Contouring

Definition of contour:
A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevation. It is a line
in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level surface.
Eg: A pond with water at an elevation of 100.000m as shown in the plan by the water mark. If
the water level is now lowered by 1m, another water mark representing 99.000m. Elevation
will be obtained. These water marks may be surveyed and represented on the map in the form
of contours.
Contour Interval:
The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called contour interval.
Horizontal equivalent:
The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive contours is known as the
horizontal equivalent.

Applications of contour:
Determination of Interivisibility: From the contour map it can be ascertained
whether any two points are intervisible or not.
Let it be required to ascertain the
intervisibility between A & B
having an elevation of 62m &
90m respectively, as shown on the
contour map. Draw line AB on
the plan. The difference in
elevation of A & B= (9062=28m). The line of sight
between A & B will have an
inclination 28m in a distance AB,
mark on the line of AB, the points
of elevation of 90, 85, 80.62m.
By calculation compare these
points with the corresponding
points in which the contours cut the line AB. Thus at the point E the line of sight will
have an elevation less than 75m, while the ground has an elevation of 75m. Thus there
will be an obstruction and points A & B will not be intervissible.

Measurement of Drainage area: A drainage area for a given point in the stream or
river can be defined as the area that forms the source of all water that possess that
point. A contour plan may be used to trace that line separating the basin from the rest
of area. Such line is also known as the water shed line. The line should be located in
such a position that the ground slope are down on either side of it and the area is
found by planimetric measurement.
Capacity of reservoir: Reservoirs are made for water supply and for power or
irrigation projects. A contour map is very useful to study the possible locations of a
dam and the volume of water to be confined. All the contours are closed lines within
the reservoir area.
The area A1, A2, A3. An between successive contour lines can be determined by a
planimeter and if h is the contour interval, the capacity of reservoir can be estimated
by the application of either the trapezoidal or prismoidal formula.
Trapezoidal formula:
Volume V= h [(A1+An)/2 +A2+A3+..An-1]
Prismoidal formula:
Volume V= h/3 [A1+An+4{A2+A4+.An-1}+2{A3+A5+.An-2}]

Site of structures: The most economical and suitable sites for structures such as
buildings, bridges, dams etc can be formed from large scale contour maps.

Earth work estimation: On the contour line of the original surface, the contour of
the desired altered surface are drown. By joining the intersections of the original
contours and the new one of equal value, the line in which the new surface cuts the
original is obtained. Using that line amount of cutting and amount of filling can be
found by multiplying the average contour interval.

Route location: By inspecting a contour map the most suitable site for a road,
railway, canal etc., can be selected. By following the contour lines, steep gradient,
cutting and filling etc., may be avoided.

Characteristic of contour lines:

1. All the points on a contour line have the same elevation.

2. Two contour lines of different elevation cannot cross each other. But in case of
overhanging cliff or a cave the contour lines of different elevation intersects.

3. Contour lines close together indicate steep slope. They indicate a gentle slope if
they are far apart. If they are equally spaced, uniform slope is indicated. A series
of striped parallel and equally spaced contours represents a plane surface.

4. A contour line must close onto itself not necessarily within the limits of a map.
5. A closed contour line with one or more higher one inside it represents a hill.
Similarly, a closed contour line with one or more lower ones inside it indicate a
depression without an outlet.

6. Irregular contour represents uneven ground.

7. Contour lines crosses a valley line at right angle. They form sharp curves of V
shape.
Methods of contouring:
The location of a point in topographic survey involves both horizontal as well as
vertical points.
The field method is divided into two:
a) Direct method
b) Indirect method

a) Direct method: In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually

traced on the ground. Only those points are surveyed which happen to be
plotted. After having surveyed those points, they are plotted and contours are
drawn through them. The method is slow and tedious and is used for small
areas and where great accuracy is required.
By Level and staff: The method consists of locating a series of points on the
ground having the same elevation. An instrument station is selected so that the
area to be surveyed with one view. The height of the instrument is fixed from
the nearest benchmark. For a particular contour value, the staff reading is
worked out. The staff man is then directed to move is then directed to move
right or left along the expected contour until the required reading is observed.
A series of points having same staff reading and thus the same elevation are
plotted and joined by a smooth curve.
b) Indirect method: in indirect method, some suitable guide points are selected
and surveyed; the guide points need not necessarily be on the contours. These
guide points, having been plotted, serve as a basis for the interpolation of
contours. This method is the most commonly used in engineering surveys.
The following are some of the indirect methods of locating the ground points:
i)
Method of squares: This method is used when the area to be surveyed
is small and the ground is not very much undulating. It is also called as
co-ordinate method of locating contours. The entire area is divided into
square or rectangles forming a grid. The elevation of the corners are
then determined by levelling, the level are then interpolated.

ii)

Method of cross-section: In this method, cross sections are run

transverse to the center line of a road, railway or canal etc. The
observations are made in the usual manner with a level or theodolite at
points on these traverse lines. The contour are then interpolated.

iii)

By tacheometric method: In the case of hilly terrain, the tacheometric

method may be used with advantages. A tacheometer is a theodolite
fitted with stadia diaphragm so that staff readings against all the three
hairs may be taken. To survey an area connected by series of hillock, a
tacheometric traverse may be run, the tacheometric traverse stations
being chosen at some commanding positions.

Interpolation of Contours:
Interpolation of contours is the process of spacing the contours proportionately
between the plotted ground points established by indirect method. It is based
on the assumption that the slope of ground between the two points is uniform.
The three methods of interpolation are:
i)
ii)
iii)

By estimation
By arithmetic calculations
By graphical method.

i)

By estimation: This method is extremely rough and is used for small

scale work only. The positions of contour points between the guide
points are located by estimation.

ii)

By arithmetic calculation: The method is accurate and is time

consuming. The positions of contour points between the guide points
are located by arithmetic calculation. For eg: let A, B, D & C be the
guide points plotted on the map, having elevations of 607.4, 617.3,
612.5 and 604.3 m respectively. Let AB=BD=CD=CA=1m on the plan
and let it be required to locate the position of 610m contour line. The
vertical difference in elevation between A and B is (617.3607.4)=9.9m. Hence the distance of the contour point from A will be;
Distance of 610m point= (1/9.9*2.6)= 0.26m (approx)
These contours points may be located on AB. Similarly, the position of
the contour points on the line AC, CD & BD may be located.

iii)

By graphical method: In the graphical method, the interpolation is

done with the help of a tracing paper or a tracing cloth. There are two
methods:

First method: The first method is illustrated in Fig. On a piece of tracing cloth,
several lines are drawn parallel to each other, say at an interval representing 0.2
metre. If required, each fifth may made heavier to represent each metre interval. Let
the bottom line of the diagram, so prepared on the tracing cloth. represent an

elevation of 99 m let it required to interpolate contours of 99.5, 100 and 100.5m

values between two points A and B having of 99.2 and 100.7 m Keep the tracing
cloth on the line in such a way that point A may lie on a parallel representing an
elevation of 99.2 metres. Now rotate the tracing cloth on drawing in such a way that
point B may lie on a parallel representing 100.7 metres. The points at which the
parallels rep- resenting 99.5 (point x), 100.0 (point y) and 100.5 (point z) may now
be pricked through the respective positions of the contour point on the line AB.

Second Method: The second method is illustrated in Fig. A line XYof any convenient
length is taken on a tracing cloth and divided into several parts. Each representing any
particular interval. Say 0.2 m. On a line perpendicular to XY at its mid-point. a pole O
is chosen and radial lines are drawn joining the pole O and the division on the line
XY. Let the bottom radial line represent an elevation of 97.0. If required, each fifth
radial line representing one metre interval may made dark. Let it be required to
interpolate contours of 98, 99, 100 and 101 metres elevations between two points A
and B having elevations Of 97.6 and 101.8 metres. Arrange the tracing cloth on the
line AB in such a way that the point A and B lie simultaneously on radial lines
representing 97.6 and 101.8 metres respectively. The points at which radial lines of
98, 99, 100 and 101 metres intersect AB may then be through.

AREA BY PLANIMETER

A planimeter is an instrument which measure area of plan of any very accurately. There are
two types of planimeters: (l) Amsler Polar Planimeter, (2) Roller Planimeter. The polar
planimeter is most commonly is.
Fig. shows the parts of a planimeter. It consists of two arms hinged at a point known as pivot
point. One of two arms carries an anchor at its end, and is known as the anchor arm. The
length of arm is generally fixed, but in some of the planimeters a variable length of anchor
arm is also provided. The other arm carries a tracing point at its end, and is known as the
tracing arm. The length of the tracing arm can be varied by means of a fixed screw and its
corresponding slow motion screw. The tracing point is moved along boundary of the plan the
area of which is to be normal displacement of the tracing arm is measured by means of a
wheel whose axis is kept parallel to the tracing arm. Wheel may either be placed between the
hinge and the tracing point or is placed the pivot point away from tracing the wheel carries a
drum which is divided into 100 divisions. A small vernier attached near the drum reads onetenth of the drum division.

The complete revolutions of the wheel are read on a disc actuated by a suitable gearing to the
wheel. Thus, each reading is four digits- the unit being read on the disc, the tenths and
hundredths on the drum, and the thousandths on the Vernier. In addition to this, a fixed index
near the disc can be utilized to know the number of the times the zero of the disc has crossed
the index.
Planimeter rests on the three points- the wheel, the anchor point and the tracing point. Out of
these, the anchor point remains fixed in position while the wheel partly rolls and partly slides
as the tracing point is moved along the boundary. Since the plane of the wheel is
perpendicular to the plane of the centre line of the tracing arm, the wheel measures only
normal displacement- when it actually rolls.

To find the area of the plan, the anchor point is either placed outside the area (if the area is
small) or it is placed inside the area (if the area is large). A point is then marked on the
boundary of area and the tracing point kept exactly over it. The initial reading of the wheel is
then taken. The tracing point is now moved clockwise along the boundary till it comes to the
starting point. The final reading of the drum is taken. The area of the figure is then calculated
from the following formula:
Area

() = M (F- I 10 N + C)

Where, F = final reading

I = initial reading
N = the number of times the zero mark of the dial passes the fixed index mark.
Use plus sign if the zero mark of the dial passes the index mark in a clockwise
direction and minus sign when it passes in the anticlockwise direction.
M = A multiplying constant, also sometimes known as the planimeter constant.
It is equal to the area per revolution of the roller.
C = constant of the instrument which when multiplied by M, gives the area of
zero circle. The constant C is to be added only when the anchor point is inside
the area.
It is to be noted that the tracing point is to be moved in the clockwise direction only. Proper
sign must be given to N.

Minor Instrument

Hand Level:
A hand level is a simple, compact instrument used for reconnaissance and preliminary survey,
for locating contours on the ground and for
taking short cross-sections. It consists of a
rectangular or circular tube, 10 to 15 cm long,
provided with a small bubble tube at the top.
A line of sight, parallel to the axis of the
bubble tube, is defined by a line joining a pinhole at the eye end and a horizontal wire at
the object end. In order to view the bubble
tube at the instant the object is sighted, a small
opening, immediately below the bubble, is
provided in the tube. The bubble is reflected
through this opening on to a mirror. Which is inside the tube inclined at 450 to the axis, and
immediately under the bubble tube. The mirror occupies half the width of the tube and the
objects are sighted through the other half. The line of sight is horizontal when the centre of
bubble appears opposite the cross-wire, or lies on a lire ruled on the reflector.
To use the instrument

(i) Hold the instrument in hand (preferably against a rod or staff) at the eye level sight the
staff kept at the point to be observed.
(ii) Raise or lower the object end of till the image of the bubble seen in the reflector is
bisected by the cross-wire.
(iii) Take the staff reading against the cross-wire
Adjustment of the hand level (Fig. 2)
To make the line of sight horizontal
when the bubble is centred.
(l) Select two rigid supports P Q at
about 20 to 30 metre apart.
(2) Hold the level at a point A on the
support at P and mark a point D on the other support Q, when the bubble is central.
(3) Shift the instrument to Q, hold it at the point D, centre the bubble, and mark the point B
where the line Of sight strikes the first support. If A and B do not coincide, the instrument
requires adjustment.
(4) Select a point C midway between A and B. With the adjustment Screws, raise or lower the
cross-wire till the line of sight bisects C.
Ceylon Ghat Tracer:
It is a very useful instrument for setting out
gradients. It essentially consists of a long
circular tube having a hole at end and crosswires at the other ends. The tube is separated
by a A-frame having a hole at its top to fix the
instrument to a straight rod or stand. The tube
is also engraved to give readings of gradients.
A heavy weight slides along the tube by a
suitable rack and pinion arrangement. The
weight, at its top, contains one bevelled edge
which slides along the graduations of the bar,
and serves as an index. The line of sight is
defined by the line joining the hole to the
intersection of the cross-wires and its
prolongation. When the bevelled edge of the
weight is against the zero reading, the line of
sight is horizontal. For the elevated gradients, the weight is slided towards the observer. For
falling gradients the weight is slided away from the observer.
(a) To measure a slope

1. Fix the instrument on to the stand and hold it to one end of the line. Keep the target at the
other end.
2. Looking through the eye hole, move the sliding weight till the line Of sight passes through
the cross mark of the sight vane.
3. The reading against the bevelled edge of the weight will give the gradient of the line.
(b) To set out a gradient
l. Hold the instrument at one end.
2. The assistant at the other with the target.
3. Slide the weight to set it to the given gradient, say 1 in n.
4. Direct the assistant to raise or lower the target till it is bisected.
Drive a peg at the other end so that the top of the peg is at the same level as that the bottom of
the target.

Abney level
This is also known as clinometer. This is similar to a hand level with the difference that the
bubble tube is movable with respect to the sighting tube. A pointer is attached to the bubble
tube and moves along an arc graduated in degrees and in percent of slope. When the pointer
is set at zero, the clinometer is used as a hand level. This has an advantage that the vertical
angles or percentage slope can also be measured if desired. For measuring a vertical angle,
the Abney level is directed towards the object. The bubble will not remain in centre, since the
telescope will have to be inclined. It is brought to the centre by a milled-head screw and
consequently the bubble tube rotates. The index arm with the vernier moves, since the bubble
tube is fixed to the former. When the object is seen through the plain portion of the mirror
along with the reflected and bisected image of the bubble, the reading on the graduated arc
gives the slope.