Clear background to the study, and well defined problem(s).

Study objectives are

clearly defined and elaborated. Includes related theory and existing technologies
with proper references to articles, books, reports, and patents.

Introduction
Current and past research provides us with a wealth of information on noise generation in
lawn mowers as well as ways to reduce them. The re-design and development of a lawn
mower blade to reduce noise requires a careful review and analysis of the available
information in order to determine a suitable methodology for attaining the objectives.
It is important to firstly revisit the concepts of sound and noise as these are not only the
fundamental concept behind this project but would also provide a better understanding for
the reader.
Concepts such as noise generation in lawn mowers and lawn mower blade designs would
also be discussed along with other relevant information in an effort to acquaint the reader.

A Background on Sound/Noise
What is Sound?
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or
substance to vibrate propagating a mechanical wave of pressure (P) and displacement(d),
through an elastic medium such as air or water. This vibration causes sound waves which
radiate outwards from their source in all directions. This wave motion can be thought of as a
particle being subjected to some disturbance and colliding with adjacent particles imparting
momentum to them (Norton and Karczub 2003).

Figure 1 Sound Wave Passing Through Air. (2016) Retrieved from

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/u11l1c.cfm.

How is Sound Measured?

The most common parameter used in the measurement of sound is the sound pressure level
expressed in Pa or Pa. The response to sound from a healthy human ear is not comparable
to sound received by a microphone; rather it is far more sensitive to frequencies around
normal speech (Turner and Pretlove 1991). Human ear audible sound pressure levels range
from 20 Pa (hearing threshold) till 20 Pa (pain threshold), resulting in the scale 1:
10,000,000. Since using such a large scale is not practical, a logarithmic scale in decibels
(dB) was introduced. The magnitude of a sound wave (dB) can be found using:

PL =10 log 10

Where

P2
Pref

( )

PL is the sound pressure level;

P2 Is the time- averaged mean squared pressure (Pa);

Pref

Is 20 x 10-6 Pa

Table 1 Relative Increase in Power of Decibels (2012).

Sound sources are often complex and difficult to accurately model without the assistance of
computer packages. Most sources of concern to engineers can be modelled as simple sources
like spheres, pistons in an infinite baffle, cylinders, or some combination of these.

What is Noise?
As previously stated, sound waves are generated by vibrations moving through the air, and
they are perceived through a complex interaction of these vibrations hitting the inner ear.
These vibrations are further translated into neurologic signals, which are registered in the
brain and received as intelligible information.
Noise can be defined as disagreeable or undesired sound or other disturbances (Bies and
Hansen 2003). Noise can even be normal sounds that get in the way of being able to perceive
wanted sounds.

Effects of Noise:
Excessive loud noise can result in hearing loss and other physiological damage in human
beings. The following discusses some of the major effects of excessive loud noise on the
human being.
1. Noise and vibration are correlative, but this is often overlooked in the study of
dynamics. The wave of the noise produced by a mechanical vibration is related to the
mode experienced by the solid structure (Norton and Karczub 2003). It is visceral that
the benefits of reducing noise also have a positive impact on reducing vibration.
The effects of vibration on the operator are covered in detail in extensive medical
literature and health effects are well researched. Constant exposure to vibration has
been known to cause serious health problems such as back pain, carpal tunnel
syndrome, and vascular disorders. The following figure shows risk level associated
with different vibrations.

Figure 2 Risk Level Associated with Vibrations. (2014)

2. Exposure to continuous noise of 8590 dBA, particularly over a lifetime in industrial

settings, can lead to a progressive loss of hearing, with an increase in the threshold of
hearing sensitivity. Hearing impairments due to noise are a direct consequence of the
effects of sound energy on the inner ear. The intensity in decibels (dB sound pressure
level (SPL)) of the noise determines the rapidity with which the ear is damaged. The
following figure shows the decibel level of a number of sounds:

Figure 3 Showing Decibel Levels of Various Sounds. (1994) Adapted from: Handbook of environmental
Acoustics, James Cowan

3. In addition to its potential harmful effects, noise can be annoying. It can often
interfere with sleep, communication, work, and mental health. Unlike the noise limits
set to prevent hearing loss, it is difficult to determine specific acceptable limits in
sound pressure level below which there will be no annoyance. The World Health
Organisation(WHO) identifies community noise as a source of dissatisfaction in
everyday life. They note community noise has adverse impacts on psychological and
social functioning in day to day life, reducing cognitive capacity and responsiveness
(World Health Organisation 2013).

Regulations
The Environmental Management Authority (EMA) standards for noise in commercial areas
of Trinidad and Tobago are 80 dB at day and 65 dB at night (The Environmental
Management Act, 2000 The Noise Pollution Control Rules, 2000). The louder the noise the
shorter the safe amount of exposure. For example, the Occupational Safety and Health Act
specifies that the safe amount of exposure at 90 dB is 8 hours, whilst that at 95 dB is 4 hours.
Exceeding the permitted limit can cause hearing loss, physical and psychological stress and
loss of concentration.

Lawn Mowers and Noise

Several authors proclaim that the contribution of machine noise due to underdeck sources is
around the same as the noise produced by a combustion power source (Shepherd & Gibson
1980; Guenther et al. 1977). With recent improvements in technology, most notably the
adoption of electric lawn mowers, this gap has extended greatly. A clear approach to address
these issues is to reduce the under deck sources.

Investigating Sources of Noise:

The International Institute of Noise Control Engineering (I-INCE) is currently seeking to
develop software to aid in the prediction of noise from rotating bladed machinery. Noise
prediction is closely linked to pressure pulsation spectra and the different tonal components
are proportional to the rotor angular speed. Current programs used in fan noise modelling are
based on Lighthills equations which were proposed by Lighthill to describe small scale
turbulence and are hence do not fully model the behaviour of all bladed machinery
(Timushev 2010).
A study conducted on the effects of blade and housing designs on air flow pattern used
velocity field measurements, simulations and high-speed video footage to gather data which
was intended to be used to develop a database to predict aerodynamic flows. The velocity
field was observed using a TSI Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) system and a sound level
meter was used to measure the noise generated by the lawnmower. This test enabled the
investigators to observe the airflow pattern at various locations on the lawnmower deck. This
flow pattern was further observed by feeding small pieces of paper to the rotating blade and
observing unpredictable flow patterns inside the lawnmower deck using a high-speed video
camera (Chon and Amano 2005).

Underdeck Noise Sources:

Today lawnmowers must not exceed more than 75 dB (A) at a distance of 7.5 meters (re 20
Pa) (ACT Government 2013). The common sources of noise production from a domestic
mower are from the engine, the exhaust, the body, and the blades (Acoustical Society of
America 2013).
Previous research identifies that extensive effort has been invested in reducing engine and
exhaust noise, however, the total sound power produced by under deck sources remains a
difficult problem to redress. For electric motors which are emission free, exhaust noise is
irrelevant and engines are replaced with motors thus leaving the blade as the only main
source of noise.
Previous research has addressed several aspects pertaining to blade noise and identified the
major contributors as; aerodynamic noise from vortices on the trailing edges and circulating
the blade tips, blade bypass frequency and effects of pressure fluctuations as the blades pass
a fixed point in space or scroll cut-off (Turner and Pretlove 1991; Norton and Karczub 2003).

Blade Noise:
Several authors identify aerodynamic noise originating from aerodynamic sources as
significant contributors to the total machine noise. Reduction of aerodynamic noise in blades
and fans has been the subject of many research papers over the years.
Aerodynamic noise is produced by turbulent flows which are characterised by fluctuating
velocity fields, and therefore local produce pressure variations (Reza et al 2003).
In general, aerodynamic noise consists of two important parts, periodic noise and broadband
noise. Periodic noise has two mechanisms of generation. It occurs as a result of the blades
rotating pressure profile and also because of localized disturbances of this rotating pressure
field by the grass deflector chute.
Discrete tones are produced by several sources. These are; the pressure field that rotates with
the blades, the aerodynamic interaction between the blade and the deck at the tips of the
blade, and vortex shedding. These discrete sources depend on the blade type being used and
the operating speed.
Broadband noise appears in two major forms, vortex noise and turbulence noise. Vortex noise
is the sound associated with the formation and shedding of vortices from the trailing edge of
the blade and by vortices at the blade tip. This phenomenon is also referred to as wake
shedding and shares similar noise producing attributes with fans, blowers, and etc. These
sources are dependent on operating speed; however, the magnitude of the sound is influenced
rather than frequency.
Experimental analysis of aerodynamic noise by Bockhoff et al. (2003) utilising experimental
and numerical analyses alleged that the interaction between the blade tip and housing were
being significant. By showing the significance of the interaction between structure and
blades Bockhoff et al. (2003) give questionability over earlier authors works where
aerodynamic analyses investigated blades in free space (Applegate and Crocker 1976).

Sheppard and Gibson (1980) investigate the flow characteristics over blades of varying
thickness. The experiments utilised by Sheppard and Gibson (1980) investigated vortex
formations over the geometries in a small wind tunnel. In their work they found
commercially available blades to have the poorest performance and produced large vortices
proportionate to the size of the raised wing. The research contribution made by Sheppard and
Gibson (1980) was the use of a streamlined (air foil) blade that incorporated a raised wing
produced a reduction of 6 dB(A) on full scale experiments. While these modifications
provide a significant reduction in noise, Sheppard and Gibson (1980) acknowledge that
function is severely compromised. The streamlined blade did not provide sufficient air swirl
to catch the clippings (Sheppard and Gibson 1980). Sheppard and Gibson (1980) conclude
that the best way to achieve a good cut and catching function from the grass is to use the
commercial blades with a wing angle of 60 or greater to generate a swirl velocity at the
extremities of 30 m/s. The alternative course of action offered by Sheppard and Gibson
(1980) is to use an ancillary system to generate air swirl and use the blades for a cutting
function only.
Sheppard and Gibson (1980) found streamlining provides an opportunity for sound reduction
of aerodynamic noise, particularly the sources originating from tip and trailing edge vortex
formations. Increasing the blade wing angle increases blade induced noise sources captured
by the SPL experiments. The increase in wing angle increases noise sources for all
frequencies, and increases the specific low frequency sources.
Sperry and Sanders [2008] have studied the noise of lawn mower blades in some detail.
Octave band levels were used to determine how various blade parameters affected the noise.
Among the parameters studied were blade width, condition of the edges, i.e. sharp or blunt,
length of sharp edges, end conditions, hub radius, lift, and the noise of various S shaped
blades. They reached the following conclusions concerning noise in the range 600 Hz to
9600 Hz.
Octave band levels decrease about 5 dB when the blade leading edge is sharp
As the, blade width increased from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 inches, octave band levels in the
range of 600 Hz to 9600 Hz increased about 5 dB

 Bending the blade in an S in the direction of rotation resulted in a 5 dB drop in

octave band levels in the range 600 Hz to 9600 Hz
Fan type ends, i.e. blade with lift, had slightly less noise.
Patents contain useful information and can be used to successfully carry out projects. A
Patent entitled Vortex reducing mower blade includes a blade that has a design which
includes a boundary-layer fence which can be angled upwardly or downwardly and serves to
reduce the occurrence of air vortices behind the trailing edges of the blade. The applicant
suggests that the blade be manufactured from flat steel stock and operations such as stamping
or press forming be used to achieve the final design (Siplinger 2001). The pros of this design
are that it does not contain any holes that can be blocked and the height of the boundarylayer fence is small compared to the length of the blade which implies that it would not be a
site of high pressure stresses or fracture.
Another patents that contain useful information on the design of devices including
lawnmower blades is titled Low noise producing lawn mower blade, the blade design
includes vanes on the ends of the cutting edges to create lift to cut the grass and perforations
to relieve the air pressure and thus reduce the noise generated (Moore 1981). The principle
behind this design is very similar to that of the winglet on commercial aircrafts, which
reduce wingtip vortices and prevents energy loss and the danger of the aircraft flipping over
mid-flight. The design of such winglets takes into consideration the angle to which the
winglet is bent from the vertical and the angle at which the winglets airfoils diverge from the
relative wind direction to enable proper airflow around the winglet. A disadvantage to this
design however is that the perforations may get clogged during use of the mower and may
serve to increase the noise generated.

All research thus far gives a general trend in ways to reduce noise:
A blade with less lift should produce less intense periodic noise, however, this may
have adverse effects on the operation of the mower especially when bagging grass.

 Sharpening or streamlining the blade should produce a blade with less high frequency
noise.
The sharpening of leading and trailing edges has an impact on noise reduction
Reducing the blade speed reduces noise
The use of thinner narrower blades also reduces the noise generated.

(2012). Beyond the Basics: Demystifying dB - SonicScoop.

(2016). Sound is a Pressure Wave.
Bies, D. A. and C. H. Hansen (2003). Engineering noise control : theory and practice.
London ; New York, Spon Press.
Norton, M. P. and D. G. Karczub (2003). Fundamentals of noise and vibration
analysis for engineers / M.P. Norton and D.G. Karczub. Cambridge, U.K. ; New York,
Cambridge University Press.
Turner, J. D. and A. J. Pretlove (1991). Acoustics for engineers. London, Macmillan
Education.