12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

Share

APS>Education>Introductory>IntroductiontothePathogenGroups

Introductionto
thePathogen
Groups

BacteriaasPlantPathogens
Vidaver,A.K.andP.A.Lambrecht2004.Bacteriaasplantpathogens.ThePlantHealthInstructor.DOI:10.1094/PHII2004
080901

PlantDisease
Lessons

AnneK.VidaverandPatriciaA.Lambrecht
DepartmentofPlantPathology,UniversityofNebraska,Lincoln,NE

Laboratory
Exercises

Introduction

TopicsinPlant
Pathology
CaseStudies
HungryPlanet:
StoriesofPlant
Diseases
APSnetFeature
Articles
ResourceGuide

Bacteriaaresinglecelledmicroorganisms,generallyrangingfrom12minsize
thatcannotbeseenwiththeunaidedeye(Figure1).Plantassociatedbacteriamay
bebeneficialordetrimental.Allplantsurfaceshavemicrobesonthem(termed
epiphytes),andsomemicrobesliveinsideplants(termedendophytes).Someare
residentsandsomearetransient.Bacteriaareamongthemicrobesthat
successivelycolonizeplantsastheymature.Individualbacterialcellscannotbe
seenwithouttheuseofamicroscope,however,largepopulationsofbacteria
becomevisibleasaggregatesinliquid,asbiofilmsonplants,asviscous
suspensionspluggingplantvessels,orcoloniesonpetridishesinthelaboratory.
Forbeneficialpurposesoraspathogens,populationsof106CFU(colony
formingunits/milliliter)orhigherarenormallyrequiredforbacteriatofunctionas
biologicalcontrolagentsorcauseinfectiousdisease.

Figure1

Plantpathogenicbacteriacausemanyseriousdiseasesofplantsthroughoutthe
world(Vidhyasekaran2002Figure2),butfewerthanfungiorviruses,andthey
causerelativelylessdamageandeconomiccost(KennedyandAlcorn1980).
Mostplants,botheconomicandwild,haveinnateimmunityorresistanceto
manypathogens.However,manyplantscanharborplantpathogenswithout
symptomdevelopment(asymptomatic).

Figure2

returntotop

Frontiers:CurrentandFutureAreasofInquiry
Themostexcitingandcurrentareasofresearchonplantassociatedbacteriaare
theresultofnewintellectualdiscoveries,analysesandfieldsofstudy,new
techniquesandnewinstrumentationunavailableevenadecadeago.For
example,genomicsequencing,ortheorderedreadingofthousandsof
nucleotidesconstitutingthedeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)ofanorganism,isnow
relativelycommon.Yet,ofmorethan166sequencedandpublishedbacterial
genomes(NationalCenterforBiotechnologyInformation/NCBI2004)not
includingArchaea,atthistimeonlyeightareplantpathogens.Alongwith
sequencinganditsenormousdataaccumulationhasarisenthefieldof
bioinformaticstoenablecommunicationamongscientistsandanalysesofthe
data,particularlycomparativeandevolutionarystudies.Evensupposedlysimple
stepslikeannotationofagene,oritsnameorfunction,remainsachallenge.The
AmericanPhytopathologicalSocietyhasmadeacaseoftheneedforadditional
bacteriatobesequenced(APS2003).Formaximalusefulness,suchas
unequivocalidentificationofanorganismanddeterminationofthenumberofits
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

1/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

virulencegenesandtheirlocations,afullyannotatedgenomesequenceis
needed(Fraseretal.2002).AnalyzingtheexpressionofDNAthrough
intermediatestepswithmicroarraysisapowerfulemergingtool(Hindsetal.
2003).Similarly,methodsforcharacterizingtheentireproteincomplementofan
organism(proteomics)arebecomingavailable(GravesandHayward2002).
Thesenewandevolvingtechniquesareenablingthestudyofvirulence(the
diseaseseverity)andpathogenicity(theabilitytocausedisease),strain
(descendantsofasingleisolationinculture)identificationandtyping(similarityor
differenceanalysisrelativetootherstrains),evolutionandspreadofbacteria,
geneexpressionandgeneregulation.Thesediscoveriesareoccurringbothwith
naturalbacterialvariantsandmutantsconstructedinthelaboratory.The
expectationistoexploitthesefindingsforimproveddiseasemanagement.
Mechanismsofpathogenicityofbacterialplantpathogensarebecomingwell
known(AhlemeyerandEichenlaub2001,BurgerandEichenlaub2003).
Virulenceandpathogenicitygenesmaybeharboredindifferentreplicons
(independentreplicatingunits),suchasspreadthroughoutthechromosome(s)or
inspecializedareastermedgenomicorpathogenicityislands(Arnoldetal.
2003),inbacterialvirusesintegratedinthechromosomeorina'carrier'state,
andononeormoreextrachromosomalelements(plasmids).Thefunctionsof
mostgenes,includingthoseonextrachromosomalelements,aren'tknownand
it'sestimatedthateachbacteriumhasabout40%ofitsgenomedevotedto
uniquegenes.
Populationdevelopmentmustnormallyoccurformanybacteriatosurviveand
infectplants.Infectiousdosesnormallyareinthemillionsofcells.Inseveral
cases,andperhapsall,thecellscommunicatechemicallywithoneanother
(quorumsensing)andwithotherspecies.Thesechemicalsensingmoleculesare
underintensivestudy(FederleandBassler2003).Insomecases,andperhaps
most,microorganismsorganizeindensegrowthstoformbiofilmsthattightly
adheretosurfaces,servingasprotectantsagainsttheelementsandenabling
cellstoproduceafavorableenvironmentforsurvivalandspread.
Somestructuresusedbybacteriatoinsertchemicalcompoundsintoplantcells
arewellstudied,suchasthesocalledTypeIIIsecretionsystem(fivetypesare
currentlyknown).TheTypeIIIsystemoperatessomewhatlikeasyringeand
plungertotransportpathogenproducedproteinsthateffectdiseaseortrigger
defense(Pocianoetal.2003Figure3).Thesemechanismshavesometimes
shownsurprisingandunexpectedsimilaritytothosefoundinanimalandhuman
pathogens(Caoetal.2001).Thereareevenafewstrainsofbacteriathatcross
kingdoms:theycaninfectbothplantsandhumans.Thegeneticbasisforsuch
noveltyisofimmenseinterestandsignificanceregardingthebasisofinfectious
disease.

Figure3

Commercialtransgenicplantsandthoseindevelopmentdependheavilyonthe
useofa'disarmed'pathogen,Agrobacteriumtumefaciens,asavectortoinserta
gene(s)ofinterest.Manychallengesremainintransformationofcertainplant
varietiesandspecies,aswellaspredictableandstableexpressionoftransgenes
(Gelvin2003).
Challengesandopportunitiesforthefutureinplantmicrobiologyabound(Vidaver
1999).Thebestisyettocome.Forexample,oneofthecurrentchallengesis
providinghealthyplantsforhumansduringlongtermspacetraveland
exploration(Ferletal.2002).
Ontheplantside,manyavenuesarebeingexplored(Vidhyasekaran2002).
Understandingandmanipulatingresistanceinhostplantsisextremelyimportant.
Hostresistancemaybeduetooneorseveralresistancegenes(orRgenes)to
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

2/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

specificpathogensharboringvirulencegenes.Ifthevirulencegenestriggera
hostdefenseresponse,theyaretermedavirulence(avr)genes.Iftheresistance
ismoregeneral,avarietyofpreformeddefensemechanisms,bothstructuraland
chemical,maybeinvolvedwithinducedchemicalsaswell(localorsystemic
acquiredresistance)(Phuntumart2003).Studiesofpathogeninteractionsin
modelsystems,particularlyArabidopsisthaliana,areenablingclearer
understandingofsusceptibilityandresistanceapplicabletomorecomplexplants
(Heath2002).Sequencingofmajorplantgenomesisunderwayaswell,withrice
beingcompleted.Multipleallelesandchromosomes,aswellascomplextraits
arechallengesinunderstandingandmanaginghostresistance.
Compilinginformationfromsequencingandfunctionalanalysisofboth
pathogensandmajorcropplantsisexpectedtobringnewinsightsusefulfor
sustaineddiseasemanagement.
Theforgoingdependsonabasicknowledgeofthesebacteria,whichfollows.
returntotop

History
Individualbacteriawerefirstseenbyhumansabout325yearsagowhenthey
weremagnifiedbythefirstmicroscope.It'sonlybeenalittleover100yearssince
abacteriumwasfirstimplicatedasacausalagentinaplantdisease.Bacteria
wereshownin1878tobeassociatedwithfireblightofapplesandpearsinIllinois
andNewYork,USA(Burrill1878).(fireblightdiseaselesson).Thedisease
causedbyErwiniaamylovora,nowwidespreadthroughoutmuchofthe
temperateworld,remainsalimitingfactoringrowthofhealthyappleandpear
trees(Figure4).In1885,J.C.Arthurwasabletoisolateabacteriumfromdiseased
plants,cultureit,andtheninoculatethesamehosttoreproduceanaturally
occurringdisease.Herecovereditsubsequentlyfromdiseasedtissue,fulfilling
whatisknownasKoch'spostulates(Arthur1885).Andit'sonlybeenabout120
yearssincethedevelopmentofsterilizedsemisolidmedia,firstgelatinandthen
agarwithvariousnutrientsadded,thatenabledtheisolationofpurifiedcultures,
atechniquetakenforgrantedtoday(Koch1881).

Figure4

Bacteriaasplantpathogenscancausesevereeconomicallydamagingdiseases,
rangingfromspots,mosaicpatternsorpustulesonleaves(Figure5)andfruits,or
smellytuberrotstoplantdeath.Somecausehormonebaseddistortionofleaves
andshootscalledfasciation(Figure6),orcrowngall,aproliferationofplantcells
producingaswellingattheintersectionofstemandsoil(Figure7)andonroots.

Figure5

Figure6

Figure7

returntotop

BasicBiology
Bacteriaassociatedwithplantshaveseveralmorphologicalshapesascanbe
seenwithconventionalmicroscopesat400xto1000xmagnification.These
shapesinitiallyprovidedsimplewaystodifferentiatethem.Therearebacilli
(rods),cocci(spherical),pleomorphicrods(tendencytowardirregularshapes)
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

3/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

andspiralshapes.Themajorityofplantassociatedbacteriaarerods.However,
modernsciencehasshownbybiochemical,geneticandmolecularbiological
analysesthatthesebacteriaarequiteheterogeneous.Somearerelatedtoand
groupedwithanimalandhumanpathogens.
Bydifferenttypesofmicroscopy(BasicMicroscopy),principallyfluorescent,
confocal,phasecontrastandelectronmicroscopy,onecanseedifferentpartsof
bacterialcells(Figure8).Stainsareoftenusefulinthedifferentiationofstructures.

Figure8

ChromosomescomposedofDNAarecoiledandtheremaybemorethanone
percell.Plasmids,orextrachromosomalgenomicentitiesmaybepresent,and
cancodeforessentialvirulencefactorsorconversely,biologicalcontrolfactors,
whicharechemicalseffectiveagainstdeleteriousbacteriaorfungi.Storage
granulescanbeseeninsomebacteria.Bacterialcellsmayormaynothave
appendages:flagella,usuallyatthepolesofthecells(formovement)and
fimbriaeorpili,smallerthreadlikeappendages,usuallyatmultiplelocations.
Thereissomeevidencethatflagellatedcellsproducelargerlesionsthannon
flagellatedmutants.Thefimbriaearebelievedtobehelpfulinattachment,
somewhatlikeaVelcrofastener.Flagellaandfimbriae,aswellasdifferent
partsofthecellwallandcellmembranemaycontainreceptorsitesforbacterial
viruses(bacteriophage)(Figure9).However,bacteriawithoutdetectible
appendagescanbeeffectivepathogens.

Figure9

Onlaboratorymedia,plantpathogensusuallygrowmoreslowlythannon
pathogenicbacteriaisolatedfromplants,withoptimaltemperaturesof2030C
(6886F).Thismakesisolationsometimesverychallenging.Afewgrowat37C
(99F)(orhigher),thetemperatureatwhichhumanpathogens,e.g.Burkholderia
cepacia,(APSnetFeature:Burkholderiacepacia:FriendorFoe),areableto
grow.Somecangrowslowlyat1012C(5054F).Mostareaerobic,someare
facultativeanaerobes(i.e.theycangrowwithorwithoutoxygen),andararefew
areanaerobes.Athighconcentrationsaccompanyingthegrowthofcolonies
(eachcolonyisabout107to108cells)onsolidmedia,characteristicpigments
mayformwithinthecolonyorcanbeexcretedintothegrowthmedium,andmay
requirespeciallighting(e.g.UV)fordetection(Figure10).Occasionally,bacterial
pigmentscanbedetectedinseed(Figure11).Mediumrequirementsforgrowthmay
besimpleorcomplexsomebacteriahaven'tbeencultured.(Fastidious
VascularColonizingBacteria).Somebacteriacanproducecharacteristicvolatile
compounds,oftenwithanunpleasantodor.Thinkofthesmellofrottenpotatoes,
forexample.

Figure10

Figure11

returntotop

http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

4/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

Reproduction
Ingeneral,bacteriareproducebybinaryfission(onecellsplittingintotwo),but
theprocessiscomplex.Ifpresent,theextrachromosomalDNAelementsor
plasmidsareusuallyreproducedinsynchronywiththebacterialchromosome,
butundersomeconditionscanbelostnaturallyorbychemicalmanipulation
('cured').Manyplantpathogensharborplasmids,e.g.strainsofPantoea(syn:
Erwinia)stewartiisubsp.stewartii(Stewart'swiltofcorndiseaselesson)may
haveupto13plasmidsofunknownfunction(Coplinetal.1981).Genetic
variationinnaturalsettings,e.g.fields,isprobablyunderestimatedduetolackof
samplingandcharacterization.Forexample,atleastsevenpathogenicvariants
oftheGoss'swiltandblightbacteriumofcorn,Clavibactermichiganensissubsp.
nebraskensis(SmidtandVidaver1987),havebeendetectedinasinglefield.
Horizontaltransfer,thepassageofDNAfromonebacterialcelltoanother,may
beaccomplishedinthelaboratoryandisassumedtoaccountformuchofthe
geneticvariationamongstrainsofaspeciesandevenamongspeciesinnature.
Bacteriamayalsoharborprophage,astableinheritedformofabacterialvirusor
remnantsofprophageintegratedintotheirchromosomes.Ifawholephageis
integrated,somecellsmaylyse(breakopen)naturallyorcanbeinducedtolyse
bychemicaltreatment,e.g.mitomycinC.Inaveryrarecase,apparentlyboth
pathogenicityfactorsandapotentmammaliantoxinarecarriedbyanon
integratedbacterialvirusinRathayibactertoxicus(Opheletal.1993).

Systematics
returntotop

MostoftheplantpathogenicbacteriaareeitherGrampositive,classifiedwithin
thePhylumActinobacteria,orGramnegative,inthePhylumProteobacteria.
GrampositiveandGramnegativecellsappearpurpleorred,respectively,with
specificstainswhenviewedat1000xmagnificationwithalightmicroscope(Figure
12).Thedifferentcolorslargelyreflectdifferencesinstainretentionbythe
respectivecellwallsofthebacteriaduringthestainingprocess.Further
differentiationisbasedonchemicalorphysiologicalcharacteristics,e.g.cellwall
composition,enzymeproduction,substrateutilization,etc.Molecular
characterizationof16SribosomalRNAalsomaydistinguishbacteriafromone
another.Ribosomesarecodedbyahighlyconservedpartofthebacterial
chromosomeandrepresentonlyasmallpartofthegenome.But,the'gold
standard'fordeterminingphylogeneticrelationshipsisDNA:DNAhomologyby
hybridizationorgenomicsequencing.Suchanalysesaresometimesatvariance
withribosomalanalyses.

Figure12

Interpretationsofrelationshipsvarywithtime,newtechniquesandmoredata.
Thus,bacterialnamescanchangefromoneeratoanother.Itissometimes
challengingtoreadscientificliteratureandmakelegislativedecisionswithout
knowledgeofallthesynonymsforaparticularbacterium.Updatednomenclature
ofbacterialplantpathogenscanbefoundinYoungetal.(1996)oraccessed
electronicallyinwebbasedbacterialnomenclaturedatabases(Table1),whichare
frequentlyupdated.Theselistingsincludethehistoricalandallpublishednames
foraparticularbacterium.

Table1.
BacterialPlantPathogen
WebsitesofInterest
Bacterial
Nomenclature

Bacterial
Nomenclature
Uptodate

http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm

Listof
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

5/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

Bacterial
Nameswith
Standingin
Nomenclature

Microbiology

Plant
Pathology

http://www.bacterio.cict.fr/

Bergey's
Manualof
Systematic
Bacteriology
2ndEdition
Taxonomic
Outlineofthe
Procaryotes

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bergeysoutline200210

CellsAlive

http://cellsalive.com/

Microbe
World

http://www.microbeworld.org/

Bacteria
Museum

http://www.bacteriamuseum.org

The
Microbiology
Information
Portal

http://www.microbes.info/

PlantPath
Internet
GuideBook

http://www.pk.unibonn.de/ppibg/ppigb.htm

PlantDisease
Control
PictureIndex

http://plant
disease.ippc.orst.edu/image_index.cfm

Inaddition,duetotheinabilityofhumanstootherwisedifferentiatesomehost
specificplantpathogenicbacteria,theconceptofpathovarsorpathogenic
variantsandraces,differentiatedbyhostrange,canbefoundintheliterature.
Thissystemisatvariancewithnamingofpathogensofanimalsandhumans,
wherehostrangedifferencesmayberecognizedbutarenotpartofan
organism'sname.Also,complicatingthesystematicsofplantpathogenicbacteria
isthepresenceofessentialplasmids.PathogenicAgrobacteriumtumefaciens
causescrowngallonalargenumberofhosts(crowngalldiseaselesson).
Withoutitsspecifictumorinducingplasmid(termedtumorinducingorTiplasmid)
thestrainsareequivalenttononpathogenicA.radiobacter.
returntotop

Survival
Survivalofplantpathogenicbacteriainnatureoccursmostcommonlyinplant
debrisleftonthesoilsurface,inandonseeds,insoil,andinassociationwith
perennialhosts.Butsomebacteriacanalsosurviveinwaterandsomedowell
oninanimateobjectsoronorinsideinsects.Clavibactermichiganensissubsp.
sepedonicus,causativeagentofpotatoringrot,isnotoriouslyknownfor
survivingonmachineryandpackagingmaterial.Knowledgeofsurvivalisusually
essentialtointerveneindisseminationandfordiseasemanagement.
returntotop

Dissemination
Disseminationofplantpathogenicbacteriaiseasy,butfortunatelydoesnot
alwaysresultindisease.Disseminationcommonlyoccursbywindblownsoiland
sandparticlesthatcauseplantwounding,particularlyduringorafterrainsor
storms(Figure13).Woundingisessentialforentrybymanyplantpathogens.
Aerosolsgeneratedbydiurnaltemperaturefluctuationsenabledissemination,if
temperatureandhumidityarealigned(HiranoandUpper1989).Someplant
diseasesrequirecertaintemperatureconditionse.g.Pseudomonassyringae
(synonym:P.savastanoi)pv.phaseolicolacausesdiseasebelow22C(72F)
andXanthomonascampestris(syn:X.axonopodis)pv.phaseoli,above22Con
drybean(Phaseolusvulgaris).Bothdiseasescanoccursimultaneouslyunder
growthconditionsinwhichdayandnighttemperaturedifferentialsenable
diseaseprogressioninsusceptibleplants.Infested(surfacecontamination)or
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

6/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

infectedseedoranyplantpartcanbesourcesofbacterialinoculum.Machinery,
clothing,packingmaterialandwatercanalsodisseminatepathogens,ascan
insectsandbirds.Continualmonocultureinanareawillusuallyenableincreases
ininoculum,makingiteasierforpathogenstobedisseminated.

Figure13

returntotop

HostPathogenInteractions
Infectionofplantsbybacteriacanoccurinmultipleways.Infectionisgenerally
consideredtobepassive,i.e.accidental,althoughafewcasesofplant
chemoattractantshavebeenreported.Bacteriacanbesuckedintoaplant
throughnaturalplantopeningssuchasstomata,hydathodesorlenticels.They
canenterthroughabrasionsorwoundsonleaves,stemsorrootsorthrough
placementbyspecificfeedinginsects.Thenutrientconditionsinplantsmaybe
suchastofavormultiplicationindifferentplantpartse.g.flowersorroots.Wind
drivenraincarryinginoculumcanbehighlyeffective.Artificially,bacteriaaremost
commonlyintroducedintoplantsbywounding,bypressuredrivenaerosols
mimickingwinddrivenrains,vacuuminfiltration,orbyseedimmersioninto
inoculum.
returntotop

Symptomatology
Symptomatologyofbacterialdiseasesisextremelyvaried,butusually
characteristicforaparticularpathogen.Symptomscanrangefrommosaics,
resemblingviralinfections,tolargeplantabnormalities,suchasgallsordistorted
plantparts.Hormonedisruptioncanproducecharacteristicabnormalgrowthson
roots,stems,andfloralstructures(phyllody)andsometimesabnormalflower
colors(virescence).Themostcommonsymptomsarespotsonleaves(Figure14)
orfruit(Figure15),blightsordeadeningoftissueonleaves,stemsortreetrunks,
androts(Figure16)ofanypartoftheplant,usuallyrootsortubers.Wiltscanalso
occur,duetopluggingofvasculartissue(Figure17).Symptomsmayvarywith
photoperiod,plantvariety,temperatureandhumidity,andinfectivedose.Insome
cases,symptomsmaydisappearorbecomeinconsequentialwithfurthergrowth
oftheplant.Forexample,HolcusspotofcorncausedbyPseudomonassyringae
pv.syringaeisarrestedattheonsetofhotdryweather.

Figure14

Figure15

Figure16

Figure17

returntotop

Diagnosis
Diagnosisofnonfastidiousbacterialdiseasesdependsoncharacteristic
symptomatology,isolationofthepresumedinfectiousagent,andphysiological
and/ormoleculartests(PlantDiseaseDiagnosis).Inheavilyinfectedplants,
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

7/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

bacterialpopulationsinleavesorlesionsmayreach108or109CFU/gramof
planttissue,andactuallyvisiblyoozefromleavesorstems(Figure18).Asimple
waytodetermineifadiseaseiscausedbyabacteriumistocutatypicallesion
ordiscoloredareanearitsboundarywithhealthytissueandsuspenditina
dropletofwateronamicroscopeslide.Ifamassofmovingsmallrodsor'dots'is
seenat4001000xmagnificationflowingfromthecuttissueunderamicroscope,
youareobservingbacterialstreaming(Figure19)whichisanindicatorofabacterial
disease.However,notallbacterialinfectionsshowstreaming,oritmaynotbe
visualizedwithoutspecialmicroscopeattachments.Serologicaltests,usually
enzymelinked,andphysiologicalassaysareavailablecommerciallyforafew
commonandeconomicallyimportantbacteria.Moleculartestssuchasthe
polymerasechainreaction(PCR),basedonspecificgenomicsequences,are
becomingmorereadilyavailableandused.Diagnostictestsarestillevolving
(Schaadetal.2001),sothatfewarestandardizedandvalidatedbymultiple
users,includinggovernments.

Figure18

Figure19

Mostplantpathogensarecapableofinducingahypersensitivereaction(HR)in
plantspeciesthatarenonhostsorindicatorplants(Klementetal.1964).TheHR
isaplantdefensemechanismelicitedbythepresenceofapathogeninnonhost
tissue.Thetissuebecomessensitizedtothepathogen,resultinginarapiddeath
oflocalplantcells(Figure20),andentrapmentofthepathogen.This,ineffect,limits
thespreadofinfection.OnemayuseanHRtesttodetermineifacolonyisolated
frominfectedplanttissueisapathogenbyintroducingit,inapureculturewater
suspensionat108CFU/ml,intoanonhostleafpanel.Tobacco(Nicotiana
tabacum)isfrequentlyusedinHRtestsbecauseitslargeleafpanelsareeasily
infiltrated,butFourO'clock(Mirabilisjalapa)maybeusedforsomeGram
positivebacteria.Collapseofhosttissueintheinfiltrationareawithin48hours
indicatesthebacteriumislikelyapathogenforanotherhost.

Figure20

Confirmationthatapathogencausesdiseasesymptomsrequiresahostand
performanceofapathogenicitytest.Thisstrategycanbetimeconsuming(days,
weeks,ormonths).Apurecultureofbacteriarecoveredfromdiseasedtissueis
artificiallyinoculatedintothesameorrelatedcultivaroranothersusceptiblehost
species,inanefforttoreproducethesamediseasesymptoms.Thebacteria
shouldthenbereisolatedandcomparedwiththeinoculantculture.
Withsomepractice,mostbacterialdiseasescanbeeasilydiagnosed.However,
thevariationthatcanoccurwithdifferentstrainsmayrequiremoresophisticated
testing.
returntotop

EpidemiologyandManagement
Bacterialdiseases,inprinciple,canoccurinanyplant.Minimizingplantdisease
requiresunderstandingthemechanismsofsurvivalandspread.Acompetitive
exclusionmechanismbybeneficialbacteriacanbeeffectiveinprotectionagainst
disease.(BiologicalControlofPlantPathogens).Notably,incrowngallofroses,
AgrobacteriumradiobacterstrainK84anditsgeneticallyengineered,transfer
minusderivative,strainK1026,provideexcellentprotectionagainstA.
tumefaciens(RyderandJones,1991).Experimentally,andtoalimitedextent
commercially,specificbacteriophageshavebeenusedasbiologicalcontrol
agentsandhavemeritbasedonhavinghighlybenignenvironmentaleffects.
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

8/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

Insomecases,copperbasedspraysareeffectiveatminimizinginoculumbuild
up.Butcopperresistantbacteriahavealsoarisen.Inafewcases,antibiotics
usedoccasionallyinhumanmedicinehavebeenusedforcombatingplant
diseases(AntibioticUseforPlantDiseaseManagementintheU.S.).Again,
resistancetostreptomycinhasbecomequitecommon,althoughnoresistance
hasyetbeendetectedtotetracyclineinplantpathogens(Vidaver2002).Nonew
antibioticsarelikelytobeavailableforuseagainstplantpathogenicbacteria.
Producingcleanseedisessential.Certificationprogramsforsomecrops,e.g.
potatoes,meansinitialplantsaredeterminedtobepathogenfreeintissue
culture,fromwhichgrowthisincreasedingreenhousesandtheninstrictly
observedopenfieldgrowoutproductionbeforebeingreleasedforgeneral
purchase.(blacklegofpotatodiseaselesson)Burialofdiseaseddebrisisoften
usefulalongwithcroprotation.Plantbreedingforresistance(Breedingfor
DiseaseResistance)isalsooftensuccessful,ifresistanceisknowntooccurin
someplantorcanbeprojectedtooccurbytransformationofcertaingenes,
usuallybyvectorssuchastheTiplasmid.Theseprocessestakeseveralyears
andarespecifictoaparticularplantcultivar.Eternalvigilanceisnecessarydue
torecontaminationpotential,newpathogenicstrains,andnewsusceptible
hosts.Onoccasion,newpathogensaredetected.Inducedandacquired
resistancecanbeobtainedinsomecasesbytheapplicationofachemical
compoundorotherspecificmicroorganismstoplants.Thisisaveryactivearea
ofinvestigation.
returntotop

UsefulPlantPathogensandRelatives
Afewbacterialplantpathogensortheirrelativeshavebeenwidelyusedin
agricultureandfoodproduction(Table2).Thethickeningagent,xanthangum,isan
extracellularpolysaccharidederivedfromtheplantpathogenXanthomonas
campestrispv.campestrisandisfoundinanenormousvarietyofproducts
(Sutherland1993).Transformationorgeneticengineeringofplantsisbest
carriedoutbydisarmedvectors(plasmids)ofAgrobacteriumtumefaciens.The
eliminationofagenefromanonpathogenicPseudomonassyringaethatcodes
foriceformationatrelativelyhightemperaturesmadehistory(Lindow1987)inan
iceminusderivativethatpreventsfrostdamagewhenappliedtoplants.Other
propertiesawaitdiscoveryandexploitation.

Table2.
UsefulPlantAssociatedBacteria
Taxon

Function

Agrobacterium
radiobacterK84
andK1026

Biologicalcontrol

Agrobacteriumsp.
M4

Sourceofanexperimentaldrugforcholesterol
degradation

Agrobacterium
radiobacterJ14

BiodegradationofAtrazine,anagricultural
herbicide

Agrobacterium
tumefaciens

Plasmidvectorforplanttransformation(genetic
engineering)

Erwiniaamylovora

Sourceofharpin(Messenger),anelicitorof
diseaseresistanceinplants

Xanthomonas
campestrispv.
campestris

Xanthangum,apolysaccharideusedinfood
production,agriculture,cosmeticsand
pharmaceuticals.

Severalplant
associatedbacteria

Restrictionendonucleases,enzymesusedfor
specificcuttingofDNAinscientificresearch
returntotop

Acknowledgement

http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

9/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

WethankJ.Partridgeforhelpfuldiscussion.Thisisapublicationofthe
UniversityofNebraska.
returntotop

References
Ahlemeyer,J.andEichenlaub,R.2001.Geneticsofphytopathogenicbacteria.
Prog.Bot.62:98113.(Gramnegativebacteria).
AmericanPhytopathologicalSociety.2003.Microbialgenomicsequencing.
PerspectivesoftheAmericanPhytopathologicalSociety(revised2003).21pp.
Arnold,D.L.,Pitman,A.,andJackson,R.W.2003.Pathogenicityandother
genomicislandsinplantpathogenicbacteria.Mol.PlantPathol.4:407420.
Arthur,J.C.1885.Proofthatthediseaseoftreesknownaspearblightisdirectly
duetobacteria.N.Y.Agric.Exp.St.Bull.2n.s:14.
Burger,A.andEichenlaub,R.2003.Geneticsofphytopathogenicbacteria.Prog.
Bot.64:98114.(Grampositivebacteria).
Burrill,ThomasJonathan.1878.Pearblight.TransIll.StateHort.Soc.114116.
Cao,H.,Baldini,R.L.andRahme,L.G.2001.Commonmechanismsfor
pathogensofplantsandanimals.Annu.Rev.Phytopathol.39:259284.
Coplin,D.L.,Rowan,R.G.,Chisholm,D.A.andWhitmoyer,R.E.1981.
CharacterizationofplasmidsinErwiniastewartii.Appl.Env.Microbiol.42:599
604.
Federle,M.J.andBassler,B.L.2003.Interspeciescommunicationinbacteria.J.
Clin.Investig.112:12911299.
Ferl,R.,Wheeler,R.,Levine,H.G.andPaul,A.L.2002.Plantsinspace.Curr.
Opin.PlantBiol.5:258263.
Fraser,C.M.,Eisen,J.A.,Nelson,K.E.,Paulsen,I.T.andSalzberg,S.L.2002.
Thevalueofcompletemicrobialgenomesequencing(Yougetwhatyoupayfor).
J.Bacteriol.184:64036405.
Gelvin,S.B.2003.Agrobacteriummediatedplanttransformation:thebiology
behindthe"genejockeying"tool.Microbiol.Mol.Biol.Rev.67:1637.
Graves,P.R.andHaystead,T.A.J.2002.Molecularbiologist'sguideto
proteomics.Microbiol.Mol.Biol.Rev.66:3963.
Heath,M.C.2002.Nonhostresistanceinplantstomicrobialpathogens.Pages
4757in:InfectiousDisease:InnateImmunity.R.A.B.Ezekowitz,J.A.Hoffmann,
eds.HumanaPressInc.,Totowa,NJ.
Hinds,J,Witney,A.andVass,J.K.2002.Microarraydesignforbacterial
genomes.MethodsMicrobiol.33:6782.
Hirano,SusanS.andUpper,ChristenD.1989.Dielvariationinpopulationsize
andicenucleationactivityofPseudomonassyringaeonsnapbeanleaflets.Appl.
Env.Microbiol.55:623630.
Kennedy,B.W.andAlcorn,S.M.1980.EstimatesofU.S.croplossesto
prokaryoteplantpathogens.PlantDis.64:674676.
Klement,Z.,Farkas,G.L.andLovrekovich,L.1964.Hypersensitivereaction
inducedbyphytopathogenicbacteriainthetobaccoleaf.Phytopathology54:474
477.
Koch,R.1881.Zuruntersuchungvonpathogenenorganismen.Mitth.a.d.
Kaiserl.Gesundheitsampte1:148InMilestonesinMicrobiology1556to1940,
translatedandeditedbyThomasD.Brock,ASMPress.1998,p101.

http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

10/11

12/14/2016

BacteriaasPlantPathogens

Lindow,StevenE.1987.Competitiveexclusionofepiphyticbacteriabyice
Pseudomonassyringaemutants.Appl.Environ.Microbiol.53:25202527.
NationalCenterforBiotechnologyInformation,(NCBI),NationalLibraryof
Medicine,NationalInstitutesofHealth,Bethesda,MD.GenomeSpecific
Resources.2004.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/MICROBES/Complete.html
Ophel,K.M.,Bird,A.F.andKerr,A.1993.Associationofbacteriophageparticles
withtoxinproductionbyClavibactertoxicus,thecausalagentofannualryegrass
toxicity.Phytopathology83:676681.
Pierson,L.S.IIIandIshimaru,C.A.2000.Genomicsofplantassociatedbacteria:
Aglimpseofthefuturehasbecomereality.APSnetFeatureArticle.Aug.1
Aug.31,2000.
Phuntumart,V.2003.Transgenicplantsfordiseaseresistance.Pages180215
in:TransgenicPlants:CurrentInnovationsandFutureTrends.C.N.Stewart,Jr.,
ed.HorizonScientificPress,Wymondmam,UK.
Ponciano,G.,Ishihara,H.,Tsuyumu,S.andLeach,J.E.2003.Bacterialeffectors
inplantdiseaseanddefense:keystodurableresistance?PlantDis.87:1271
1282.
Ryder,M.H.andJones,D.A.1991.Biologicalcontrolofcrowngallusing
AgrobacteriumstrainsK84andK1026.Aust.J.PlantPhysiol.18:571579.
Schaad,N.W.,Jones,J.B.andChun,W.(ed.).2001.Laboratoryguidefor
identificationofplantpathogenicbacteria.3rded.AmericanPhytopathological
SocietyPress.St.Paul,MN.
Smidt,M.L.andVidaver,A.K.1987.VariationamongstrainsofClavibacter
michiganensesubsp.nebraskenseisolatedfromasinglepopcornfield.
Phytopathology77:388392.
Sutherland,I.W.1993.Xanthan.Pages363388in:Xanthomonas.J.G.Swings
andE.L.Civerolo.eds.Chapman&Hall,London,England.
Vidaver,A.K.1999.Plantmicrobiology:Centuryofdiscovery,withgoldenyears
ahead.Am.Soc.Microbiol.News65:358363.
Vidaver,AnneK.2002.Usesofantimicrobialsinplantagriculture.Clin.Inf.Dis.
34(Suppl3):S107S110.
Vidhyasekaran,P.2002.Bacterialdiseaseresistanceinplants.Molecularbiology
andbiotechnologicalapplications.452pp.TheHaworthPress,Binghamton,NY.
Young,J.M.,Saddler,G.S.,Takikawa,Y.,DeBoer,S.H.,Vauterin,L.,Gardan,L.,
Gvozdyak,R.I.andStead,D.E.1996.Namesofplantpathogenicbacteria1864
1995.Rev.PlantPathol.75:721763.

2016TheAmericanPhytopathologicalSociety.Allrightsreserved.|ContactUsReportaBadLink

http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/bacteria.aspx

11/11