is generally big in size. The rocks
have one or more than one minerals in their composition. The rocks having only one
minerals is called Monomineralic rock and those having several minerals is called
Polymineralic rocks. Quartz sand, pure gypsum, magnesite are examples of
monomeneralic rocks and granite, basalt etc are examples of polymineralic rocks.
The rocks are named after the predominant mineral present in it.
A rock having CaCo3 mineral as predominant mineral is termed as calcarious rock.
Similarly rock predominant in clay is called argillaceous rock. Quartz, feldspar, mica,
dolomite etc are some of the common rock forming minerals.
STONE: Stones are obtained from rocks. Quarried stone may be in the form of stone
blocks, stone aggregate, stone slab, stone lintels etc. Stone has to be properly
dressed and shaped before it is used at the place of its use.
Classification of Rocks: Rocks may be classified in the following four ways.
1. Geological classification
2. Physical classification
3. Chemical classification
4. Classification based on hardness
1. Geological classification
a) Igneous rocks The molten lava or magma occasionally tries to come out to
the earth surface through cracks or weak spots. This magma when gets
exposed to outside cooling, solidifies in the form of rock, called igneous rocks.
Depending upon the cooling effect, the following different types of igneous
rocks are formed.
i)
Volcanic igneous rocks This type of igneous rock is formed when
molten lava or magma gets exposed to atmosphere at the surface of
the earth. In this case cooling of magma is very rapid and hence
structures of these rocks are extremely fine grained. This rock may
contain some quantity of glass, which is non-crystalline. Examples of
Volcanic igneous rock is basalt.
ii)
Hypa byssal rocks: This rock is formed when the magma is allowed to
cool at comparatively slower rate. Such conditions of cooling generally
prevail at relatively shallow depths. Since rate of cooling is not as fast
as volcanic rocks, the structure of resulting rock is fine grained and
crystalline. But not as fine as in case of volcanic rocks. The best
example of hypabyssal rock is dolerite.
iii)
Plutonic rocks: These rocks are formed when cooling of magma takes
place at a very slow rate. Such conditions of cooling generally exist at
considerable depths. The structure of these rocks is coarse grained and
crystalline. Stones obtained from
plutonic rock is most commonly
used in building industry. The best example is granite.All the igneous
rocks contain minerals such as Augite, Felspar, mica, quartz, horn

blende etc. Before solidification all these minerals are in molten state,
along with some gases forming magma.
2. Sedimentary rocks : These rocks are formed by the deposition of broken up
minerals like sand, clay, disintegrated rocks, dead sea organisms etc, with
the aid of water, wind, frost etc on the prevailing existing rocks. Earths crust,
when subjected to weathering cause disintegration, which results in the
formation of clay, sand and pebbles. The disintegrated mass is carried by rain
water, streams, wind etc and settles as and when conditions become
favorable to it. The process of deposition of new disintegrated matter
continues in regular layers. With age, the deposited mass becomes rocks
called sedimentary rocks. Since the sediments get consolidated in horizontal
or nearly horizontal layers, these rocks show different layers distinctly. All the
layers of this rock may have same or different composition, colour and
structure, as all the layers have deposited under varying conditions. These
rocks can be easily split along the bedding plane. Sand stone, lime stone,
slate, shale etc are some common sedimentary rocks.
3. Metamorphic rocks: Are formed when igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks
are subjected to a very large heat and pressure. The process of change due
to heat and pressure is called metamorphism. The rocks change their
character due to metamorphism and the resulting mass of rock change into
hard and durable foliated structure. Marble, granite and slate are common
examples of metamorphic rocks.
All the rocks of igneous and sedimentary origin represent a mass of mineral
composition. This mass remains in equilibrium under the general atmospheric
conditions. When either temp or pressure or even both are increased, the
equilibrium of the mass gets disturbed and its minerals realign themselves to
re-establish the equilibrium. Re-alignment of minerals changes the texture of
the rock. This process is called metamorphism. It should be remembered that
weathering and sedimentation action are not included in metamorphism.
Heat pressure and chemically active fluids are three agents which bring about
changes of metamorphism. Heat may be supplied by the general rise of temp
inside the earth or by hot magma and pressure may be caused due to heavy
overlaying rocks or due to movement of the earth during earth quakes.
Chemical liquids do not take any active part in the process of metamorphism.
Following four type of metamorphism occur.
1. Plutonic metamorphism: The metamorphic changes take place at large
depths under the earth. Uniform pressure and high temp are responsible
for this change. There is due to the fact that rocks become plastic mass at
certain depths and plastic mass can be in equilibrium only under uniform
pressure.
2. Thermal metamorphism: The changes brought about in this
metamorphism are predominantly due to high temp.
3. Cataclastic metamorphism : This metamorphism or change in brought
about by directed pressure only and temp. Uniform pressure do not play
any role in it. This change takes place at the surface of the earth. Directed

pressure when applied to liquid is converted into uniform pressure.

Uniform pressure can be applied to liquids and solids both.
4. Dynamo Thermal metamorphism : Temp increases with depth inside the
earth. The changes brought about in the rock by combination of heat and
directed pressures are called dynamo thermal metamorphism. This
change takes place not at very large depths but at moderate depths.
Physical classification of rocks:
1. Stratified rocks: These are such rocks which possess planes of
stratification or cleavage. These rocks can be easily split along these
planes. All the sedimentary rocks have distinct layers of stratification and
thus are stratified rocks.
2. Un-stratified rocks: The structure of these rocks is compact and granular.
They do not show any layers of stratification or clearage. All the igneous
rocks of volcanic origins are examples of un-stratified rocks.
3. Foliated or Laminated rocks: These rocks comprise of thins laminations.
They can be split in definite direction and size. Metamorphic rocks come
under this category.
3 Chemical classification:
a) Selicious rocks: These rocks consists of silica as their predominant
constituent. These rocks are very hard and durable and are not easily
affected by weathering agencies. Granite, quartzite, trap, basalt,
sandstone etc are few examples of this rock.
b) Argillaceous rocks: Predominant constituent of these rocks is clay. The
principle constituent alumina, which is nothing but clay, remains mixed up
in varying proportions with siliceous, calcareous and carboneous matter.
These rocks are hard, durable, dense and brittle. Laterite, slate, porphyry
are few examples.
c) Calcareous rocks: Predominant constituent of these rocks is calcium
carbonate. The durability of these rocks greatly depend on constituents of
surrounding atmosphere. Lime stone , marble, dolomite, kankar etc are
examples of this type rock.
4 Classification based on hardness:
1. Very Hard rocks: Granite, Trap, Taconite etc belongs to this type.
2. Medium rocks: Dolomite and lime stone falls under this type category.
3. Soft rocks: Tale, Gypsum, Sandstone, slate etc are the soft rocks
Properties of stones:
1. General structure: Structure can be stratified, un-stratified or foliated. The
stone having stratified structure can be easily quarried in desired shapes
and sizes. This is considered useful for masonry work, lintels etc. Unstratified stones are very difficult to quarry. They cannot be quarried in
definite size and shape, as they do not have any clearage plane or
stratification. However stones obtained from these rocks in the form of
railway ballast, road construction aggregates, aggregates for cement
concrete is considered top class. Metamorphic rocks have foliated
structures. The layers in this case are not formed due to deposition but
due to metamorphic action. The stones obtained from these rocks are not
very strong.

2.

Fineness of Graines : For carving and grinding works, fine grained stones
are considered most suitable. Stones having non-crystalline or amorphous
texture are liable to be easily disintegrated. A good building stone should
have crystalline structure, since these are generally strong and durable.
3. Compactness : Compact stones are generally more durable. The stones
found at larger depths under earth are considered best stones, as they
have been subjected to a larger pressure of earth above them.
4. Durability: The ability to withstand wear and tear, atmospheric and other
agencies is called durability. Durability of stones depends on its chemical
composition, homogeneity and closeness of grains and type of cementing
material.
Alternate heating and cooling, alternate wetting and drying, dissolved
gases in rain water, high wind velocity etc are some of the natural causes
which affects durability adversely.
5. Strength: For ordinary building works strength is not very important, as
the compressive stress developed in very small when compared to the
crushing strength of the weakest stone. However for major structures such
as dams, bridge piers and abutments, retaining walls etc considerably
highest stresses are likely to develop and as such strength becomes an
important aspect to be considered.
6. Hardness: The stone when subjected to serve wear and abrasion as in the
case of floors and pavements, the hardness of stone is considered
important properly. Hardness of stone can be estimated roughly by the
scratch with the finger nail or scratch by knife. Soft rocks having small
hardness can be scratched with finger nail, where as those of considerable
hardness in scratched with knife.
7. Weight: Weight is related to density of minerals in the composition and
also the compactness and fineness of the grains. Heavy stones are
generally stronger and durable. Heavy weight stones are preferred for use
in dams, marine works, retaining walls, piers, abutments etc.
8. Percentage of wear: Resistance to wear in measured by attrition test. This
property of stone is important for stones used in road works, railway
ballast etc.
9. Ease in dressing or working: This property is important from economy
points of view. The stone which could be easily worked or dressed proves
economical.
10.Appearance: This characteristic in important for stones used for facing
works in buildings. Beautifully coloured stones provide good architectural
appearance at face works. Such stones should be durable, uniform in
colour and structure. Hard crystalline stones, having very dense structure
can be easily carved, molded or polished and thus preferred for face
works.
11.Porosity and absorption: Porosity depends upen void space between
mineral particles. where as water observed by mineral constituent is
called absorption. All stones have some porosity. The stones which are
less porous is considered good.
12.Resistance to Fire: The stone should be composed of such minerals , which
could withstand the action of fire satisfactorily. Disintegration of stone due
to fire may be due to the following:
a) Sudden rise in temperature

b) Sudden cooling due to water poured for extinguishing fire.

c) Different coefficients of linear expansions of minerals.
Sand stones having silicates as binding material can withstand fire
satisfactorily. Stone having clay as predominant mineral although have
poor strength can resist fire well. At temperature more than 600 0C, free
quartz expands suddenly, causing its disintegration. On the other hand
limestone can resist fire very well up to about 800 0C, then it disintegrates
into Cao and Co2. When water being used for extinguishing fire, comes in
contact with Cao, expands a lot causing collapse of the structure.
13.Weathering: The ability of the stone to withstand adverse effects of
various atmospheric and external agencies such as rain, frost, wind etc is
termed as weathering. Good weathering stones should be used for face
work, so that existing appearance of the building can be maintained for a
long times.
14.Toughness: The stones used for road work and other situations are
subjected to very adverse conditions and should be strong. Ability of the
stone to resist effect of impact is called toughness.
Uses of stones:
1. For masonry work
2. For lintels and vertical columns
3. For covering floors of building
4. For Paving roads and foot paths
5. For the construction of roads in the form of boulders and aggregates
6. As an aggregates in cement as well as lime concrete
7. Base material for water and sewage filters, in water purification plant
and sewage treatment plant.
8. Facing works in building
9. Used as ballast in railway tracks
10.Lime stone is used as a flux in blast furnace
11.In the construction of masonry dams
12.Used as a substitute for sand.