PONDS, LAGOONS,

AND WETLANDS
FOR WASTEWATER
MANAGEMENT

PONDS, LAGOONS,
AND WETLANDS
FOR WASTEWATER
MANAGEMENT
MATTHEW E. VERBYLA, PhD

Ponds, Lagoons, and Wetlands for Wastewater Management

Copyright Momentum Press, LLC, 2017.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
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First published in 2017 by
Momentum Press, LLC
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www.momentumpress.net
ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-701-8 (print)
ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-702-5 (e-book)
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Printed in the United States of America

Abstract
Engineered ponds, lagoons, and wetlands have been used for centuries to
treat and manage wastewater, and they are still widely used today. They require very few external energy and material inputs and provide ecosystem
services for communities. This book presents a compilation of guidelines
to design ponds, lagoons, and wetlands for the treatment and management
of domestic or municipal wastewater, agricultural wastewater, and industrial waste. Sufficient detail and clarity is provided for practitioners to use
this book as a reference, and for senior year or graduate college students
to develop an understanding of the design concepts for these engineered
natural treatment systems.

KEYWORDS
waste stabilization ponds; lagoons; constructed wetlands; wastewater
treatment; sanitation; design; operation; maintenance; small flows; industrial wastewater, agricultural waste

Contents
List of figures

xi

List of tables

xiii

Acknowledgments

xv

Chapter 1 Introduction1
1.1 Wastewater Management andSustainability
1
1.1.1 Natural Treatment Systems and the New
Paradigm for Wastewater Management
1
1.1.2 Natural Treatment Systems and Sustainable
Development2
1.1.3 Basics About Wastewater
3
1.1.4 Global Use of Natural Wastewater Treatment
Systems4
1.2 Purpose and Scope of This Book
5
Chapter 2 Biology of Ponds, Lagoons, and Wetlands7
Topics Addressed in This Chapter
7
2.1 Introduction
7
2.2 Classification of Organisms by Energy and
Carbon Source
10
2.3 Biodiversity in Ponds, Lagoons, and Wetlands
12
2.3.1 Prokaryotes
12
2.3.2 Viruses
12
2.3.3 Plants, Algae, and Cyanobacteria
13
2.3.4 Protozoa
14
2.3.5 Macroinvertebrates
15
2.3.6 Fungi
17
2.3.7 Larger Organisms
17
2.4 Biological Transformations of Organic Matter
18

viiiContents

2.5 The Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus,

and Sulfur Cycles
2.5.1 Carbon Cycle
2.5.2 Nitrogen Cycle
2.5.3 Phosphorus Cycle
2.5.4 Sulfur Cycle
2.6 Pathogenic and Nuisance Organisms
2.6.1 Microorganisms Associated with Disease
2.6.2 Nuisance Organisms

18
19
20
20
21
21
21
22

CHAPTER 3 Site Selection andPhysical Design

Considerations23
Topics Addressed in this Chapter
23
3.1 Site Selection
23
3.2 Lining Materials
28
3.3 Earthwork, Slopes, Berms, and Embankments
29
3.4 Hydraulic Design of Wastewater Systems
30
3.4.1 Inlets and Outlets
30
3.4.2 Flow Control Structures
30
3.5 Overview
33
3.6 Design Approaches
37
3.6.1 Loading Rate Approach
37
3.6.2 Reactor Theory Approach
37
Chapter 4 Wastewater Treatment Ponds And Lagoons41
4.1 Introduction
41
4.2 Pretreatment
44
4.2.1 Screening
44
4.2.2 Grit Removal
46
4.3 Anaerobic Ponds
47
4.4 Facultative Ponds
48
4.5 Mechanically Aerated Ponds
52
4.6 Maturation and Polishing Ponds
52
4.6.1 Removal of Pathogens and Fecal Indicator
Organisms53
4.6.2 Ammonia and Total Nitrogen Removal
56
4.6.3 Phosphorus Removal
57
4.7 Floating Macrophyte Ponds (Wetlands)
58
Chapter 5 Constructed Wetlands61
Topics Addressed in this Chapter
61
5.1 Introduction
61

Contents ix

5.2 Horizontal Subsurface Flow Wetlands

5.2.1 Loading Rate Approach
5.2.2 Reactor Theory Approach
5.3 Vertical Flow Wetlands
5.3.1 Loading Rate Approach
5.3.2 Reactor Theory Approach
5.4 Free Water Surface Flow Wetlands
5.4.1 Hydraulic Design
5.4.2 Loading Rate Approach
5.4.3 Reactor Theory Approach
5.5 Selection of Plant Species
5.6 Substrate
5.6.1 Horizontal Subsurface Flow Wetlands
5.6.2 Vertical Flow Wetlands
5.6.3 Free Water Surface Flow Wetlands

63
63
64
65
69
69
70
70
71
73
74
76
76
76
77

Chapter 6 Industrial Wastewater79

Topics Addressed in this Chapter
79
6.1 Introduction
79
6.2 Animal Waste
80
6.3 Food Processing Waste
83
6.4 Coal Combustion Residuals
85
6.5 Pulp and Paper Mill Waste
86
Chapter 7 Operation and Maintenance93
Topics Addressed in this Chapter
93
7.1 Start-up
93
7.2 Sludge Management
94
7.3 Routine Monitoring
95
7.4 Visual and Sensory Cues
95
References

101

Author Biography

113

Index

115

List of Figures
Figure 1.1. Potential end uses for wastewater and associated sludge

Figure 2.1. The three domains of life (and viruses) with examples
of organisms that may be present in ponds, lagoons,
and wetlands.

Figure 2.2. Metabolism and carbon source diversity

of microorganisms.

10

Figure 2.3. The electron and redox tower of microbial metabolism

in wastewater treatment ponds, lagoons, and wetlands.

11

Figure 2.4. Transformation of organic material by different

functional feeding groups in a wetland (adapted
from West Virginia DEP (2015)). CPOM = coarse
particulate organic matter; FPOM = fine particulate
organic matter; DOM = dissolved organic matter.

17

Figure 3.1. Techniques for the construction and orientation of inlets

and outlets to reduce short-circuiting (a) in wastewater
ponds and lagoons with high loading, (b) in wastewater
ponds and lagoons with lower loading, (c) in lagoons
or ponds used for tertiary treatment or polishing, and
(d) in horizontal flow constructed wetland cells.
31
Figure 3.2. Structures commonly used to control flow between pond,
lagoon, or wetland cells: (a) stop logs, (b) slide gate
or sluice gate, (c) telescoping valve, and (d) header
pipe with outlet control valve (based on Wisconsin
DNR (2015)).
32
Figure 3.3. Schematic of a horizontal-crested weir (left) and
a V-notch weir (right).

33

Figure 3.4. Plan and section view of a typical Parshall flume (left)
and photo of a Parshall flume in Brazil (right).

33

xii List of Figures

Figure 4.1. Typical pond system configurations.

43

Figure 4.2. Bar screens at a wastewater treatment plant in Brazil

that are (a) automatically mechanically cleaned and
(b) manually cleaned by the operator with a rake (c).

45

Figure 4.3. Anaerobic pond treating domestic wastewater in

Bolivia with floating scum.

47

Figure 4.4. Guidelines for designing anaerobic ponds for domestic

wastewater systems, based on temperature, hydraulic
retention time, and anticipated BOD removal.

48

Figure 5.1. Free water surface flow constructed wetlands used for
tertiary wastewater treatment in Lakeland, Florida

62

Figure 5.2. Farmers in Cochabamba, Bolivia harvest and dry

floating aquatic plants from a wastewater treatment
system for reuse as animal feed and for soil amendment.

76

List of Tables
Table 2.1.
Table 3.1.

Table 3.2.

Macroinvertebrates commonly found in wastewater

treatment ponds, lagoons, and wetlands

15

Overview of physical design and construction

considerations for water treatment ponds, lagoons,
and wetlands.

34

Equations for chemical reactor theory models assuming

steady state and (pseudo) first order reaction rates

38

Table 3.3.

Natural background concentrations of water quality

parameters for constructed wetlands (adapted from
US EPA (2000c))40

Table 4.1.

Types of wastewater treatment ponds and their

distinguishing characteristics

42

Concentrations of inhibitory substances

in anaerobic ponds

48

Methods used to determine the loading rate and size

of facultative ponds

50

Mechanisms and guidelines for the removal of

different types of pathogens in natural wastewater
treatment systems

54

Table 4.2.
Table 4.3.
Table 4.4.

Table 4.5.

Guidelines for the use of chemical coagulants to remove

phosphorous58

Table 4.6.

Floating macrophytes commonly used in wastewater

treatment ponds

59

Table 4.7.

Parameters for the design of floating macrophyte ponds

60

Table 5.1.

Design recommendations for hydraulic conductivity

of media used for horizontal subsurface flow wetlands

64

Ranges of values for the design of horizontal subsurface

flow wetlands

65

Table 5.2.

xiv List of Tables

Table 5.3.

Techniques used for the operation of vertical flow

constructed wetlands

66

Table 5.4.

Ranges of values for the design of vertical flow wetlands 70

Table 5.5.

Recommended surface loading criteria and hydraulic

retention times for the design of free water surface
flow constructed wetlands

72

Ranges of values for the design of free water surface

flow wetlands

74

Table 5.6.
Table 6.1.

Characteristics of animal manure and recommended

lagoon volume to achieve volumetric loading rate
of 250 g BOD5/m3/d81

Table 6.2.

Characteristics of food processing waste streams;

typical (range)

84

Design and operating requirements stipulated by the

US EPA for coal ash surface impoundments

87

Operation and maintenance tasks for wastewater

ponds, lagoons, and wetlands

96

Visual and sensory cues for malfunction issues in

wastewater ponds, lagoons, and wetlands

99

Table 6.3.
Table 7.1.
Table 7.2.

Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge Stewart Oakley, whose short courses on
waste stabilization pond design have inspired thousands of students
and professionals throughout the world, including myself. I first took
Dr.Oakleys short course in 2009 at the AIDIS conference in G
uatemala
City. I acknowledge my PhD advisor Jim Mihelcic, for giving me the
opportunity to study waste stabilization ponds. I would also like to
acknowledge Jerry Hopcroft and Premkumar Narayanan, for helping

review and format the book. Finally, I would like to acknowledge Wendy
Antunez for her help and support.

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
1.1 WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
ANDSUSTAINABILITY
1.1.1 NATURAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS AND THE NEW
PARADIGM FOR WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
The paradigm for wastewater treatment is changing. Alterations in population
and climate are causing freshwater to become increasingly scarce. The
management of water resources does not occur in isolationthere are
irrefutable linkages between water, energy, and nutrients in the e nvironment.
The ways water and nutrients are currently managed and the ways e nergy
is currently produced are no longer sustainable. The new paradigm for
the treatment of wastewater is to reclaim water, energy, and nutrients
rather than remove them prior to discharging treated effluent to receiving
waters (Guest et al., 2009). Engineered natural systems have been used
for centuries to manage and treat wastewater throughout the world. In the
aftermath of the industrial revolution, mechanized water-treatment technologies were developed. While many of these mechanized technologies
are highly efficient, they often require high energy and material inputs.
Natural systems require little to no external energy and material inputs.
Mechanized wastewater treatment technologies are certainly appropriate
in a variety of settings, including low-income, middle-income, and rural
high-income regions. These systems are particularly well suited for locations
where wastewater is reused in agriculture, making them particularly
appropriate for the new paradigm of wastewater management with resource
recovery priorities.
Treated wastewater may be discharged to receiving waters, injected
into groundwater, applied to soil, or reused for a particular activity (e.g.,
aquaculture, industrial cooling). If treated water is discharged to receiving
waters (rivers, streams, lakes, oceans, and aquifers), it must be treated to

2 PONDS, LAGOONS, AND WETLANDS

*
Discharge to
surface water
Industrial
Treated
Water

Injection to
groundwater
Agriculture
Reuse

Untreated
Wastewater

Aquaculture

Ponds,
Lagoons, and
Wetlands

Household
*
Send to
landfill

Application
to soil

Resource
Recovery

Energy
recovery

Sludge
*

Old paradigm of wastewater management

New
paradigm

Production of
biomaterials

Figure 1.1. Potential end uses for wastewater and associated sludge.

different standards (particularly with respect to nutrient removal) than if it

were applied to land or reused for some other purpose. In many regions,
water quality discharge standards also depend on the existing quality and
flow rate or volume of the receiving water body. With increasing water
scarcity, wastewater utilities in many regions will shift from a treatment
and discharge approach to one that prioritizes water reuse and resource
recovery (Figure 1.1).

1.1.2 NATURAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
The use of natural wastewater treatment systems driven by sunlight, gravity,
and natural biological processes is synergistic with sustainable development. These systems help offset the need for energy from fossil fuels,
and they can also create habitats for wildlife and may play vital roles in
amphibian conservation (especially if design is approached from an ecological perspective) (Shulse et al., 2010; Worrall et al., 1997). Natural
wastewater treatment systems can become green spaces, which serve as
community resources, promoting social and environmental benefits and
improving the overall well-being of community members (Wright Wendel
et al., 2011). Instead of simply discharging treated water into receiving
waters, alternative uses of treated water (e.g., reuse or land application)

Introduction 3

should always be evaluated. Natural systems such as ponds, lagoons, and

wetlands have been found to have more favorable environmental, social,
and economical sustainability factors than mechanized technologies,
especially for treatment plants receiving less than five million gallons per
day (Muga and Mihelcic, 2008).
Natural wastewater treatment systems can become green spaces
that serve as community resources, promoting social and environmental benefits and improving the overall well-being of community
members.
Natural treatment systems are widely used in small cities and towns
throughout the world. However, the needs of these communities are rapidly
changing. The majority of population growth over the next few decades is
expected to occur in smaller cities and towns with current populations of
less than 100,000 (WaterAid/BPD, 2010). There is a need to ensure the
appropriate design of wastewater systems to meet the changing needs of
these populations. Relative to larger urban centers, small cities and towns
often have plenty of available land, but limited resources, and as a result,
they may have less ability to pay for the highly trained technical staff and
external energy and material inputs needed to run mechanized wastewater
treatment systems. Natural systems require larger areas of land than mechanized systems, but they require little to no external inputs of energy and
materials, and they are inexpensive to run and require very little maintenance. Another economic advantage is that the purchase of land needed
for these systems, while expensive, is a recoverable expense, unlike the
purchase of electricity or material inputs.

1.1.3

BASICS ABOUT WASTEWATER

Wastewater from households contains a variety of contaminants; the pollutants in wastewater are most commonly measured in terms of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended
solids (TSS), as well as nitrogen (total and ammonia) and phosphorus.
Wastewater produced by households (domestic wastewater) comes from
dishwashing, showering, laundering, and toilet flushing. Wastewater produced by industrial facilities can vary drastically in composition, depending on how the water is used and the type of industry. Industrial facilities
may be required to provide some type of pretreatment prior to discharging
wastewater to a municipal sewer system. Industrial wastewater can contain higher concentrations of contaminants such as salts, heavy metals,

4 PONDS, LAGOONS, AND WETLANDS

organic or inorganic chemicals, and emerging chemical or biological

contaminants. Prior to designing a natural wastewater treatment system, it
is essential to know the source of the wastewater and its composition, as
this can greatly affect the design requirements. The wastewater flow rate
per capita or per industrial facility can also vary from region to region
and may be affected by the following factors: population density (more
densely populated areas tend to use less water per capita); cultural norms
and customs that affect water use in the household (e.g., in some countries, dishwater and shower water is not discharged to the sanitary sewer
system); and characteristics of the sewer collection system (older systems
typically have higher contributions from inflow and infiltration). For more
information about typical wastewater characteristics and flow rates, the
reader should consult existing textbooks (e.g., Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).
The different stages of wastewater treatment typically include pretreatment (preliminary treatment), primary treatment, secondary treatment,
and tertiary treatment. Pretreatment consists of the removal or alteration
of larger materials and denser solids that can obstruct or interfere with
treatment processes or equipment downstream in the wastewater treatment
plant. Primary treatment encompasses the removal of heavier suspended
solids and lighter floating materials from the wastewater. Secondary treatment follows primary treatment and involves the removal of dissolved
organic material using biological processes. Finally, tertiary treatment
involves the removal of nutrients, pathogens, and emerging chemical pollutants. Lagoons, ponds, and wetlands can be used for primary, secondary,
and/or tertiary wastewater treatment.

1.1.4 GLOBAL USE OF NATURAL WASTEWATER

TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Engineered ponds, lagoons, and wetlands are some of the oldest technologies used for water management and treatment and remain one of the most
widely used technologies in the world today. For example, more than half
of the wastewater treatment facilities in the United States utilize ponds
(US EPA, 2011). Approximately 2,500 wastewater treatment systems in
France use wastewater treatment ponds, many of them having been constructed in the 1970s to replace malfunctioning activated sludge systems
(Mara and Pearson, 1998). Because they are relatively inexpensive and
simple to construct, operate, and maintain, they have been described as
one of the most important technologies for the treatment of wastewater
in small towns and in developing countries, especially if the effluent is
used for irrigation (Feachem et al., 1983; Mara, 2003; Oakley, 2005a;

Introduction 5

Pea Varon et al., 2000; Shuval et al., 1986). Although they are most
commonly used in small cities and towns, there are also examples of pond,
lagoon, and wetland systems that serve cities with populations of more
than one million (Mara, 2003).
In the United States, many state health and environmental agencies are
in the process of modifying nutrient effluent limits for wastewater treatment plants, specifically focusing on ammonia nitrogen and p hosphorus.
These stricter effluent discharge limitations have forced many towns and
cities to trade in their pond, lagoon, or wetland systems for mechanized
systems with advanced nutrient removal capabilities. For instance, the city
of East Grand Forks, Minnesota recently chose to abandon its wastewater
lagoon system, after years of pressure from the state Pollution Control
Agency (Jewett, 2015). The city of Polson, Montana had a lagoon system
that boasted treatment costs of only $8.25 per person per year as of 1997,
had been presented with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region
8 award for operation and maintenance, and was achieving effluent BOD
concentrations of 16 mg/L, and TSS concentrations of 38 mg/L (National
Small Flows Clearninghouse, 1997); however, they recently decided to
decommission this system in favor of a mechanized sequencing batch reactor in order to meet stricter discharge regulations (Burns, 2015). The
Missouri Department of Natural Resources is now requiring most lagoon
systems in its state to comply with varying ammonia-nitrogen effluent
concentrations, which generally range between 1 and 3 mg/L, and based
on recent data reported for the NPDES permits, less than half of the 300
lagoon systems in Missouri are currently able to meet these concentrations
on a consistent basis (Espinosa etal., 2016). Another main advantage of
using natural wastewater treatment systems is that they provide ecosystem
services, which can enhance biodiversity, provide habitat for endangered
and threatened species, and serve as a community green space that can
enhance the overall well-being of the local population.

1.2

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

The purpose of this book is to summarize existing design guidelines for

natural pond, lagoon, and wetland systems that can be used for the treatment and management of wastewater. The emphasis is on design for the
reuse and reclamation of water, nutrients, and energy from wastewater. This
book is intended for practitioners, as well as senior-year or graduate-level
college and university students who need a quick reference for the design
of these engineered natural treatment systems. It should be noted by
the reader that the procedures used for the design of natural wastewater

6 PONDS, LAGOONS, AND WETLANDS

treatment systems are not always unanimously accepted worldwide, and

design guidelines can differ between regions for the same type of system.
Therefore, in this book, multiple procedures are often summarized to design the same type of system. It is the engineers job to use judgment when
choosing which procedure is the most appropriate for a given situation.
This chapter is an introduction to the concepts of the new paradigm for wastewater management and sustainability, as they pertain to
the natural systems covered in this book. Chapter 2 contains an overview
of the biology and wildlife that can influence the performance of natural
water treatment systems, including microorganisms, macroinvertebrates,
algae, plants, and larger organisms. In Chapter 3, considerations for the
physical design and construction of natural water treatment systems are
covered. Chapter 4 includes guidelines for the design, operation, and
maintenance of ponds and lagoons used for the treatment of domestic
wastewater. Chapter 5 includes design guidelines for constructed wetlands. Chapter 6 includes a summary of special considerations for ponds,
lagoons, and wetlands used to treat industrial wastewater. Chapter 7 covers
the most important operation and maintenance considerations for wastewater treatment ponds, lagoons, and wetlands.

Index
A
Agriculture, 1
Algae, 8, 1314
Ammonia oxidation, 9
Ammonification, 20, 52
Amphibian conservation, vital
roles in, 2
Anaerobic lagoons, 80, 85
advantages of, 85
for farms, 80
Anaerobic pond, 42
guidelines for designing, 48
sludge deposition in, 94
treating domestic wastewater in
Bolivia, 47
volume of, 47
Animal manure, 80
characteristics of, 81
Animal slaughterhouse (abattoir)
wastewater, 83
Animal waste, 8, 21, 8082
from farms, 80
Archaea, 8, 12, 14
domains of life, 8, 9
Atoms, 11
B
Bacteria, 815
domains of life, 9
Berms, 22, 2930
structural integrity of, 86
Biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), 3, 49
Biodiversity, 5, 7, 80, 83, 92

loading rate, 49
in ponds, lagoons, and wetlands,
1218
protection of, 8
removal of, 39, 4748, 52, 58
Biological transformations of
organic matter, 18
Biosolids pond, 42
BOD. See Biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD)
Boiler slag, 86
Bottom ash, 86
Bulrush, 74
monocultures of, 75
C
CAFOs. See Concentrated animalfeeding operations (CAFOs)
Carbon cycle, 19
Carbon source, 1012
Cattails, monocultures of, 75
Chemical coagulants, 58
Chemical oxygen demand (COD),
3, 52, 83, 85
Chemical reactor theory models, 38
Chemical treatment of on-site
soils, 29
Clearing costs, 27
Coal ash surface impoundments,
design and operating
requirements, 8791
Coal combustion residuals, 8586
hazardous nature of, 86
Coarse bar screens, 44

116 Index

COD. See Chemical oxygen

demand (COD)
Complete mix (CM), 37
Computational fluid dynamics
(CFD), 3738
Concentrated animal-feeding
operations (CAFOs), 80
Constructed wetlands, 6162
free water surface flow wetlands.
See Free water surface flow
wetlands
horizontal subsurface flow
wetlands. See Horizontal
subsurface flow wetlands
types of, 61
vertical flow wetlands. See
Vertical flow wetlands
Contaminants, 34, 22, 38, 56, 79
Cyanobacteria, 10, 1314, 20
D
Darcys law, 63
Denitrification, 9, 20, 56, 72, 75, 77
process, 72
Design approaches, wastewater
treatment, 3637
loading rate approach, 37
reactor theory approach, 3740
Dispersed flow model, 53, 65, 69
Dissolved oxygen, 12, 14, 49, 52
Distilleries, 85
Domestic wastewater, 3, 6, 38, 79
anaerobic ponds, 47, 48
Duckweed (lemna) ponds, 61
E
Earthwork, 27, 2930
Ecosystems, 5, 7, 8, 17, 18, 39, 56
Embankments, 2930
Emergent macrophytes, 8, 12, 13,
75, 93
Energy, 1012
requirements, 28
Engineered natural systems, 1

Enhanced flocculation, 72
Eukarya, 8
domains of life, 910
Eukaryotic organisms, 910
Eutrophication potential, 26
Evapotranspiration, 7071
daily rate of, 71
Excavation, 27
F
Facultative pond, 42, 4851
loading rate and size of, 5051
primary, 4849
secondary, 4849
types of, 48
Fecal coliforms, removal of, 39
Floating aquatic plant treatment
systems, 61
Floating macrophyte ponds
(wetlands), 42, 5860
parameters for design of, 60
used in wastewater treatment
ponds, 59
Flood zones, 25
Flow control structures, 3033
Flue-gas desulfurization, 8586
Fly ash, 8586
Food processing waste, 8385
characteristics of, 84
Free-living helminths, 7
Free water surface flow
wetlands,62
hydraulic design, 7071
hydraulic retention times for, 73
loading rate approach, 7173
ranges of values for, 74
reactor theory approach, 7374
use of internal obstructions in, 71
Fungal cultures, addition of, 85
Fungi, 17
G
Groundwater, 1, 93
monitoring, 8990

Index 117

H
Habitat restoration, 2627
Harbor floating lemna
(duckweed), 8
Hazardous substance, 85
High-rate algal pond, 42
Horizontal free water surface,
6162
Horizontal subsurface flow
wetlands, 62
aspect ratio (L/W) for, 64
hydraulic conductivity of media
used for, 64
ranges of values for, 65
water level in, 63
Household, water use in, 4
Human waste, 8
Hydraulic conductivity of
media, 64
design recommendations for, 64
Hydraulic design of wastewater
systems
flow control structures, 3033
free water surface flow wetlands,
7071
inlets and outlets, 30

characteristics of animal manure

and recommended, 8182
long-term maintenance activities
in, 9495
operation and maintenance tasks
for, 9698
physical design and construction
considerations for, 3436
start-up period for, 93
systems, 5
in Missouri, 5
treatment in, 85
usage of, 85
visual and sensory cues for malfunction issues in, 99100
Land costs, 27
Lining materials, 2829
in situ, 28
Loading rate approach, 69
design approaches, wastewater
treatment, 37
free water surface flow wetlands,
7173
horizontal subsurface flow
wetlands, 6364
vertical flow wetlands, 69

I
Industrial waste, 79
Industrial wastewater, 34
animal waste, 8082
coal combustion residuals,
8586
food processing waste, 8385
pulp and paper mill waste, 8692
Inhibitory phenolic substances, 85
In situ lining materials, 28
Irrigation, 45

M
Macroinvertebrates, 8, 1516
Macrophytes, 8
emergent, 75
Maturation/polishing pond, 42,
5253
ammonia and total nitrogen removal, 5657
periphyton ponds, 56
phosphorus removal, 5758
removal of pathogens and fecal
indicator organisms, 53, 56
Mechanically aerated ponds,
42, 52
Mechanical treatment, 29
Mechanized wastewater treatment
systems, 3

L
Lagoons, 35, 7, 85, 92. See also
Specific types
anaerobic, 80, 85
biological community in, 7

118 Index

Mechanized water-treatment
technologies, 1
Microbes, 12
Microbial communities, growth
of, 72
Microbial metabolism, 11
electron and redox tower of, 11
Microorganisms
associated with disease, 2122
diversity of, 10
in ponds, lagoons, and
wetlands,11
Missouri Department of Natural
Resources, 5
Molecules, 11
Monoculture systems, 75
N
Natural antimicrobial properties, 85
Natural wastewater treatment
systems, 4, 8
advantage of using, 5
algae and macrophytes in, 8
basics about, 34
malfunction of, 9
and management, 12
mechanisms and guidelines for
removal of pathogens, 5455
nutrients in, 9
and sustainable development, 23
use of, 2, 45
Nitrification process, 9, 72
Nitrogen
cycle, 20
removal of, 39
No-discharge pond, 42
Nuisance organisms, 2122
Nutrient transformation process, 72
O
Oil mill wastewater, 83, 85
Olive oil wastewater, 83, 85
On-site soils, chemical treatment
of, 29
Organisms, 1718

classification of, 1012

fecal indicator, 5356
nuisance, 2122
pathogenic, 2122
Oxidation, 11
Oxidation-reduction (redox)
reactions, 11
Oxygen, 11
dissolved, 12
P
Paper mill waste, 8692
Paper mill wastewater, 92
Parasitic helminths, eggs of, 8
Pathogenic organisms, 2122
Penman-Monteith method, 71
Periphyton ponds, 42, 56
Phosphorus cycle, 20
Phosphorus removal, 5758
Plants, 8, 1314
species, selection of, 7476
Plug flow (PF) model, 37, 6465
Pollutants
concentrations of, 79
in wastewater, 3
Polyculture systems, 75
Polyphenols, 85
Polypropylene, 29
Ponds, 35, 7, 92. See also
Specific types
biological community in, 7
long-term maintenance activities
in, 9495
treatment in, 85
Population density, 4
Pretreatment of pond system
grit removal, 46
screening, 4446
Primary facultative pond, 4849
Primary-settled sludge, 94
Product-specific waste, 83
Prokaryotes, 12
Protozoa, 14
Pulp waste, 8692
Pulp wastewater, 92

Index 119

R
Rate of infiltration, 71
Reactor theory approach, 6970
design approaches, wastewater
treatment, 3740
free water surface flow wetlands,
7374
horizontal subsurface flow wetlands, 6465
vertical flow wetlands, 6970
Reduction, 11
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA), 86
Respiration, 9
Routine monitoring for pond,
lagoon and wetland
systems,95
Rubber-based membranes, 29
S
Screening, pretreatment of pond
system, 4446
Secondary facultative ponds,
4849
Sewer collection system,
characteristics of, 4
Site selection, 2324
economic considerations, 2728
environmental considerations,
2527
social considerations, 2425
Slaughterhouse waste, 83
Slaughterhouse (abattoir)
wastewater, 83
Slopes, 2930
Sludge accumulation
annual rate of, 94
rate, 94
Sludge deposition, rate of, 95
Sludge management, 9495
Soil characterization, 25
Start-up period for wastewater
ponds, lagoons, 93
Stormwater, compounds found
in,11

Substrate
free water surface flow
wetlands,77
horizontal subsurface flow
wetlands, 76
vertical flow wetlands, 7677
Subsurface flow wetlands, 61
Subsurface wetlands, 65
aspect ratios for, 64
Sulfur cycle, 21
Surface loading method, 71
Surface water, 93
T
Tanks-in-series (TIS) model, 65
Techniques used for the operation
of, 6668
Tertiary wastewater treatment, 62
Total suspended solids (TSS), 3
Transformation of organic
material, 17
Treatment and discharge
approach, 2
V
Vertebrates, 8
animals, 8
Vertical flow wetlands, 62, 65
loading rate approach, 69
reactor theory approach, 6970
techniques used for the operation
of, 6668
Viruses, 8, 1213
domains of life, 9
Visual and sensory cues, 95
Volatile solids, 95
W
Wastewater
basics about, 34
characteristics and flow rates, 4
compounds found in, 11
design of, 3
domestic, 79
lagoon system, 5

120 Index

Wastewater (continued)
organic material in, 94
pollutants in, 3
potential end uses for, 2
pretreatment, 4
primary treatment, 4
produced by households, 3
produced by industrial facilities, 3
secondary treatment of, 4, 7172
tertiary treatment, 4
Wastewater ponds
operation and maintenance tasks
for, 9698
start-up period for, 93
visual and sensory cues for
malfunction issues in, 99100
Wastewater treatment, 1, 41, 72
anaerobic ponds, 4748
in Brazil, 45
configurations, 43
facultative ponds, 4851
fundamental roles in, 7
lagoons, 72
maturation and polishing ponds,
5253
ammonia and total nitrogen
removal, 5657
periphyton ponds, 56
phosphorus removal, 5758
removal of pathogens and fecal
indicator organisms, 5356
mechanically aerated ponds, 52
physical design and construction
considerations for, 3436

plants, 5
pretreatment
grit removal, 46
screening, 4446
stages of, 4
system, floating aquatic plants
from, 76
technologies, 85
technologies for, 45
Water hyacinth ponds, 61
Water quality
discharge standards, 2
parameters, 40
Water resources, management of, 1
Water use in household, 4
Well-being of community
members, 23
Wetlands, 35, 7, 92. See also
Specific types
biological community in, 7
long-term maintenance activities
in, 9495
operation and maintenance tasks
for, 9698
physical design and construction
considerations for, 3436
visual and sensory cues for
malfunction issues
in, 99100
Wineries, 85
Z
Zeolite, 77

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