')

1
Ancient Prelude

-- ----:.-- - :---;::-

__

Wherewr cjviliZ:lllion arises ""I' find "pharmag.'," becl.\Ule il fulfills on", of man ', buk
need.s. Thh effort t\') grasp from nature whalever might ,hield ... horn Mfliction be<:ame
eid., I. &erVi~ beforl! it WH new u .. "profeslion." It, origins have d isappea ~ jota
Ihe veiled miUe:nnia.---perhaps as much u a
million yur_that bide IM origin 01 man
himself.
V;triOUl "pinion, ilbout phannacy's c rigin
conlinue 10 be pul fo rward, because 'pewlslion il lempered only by Iogic and analOg)"
when there III not much real eviden~. More
i5 known about pnhistoric man'5 diseases ,
fer m~ny tnces of da.milge 10 his bad;- were
fKlJMed indeli bly in banes that awailed lhe
a rchaeologist'i Ihovel. Hut Ihe earliest Iandom and. dupenle effcrb to use natural re-5QUKe!I iI5 "druga" to fend off !uch damilge
lefl acarcely ilJ\ enduri ng trace.
for prehilto ri c man , we sup pell! that
thenpy wou ld no t be first of all dru g
~ rapy . Oiseall!..came upan hUri with such
~~"'-ay~~f.Ashl:~g..{orc.H that.
"u an fmaginanve ilnd - ratlonal belRg. he
mtal Mve conduded tha! "supernatural"
countermeuUl'es wen ealled fOI'-D\eas ure5
,hili fo r hi", wen /I pa rt oi the ordinary
niltum wodd. The "magie"" thus invoked uItimate1l' was reinfo~d by a rustom of using
pllnt. .nd Olheroo)ects in W/lr' that orou&hl
theil friendly spirits to bear on the evil powers mmifuted by wsease. Even if only a
blind ! mpiric groping over mlJ\Y tens of
thousandti of yelrll mauld be po5tulated, it

_._J __ _

wtluld be undentllndabJe that by Ihe time of

Ihe u rlies! writlen record s ... beut four
thousand Yeilrs 180, Ihe aa:urnu~led matflri.a
medka had cornI' ttl indude quite a number
of substance5 thai we CilU phannilcologically
aclive, lOS well11 l\lbSjlnce, Mving only the
h igher ' piritpo."eri {whleh we cill inert},
This mend of apeC1.! lalion about Ihe o ri gin c f
pharm.ceutlcill endeavof ~em, rusonilble
in IM ligh t of the pharm.co-magic belieh c f
mUlioM c f OIU conWmponries.
Cleilrly, magie Ind empiricillm e ach played
an lmportnnt role in fmdlng and employing
l"emedies. Yet, it Ciln oe s-ald that "neither
empiri cism nor magie slands al the oeginm ng of the interna! employmenl of remedi.es
oy men oul the an ima! runetion, the in,tinct.'" lnsti nct " 'u affinned CI denied by
iln inc:euingly selkon.cicU-I e mpirieum.
This empirkillm beume the foundaticn of
medical bul. phatmlceuliul "acience"., observatiora WIm/ iys tematized ilnd COlI5lantly
pu ri 5ed by induetive and dedumve.rNlOn-- _ ..
-;lng, ~ .the whole field:of med ic~ mudr- - _.- ~
remamed beyond ordina ry obse,..."iltion, uplanation o r control tha t for Ihousand s of
yean maglc.l- reUgious pnoctices lended 10
pen...de medlcal p rKticn . Only in our own
miD ennium have !hey been pl.aced gr.tduaJly
in a sepilr.l.te category.
This il not the plaO! to argue whether the
great civiliutiol\tol the ano emt Filr EilSt orof
the Midd le Eu! were the earliest and the
mOlt o riginal. pharmsceutiClIl y speaking.
The IInguistic proO I!m. 01 eompanoti~"l!' 5tudy

ill'l' W

A.lldtllt Pfthult

cNlleoging ..,d tht d.ting of ancient

CI"rplvl

lon iln-Auyrian medidne have been deseribed u follows:

. , , as cOO$ec:;.u~ of the persilt .... t hold
maintaiJWd by Ihe beIift in sisns of .n m uh, d;'"
e~ <M.(:lII'Ie primarily an o:n ...., tU inbrrptel.tion oI ...mich on lhe part 01 me prietl U divinel
supplemented thIr effc,,~ of me priesi .. e:<D<ciser;
...hill:' the pri.,.t u healer Iv&iled h~1f of both
t~ aids 10 !lUpp\ernent his effertf in the direcl
lre.llment 01 tho: di3oease. Thne thI"ft u pecU of
~!>}io.'ian-AS6}"rian IIl'"<lici_rci1m. divl-

evide"oe is so oflen apeculative thai we remain unoer1ai n .baut Ihe locus 01 maroy mediul . nd techno logie innovations of '1'1tiq u ity, ud the direcuons in whlch their
il'lfluente Ian .
The FIlZ" Eu lern dviliulions hold greal
h islo ric.d inlerHl ror Ihei r tuly achien men lS .nd Iheir imperfectly und en tood
influence o n Western cultu.re, especWly as
med i.. ted by Ihe .nden! Creeks .nd Ihe n.ation . rod medic.l lre. tment-bknd tOdhH to
medienl Ar;abs . Interestin! accounls of form I oompo5ite p;dun: in wbieh it js not al.... ys
premodem phannJlC)' in IM Far Eul, iltId its po ... ible to d isti,,&uish tho!: dillerenl strains.'
rieh m~ teria mediu, now m.y b.e read in
rune5S wU a divine punishmenl, and hnl -Western languages to. cert.u n extent.;
ing a purification. Medicine thus altained I
Howevet, ph .. tmacy in the WtSI sees its 5xed pllCl! in the relii90us ideology, In Ihe
eariy ;u\reeedents most du!'!y in Ihe rh'er immemorial purificalion from , in through
valleys of IM Nil"" Ihe Tigri s and Ihe Eu- penanee, cal1ed "calha.!'lis." Tbis concepl cI
pluates. Taday'S ruins ence throbbed with eathanis, which enleIi!d in lo variou5 relimagnific enl civilintions as remaritabk> il'l gions, found its mosl lamoU5 e~press ion in
the ir own time as Ihe laler wel terly (u\lu r"'5 Ihe , aerifice of J~us Ch risl, who gave his life
thai Ihey helped to
10 purily si n fu l manl<in d. Tbe fact that
medicine in anliqu ity (i.e., in BabyloniaAssyria, Egy pl and, parti)'. in Greece) ' load
BABY1.0NlA-ASSYRIA
wilhin Ih e ideology of "calhants"
In a !lQuthem Bilby\oni~n kingdom of cit)' categorizes I1 u "archaic" medicine,'
This inleresls the pharmacist specificaUy
state', in the agion of lod ay's lraq, th e
SulIlO:'ri ....s d",,'doped a I}'t'tl'm of cunelform beeilu'" il np]a;ru! the original meaning of
writing by about 3000 B.C., ther~by m!ering the Greelt ...on! "hlm,,~an ('leE' Append ix 7),
the hi ~torical period. The)" and Ihe hei,., ol lrom whkh we h ave madi! the term " pharSumerian civilization-Babylonia .nd, tater, macy" and ils de rivativu, From Ihe religious
Assyri_lefl Ihousands of cl~y I ~blets in Ihe idec logy of ca~is there effierged the word
ruins 0 1 their remar~b\e civilizations. Their ancI the roncept pkll rma ko rt, in the sense of a
h is lol)' remained loel<~d in Ihe day unlil me;tns of puriJi(ation through purging;. Tbi.i
abouu eentul)' 19o, wh,e n I I~ ... men rec:ap- idea::-Srsl ~piri tual, then p hannac:ologi( Iu.red. e~DOIgh of the "1lI ~ lanS'!.~8e".l0 JfI~e ...iind....a still. tnore. d ireet expresS!on in Ihe
se ri OU! ~lIempl! 1I transla lion, Tifay ,tVe tem, "am"irt ics" fOr eSpeciall! effecth~
have a fairt}' dear pictu re of Ihe genen! dl-- garivt:S.
Ancient cu lt ures ~I w.. ys mus l be convelopmenl ollhis pa rt of the .mcienl world,
a1lnough research .dds oonti nuou!Jy 10 our lidered from the stmdpoinl of!heir outloolt
knowledge . However, know ledge of on Ure afforded b)' their own ,piritual. geomedicine I n d phumacy in B~by l onia graphie and I!COnom ie oond iti on" Thus it
would be unlair 10 le<:ep t n proof cI ..... " unA.nyri. rema.ins fragrnenUry .
tcienrific" sp irit tne fael that Babylon ianAuyri an. aneien l Egyplian, Ind tho! early
Gener'" Then peutic (on(eplt
part 01 Greel< medicine conlained ~ pat deal
The ideologie furodarn entlls of Baby-

mape.

p...r-

cl "magie." For these pt:ep les, magie was ~

part of Iystt:m.ltizt:d "seienee," It wenl hand
in h;tnd with emp irie: discoveries,' and no
doubt wu h~rmonized with the m.
D~

..

We find cOTfI prehensive m;tleria medk..

in Ihe"" lime, 01 Narc haic:'" medicine. \\o'he n
R, C;tmpbell Thompson e x.tmined many
hundreds ol the d~y tablets (excavalt:d from
the library 01 King Anurbmipal of Assyria),
he Will I.ble 10 identify 250 vegt:l;tblt: drugs
lfld 120 mineral drugs. He also found Ihal
Ileoholic beverages, f;tts IM oils, parts cf
lUlint.b, honO!y, wax Ind v~rious milks were
Ihm being uwd !nI!dicinally.6
Tl\I! Auyrilns aIre;tdy we~ using man)" if
not 111, oe Ihe minerals mentiont:d b y the
Greek DioKorides in his lamous boolt on
materia rned ica (1s t century ilftu Chris i).
berem",nts also pl;tyO!d I pitrt in IhO!
B.bylonian-A5syri~n therapy, because filth
was expecled 10 disgust the evil spiri t that
had irovaded the bod y of the patient Ind
euse it 10 leave forthwilh. '
Botanieal drugs include d , fo r exl mple,
pint turpenl in e. styrax, galb~num, hellebare, myrrn, asafoetida, (alamus. ricinus,
menln ... opium, s!ycynhi.2:_, mand raao"',
unn;tbil, croc:us, lhymus.
The fonns in whicn the Msyri .. n, ~pare d drugs fo r administration induded
medkalt:d wines. draughls. mil<lure!i, oinlments. embrocations, u t;tplasms, enemas,
poultices. plaSlers, IDtions, infusion" docnon, and fumigations.
_The-'oldesl philTiaceutiaJ 'diXiiineii.fnowItroown leUs ho .... the Sumerians p re pared
IOme of these d rugs, ~rbaps .baul 4,000
ye..fS ;tgo, 1t conl:lins a seI"!'S cf d rug formulIS such u the 10Dowing:
" Pulverize the i eed 01 the 'carpenrer' plant
{pertu.~ GYIMDSPOri;l St rr.tla Lots]. the gum
resiro of the marl..ui plant, land] thyme; diss.olve il in befor; let the mlUl drink,"
M uo~ami an drug formulas luch a, th is

80ifrila.aa-Assyri~

Olle typiully were root quantil:ltive (although

!helr Egyptl.n eounlezparlill w~), This is
eurio us , sinee Ihe system 01 we ighl:l Ind
measurea invl!I\!ed by the &b)'1oniana has
been a;m,idered to be one cf thelr mtributions 10 civiliution.
Their ma lm. media "indud~ substmces
whie h p resuppoae b road .cq ua intlnce
with UlI.nY chemical operations nd t:l..oor.le p~dtm'f Ire implied in Ihe tm in
order lhat the s ubstances lisled may MVO!
bl!4!n obl.ined,'"
Inant.lions and m;tgic were .a much
part of Mesopotlman euJture th.t il m~y be
, hee r ~a:ldent !NI t~y fonn no p~rt 01 Ihe
earlie51 drug formul~ry iuIown. After .U, it is
asingle cl;ty l;tblet, onfy p;artly legible, which
probably wae one "page" of Ion ger d<XUmenl. tater recotds Wustr.te how incantalions g~ve drugs their hell ing pow er or
enhanced il. Prob;tbly KIrne ,ubritance,eveutuallyw~recog;n.izedtohavei nherenlheal

ing power thai made Ihern unful w ilhou t

prie,tly intervention,'9 Bul rnlUlY oenlurie,
plSse d before new in te rpre tation of the
ClUSes of disene (;tblndon ing the supernatur"') relflO\led lhe m.gic:o-religio\lS core
of pharmaceuticl.! aru:I rn edical practiees as
exernplified in both andent Mesopot;tm ia
.. nd ES)'pt .
A clan of prepare rs 01 umedies ;tnd
cOlmetic, i, n id 10 have .rilen, c.ned
"pasisu, ~ bul we find n o detail!. about when
it 'P~lred o r . bGul its po.ltion in relation 10
rnedldne. In Sippar.1 the time cf the grell
Billbyloni.. n king Hunmur.bi (IDout 211~
H.C.); retailers of drugs 5ftm 19. have pl it:d
tJiiiirVMie'
pmcu1ar Itreet. u
.

in.

Mytho logy and Ihe Hea ling ArtJ

Jhe Bl b ylo n la n -Anyria n gods EI . nd
Gula ue mO!ntioned mott fnequently in IN!
incantatior.$ often inte,.,persed aznong drug
fonnul u, OE spilll intetell b tho! fact !NI
serpeni euJl aru:I tho! usO! cf the &l!rpt:nl U I
vene rate d .ymbol appear .lre.dy in

CflQp ltr I

Egypl

AncUnr Prtbuk
Babylo nian-Assyrian mythology. A medkal
!od. t\inuu was "the Iord o f ph)'llic~ns,"
and h ia aon, NingiiKhzida, functioned iIS
m~&! r cf the gods. uTheil symbol " 'u a
rod and H'fJ"rnt, reminding U5 of the ~m
symbol of medic:iM, a1though that comes 1:0
us from IM Laler Glftk cullure.
In Bab}1orUa obsen... tion of the pl anets
",d the ' Ws ].ud lhe groundwork not only
fo T Ihe I(ien~ of utronomy, bul simultaneously Ior the pnudo5C~ nce of a!Itrology.
Sin thec:oW1le and col\!l trU.. tion oe the ~rs
had a $IIPpoKd relmorWrip la life on earth,
it is understandabll! that this bl!lief foun d
,ptdrlC applicatians in eady medione m d

,,>~"

,~"

\~'i;"

. .~?,~

." 0'~:t'"O'
~"":-'

.,"
;...

-"

\,4.

-".
....

J'

. ".
,', ", ".

~"'/:::::
"'" >,"......../. h.r..
../. /:.: ....;,~'.

' .,", '" .' ","., ./,4-'.....::;-..

...F":::::
:'::":;: '/~'"

h :j>.>::::....~'-" ..... .
,-0/.
.... .... ';~'''-'..

,,~:.>.,
.. ~/'"
d' ' ' ~~..~ .~.>.....
"..~
,~,......',.
"', ..,...-~ ...<!'"~~.
....-' -".... -: .. ..
~~ ... ., ~ .,r r. ,'," ".,
v~~/.~.
.., / .:>:. ~.'
......./,.~.. , ....... .:-:.;- .I)~.....
~r..~
.,~
.,
<,~,,, "'.'
... -::.'~.I:: ,.,
4~z.

~k7'
;;::,..

..

, """".

EGYPT

An anc:ien' Egy;>tian artis, cancaN"'" a IJm who

holdi a aU rror In 01'01 Mnd .:><1. witllthe OIher.
'J>P!ies reelodIre roule ' 0 !.er lip. (abo", 1200
H.C.). She knew other ro.mt'tic de"i~, lUch ""
eye anel flCe pigments. pertumes, hai r eIye. wiS$.
eIe.nsing: UnB~M' .nd elaborate rnab"p kit$.
Th r F'p}1111 Ebers lnclude, C05 mrtk as weil ilS
the r&~ut;c formlllal , nd Artlfa.:1II l4! $tify lhal
tven bdore lhe urllnl wrllten hllter,' human
v."lty had KlabUstle<! Ihe lmponan of c,,,me\
ta. (From the Orlentll butltu te . Uni". of Chicas<'
i" H\llJhes, G. R.: J, Soc. Co,m , Chem. 1O:lS'i-176,
1959)

The Babyloni,In-Assyrian and Ihe andent

Egyptian rullure, were c1asely re!ated. Bolh
had a theocra tic fe undttion, and theurgie
medicine p~ailed in both of !hem. Egyp t ian m edldne a ppea r, ja have been less
do minaled by metaphysical concep!!, bul
Ihere is an obvious simila:rity betwetn lhe
Assyrian and Ihe Egyplian medical i4!xts;1l
and Ihere were epochs during whleh Ihe
magic elements in Egyplian medicine gairu!d
in prom inence.
Th eancientEgyptianhieroglyphics baffled ilUlcriptien in h ierogly ph ic in d emoli e
mode rn man , wh o wished 10 rud " 'h al characl4! IIhe sirnpHfied hierogJyphi~ in
Egyptianli~ hd beenlib. Then, in 1799 the UR ainee abeul 700 8 .C .) and in Gree k. 1hUI
fameU5 " Rosetta ston~" ,,as found ne.. r tht' gaYe the Frenchman ]. F. ChampoUion Ihe
RO&etta moulh of Ihe Nile. lt bere a triJinguai finl clue toward deeiphe ring h ieroglyprua.
.
. . ___ . __ ~ ~ i noe then. rnuch pn>grHs.hil$ ~ made in
.
~lat inS-an.d lnlerpreting..the_accmb of _
0:- ':':'TJifi CI~1 lablet is belin.. cno b.. W old.,.t .ncient Egypt th,tf sur.'i ye. 'Yet, mjmy prot1pharmacculic.ll docu.m .. nt ",hos.. conl1l!n t. an lern. e h aUe nge eYen Ihe best Egyp
known. It was probAbIy Iowatd ~ .....:I of W IOlogista-not least o f an the puule o f !denthlrd millenniu:n B.C. ... hen Swnerian eook. Iifyi", dn13S re ferred to in medi~ papyri.
Iftd . tylll5. "'rote d"" lomulas in thc slab of t.of1
day, ~ b. bd IM lab1ft. h the badg::rou...:lun Medi.c:d Papyri
bo: Iftn. moc!cm Am"rican . lKCtS.tOr to lhU e ar
Eght medical papyri Ihu, fu are IransLtted
lI.m kI:mulary, thc fi ,.t edi tion of the NQ/i,,~al
and commented on. AU of them were ","ritten
Fo"""J.ty (I888) ,
between aOOul 19O(J and 1100 B.C.H, bUI
(ThIe cll!'Wlform t.blet aha"", is rep/ica cu t
tiom Ihf 0"111\11 In th" t:ni"eity of Pennlyl- much of the knowledge in them probably Ja
VU\I. MUH um. Phi.Lodeipllio. )
farolder.

)
Ch~ptH

Ern t

Am:iml P rtlloldt

The Eben papyrus (burln g Ihe n.aIM of a

Gemtan Egyptologist, CAorg EbftS) containf
the patest number of dtu ga u d formulM.
but tM medkal papyri u gf'O Up testify 10
the exb!nsivl! atlmtion aClrded the Pf'tparation . nd the uw of dl'UP ,"

Ebus P'p!'fllJ.

Conlai ning rell\Oanls 01

V.riOU5 earlief tre:il tises, bu t compl l!~ as

written .nd IDOle than 20 meters Ions. the
Eben papyrus hu atlnu:ted idlolars .pin
.nd again. The work is so d if lkult that it has
bn said of ~n IM II'IOSt rI!C!nl O'iInila
tion'~

The id enti liotio .. 01 mlny NI:rtU of dLwues,

Sm..u

rymp!<>lfI' and drup bl' Ebbell iI IM result 01

Ions \>or ... yel ""en on . up.r5dal ~~inS of

Iho traruhtion. ON! b<e<:all\eo doubtiul u 10 the
rtliab ility of tI\eso! ic.,....t\!i<:.tiono. In mOli CUf:S
Ihey,,", m .... ~$.

."

The tu t 11 dolllinaled by drug 101111111_

.. nd , when taken wHh o ther evid e nc l!,

SUW!A;5 that the phannace u tiu l sid e of
medical (Are received pWre atten tion lhan il
did in . " cien! Greece hotef on. ....flen med icaJ.
~ pts !efl a rel.ath~ly 1arge plaee ror d ietetics. In aude form. the Egypt~ lu\ew II'IOSt
of o ur modf's of administering dl\l~ by 1500
H.C., such u gargles, tinuffs, i nhal~ lion s,

~xce",t from th e Ebni p~pyn.., .OOut 1500 B.C .. wruch. mentions about 700 med id nal

SU!:>s14m:eII.- d br th e ,!>Cient E5YPti1ru. The oompl<!t1' docummt , almesl 22 yudJ Iong, 11 in

thl! cu"i~. (hierati<) II<:ript. (from J. Be... ndes: G"c~icht. <irr p~R"",,%it, Leipzig, 1895)

--f.:c~ ~:';:'i~""'if! '-:-;~

; 11

Straightferwilrd formul .. oceupy 50 much

suppott itoriell, furnigations, enemu, poultiteS, deroctions, infU!lioll$, pills, trochu, 10- sp~ce in the Ebers p'llpyrus Ihlt Ihe incanlatior\s, ointment! and piasters. In tht Ebers lions cl lhe Introduction, lnlende<! for gen
f>'IIpyrus alone, these ~ .. ri OU5 fonns have eral a pplication, te nd to be , ubordinated. A).
bI!en found 10 embrace more Ih an 700 drugs , lhough the Egypto logi5t Ebbe ll prefers 10
in man: lhan 800 formulas .
look o n lhem merel y as "l!\idenN cf Ihe
The dru~ "'"!!re dno.WTI from the plant, the piety of thI! Egyptlans:'u it . ppean thai they
.n im.l .nd the m i neral kingdoms, b u ! we~ for l.15e whenl!\"!! r . re medy was .pplie<!
bo lan ie dru gs p redom in ate fo r i n lerna l or bandage 1ooS!!lII!d, and that they Wl!re
use-su ch as acacia, c~s t o r bea n , int1!n ded to re infOlU the dtup with d ivilll!
wonn .... ood. d ..e. f~nnel , .6g, g .. rHc and power againSI "afflic:tion' leauS!!dl by a god
poppy SH<U. There appea r 10 be referenen or geddess. by. dl!ld man or wom.n , e!c."
to suck mineral substilnces as alum, i ron
Edwin 5rrtith p'PYrll5. A ~atise thai re
oxide, ]imestone, sodiu m ca.rbonate, 54lt and veille<! the liurgicallid e ofEgypti.n mediane
,ulhu. Exaements of various anUruilil were is perhaplllS im po rtant.u Ihe Ebers papyrw
u5ed occas io nal ly, as w e no ted in and il impressive beauS!! of itll o rg.niu.
Bl by!onia-."I.n r ria. Beer. milk , wine Ind tie n , wealth of Infe m1l tion and reedom
honey we re po pular veh icln for drug5. from magiCl1 elemenb . Since Ib publiciltion,
Honey Ind WIX were ohen uSl!d .as binding includ ing the tnt rulation . "d Ihe co mmen
agelltl i n Ihe formu!as. "
tary by lhe- pionter Amerioll Egyptologisl
A rl!J're~nlative formula reads:
James Henry BrelS!ed (.n el"$twhile phuma
cut), I"!!spect fe r the m .. didn e ac:hieved by so
Arlethe! tg d ur out purulmcy:
.."eien! a peo ple hlS in ereated considerably.
HYOlICYamu,
:2 ro
The d islingui5hed medicaJ hi lto rian Henry
Date'
4 ro
Sigerut caJle d Ihe work of Brea$led "one of
Wtn..
5 ro
Au, milk
20 ro
the most accomplished edition. thai ha'!!Ver
.,.., ballt><!, , Irainl!d aru\ lak .... fu . fou.- d.t.)'S."
been made of an Incient text.";l.
Suc h quan litil live formulas-favered by
I.... ~".,; .. nr Egypti an p"",titi onen ;tnd u' u
aUy lack lng in Babylonian fo rm ulucllatornarily spec:ify meaSUrU rather than
wEights, .. ven for dry 5ubs tancl!$ . A " ro" (as
in w . bove formula) is abeut 15 ml. The 4
dlYS tpl!cified.as the co urse cf treatmen l oecurs co mmon!y i n Eg yptia n pharmaco--tb.!"'PY 'lin d may oripnano in mapc formula
-:-~lhan..in clinica1 obseIVi\fion.
Moru..." band mills, l ieves 'lind. balance
were commonly used in technologie o pera
001\$ such as pnarmlKl!Utical com pounding.
Copies of the dRlg formulas Wl!ff hande<!
&om Ol\!! practiOOnef to another and. &om
on e generation to th e lIexl. Sometimes a
Kribe igno ... n t of medictne would ,; mply
combine in Ms copy several simple ingredlenb liated originally as separale prnai ptiOI\5, which may havecentributed to the ri:se
of polypha.rmacy."

Egyptin. Medldnal Plants

The opinion hu been Upl"l!Ssed thlt the~

not mn.y medid nal planl:& native 10 In
eimt Egypt du! 10 lopographie peculia rity.
Bo unde d on Ihe eut by ehe Anlbian desert
and on th e wu t b y Ih e LibYln dne rt,
Egypt' s populate was ~lricl2d to th .. vaJJey
inund.ted by thI! Nile-. On Ih!!" other und;
Theoph l"ilStuSi4tt1 'cenlry 8":(::; ); qO~"::iiIgOW:;,?:.:..:"":_--::
veI"ie5 o f Ho mer, p rli.el the many Ind
eff.ca do~ medidnal p!.sntll of anclenl Egypt;
Dio5corides (1st century A.D.) mentionl the
Egypti.n o rigin of 80 ~~u.ble dro gs that he
d escribed . We may l Up peS!! thal the anrienl
EgyptUms culti .... led other planb originally
not native to thei r country and u~d them
med icinally.u Fo r example, pomegrana te
w as not indigenOU5 10 Egypt bu t mUSE have
been cultlvlted ex lensive ly Ihel"!! IbaUt 1100
W~

B.c. u

Qinb:Dent ",<C,1uoocn ponnyed prior to l WO B.C. in. an EID-ptlan IC/mb pa.inting. TIw 10li0....

inS int>e~oti<>n teun' p"'bab!e (olthough ru>: entirdy ~rta.inl, based on compariJo" with

du. i! ",pf'll'H ntatlc.ru 0 1 olntmen' f'OOlIIS (\o:!llo riSht acroon I~ Qoub\l': pi>ej:
The mon &1 th~ ,xtr<!me ~ft tPP"'T5 to"bc MwinI a pi!!! [er .mntoine<. or pe ..... ?" wood:er
Ihe ~. In fronl ofhlrrt ..... baIoket and tluft vue,h~pd containe r.;. p:<Obably<XlntllWns the

crude in5f'!d ientl used by theso! andent P"'paroersOol medici"H. To t~ right I ... or\<"'IlJ\ hC/I<II
I li~ ove con~ner On IM tloor. !\l!:)Ct tlD him ~desla.i-I.ble pte5WlU1bly btt... Iarze
IJIc"rul 0 1 Il"isht'd olntment. !he next IwO W'Orl<m<:n aroe (ommir!"ting eNde ingro<lientto, the
one at the "art 01 n", ngM haLl oliM panel u,ing. mortu. The kneeting IJUI\ appetn to be
.haping tollU' oIlhe cooled linhhed ointrnent into balls fcr :ransport. Ta hit nstlt an oinlment
(ook sti ... In kettle on the hurth , tlo.e melling animo! fat with ether iI\gf'll'dil:nts ""Iil it hat
the ptoper (on.it~ncy. (."'te, w. W,enin. ld. A~~' "", Ill!d.gypti,c~." KlIltuJgtsehicht Plale
356.)

Mythol ogy
/U In other aI\cient countriH govemed or
influenced by theocratic rule. medicine WH
5uppose d 10 have orisinated wi th lome
mythologie deitie . In Egypt nolably Thoth,
Os iris. bis, Horu!! IlI\d Imhotc! p . C;rwu~Uy.
lrnholep beo:ame more I.nd more Ihe divine
representative 01 medicine in EgypI:. He WH
originallya real peISOnage, one 01 the elrliellt
of known phydcian$. He Ii\"ed lboul 3000
B.C. and w dei6ed 2,500 yeat"$ .tIer h is
..
' - Im.hotep

Tht PTJoetice 01 Medid m and PnlrDllcy

We noled in andent Babylonia-Nlsyria a
graup of prepareIS 01 medicine , of whom we:
ha~ no delailed. knowledge. Hov.-ever, they
did not play an important part in the developmcnt of ..... didne and ....."nnacY. The
\'ariely 01 preparations 01
Egyptian medicine Ihal
siomu skill implies a more ......~~1 - - _ . .
guished pup of preparel!l 01 medicine .
Such a group did exisl, although the euct
cha rKter "nd relinemenl of "' phannacy" 1I

speelaHUlion of phaITllaceutial I C
tivities also found expression in Egyp lian
mythology. The &eo;relof pharmaq' had been
reveed, KCQrding 10 Egyptian m)1.hology,
to Ihe divine HOI1l$ by hi, mother, lsiJ. The
tuks 01 the d ivine h~ of medldne and of
the ehlmber 01 ernbah:nment were lS$igned
10 ,,~ped god, Ane:pu (called Anubis by Ihe
G~kI). who thua mighl be regarded in one:
~espect 111 the pharrnaci51 of the gOO5."

The ~",onnel 01 phonnacy ind"dtd two ht

Ions. 'n E!)1": S"'''P cf .pt-dali.t-functiO nuk

10

I"d I campla. of tKhnic&l Hrvi-s. the 6nt ~in

hierardlically ~bo"e I~ latteT.
I.n IN caltJory of ",-eIl-ln1onned ph.o.lIIlliC'eUtical
Won..l1 WO! l hould place espKiall; the Ndlid: of
the p~f'II'lI of drupN and the conJ.tnl~tor of
drug .... poerhl'" l ..ocitlillJll ""d\ th=t I priul-

ph).. id~n himKlf (ornpounded hil reflM!di'"5 or

hil ~,...an ~ did il uncle, M I .upoervbiotl. jusl u
he and 1Ii1 auillilntl prob.bly pthe",d the ne<:1S.
......, I ng~d~n...n<! alored lho!m in lhe 1l0UM.
. Drop Importltd hom .broad wert probtbly
. tore<! in roral w~hoUl". whtnu Ihe pnyti_
Iwtbali,t.~
da'" oould obtain thtm."
In IM group 01 tcchnidan., 0"'" pernap' distin.
.
.
.,,(,ho coUectorl of dtugs" and I.bol"l.to<)"
The Iwo v.ews an n ot as Incompallble ~
aide, ."
Ihey moy HeIn to be a t (lnl. What meaning
Here, Ihm. carryi ng 0' nol .0. I"'rticula. namt. should we expect 01 Ihe tenn " phannaci&l" a&
..... tlloH ",110 fonn .. d.... of "ph.o.mladsu,""" 10 applied to cond itions in Egypt 3,500 ye:ars
.peak.
ago (or fot that matter, Amenca 100 years
~e evidence duly . :I~l ing 10 Ihis medioll ago)7 In an)" even!, both acholill'll see & prob"U ~I t1 .. y_ nol.phY l1c,.n . nd not I.o.r",.n- able osiSlant Of uI~late of the physiciln
~"'CflI to notlllllg L"" ,,?t;o:> thai medical p...,. with special resporutibiJit) for phann;oceutirk The p"
Joee tkal
. tc!
Y
KI'Ipllonl Wetf! nen>.led ,n .0 Laborato..,..annexed cal
10 tIu! te"'ple, by "priest-phyoiciAlU."
wo.
"aITII'"
USOCl~ ma
Ort 11M! othc. h.o.nd. il io''<el u.. partiaanol of IM w:ell ~ve depended ~n stoCks held In whlt
iduol pharma<ll'urical W'Ork bring in tIu! ha.-.dsol SLgenst lerme:d the . :oyal wa~hl)IlSe!I as
ph.yoidan. alone lo co....-ect loor poinl of vi_, the 10Urce ro r drugs tmpomd or galhen!d
and il in .. iles tllftn to 'ccepI, aI tIu! ride of tiM! from the oounlr}"ide by the "conectOts of
man 01 h.o.!ing L"t. the prnena: of an . .... ta"t drup ." A co\.ltlterparl in Jonckhee~'a ev;chargec! with du! pnpararion OoI....,.,Nies, ~ las!< dence ia the " House of Life" where .ppar~t M .0.' ti ....... fulfil!ed in Ibo hoIne 01 the PI- ently drugs ..... re both collectl!d ;nlo Ilorise
~
~;j;ma ~.
. ... . .'..~ __ ._ ___ ~ . (under- the "con,........to r of drop" ) ."d p~- -_. ..~
e.-;
~IIO~ ...thf o:t~'U'~k>_ ~~ . at ieut in:cmainllULtllnc:es, by'":"lbou--'-'--",al thi plaet... -tn:~ (h I'&rt ~ who fab rinte the med icaments." There WII5
:,"._4th
. a;n.",~ _... ~y---for .1he ,lint ~ 0,' des ignation fOTthe "(hit! of those who fab
tI llW l"l",n'"",,I. or prepE1ng .n
.
.L_
,.
".
, ".
~_
~lh'erinS du! prf"";bed p....:l\1ClS. in view of Dur n~abe u",:, rt\lO Ic~ents. q,:"te s llnet H U lD
~pwparer of A'mediH,' ~ Io...er edteIon ol l. vm- his meehc al functiOn 5, bu l 11 mll5l bf! noted
Ublt ph.o""'Ktutical o<gani.J..oti<l n oi whlch "'"t Ihal.1 lelll in the House of Life Ihi s "ch ief'
ha..e been ~ble toQtr:honly I glimpee in L'>e com- was al.5o chief of lne royal ph~icians among
pln .dmilliltnltive acif'll'."
vmo\15 other tilles .
To what extent do th.-. vieWll dash with
In ~e:~ding rece:nt ,tud ies of i ndivid~ll
tu.
. .
.
.
papYll ,I lf a1s.o hard 10 e'lC&pe th e fHlmg
W I Henry Sl~rut had wnlten ellhe:r7:
that the person who practiced medicine oHen
There wu l'IO phatmlci.tt in ....ru,nl Egypt. TIM! prKliced ph ...mlCY 15 w e:ll , even though.

"

)
12

OI~ptt'

Jlncitlft Prtl!44

ph~\llical

woril nuy tuoye bn more the Greeq and lrom them.

I~e!}'

drew thei r

distinet . nd d istlnctivO!-at lust at Ihe more iden ~in!l medicltion.~

ln'el--than we Ol\(e bO!lieved.
TheGreeu, livlngon both sidesofthe MIn posiling pharmace\ltica.l activitiu in geln Se.. and on 11:1 alands , teceived many
medU::al ean!! distinct frum printll' ministl'1t'- outside sliInuli froln both Mesopotatn.ia 1ru1
lions and temple "lIbon toriell" (ye t not de- Ihe Nilt valley. So if we camplte the d l'l,lgs
n ying a thelUgic w undalion), Jonckheere and the fo rms of ~di~ation used by IM anand Sigerist sbnd togelhe r against p asl de n! Egyptian, with Iho~ used laUO f on by
v~ ...'S . If tornonow the Egyptian .and5 )ield the Gr~ks, we lind t/at the differences Me
add itional docu menta. the picture may unify l'Ieithtr very greal n ot VII' ry important. The
or. mo re probably. i t may dh-enily into , ev- rise of I~ oIdest and best known med ical
era! d ifferent and dearer pietures, by supply- schools, Cos ll1'1 d Cnldos, on the main seil ing evide~ oi how d ifferenl the nwdical h ones to Ihe O rient facil;ta~d a (ruitful a mneo;tion between anden! Egyptian and G~k
prad ic:n .... ere in different periods of Egypl"
medidnll'.
Iong NStofV.
lt i5 pertinenl 10 rec.J.I1 the spedal cha rllC~r
For exWtple. Hennar.n Grapow believes
tJu.1 ancient Egyptiol n medicine. r-e-veaJing a of In de n! Gre ek civilizatio n, wh ich im"sci.entific ehanete ." reac hed i ti fuU de o pfe!l&ed itself 50 indelib ly on the Westem
yeloplJU>nl beloTe 1600 B.C. but. in the time ",'arld .and cruled ...'hat I'>1! c.Jl European cul0 1 the New J(ingdom. degenerated inlo sor- lure. In ( ontrast wilh the Indent Oriental
cer)'.u 1l\is ,,"- ternen! suggn'" an explana peopl es with tlu-ir di5regud 01 Ihe ind ition lor Ihe difrerence:l of opinion u to the vidual , .he Greeks (Attic and IoI'1\a n espe" mapca l" o r " ra tional" eharae le r 01 clally) based lheir culture on individul litv.
medicine in andent Egypt. In the more Ihm With the appt'arance of famo\lS physiciMS
3.000 ye.rs of Ihe empire" , ehangi ng dntiny. diffe~nl opinions ....el'e pt'esO!ftlt'd on bO!tuoll
of the differe nt sch ools 01 Ihoughl; and theR
the~ w ere periods 01 e\llturaJ bloMo m In
whieh rational ism reacht'd a high deg:~e, varying v ie .... points wel'O! defm ded in publk
and othen in wh ich Ihe dogmatic letters At> a result, ~crecy and mystery ,',e l'O! rewere drawn li ghte . Howe\'e r, there Will" pllICCd y..du ay by m mmuniation and cil . .
never ... time in whleh the theocntic regime ical dhcu uion.
... nd Ihe theurgic Ideology 105t Iheir grip.
Hence, eyen in periods 01 comparatively ra_ Mythology and Temple MedJcine
A pench.m l lo r naillTaI elCplanation and
tiOnal medkal pnoctice. there still ~mained
the " ... rctuoic" ' \lperstrueture.
eriticlIl <!Xamination ol old dogmas did not
The high standard of Ihe ilncient Egyp"" make Ihe G~ek!r inlole .... n t of religion or its
tiin;~ m edidne lind thenpy 'unde!' -a--iheo- place ' ln hea.ling: - Rather. we....firn;\-01.I~(>wn
eutk . ysteln eam' ou r tup-rtt; but-{Q'r - ~~~\;!y me~k):i\!i! t(I~::.:
lu rther developmenls we l(}Ok 10 the AS- .\le di; gno~ I J and treatme n t 01 d iseas e
tonishing cul tul"! ... chleved by the Creeks wilhin the frarneworl<. 01 naturilI leiente, ye!
about a thou sand yea., after the Egyptians must not d!!", thai the '\lpematura l mal'
reacMd !heir un ith.
h .....-e a sepnilte pbce in the patient's re-

~ftlra1iud

Grrru 11.1111 Romr

10 I. de. pen tely

iDpatient. Hence, "'e IIre not

surpri sed at Ihe popul arity 0 1 the unlimited
possibili~ offe red by fe'.."rai dei ties and
d~id eilie, 10 whom healing quali lie, were
.ttri buted-Io r e>tllmple, Apoll o, among
others. Prometheus w u espedally refelTl!d to
as 11 prepan!!r 01 rernedies.
Be g inning in Ih e 7th cen tury B.C .
AJldepios gnduaUy supeneded A pollo ..,
Ihe gn!atest of hea ling god,. In h.i.s legend we
find th.at tnecen'"-ur Oa iron t<lught Asldep ios
hi s phannaceu tic:a1 knowledge abou t dru g
pl.mu growing in the The"alian plai ns.
5anctuarie! devoted to healing the _lek were
erected all over Cr~, whe~in dwe:lt the
Id ndly bu t po ...erfuI spi ri t of Alklepios.
a ided by his two daughters. Hygeia and
Pa na eea. Wh ... t h appe ned there fi nd l an
anaJogy in pliICe$ of religious pilpimage 10day. The image of AJklepi o$ embodied so
man}" of Ihe finest q uaiitin 0 1 medkine thai
he bec:ame a divine Ideal (OI Ja)" phy,icians.
and the "sblff of ~kkpios" still rem.a;'u the
offici~ 1 'ymbol 0 1 med i(lnf all ov er the
world ." The bowl ;and sacred serp ent earried
by the gOO', daugh ler Hygei a, 1.5 me aided
hirn in Ihe Yisions of lup plieants, became
symbolic of heallh and then , in modem ~n
turin , an intemationalJy ~ized s)"Inbol
0' phMmitC)'.

Be si de Ihis C reek \'ers io n of te mple

m.edicine, Ihere flomi!hed a 5ecWaf s>"lfm
01 IJU>dicai prillCtice. the finesl nponent of

$OlIft:es.

At Ih is 'IlIg.e medicine ,tin h.cf a S\!vtrely

limited .cop! of effectiveness. and it was a
Thel"l! ~ few phMmaceuticai d ifferen~, scientific merit of the bellt Creek ph)'lici.ans
between anci!nt Cl"!ece and Rome .ince the that the)' did n Ot claim overmuc h . S\lch
RomaN I.do ptt'd mcJIIt of their eus!olfLS [rom moduty could nol tuoV! been yerr Siltisfying
GRHeE AND ROME

, Puia)

JJ

)
If

ChIop lt r I

,heinI Ptduk

h is lheory of Ihe !IO-Called fout elements, it

which WH the Hippocrati~ I chool. 1t rejected .... as propcll! d Ihat the compo.,enlS ol ;ill mat.. Iheurp~ conceptual basis fo r dealing wilh ter, i.,c\u din g the animal (hen ce human)
d iseue . Though by tha l time con~ pls and body, .... ere waler, air, fire and urth.
therapeutiCII usually fcund theif explanation
Acc<l rding 10 Empedocll!fi .nd hi , fo Uo .... in the naluri!1 wo rld , thel" eventually wen en, healm was Ihe reau!t of equilibrium of
.hape d co n siderabl y b y i pulalive the5e four elements in the body, and di'lease
ptoiloiophy. flOD> which " Kienee" cowd not was IM reult oi a disequilibrium.
yet be elI\ric ..ted .
The q~st;on naturally arises, why were
lhe lourelements eventu allycalled "A ristoteHan" el ements in preference 10 " EmpedoPhUotophy and Its InBu mce
dean"? The answer i5 I""t Ari stolle, I.ltrong
on Me dical Cont:epl~
propenent oi Ihe foureleme., t theory, ....a 5 so
Gneee criginaled the systematized re3.cn famoUll as a philosopher a.,d a nalUral5Cienin g aboul phencmena of the unive,",e and tist that he ovenhadowed bv far illl Ihe other
Ihe pbee of lhe human being in It that we eaU C ree k philos ophen w c rk (.,g In Ihe '!-ame
philo,ophy. The very term " philosopher" ne id . For thol,l5ands 01 y urs-up to out
h u been derive d from Ihe Creek word s time-he haB been regarded (10 quote the
pltilM (Iriend) and sopltill (wisdcnn). Through halia., Renaissaoru:e poel Dante) u the MuIhe Greeb, wi sdom h.u become auilable 10 \!er of those -,.;ho kno-,.;.""
who
everyone who s<'"I' to bII iu friend.
AnolhH
-,.; &5
Mos t of Ihe philosophen ...en uge r 10

elIplaln nature ~nd ils phenomena in a rational wal". They d ealil ikewi!lt with Ihe healing .. rts and even lomelimes pr.l.clieed Ihem.
The mOllt important problem fadng the se'
early ph ilo'lOphe n ...ai th is: What ratio nal
v; pl.tnation e.. n be found both for Ihe ori gin
oi Ihe lrind of ...-und Ihal human beinp .. n
Uvlng in and ror the c:1i:5o:"~d thai ..... lheil
1011 Above all, ;1 wal the nalu>e of m"tterthal
asked for an in\"e,ti gation . The most alluring
idea was that oi one essentlal an d fundamenta.l 5ub,lan~e lrom which everylhing in na- leven w as
ture developed . Four Greek philosop hers in
lum conceived one lu.,damental p rinciple
- - ~t"1li'ioth"f' r.l"h e fourth 01"lhe'le, Empedo::-:M1b . ~ 5O-I .Ir."C:) believed 1""1 ICUl slales ~
matlu_co mbin ing iden 01 h is pre del:1!1I$ort-were Ih e "roots oi all Ih in g:5: In plified u

<h,

ili,
pileh and
cw be exdi'lCOVery
"'"

..

Plut!~

Ju piter

Grttk Gilb
Rom ~1I Gods
Mt/al,
Symb ols

Jupiter
Tin

ZM

'"

M..

Mercurv
Henne!
MerrunUll

lron

M~"

~an

Are,

a'

M_
Selene
Luna
Silve r

01

5._

"rum

Cron~

lo.d

s~

Helios
ApollO
Gold

VenUJ
Aphrodite
Venus
Copper

1t w," 1151umed. tNl Ihrough the pLa.,eta

the golls influenced happenings on uM .
N a infiuence graduaUy became /lttribuled
to the pbneu themselve!; henee, Ihe factats
revuling thne Inuencu a l work were
IQ)Igt!.t in Ihe posilion oi the SIa.r3 al a p lrticular time. On thill bilS is the pR'Ud05deoc:e
cl astrolcgy de\'eloped, aJthough other 101lJ\1
of thill syslem of belief appeared alrudy in
urly M@SOpotarnia. For philrm/lC}', a5tJ'Ology
implied that the time whe., pbnts wue to b e
coUected, and eve., when lIOIlle prepuatio,,,
were to be oom pounded, had 10 be ~hosen
aeoordi.,g to astrologie eonsiderations .
Anolher Gr~ k idu Ihal survived more
Ih;an !wo Ihousand yun , in modified form ,
I\&s had greate r xie.,ti 5c re:; pecta bil ity and
(on~ equ"nCf' ror phumaceu linl Te!ltaKh :
alQmic Iheory. Ir was corv::eived i., /I speculali ve way by Leu cippos ~ nd Oemocri tu s
(I bo n l 440 S.C .!. Acco rding to thete
philo!K>phen, Ihe warld oonsist:9 of indlvlsible sman corpuKles th.:ll differ in shlpe and
pelitio., but not in l ub , tamce. The an tique
!helOty oi atcmi5m gave a hold ly mech an.i9tic
expllnalion 10 mo ti o n and q u al itative
change .
Hippoenti( Medk.tl WriliDgs
lt was after Ihe development oi Ihe theory
cf the fOUl elements Ih, t Hi ppocu.tu enlene d
Ihe Kene . Tbis man poste rity h as lermed
"fatherofmedicine." He was bomabout 460
B.C. on Ihe island of CO) and d ied aboul 370
B.C. in Thessaly. How"ver, "schobn h ave
- - gt\-e-rn:lp-ute use cf the wonfHippocrates IS
:-:-:-ZW-~ Iig~an rusloriuJ person whc ....., the
luthor oi I I !eullOme of Ihe books that I re
oon tained in Ihe Hippocralu n CotpWl:'JJ
becau5<' probably l\Ot I , i.,gIe book in this
corpus (coll~d . 1 Al exand ri" during th e
41h a!ld 3rd ~nturie, S .C.), can be assoc laled
definilely wilh HippocratelO him.self.3~
Whire the scien tific a.,d ethica1 level e... iderteed in the~ wri linp was not achieved

Gruct "...: R Olllt

"

by Olle pal man on ly, lt was represenla tive

of iIOme of l ke best Hippocratic prao:;tilioners
during the 5th through Ihe 3rd Cf'nturlet B.C .
HiPPoc rlIh"c "HumI;ln."' In Ihe Hip pocra tic
corpus Ihe concep l 01 the humcny 01 the fOUT
~ernents (of whlch the body was suppose-d
10 consis!, ac~o rd ing 10 Empedode, .nd
othen) was nepl aced by the roncept 01 Ihe
humon y or d ishannon y of the "fOUl humors" u lhe cau5<' 01 helllh o r s ickneu.
These four hwnon p araUeled Ihe foW" e ie-mentli. Th is conCf'pt nemained an explanatary thecry and did not become iI bindi.,g
doctrine. Tbe authon of Ihe Hippocra tic ~o""
p Ul ...-ere emp irielst l, beHe-..-ing in the healing power of n .. lUre and believing thil l Ihe
Iisk cl lhe p h)'llkiln ia 10 help nature ta help
henelf. '"The greal Hippocratic graup imply
the doctrine oi humon in lheu- ph tMeOlogy
and ou tloo k 0., lympl!Oml, b ul ;1 is in lhe
background, and nowhet1! .tre the humon
deKribed."
DruIS Jlnd Thmtp t lltk5 . Although the regulation oi diet occupiu Ihe most important
ploce in Ihe Hippocrati~ Corpus, we wo find
m;any d rugs, mainly of v~table orlgin-t he
lotal rangin g betwee n 200 and 400 d rugs, deo
pending upo" the definitions employed in
s rudin cf these bu!ky wrltings. Often Ihe divid inl!i line tM:~en dieLory "'l9m"n and
phannaceutica1 regl men WillS lhirn)' dra ....n by
H ip pocrati~ physician a, in the ir overall
strategem to 5trengthen the h~ aling po .... er of
nalur~ and b ring the pillent back ta a health fu l equilibrium"
Pha~_a~.!~~~~~ 1 .p..l?.Ce.sse~ .lI"\el)ljoJ\e.d. In . _
lhe Hip~corpus_,.re maojfold AII.~_ . _
dude Iru.-Fre~on 0' fomen"'bltions: -Pow-- ':'
~ . _lices. garglu, pessane pills, o intme n ta.
oils, eu ate 5, coUyria, lohod UII, !roches an<!
inhll.ttiolUi . NUOOlics ...ere kno ...-n and used
G ui~ cf the poppy, henb.ne s-eed5 and mand ragora). The freq uen l reference ta purgaIlve l. sudo rifia, emetics and enemas are due
to Ihe Hippocra tie Iheory Ih~t the flnl req uireme.,t of medic.tllrealmenl has 10 be Ihe

)
16

Arld,,,/ Prdwdt

p~ ~
SANG~!J!<o"1:

0<0'

4"

""'"

c<!!;,
"""

Thi~ pu rifiC<1.t ion te presentcd il bod ily

cathamis and Ie<!. 10 .11 ch ange in Ihe col'I(ept
of th", "" o rd plum.. akDn from t he original
__ meaning 01 .a chann (wru:tlleLh ..... liJ"g_or.

~_J!9i~,}~ *"i~atic-meaning..oL'

pUiifYi ng I<'!medy_ l ate r.1t bKm.lt EMgen:

eral d",signation for remedy .
Simplici ty , fre",d om hom irn lionalism
and. <'!Sped.ally. th", idea lhat each ind ividual
repres",nts .I unil that has to be truted a$
such. are imporlant futures 01 Ihe
Hippocrali c th", ory .lind thu.py. For t h is
ruson , Ih roughout Ihe .ge5. whenever
medicine lIad 1051 iueU too much in corn
plu:ilies and d is",gard for tlw indi vidual pa.
tienl, Ihe battle cry could .lind can be heatd:
"Back 10 Hippo<:rate5l"

ted mllSt

The SchOlli of Alexandria

~
PH ;:CMATIC

MELANCHOLIe:
A .:l iaSTarn darilin and .impUfi... reL.. rion~hips in IM theo~ ic framework o f
humoral p .thoJosy. Th' f~wrhw",o"" who~ bill. net and di , tribution W~~ funo:Wnt nlal 10 the li~il'lB Of'8anism, .n! gi~n bc\"". the diagonalli" ... , Ea<h of IM
fo~' <I~ "....,,~ cornpriling.U matlu i. adiooml (a!Mw Ihr Im . ) to its analogcul
humor. In (he .p~e a'oo .... . no:l beneal!> tach dlago,ul = l:.e two 4UQ liral'iD <
'h,...'t.... IiOi ...odate<! wilh .ach e1em.nt~l lubstilna:,
T..."~.,.,..,,.,t , as Wen' l QM" IItalth. reflfCIeC the kumoralstate, Mn" the
d ..igtUltloN 1I the I Nd Gi t Kh dl .. gcMl ti M. The otyrnology of t .. ch term 01
temp.,..""",nt ~mllld.t ul 01 lt, a nciotnt .'-'lexiation ..... ,:1 0"' of the humors ,

puri!ication of th. bod.y lrom illnu ,producing eo;cess cf humon.

thi~

111111

Romt

17

sirengthe ning by ph)'$kal .e:.:trciu and ir

ritil.tins dRlgS; the othet called fo r I<'! !axa.lion
u-.d 500Ihing el.rugs. Since this Iheo:y wa.s
bned on the "solids" rathu Ihan Ihe
"hllIllors" of the hael.y, ;1;' termed one kind
of soiiel.u patholo gy.

Ph.um.mlieal BotInlsb

C\L[X11

if"~'

lodherents of

the idu, 01 ~ GI<'!ek minority. i l did not become pop ular until the end of anfiqlol i ty ,
when " it new rel igi on ICh rislianity) MOSe
Ih-' chang! Ihe very foundirtion 01 ander)!
civiliution . The l imilarity of Ihe Pythagorelf'l roncepts to those of Christianity, togemer wilh the des ire of G~k ph}'s~i;tn' in
Rome 10 maintai n Ihei r exd'llsive rights,
gnoel.u;illy made the Hippocriltic Oalh generafly f<'!a)gnized.."

$lOtEMA roll
H U),I()!W.
p-,nlOLOCY

The~IoN',

philosophical-~ligious

M ve composeel. Ihe oalh. Since il mirroreel.

~~$-"'.---I v
DO'

iden not Ihe:n dominant, bul those

01 Ihe Pythagorean
sed ,

"'"

Gruu

Chlp ter 1

H;p,,~rra ti, O" jh. The Hippocratic conIribu lion c f Ihe rud im en~ 0 1 scie nlific
lIIelhod had fa rre.tdung cons equence5 in
mediCilI eaI<'! Ihrou gh the centuriu. Yet.
Hip pocrat<'!S is 11'10 ", widely rememb",red in
~nLt;i!n~ Ihrough ;l5sociation 01 his name
~th Ihe fust:knQwn mMl ifesaliOri-of m",di
('ar ", Ihin. StiU: today a -n osl o r m'taieal
lVaodlUlles mnu;illy commi t Ihemselve, 10 Ih<'!
" Hippotr;'t~ Oath" (and a paraphrase of the
oath in pharmac eutiCilI tenns is laken by
5Otru! phannacy graduitt<'l')' WlItJ l his anden l
Creek expr""ssion of medial ideals itl fitCt
penned by Im lamou' Hippocrates? Proba
bly not, ilJ we mu sl say abo'lll 50 many other
wrllings Iin ked 10 tu, name.
App;uenlly the oalh was compoJoeel. shortly
after Ihe death of Hippoocrate', not la ter than
Ihe fO'llrlh century B.C. However. il ex-

Th! victorious s weep cf Alexander lhe

Greal !luDugh the Ea slern worM broughl in
iu wake Ihe I pread of Ihe Creek Wity c f
thoughi a ver Ihis enormous uea . The wund
ing of Alex andria in 331 prod'llced a new cu]
tura! oen ler thai soon overshadowed in ;111por tance Ine old seat 01 Creek wis dom,
Alhens.
Unel. er Ihe Creek dynasty ol lhe Ptolemies
wre el.evelopeel. the famous !ibrary where,
for inslilnce. the Hi p poc ratic Corpus was
Pr6e rved. A medical schael there nol only
",p"I<:ed butout!-hone it, p ....a'-"C'l!'.SOr!l ~t Cn ,
md. Cnid os. At Alexandri a di~..."..t medical
111 developed_ The m()$t importanl sern
became known .115 " empi rid sts" Cr "ex
perimentalisls" and as " lIIethoel.isIS."
iricists" followed Ihe Hippocn tic
. L - . - - - based prima.rily on experladherents rondus iOIt$ bul
mainn-~tlLth-e."WaJ.

8.C.) who W~ 11 mo re
Ulie of d rugs than Ihe
ph}.,~ians were.
Tbe " metho di sts" follo w ed I spKia l
"methOO, (propagated by Themison .. bout
300 B.C. anel. elaboraled by Soranos about
A.D . 100), wh ich was based. on a theory tha i
dil-eue resulted from 100 weak Or tuo strong
lension ol lhe walls ollhe el.ucts in t he bocIy
or, .. !hell called il, Ihe $latus lXUS or Ihe
Ila!1is stn.:i"s. The fonne r oondition ca.U.ed far

Hippocratic

Belore, d'llrirog .lind aller the t Une of Hippoe r.. tes lhere W Ai a g roup oE eq>etU i n
meel.ic in ..1 plants. Th eir g roup nl lll e ,
rlI;Zlltorrwi (flOm IIIe Gree k ",-on! ri:~IIUI, the
mISs of rooIJ 01 tt"H,). reflects freq uent Wie
of
in Greek th<'!npy .
TM rlI;lOr~mPl' wen! erudhe pnl nnocobotani.tI
WhDH .....-itinp. If !hey lu cl ,omt 10 \11, woulcl
problbly 1il1 lM niche betwe..n Home ncl Hip
p<lCflt... Incl would silo", whe~ the replftenlll'
ti,.. 01 the Hlppoc,j\rlc ptrlod set thei, knawl

roo"

~clge of medicinal pl antl , Th. ("gmU\lI, ..."hicll

we know,.re nO t len valu.ble lhan 11M! ",ritil\P

of Dloscotidel . ncl wntli n the ver)' eorl iest clt

-t<:riptions 01 medic:in. l pll nll, 1I

The rhito!omo i COUK ltd Ihe Indigeno u5

ve getable rools .nd solei. Illern. In adel.ition
they themse!ves often practiced lIIedidne .
Probably the most important re pI<'!senativt
of Ihese rh izotomoi was Dic>eles of Carys tos
(4th cenlury B.C .). H e i, cons idO!'rerl to boe th ..
so uree fo r all Greek ph.nnKOlheupeutic
tr<'!atisu between the time of Theophrutus
and
Dio acorldu.
Ano l her famo'll'
rh izotomist, CralelUls (lsl"century B.C.),leh
the earliesl known U1ustraled herb.al.." laler,
h i~ el.epictions 0/ medicinal plants iUustrabed
Iht dassic trntist on m-,Uet!C \e.llca- 6y
.Olo,co r ldes (8. A .O. 6D): the ancierit
p hulllacobol. ni st mO lI respec ted .. nd
inDuentia l el.own 10 early modem limes. OeJoe~y 50. [0 , lIe dul t w ith his I Ubject so
much in Ih<'! spirit of an appli",d ,de-N:e Ihal
prob.bly Re merit, the appellation as t~ first
real pharmacognosisl.
\\'hether Oiolcorid ea actually practiced
meel.icine rtmalns uncern!n . It is probable
Ih. 1 he .ccompan led Ih e Roman armiu
through Alia Minor .lin d also lrave!ed i n
ltaly, Greece, Gaul .lind Spain. coUecl in g in-

. .: --!","...,--

"

Chp'rr I

""cUllt Pnlurk

Earl)' In tlle 6th cenwry Ihis 11

ha tratian w u painted inlO I mrn",toipt oo Pl' or DiOKOrldn' wort<
on plwm.o;y and a pplled botlJl)"
an a nli"",. com e ntone of pha,_
m-.oel.ltieol tdenc~. Pro~bly U LI
11M o ldu t lUu.tn ted won of it l
kind that tu, s..rvi~d . The .m.t
~picl"d Ng,. (intended 10 b .

Dlo l ooridn, ,ulell) ~C1!iv ing I

fcd<ed mlnc!rake roQt(crnrtr) from
I m.u.\Ie figUle {Eurws. riglU). 11Ie
lJI.i1&ical pow""of th~ man<lr;iob hat
forad t.'>e dog(b'OIlcM , 'Illal bKk
on ;ts NUnchu In ~ paro"Y'm of
' Hony. ,.,!llth refleell OM of the
l upeMlti tionl .bout tllil 101an.CI US dNg Ih.al ~ - _ .

tom," ~pKl "p tI> TnOtnn times.

(Codex Vlnde>bcnt n,lt . Med. Cr.
\, f.
AU5tri.an National Libnry ,
Vlen"' ; fraln Mac:Kl nney-Smlth
Fund CoLIti(l.'1 cf ~,,"I MlIIla.
!u ru. Un ive ,. ity cf ":ortll
Carolina)

4r. J

formati on .bou! plants of po5s ibL" ",,,",, in of I xpl'l ning 111", ~'h ju i of pbnts .nd
med.ic ine. He not only d~ribed lhe dNS' of concmtrating it by expos\lJ"e 10 Ihe SUfI. He
his time and explained thei r effecl bu l also Imew the differencu among medicinallyunnged ha description syslemlltically.
used sums, l Uch u ..:acia, ttagacanth and
DioIo:orides' Dt I!filtfflllfflldic:lli ltri q:lin~ IhC' (51l11\lI of dleny, p lum and ahnond. HC'
was Innslaled ;nlo Eroglbh (1665) and today I!ltpl~intd Iht U!ual a d u lt tr.l li on s a nd
i5 still ktpl in pIint a5 a c1usk r!p\"e'li enting 5uggested mearul of d iscovmng them. His
an intellect'..Ia1 mHntonC' in IM develOpm;tn1 . temarb .on. th!. .co~ctiq n_ oJ.d~~. ~re C':II;cel- of ph~ainlCV .lind bm:a'ny.~--co{!te1'It5 ~ lelll..Hll; direo:twNl foutorage, s ina th~ are
Iht five bol<s ar! ill'TiIOgtd U (oDows: Book Ihe iiist kilO"""and' the baSis for man y la~ r '
I: aromati~, oils, ointmen ts, tre": ilook U: wri ters , may be q uoted:
Jiving l;re atuIeII, milk ind dair)' ptoducts,
Flowerl and sweet-Icented Ihing twuld be
cereab lind sh arp htrb,; Boo k Ill: rooh , laid \I? in d"" bcUI of U:n~ wood.; ""t thert ~
ju it:es, herbs; Bock IV: I\trbs pd roolS; Bock __ herbs ",ruch do "",11 eno,,~ If~;oprd \11
v: vin" and wine! metallic orts.
in papers or luvts for t~ pruervation oI lt\", r
D iosco rid ts kn~w Ih e prepa u ti o n o f ~tds. For moi5t [Ilq~id] medid:-es !lOt!\<! th iebr
.
lunpermeable] maten l i luch "Idvn, or 81111,0'
~adplntn from falS and le~d ':lX1dt , He men- 100m wiUaa"" be, t. Yes, aru:l urtntft .. _lI it be
tion~ Ihe Pl'OCesStS 01 ~g wcolt')I, of nol L'rln (ptnnublt] b 6ltinS OInG<1~, lind .., ..
mal<!ng txttaets by mac:erallon followed b y wocd, puHtular!y if It be t>mcwood. \'nH'- 01
eva poration (t .g, extlacb of glycyrrhiza) iU\ d bra!1 wiU be , wUobiOl /or eye-medidn.. l nd inr

)
liq\ll,u and for an thaI ~oompoonded cf..- inegor
or of liquid pitth er cf CedrUo , Iml flU . nd mit'
fO"" oushl to be put up in veu!Is ci I'.n. (Tran.!oI-

Gruu Ild Rome

"

A fundamenlal pri.nci ple in Galenism u

applied to phlrmacy was Ihe IraJlllwrm ation
of humor;t.J JMlhoJogy, I\eru:e of the rapeutl cs,
ti<>" by 101m Good}w.)
into a ri gid d og ma-attribu lable more to
Galenic pnetitionert Ih an 10 Gale n himStIf.
G;uln
The school of H ippocrates h ila formulated
As ptrwnified by Hippocratu, Gneek Iht Iht ory of the fout human (parallel ing lhe
medicin C' of Iht 5th lind <llh centuries H.C. !oUT C'!emenls), lhe co~ct b.l!ance of wh ich
gave Ihe world healing arts in a new spiril; to mun t heallh, while tVtry d isturbmet of th is
Dioscorides it i5 indebted !or fundame nlals balilllCe spe Ued d i5ease, There wC're the four
ofmate ,;a medica and 10 PUny lor a summary humorll: blood, phlegm (tiuppoStd to cornt
of ancient lmowledgC'. Whal e ntilles Galen 10 from the bram), yellow bill' (supposed to bot
be added 10 this iUus trious gro llp?
StCrtted horn thC' liver) md b blclr. b ilt (IU pGa len was bom in Pergamon (ca, A,D. postd 10 come from the spinn and tl\e
131), practiced and taughl in Rome u . grut stomach ). Each onC' of IheSt humon had
physician md n atural scientist, and .baut defin it C' q u.litie s. Blood .....i moi st an d
A.D , 201 die<! in tU s nativt lown. Wha l cat- .... ann; phltgm, meist .nd cold; yellow b lle,
rieo:! his name through IhC' ages was Ihe fac l warm and dry; black biJe, cold and dry.
Ih at hOl ere~led s)'stem of pathology and Furthermore, there .... as ade finIte connection
IhC'rap)' thal ru1ed western m~ {er 1,500 between predominance of any one h umor in
yellS. 1hls ""as po'lSible because cf the logic lhe metabolie s}'ste m ArId an Individ uaJ<s
of h is system, tht rr;1!rtrI(e roT hillauthority lemper~ment. The diag",m (p. 16) givu m
a ll d the lack of expe rimental method s thai idn of the loe relalionstups .
...ould readily l'O!'>eal fallacits embed ded in
O f gennal importance wen! Galen', efforts
his brilli ant wrilings.
to test t:he action of d rugs, both qualita tively
Gale n drew from a!l . vaHab le IOI.l r( C'$ and qll l n ti tativC' ly, accordlng 10 Ih ne
what ever he thou ghl worthwhile (mostly characteri sli(S. H aving ~ttrib,.ted obsC'rved
wil h~ ut giving any reier!nces), lyp ically dlseas n
10 spedfic imbal,)nces o f the
menl!oning "not those he copied but those h umors, one could cJassify dru S' (on a suIe
he attacktd !" ' There ""lS at Itas l one C':II;cep- of 'oUT degrees) aoxord ing to the pre:!lUJrICd
tion: Hippocra le s. Fo r Galen saw It u his strength of Urei. counteraction againsl parmissio n 10 com pl C'te and sy,temallze the ticular distues.
"vii; ascribed 10 "the fa!he r of mediane."
To iIlus lr.tto:', TC'mk in say., "Suppo. ln g
11 .... <15 IndeC'd , esnn h ally in t:he form o f Ihat the p oltient suffered from a disuse
"Galenism" tha i Gr~ k. medlcme was Irans- where the u fecle d part was len uni t, WarmtT
. __ ~ \!"t ~ !o)aler Igts.~ Wha.t Galtnism JtlC'aru _ t!\an. normal md sC'ven = i15 drier..-the. rem~. _oould. aru1 hu, OCCI.Ipied.l/oOlhl.mes ..... bca-lhL. ed.yJwLto be.-bl'n units colder than nonnaJ
- inedicA! philosophy -in GaJen'5~o rks or-as- arid 5e1.1!n unfti in h ter, provided thal fht
cribed to turn provlded a wide-ranging guide d illeaSf:d pm w as Iocated supedicially, If it
10 sdentifk mecl kine alld 10 lhought 100 \11 was ti ituated mane deeply, m adjustmen l hall.
"mln' s body in hC'alth ;lnd diseast."
to be made, )est the .,.medy lose its powt r
HC're it is poni ble 10 give only a f_ ind i- belore readling the diseased part."q
cations and txarnples 01 how and ""'hy Ga
Dregs tha l wert ' up~d 10 have only one
len', name hiS remained one of the bt!lt re- quality weIl' da'lSified as "simples," whilt
membered also in ph;umao:y-in a practical lhose wlth more qua1ilies were COI'I$id end
se~ a l leaslIhrough the 17111 century and in
"composiles." There were ;uso lO-<:aIled "enIhe profess ion '. collective memory up loo llr tities," drug5 wi th spedfic effects thai did
own timt.
not fit Ont of the re gu lar s)'~tematic

"

Clrapl ~r

Ancin! Prell/rlt

Examplet of tnese are emetics and th e ph arm anutical pul of lTeatment

poisen, and antidotes, which likewise, thel1!' was n o similar offlCial recogwere uid 10 bl" efftoc tiv e th rough th eir ni tion AIld regulation cf pharmaoeutica! ac
ti'lilies, allhough there were group!! cf d rug
"whoIe substance."
Th us .. ralw l\ill md ,y.\:ernatie guide lor preparers .nd seUers in exill l!:nce.
Ind...ed, it IuId become common compano.
soelKting medkin.J tre",bnenl benme .... lilab le (ev"," though eventually .~n 10 be ti vely early for Gteco-Roman physiciaN to
"wrong" in mo dem time,). NOl lts 1eut Ip- have Iheu speclalists compound medica
pul wlS Ihe ord er I1 b rougb! 10 dru g tioN fo r Ihem. Pny complaintd abaul Ihi,
thera py;., im pli"'d by " Ihe the::apelltic: anlr- te ndency ," .. nd Galen admonished h is colehy thai followed 115 dntruc lion {whkh1 leaguel to do thelr drul compounding the mQ1ade itself feit bevond Ihe midd1e of the ~Ives aOO not d elegate tru. function to the
pigmenta rii. In any eIlSt', the physic:ian Te
nineteenth ( ..nIIlIj':""
Galen prepared his medlcaments hims.elf m. ined the one who applie d or glve the
and had .. ver')' h igh opinion of the diicacy of medic~nls 10 lhe palienb u nder h is aTe,
wetl chosen and prepared remedi es . He had and it was h is re5poflllibi lity to see that IM
not only an i AlI"tin, the u sual room 01 Ihe drugs had betn p~pared properly . The diviGreco- Roman physlcians fo r ttt. preparltion ,ion of Labor md re5ponsibility between the
phys iciln as the pre$Crlo..r and Ihe pharma
o f reme d in, b u t a lso
~?O lk~ c Q o r
cbt as Ihe legitimale agent ror preparing pre
sloreroom.
GalE- n d escribed 473 dl'!.lp of \-.!getab1e. scription medJeation and d ispens ing it tu the
ani ma! and mineral origin. In addition , iI palien t slilI had n ot beco me a recognized
profusion of d:ug fotmulas 15 faund in his concept, slill leu an .ccepted re lH ty.
The p reparem .and se Uen of dNgS and
med ical 1 ~l.lises . Th.-.e famous remedies
tha.l lilined I. .....,rldwide reputa tion ror I. mil eos metics were \r.nown In G reece as
lennlu m I.nd a half beea.use of his recom rhi:i;I/olllci, migllllllopi;lloi, pha rm~ ko po foj,
me ndalion, allhough in U~ befo~ his time, pIrQrn:akcpolol, m'!ropOt i;l! and myrip$<li; In
Rome u phQ rlll/lCOpoli , d"wmJi;lranti, 5ftl
we ~ Iriml picTd (haly biller), Itr r~ $igi/r.. I~
h<l.,;;, u ."J ;~ rii. U"g"~ ,,j/lrii. arOllla lll";l ,
(suled emh) and thtrillca (t~ade).
Pharmacy rontinued 10 be dom inaled by plrlUlNlCOPOC;, mt tljc..,. t nfllrii, plranrtlleo trilu ,
Galenie roncepl5 until in Ihe Renai"aru: e the plrarmlica trib lU end pigmrmarii. (For e:>e plan.a
whole med ica! system, no .... traditionbound , liol\5, see tM Glos'llry: Appendix 7.)
Lirnited by meager ev idenee, il has b<ren
linaUy urne u ndu serious atl ..dr. by Patacels us, who$e wea pon ry inc!uded I. new ap- hard to asse55 whalever changes in Ihe strucproacll to seledi", and prepa ri ng remedies. 11.1.1"1' .nd Ihe adm inisIrdive arrangeme nt of
. What tt.d be(lun in MK ienl Rom..., the ""'. phannaCf!'ll.licai !oI:r"jcesJ uQ. f.dM!."I j n . Ibe_
.eiti", (ontribupon of--a-si.n~e inl!:!ket Md . :'Solden~ ot.~.:c.rure,~-=pattd .
become I ronfin ing au thority that ame t:o wlth th e Egyptian zenith reache<:!. 1.50()"yeafS
dominate the COW!ll! of h ista!)' in medi(ine befo re in a q uire different inteUeduai c\imale. PerhaI" mote irnportant for the future
and pharmacy.
of phanna<:y was the pote ntial cruled by
Relail Tracte in O .... gs
strildng adv.mces in the knowledge of drugs
In Greece aJ well as in Rome Ihe ntcessity and Ihe refinement of tecllnics aOO by the
of weU organized medica1 care was graduUy em b ryo nic se ien ti nc m etho d s th at now
.-.cogn ized. Thete develo ped .. system of ch.lorat!leriz.ed lhe besl Illedical thought aOO
.
ptOvid ing communit)'-pald physicians who, pnelice.
White thew-gic conce ptll had Iong since
howl!>'l!r, WI!N alIowed 10 charge wulthy
peeple. Since these pract:it"'.ont n toolr. c~ cl been thrust uide, the ralionallec:hniC!l were
c.~gorie5 .

purg~tiyes.

.n

)
fall r Rom an M tdiclli Aill hor$

21

not yet ... fficiently complex not was medical in print. Boil there were lei . cddenlal vi r
elte sufficiently mature to splil pharmac)' lues to recommend the a utho r: his wide
and medic:irlof inlO two distinct spedalties. &Cope, evaluative attitude, . n d eJ<.cellent
Same ptactilioMrs served H bolh physician Latin sl)1e. Rom.n medicamenl. a nd o ther
.nd phann;oc itt, others had I phannaceulical pharmlr.:eulical mitten d istussed by Celsus
usislanl , and s till othel$ we~ relying mare may be oonsulled in a modem Engli ~h transand more on specill dealers 10 prepare cer Jation. 47
lIIin rompounds a5 " 'eU as gather, lllI cf old,
du! crude drugs needt<!.
1lte First Dispen&atory?'
Ce rtain group' may ha,'l! been llle more
The COlllposilionu of Ihe Roman physician
than coUe-ctcn or d ealen in herb, (luch n
the rhizotomoi ); othel"$ W~ me~ly 1trft1:- Scri bonius Largus, written .001.11 A. D. 43,"
co rner q ..adr.5 (Ihe phll rm alcapola$ had that mi ght J:,e categorized IS an earl y dispenu.repu latio n) . So me (lhe stpluiQrii) settled t:ory. It d efends. In the pteface, a thorough
down in pennanenl .hops to vend remedi" . and plen ti ful U5e of medkamenls, opposing
1/.1 finlilhey specialiud in cosmella, they the medicmal ni hilism Ihal exlsled even in
lale r branche d out into med icinal 50llvn and those early days. ScriooniuJ LargU5 501)'5 :
plasler5. In uy evenl, the fart that these d if\\"e NV" 1(1 co ..dtmn al! tt..- wh<> i.. " ..d 10
ferenl groups uistl!d suggflts Ihal during d"l'rivf medio .." of the " se of remedil!S, Ihco nillllt
Greek and Romln an tlquitythere W H 1'10 d i,. '"",dieine" beinl! deri ..ed not from hea!ing (g
lind professi on o r d u, romp.i rable wilh the ""'''tIlAoJ but tro,., lhe power and ef6ciency of IM
phann atil t of later periods..
medkant('lIt (mt!jc~ ...,.rtw",). AUI"~ shoould b.pralle<!. who try "'Nm.", I, possible to "'VI! the
s id<. p.tit .. t.
FOUR ROMAN MEDICAL AUTHORS
The work by Scribonlus t.argu~ conlaim
Me dicin e in Ro me was al m ost
monopo li zed by Gree \r. physici.ns. For only a few simples(ilimpliri.u md most cf hi.s
e.umple, lhe great Gilen and DiOlro ri des fo rmu ln fo r cmnpound e d m edicamen ts
both CB Ole from Greek colon ie, In A, i. (c o mpos ifll) cont.i n many ing redl en ts .
Mino!. AmonS oth.e r medical wril C,", "'. ., ... . ScriboniuB dncri be~ the preparation a nd
the ftrsl d efinition of opium, Ins b ting
ing in Rome Ihe fOUl eilt<! here rep~nt
highly influential worb dating from the 1s1 on the use 01 imm atun. poppy capsules as the
century B.C. to Ihe 7m centuty A.D.: CeI.!;us, 50urce cf opium (reservlng Ihe desigtlation
mt'CClnillm tor the ins pi5Sllted jui- of pO PP>'
ScriboniWl I..arg~, Pliny and Paulul.
leaves). He perteptively warn , agaiNt s ubAn Intluenlial Med.iea! EDCJ'dopedia
stituting the juice of the luves fo rlhe juice oi
- .-- -..
. .
-..
lhe unripe C.lpauM!s.. ";os the "i$lM1!llIrii preAulu s ComeUus Ceillus,1i\r.e hi~ grut c~m ~ ~i~-a:tdet-to"lmlke a profit-." ......- __ :._
. in ~ll probability not a
and med icaIly eJ<.- All Scien~ His Province
As part cf a large
Mtdici,,~.
Pliny was a R.o m.m general, admiral and
diplomat ,,;Ih a pass ion for cc Uecting and
compili ng the enli re !leientific knowle dge of
hi5 timt. He was con temporaty of Dioscorides, m lhe first ( enh.lry A.D., wriling in
pari on the !Wtle t ubje(ts I nd oflen lllIing Ihe
u rne 50un;:es. While S inger gives Dio Jlieal
on medidne or medJcaments ....as rorides tuD credit, he ch l racle rize PUny a5

g;:,."

:;;--~T-.=

"

Ancitnl Prt lwdt

)
Chapt" 1

u rliu n lhols, prind pall)' Dlo Korid es,

GaJen and Oriba~ios 01 Pergamc)I\.52 Paulo,
Aeineta gives a oomple te picture 01 CrewRoman mediations.
Paulos lived al Aleundria when the Araba
look po"ess ion ol lhis old stronghold of
Greek ilcience md rem.uned lho!rr: under lhe
P1 iny's work con ti nl.les to be of speci.,1 Arabian govemmenl . He therefore re pre
6enls, in his person as ...~n as in h il activity ,
inlerest, Jn rticululy becau se most of the
lhe traMmission of Crr:co-Roman med ical
books tha i P1iny used have been 10,1 (h@
l m se J( , po ke of more than 1 ,0001). Th e wisdom tu Ihe AIab5.
refiection of .. ..-ISI lost II brar)' that eiln be
faund in Pliny" enc)'dopedic Nllfurlll Hi$ll1ry
In Babyk>n ia and Egypt, in Gruce a nd
has altracted stud)' by a n lllt'lbu of histo Romf. we have glimpse d se me of the fa un rillNl."
dation stones on which the Ar;lIb, and, later,
lI\edieva.J Europe were to bulk! a more d i,End of an Epoch
tinctive "ph~rmacy." In this ancenral sen!M!,
Thi. group of Creco-Romln medical. au iIS an "ancien! prelude, " these udy civ iliza
tho n i. comp Leted ch rono\ogiully with lieu capture 01.11 inrere5t. Howev e r, we
Paules " egi nela (7th century), whose S~vm Villu e Ihem properly only if we think 01 Ihern.
Bcoh on A-ltJi.;int ~presenl enen liaUy I cril- IS rather an astonishing dimax ilfter ('ON! of
ically !lelecttd compendium, wilh coU\men brutaliz.ed life .. nd of primiti\'c reaction to
lary. [( was co mposed. lrom the wrilings of lhe profound mystery of disealle.

In. oo rnpilt r jNr ureu..nce. IM turne<! roll10. ",hc will put down a nylhlng ho! il iold 01 ,..,
f'Ud withcut vfflScation. 5o:~ntlSCllly tM W1lrll
is. themo~, worthltw . . . [yet i lUd lh.rouVO'U
u .e ajI;"', .m,e in 1M d. rk<!lt aa in 1I\0re U
ligltlU.ed periods. al pled .,nd Ic-wpied, tnr\I.
J.ted, alll\",enied on, exrrac:~d . .. "

2
The Arabs and the
European Middle Ages
THE AJtABS
With the conque,t of ~ pal part of the andenl chilized ",orid in Ihe 7th and St.'l CeIl.tudu by a group cf Se mitic tribes called
Arab" 5uddenly thi:l primitive people bl!came the heir and ildministrator cf Ihe 'urviv lng remnanli of Greo;:o -Roman cullure.
Tne literature fo und in Egypt. Syria and
By:r.antill1ll provided a buis for Arab ic civil i-

ution, "'pecially tran~lations of Greek man ..

seripts inla Syriac and ....,rabic (maimy by Ihe
Neuorialls).

Ne,torius, patriarch of Con.t.a ntinople.

had bUln condemned fo r h eresy by Ihe
C uw...:U ol Epheou. in 431. Banned by the
offidal church, Ine "NHloriam'l" ",ho held
his beliefs ntabfuhed themselveli in Pel'5ia,
- India and otlM.>r oriental rou"triu.
who

book manUICripl5 written in Arabic testifi~

to lhi, Ilouri shing of culture on Ihe bnil of a
marri.a.ge ~tween the Greek md the oriental
spirit. However. in medione u in other seienc:es lind philosophy, thi. culture was Ih e
product 01 many Nlions under Ihf aegis of
the cali ph in I predominantly MWllim society.
The turn Ara bi.n 6oe, not necnnrlly im ply an
Anb, for the Penlan. and Nellorluu in Ine bIt.
,m d Ihe Spanludi and Jews In (he Wet l, took tne
pri ncip. 1 p~rt in IM deveLopmenl 01 medione
wnleh wu expre ue d in the Arabk lan
IIlWge ... the langu agr of Ihe lu~d in lhe Em_
pi re of bll m JUli u La ti n ...." Ih .. lingw. lie
",lOdium of IM rduta ted In Wn tem Europo.-

New Uwnture Created.

This poetic lan guage convl!)led anoutpour
ing of Jite rah11e in evef)' field of in tellKtual
mdeavo r, not lent of .n in the heallh field .
Tra.ulationt of the II\.Osl re spe<:tad writings
p n med.ici n e a n d pn-rmacy .f~m-ellri~
civilizal ion5 ,timulaled w ri te l$ in Ai"abic to
conlribule n e ...' m .teriil\ 01 Iheir o wn.
Ameng the urliest Mo .... n writen on pharm aceutical . ubj ~l$ were Theodoq (d. ca. 709
A.D.). court phytki.n 10 the govetno r o f
Irll, who wrote on d l\lgs, drog produ cts and
Iheir n omenc:lature , and the more famoWl
phyaician Ibn Masawli h (ca.Ued Mesue, Sr"
d . 857), Ihe son o f a phannaciJIl, whose
treati!lt on If'omalic me dicin.al planls SI.IIvives." Among Ih e s e ,ubllances, ",rote

-.. --'"

The Atabic ciYiliution .... ilOS .1 botte.,. l!!oe Hel

Ienlud ............. i<: and L......;.a.n ci.. iEutiDN .. d..

vdoped und .... thI: .egis 01 tN a.l.iphaue L'\d o

pru"d thro u8h Ih .. mediu m uf Ih e Ara:'!c

IlDnsue.'~

From lhe 9th 10 the 13th centurin a fload of

2J

. ~--

)
24

Chllplcf 2

Tht ",~b, IImllllt f"'''P,IIII Midlllr Ag's

Th t A."bJ

25

__

"

1
~.olup~t~,.\~Si>\)'"b'-'t"""""'
' , '\ ~. ...... ---- .. - - _.,' .. --.," ~
. _."' .,._.

- ---

_,

."t,

"

; ... -

'"

111,. ",i"i.nute in.n Atabi ~ m.onuscrlpt 01 the urly 13th c.n t1>ry depicls the prepantion cf dnlgs. "'liquid: remtdy b M lnS mixtd
6n: in Ihr open air. ",he", flora ",,<I
bun.l aymbclin Ilw! plll "",_utlcf.l bounty 01 nature. ThE beardtd f.gure \rig~t) hoLdI
out u , omate ceramlc droH (ontlliner. Thit manuscrlpt was baHd on Galt ,,'. truti~
ronctr.ting t ltctu.ml.

",er.

M.;lHoWa ih, an! live prind pa\ On": mu,k, 10",-",d in the nut century by Ihe nrlint
ambergris, illoe, cl.m pho r and sa fmlll.
known formlliary to be written on tht Iberian
S"bsequtnl wri len in Ar. bic producOl'd pl!!'lins ula, in the Weslem Caliphatt. IIlII.U5(ore$ of such $pedalited IrutisH. A1though thO!. the physician Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, pye
Ihey.re remarkably "arie<!, four main types his form\llary a tille (1I1-D"kki,,) muning
of d t\lg-o ri <!nled conlribu!iens ha~<! b<!eD.... ::Tbe.&P9tKary ~op.".I.nJt 'AI:>d Rabb ih
_ cltanctmz<!d:-b,. ..... he. -pharm.llcbl.ru.mrian- uid. h<! wished.tQ d~s " a.II usriul .medicl.'
Sami K. Haml.meh. Th<!se a~ , b rie);; . ' .. tion5 thai colcf be-'manul~clu~d (in IM
phl.rmacyl: sYRlPS , robs and con5el"'>~ S, elee1. F"mnl/",in "nd comptnd!lIml, wh ic:h IUl.ries, co nfecti o n s, siem u tatoriu, e,.e
olfer I. rollect ion of formu\.u o r redpes for Sl.h<!s, oily e:O:ttilc, I.nd .ill types of medi mediotions, sysle matically arranged (e.g.. caled powders. spiced perfwnes, llNI COS'
A-Z b)' drug nan'l1!!I), Induding irulnld;ons mdiu. . the metho ds and tec:hn iquU
Ior form ul.ating the drug pl'Odllctl and, iIOm!:"- emplo)"<!d in the prepilIalion 01 these umtUnell, for their therapeutle uM! . One Arabie edin and their modes of actiol"l on diseases,
prototype iJ the compilation by Sibur b. Sahl I~ best as I on, and as recommended by th e
in the 850' . (tilIed al_Agnbl.dhin al-Kl b'r). aneil,,"t Nges."
This product o! the Eutern caliphate was 101Tbe nexl several cenn.uies broughl a .ue'

Thit compa nion to the mllstration On the hring pagt .how. tlle prepar.tionol thtriac,
complt~ antidote thAI Galtn'. recom mendltion ht lpo:od to raist 10 the level 01.,.. Inlt r.
n.lion.lI)" nmowntd p.onocn. Betw..tn and .boYe IM two cen tr&! ligute l I re vanoul
drog con laintrs ftom which they an meuuring tho! Ingndlfn,-. Two ... ;'I.nl.
1./1 ud ri,j:ht) .. btain supplies of ( rodt drop fcr tht rompoundus. (Miniature from InS.
In Auatri.L.. NaHo","! library, Vienn.; r-.productd lreln Zektrt, 0.: ehern .!"Ld Drug;silt

[tri.,,,,.

120m!! , 1934)

ten ion of Anbk milIluscnpts in the same add itions to natural mediciflal pro duets (rom
calegory, ei thu compilations 01 dIllg fo r- their own 10U o r lrom lheir \~ nture50D\t
m ulill6 ll5 free,land ' ng treat15es or ll5 I. sec- trading expedition, . Medlcinal plilII were
1I0n Ln br oa d e r eneyd opedlc ","orks on esped.illy inl trestln g in an ea:>nomy 50 demedi e ne. Seme ..~re prepared specifiar. lly pendenl llpon agriCultun.l p"lOducts. By the
fo r ~ i,n Is"m ic l\Qspitals, mr example, one _ 10thcentury va rious fonn.of Arabk: lrealiJle5
by-Ibn alTiloiidh. i.n..lhe. 12th century . ...AI _ in thls e.uegory were readily Ivallabl", to
their e5l, !he$e fonnularies w",re p",ctlciU practitioners of med iane and pharmaey and
and prKii-t, nsenti ally free 01 superstition, their ,tuden ts ,
and gave Itlentio n not o nly 10 adjU$lm,m l 01
One culmination of thi, Iype oIlileraluft
dosag",for diflerenlpurposes, buttopossible was aJBiruni's work in Ih", 11th century,
lide d fects ArId 10 addi tive e ffects wh",n Sl':V which described m ore lhan a thouund s im",n1 d rugs are I.dministered to;,gelher.
pie, (i.e .. the crude ul\Compounded. d rugs),
recognized phann aey u Joepilrale brancb. 01
2. Htrkll ,"nd boot.! on IM millt riil ",~dicJl, the hell ing Art and provtded I. mu ~ rful
whieh were . Iron g ly inu tn c",d by the summalion of pharmaeeulical knowledge ,S
Grtco.Roman lu lhority. D ioscnrides. But Still more romprehenslve, however, WiI!I Ihe
gradually, hlamic wOIurs mlde significant maleria medica of Ibn .1Ba~r. th e most re

"

'J"M AllIin .1Uf IM

EllrOpttlJ1

M;d.l/ff,

t1vs

Cltapl" 2

nowned Idamic medical botIInist 01 Ihe IhiI- an impl'Hlive fon:e in shaping Ihe d istincttenlh century. He lJU!ntion$ . bout 1800 00- live OCCUpiltion Ihal we clll ph~nnacy. Even
ta nieal dn.lgs, 145 mineral drugs a nd 130 mon Ih", the Roman encydopedhl! noted
drug. from lInimal so uls-in a sophisti- earlin. blamic writers rnponded 10 Ihe pra<:cated work that reportedly ciles a bout 150 tical need to try to syslematize and. elaborate
o lher authon. 11 instru cted phll rm acist- an medlcal knowledge inlo gn at e n cy reade n for !lC'verai ~nturies throughout the ciopedle w o rks. JU5t fou r biarn ie ene)'Middle EaSi and 10 !IOIIIeextent in the West. ' c\opedil ts will be men lioned u namplet---rM n whoSt infIuence extend~ acro5S
J . Toxieohlgy trralisn, whieh responded 10 the Mediterranean where ttu! lr worb helped
the risb cf being poisoned accldentally or to de\e lop medicine a n d pharrnac)' in
inte nt io n ally-s ince po iso n in g wa s Ihen Euro pe .
popula r aB bolh a pe'lonal and polilical
One o f the mo s t Clpilble wu a l- Razl
weapen. These special manuals describf!d (Latiniud Rhazn; d . ca. <nS), a physici..n
th e 10Kie ,ubstanees ilnd thei r action, the who took iI pi onl.'f'ring in!:erellt in scie nti.5c
toKic .ymptomJ, ilnd the often complex and chemi5-lry. His comprem-nsive review 01 anwondroU5 antidotes. Same of lhis lore h ad eienl Creek and urly An bie medical knowlrome o ut of India; .. nd ind ted the wbole edge was n-infon:ed by his 0 "''1"1 experiences.
realm of Is la mic d rugs and ph.a.rmacy owed iI He ~ve much attention 10 " the _
effeed ebl to the older Ind ian civilization, ...-ith tin u weil u most pOliatabie methods of adwhkh the~ .... el"\' dose rommerdal and cuI- mini,tering medi( am en~in which prefertural ties. A 'le p~rate chapteroreven sep arate ence i, given 10 the pill form_nd gives
treati$l!5 were written aba ul VlriO U5 lOrIns of n cipn, many of them very complicaled,
"theriae,"' a universal antidote of co mplex again.st '~cified d ~a'le i ."
composi tion from Greco-Rom.n antiquity.
A medic al e C)'Clop ed ia more Iystematic
Indeed, by thia time the therapeulic repute 01 and coneise Ih w Ihllit by a1-Ri waS the
th er iac h ad in flate d 10 th e flatus o f a Roy~J Bool: b y ' Ali Ibn ' Abbis (Latinized
pana~ . Hamameh conclude, that Atilbic Haly AbbilS, d . 994). His work , howed ron' 1itera.ry rontributions on loKicology, anti- cem ror the ethin of medical eare and the
dotes, Md theriac, from Hunayn in the nin lh part on d rop was held in highut esteern.
eentury 10 Ibn a1-~ri in Ihe Ih irteenth , Wer!!
Lite r, Ibn Sini (Latin ized Avieenna, d .
tremendoU5. "
1037) wrote a live-part "C.mon" 01 medicine
4. Di~1 >r nd drllg tht TdPY in rela tio n tc hllm~n thlli t con,ide~ aOOut 760 dn.l gs in the pharteo!",!' , was iKeorded even more attention maeeutical part. His Canon was an immense
Inan lhal given 10 the subject by the anci.ent work with greal influen.:e, although its ori gCreekr.Hamameh eondudes. A ~ntnl con- - inallty.hu be.en..qisp.ujed-, Prqbllb!y ~ mfJst
ce p l WaJ _t}tat. the l iek p erfOlf-rt'QU iU$ ...._ n nowNd oLall . 1slamit" .~t:Ws. Ib.1l!>mi"
d i~rerot mode 01 liv ing IOd differen t lOOd- was esp iaIly respected for h!s theorrtic exand drinJr. Ihan don a heaIthy p eBon, and positions. Se p.ualely, hOl! w rol1e a speciilliud
Ihe impertan.:e of unpeDuted a ir for good I ~t on card.iM drugs.
hullh "" ~5 c!early recognized . AI early as Ihe
His cc ntemporary in the western cal iphatf!
!leth century, the renown~d lriU1llla tor t;t.unayn 01 th e Islamic empire. Abu-I-Q asim alb . Ilhiq gave impetus to th l, line of de - Za hrawi (talinized Abuleui5; d . ca . 1013),
velopment Ihroughh iltran.slltion of relevant wrote I medical eneydopedla , liU more perHi p pocratic an d Ga lenle trea li. es, then vaded by phannaceuticaJ. concems. It was
through his 01\'1"1 writings on the subject.
especially hi s 28th chapt l!l" (lheUbuSI'rviIOT)
that became so highly rrgatded throughout
This blamie literature, as Hamameh dem- Europe, particuiarlr as a manual of rnedic:ina1
oru tn ted in ,,~riowI lnVe5tiglUons, ha!. beeil chemislry .11

)
The presentation of two books. apparenUy
.... rittf!n by Europe.n& around the 13th century, lIi!I Ihe "''O n. of two f;unous medievaJ
Arabs, Mes ue Senior and ]bir Ibn Hajjaj , Ulu, tratn Ih e ultem which Arabic phurn,)ceulical and medical science comnanded
eventu.allyon European soil. The iluthorit}'of
thi s pseudoauthonhi p cc upled wilh im pres, i"e co ntell[ milde both volumes inll uential
on generations of European phannac~tr-
Ihe pseu do-~esue', Gmuadill u a mUlerNI
exposition on lhe compo.nition of medica'
ments, and pseudoJib ir' s (or Geber'.)
S~mm~ ptrfuti~n!s 115 ~ 'Wllm~tion of cherniea! krlowledge."

TIrr Arabs

"'~~;'..l:.rJ'';~~1o"

"

";J) 'J..J~~lt,...a...>
~1'..J,....!lIJ

:.... t..:;,t 111-'" t...-.,

..:;..I.) I~I .... \o-,......,
~).:-J"Jt-Io

_iJ) !J-~ frY '61

t...r yrL.!.:.,..Q....,~ I,.b:.,l.'

.-1.IL.~,)\1

~,........111',:., W. I~J'
~~J+~J', I
~ukJ'-.;:.

Tbe Pr.diee 01 PhanniICJ'

;.:;10 ... --:- Uj....o:

j<J.!.I',} Il.-,.
The great illtenlion p,;d !O the seienee and
...J!?.J' J.... ). .~%" t ,.-lo.lIIo...O.:Jlt..;.JJ!f"'Y-"
the 3rt c f pharmacy by lhe mediatl aut ho~
01 the Arabi c wo rld influenced, ilnd
..;,j,I'.. 'p bt.:.J ~ U!,W.!l-"; lJ !.I'J.,y..!fJ........~
Jtrenllthened the basis for, the development
./ \l~.t-- I, ~ )..t~ ...j..:...f._ ~,t~I J~~
of p hannacy.uThe dNg armamentarium be~...-,.lf> ....J.-J .........JP'" ...." t~ '>.i r J \.=- yl
cilme enlarged C(lnsiderably. Persian and In
~ .;; ~ t,J.l!.M-',.l t,;.11J.l1 t"
U....J I,j!..
d ian d rugs unknown to the Grero-Roman
.... on d-campho r, eUl il, clovu. eube bs,
A ttiple . Iraine r U deplcm1 in OM of the U rmu.sk, nu~eg, mub.atb, u.ndahvood: i ennll lie' l known d ..winp 01 ph. rmaceu.tica! e~ulp
~ tamarind, to nan.'e only a few-.... ue de- DIent roT instruc:!lonal PUlJ'O'". 11 is fowu:! ln
serlbed. Of e quil Importance were new lile mNieyal Ar.bic m.nU5Cripl of the flD'lous
1IlOde~ of drutl Iherapy th.t n:'f uh....J ( " l i'
25th IrUtl M: or Abll-l-Qllhn . 1Zahr"dw! .. / C....
siderable ,kin on Ihe part of the preparet - 00'" (1Oth ~ntury). A doo;tion poured into th.
for e1\.iUflple, confection" conserves, julepll top Itra;lIe, filtucd throl16h I UoCceNiyely Sne.
Ilu inen &rT"lIn~d undtmuth. Such 11,a1!\1!n
I nd 10hocN.
These advances in phannace utical knowl- often we~ ",oven of noneh.ir. (VeliJ"udd in Inl
edge and teehnic on the On!! side and medicaJ 2~91, CO?In1. ~265 _A.D ., _f._3~ ~.. a~ d .f() v.; from
ktw ...1...1- on th e othe r, in connectiOIl with _ Silleyman,),,! U:"uml KUIU?h.ne." r.lanbul; fft
_._. ~~~
.
. . -- _.. n...
. . ~_
H~h ,SarruK.:1.A.",.". (l"nott.)21;9t;-196Q)
growmg
rerogn .' hon
o f govelJlJlUlJ..tiI.l.
.._~_~ __ ._ _ __ __ .
spon.s ibility fo r the heahh cf lhe people in
the Arabie .....o rld, fostered a division of labor
b e lw e en p h arm.cy and med i(in e s nd ,
finaUy, the crealion of l pu blie health system
in .... hieh tht profenion of pharmacy was Ihe heallh lie ld an d _ profeniona li zed
given adefinite place of illl own.
medicine ean be <! ilIcemed.
Before the 8th ,entur)", medical eare had
Probably in the e ...iy 8th century 11 "Itale
rema ined largely tht "Medicine o f the hospital," mueh as we understand Ihe turn,
Prophel," especlally hygienic rules and pre- WIIi!I munde<! in Damascu&--perhaps thOl! lint
lal.mi e fo lk medic ine. Then, beginn ing ho$pitlll in Islam."
abaut fo ur decade5 l fter Muharnmad's pilUnder Ihe ealiph a1Mansur, Baghdad begrimall e 10 Mecca, a growing emphasis o n came a dazz.ling capilal city {in Ih e yean fol-

'r,JoJ

)
28

Tht A,,,b, ud ' h, hr(lpun Midd/, AltJ

Iowing 762), a ,ente r al leamins as weil 1.1 of

administration.
The v igorous dev do pment of inlellectual

life and h....!th. facililies makes 1I understandab,", that drug shops which we dare (all
ph;lll"ll\.1.cie h.ad .ppe~d by Ihe early 9th
~nlury . Phann...:y emerse<! as. ulling dis!i!>C1 from medicine. Shops specializing in
medidnes Ind spiees a ppe.ted, es pecially
.mund B.lghdad. al though olte n i n Ih e
hands 01 uneducated dispense", . In higher
~teem among the cilizenry wen! .. m inorit)'
01 b e tte. ed u eated prac t ili o nen ca lled
"s.I)'idit..h," a term even l!Oday associ ated
....,Ih a qu;tlified pharmadst in Anbl e W1ds.
FlOm the oId Arabic manuscript8, Ha:nameh
concl uded:
hOIJl th~ firsl half of the nlnth century on, phi!'ma.d.t. w~re eum ined . nd IIcenltd by th ~

Ch4pltT 2

MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN PHAltMACY

in shops and ..xpanded in iKOpe from fngrant cosmetia; 10 a wider range of phatroa-

The r:onqul!!Lt of the ancienl Roman Empire

oI lhe West, H p ially of lIaly, by German
tribea (!he Vandals, the Longabards, the "isiSo1hs and Ihe Oslrogoth$) found only a
5hadow oJ Rome'. old gIory a nd cultuM. l taly
Md been h.unt:ed for centuries by (:i,il ....u.
nostile invuions I.nd epidemie d iseases thai
depopulated and. demo.;tlited the country.ln
J uch .. J iluation , the di.p .... geme nt of
earthly Iife and wisdom-.. significant trend
of elrly Christendom-not onl)' "'und broad
acknowledgmt!:nand 5Ucce'lS b ut often 1ed to
Ihe destroction 01 ....nm of pagan art and sci

products.
However. in the elaboliltion 01 pharmaaulical tec:hnu: and knowledge and in Ih,
Icce ptance 01 rupons ibili ty b y a p har maceu tical dau wilhln an orde~d hutlh
system, the Arabs made 111 d istiru:tive pi<
for pharm .. cy go i"g .... ell b"l"0 nd phumaceU!i~ function either as a sideline of a
II'\edicai praditione"'s offices o r . , IKhnical
rommeKe 01 ord inary mnketplace ve:ndo ....
1'his Ar.Ibic develop ment helped 10 u tahHsII and shape Western ph.arma<:y u we
kM,,' it .
~uliuJ

""The.. German invaders no.... con linued the

"'Oti<. of cultural destruction. They were an

the man! pron .. 10 do so bee3ust their inCTeuing belief in lhe heaLing po....e r oi faith
.nd of relie, 01 sai nl5 oould n o t be harmonized .. nil}' wi th some of the scie nti fie
wisdom Ihal survh'e cl i rom antiq uity.
Thu,. the first tutel;uy saints for mediane
and pharmacy, .... h ich in a measu re repl aced
the old pagan dtiti ~ of me dicine , bega.n 10
appell abaut IM 5th antury. Cosma.5 and
Oamian, Arabian Ch .istians, were Iwi ns
ml.~d in the peneculions under Emperor
Diocletian during the ~th century. They be
came the mOS I celebraled patron saints 01
medkine and pharm.acy in aIl the countries
o f Ch rislendom. La te r, they were I Up'
plemenled by OIher saints; bu t until lod.y,
H pecially in Calholie Ireu, Damian best
reprnents di~";ne guardianship over the se ....
_ yigs.9f the phHmiKist."

TllANSlT WAYS OF KNOWLED GE

Sidly and Spain e!lpecially !lervtd 10 chan

Mul) u, ib .. nd their shopt w ere .o utinely In ne! Greeo-Arabi( medkine i n to Ihe L.tin
. pert~d . .. ASide I.om Ihe privaltly owned West (the 7th to the 12th centurie,), Sicily
ap"'he<::ary ,hops, IMrt w"'" .1.150 dll~n rlei l l' wl.5 a amter 01 Arabic culture lrom Ihe time
tachd 10 hOllpilalf. Thue ...... rt Oiltn di ~Cld and Syraeuse fell to the Ara b!l (!!78) u nli! the
operat~d by proftlS lonal , t d\Kated pharm"cilU Normans conquered the island (completed
and th ~i Idn . They rollerte<! . nd prt . erYed
1(91). In Spain, Cordova bt>came a cultural
mOleri. ",",die. ,\mpIH and CQlJlpeun<!ed ~IJI'
..c.;e nd di. pented Or tcld lJIedic.t1on. 10 the capilal iI.S we U as the p oli tical eapitlll of Issiek in th~ hospitals o r 10 ethers who U o:!'\I! 10 the 1....,,', Westem caliphale by Ihe 10th century.
eut.patient dlnicl. ~re Ire abG re<:otd. of bo- O f IM Spanish cen ters wh ere scholiUS were
bu~ily Ir....... laling out of ~ Ar" hi c. Toledo
L.uUc.J sarden. oodj ..,,,mt IC ~ "",pit.II,,h.,," ", He
inal M.ba ",ere cultiy, ~d . L.obc r. torln 10. the espe:Wty yielded an e:o;dting outpouring of
muu,!.:"''''' of t lectuarie" 'rT\l.pt. "nd other fre Arl.bic leaming that was soon widely ilbq..."tly n~d me<!i<:&lioM often wereron~ IOrbed and ID'lCUssed amon g Wl!:!tem scholwith he. piut phlnnlJlcia."
1..r5. Mueh (1/: !his knowledge , 01 coun<e, had
u
Th1,1$, ph;umacy had btoome, sald lhe ron it5 roots in dassieal Greece.
Greek scimce returned. to W~te m Europe
lernpo.;uy a1Birun i (913-1051), " lhe art of
-Icr\o...-ing ~ m.teria tnedica .imples in therr b l' three rou les, lh1'Ough thi' continuo .... tra
,,-walls' $peciu, I,pe' .nd ,ha pes. ~fom ' d ition of Sou..thuIl:ilaly; Ihrou#'o tne-&mrn-- ....
the5e, Ihe phannLloCl$1 preparn compounded (Bynnline) Empire .. nd Ihro ugh the Ara medi.c:atwns In pres<:ribed and orde~ by b iMl5. Until Ihe period o f the Renaissance,
the prescri bin g physlcian." W ithin th is eon the mosl important of the5e was the Arabic
cept, 50Ciety found " sp ial itl 01 gre.. 1 util route . 11 WilS Ihe main cu rren t even i n
;ty, one I'n diJr di51inguUhabie from the al Salemo, where the t!wee streillJlS me t.
With Salerno, we re..rn European soil 10
cnemisl5 on one side .nd Ihe physicians on
th ~ othe r. "a1 Altar" rem ai r.ed as a r:om see what .... "'" h appening to European
petite . a petSon age wh e also d ealt in drugs medieine .nd ph armacy mea nwhile, be
but trad i tiona Uy specilo llzed. in al"ll matiao. tween the rige of Islam and the time of Ihe
Thes~ " attirin " remind U5 o f the "5eP' Ren aissance-th at is, du.ing Ihe M iddle
lasa rii" of aneifnl Rome, who settltd do,,'1\ Ages.

M~djtvQI

ElirD.t"Dn Phllrma cy

29

safeguard reLiel oE claNic;tl imliquityY ('.assiodorwl himae!1 founded a k ind of clanic.al

acad e my i n w h ieh th e eu lti val io n o f
med icine imd ph.rm.cy pbyed an importimi
part. In hJs " fUl'ldamentai book of medien l
sdence ," C." iodoNS H I"bLi,hed the N Ie
thai the monU who aeled In ph)'li icil.n5 we~
~u ired to eonsul t Dioscorides' wri ti ngs,
!'Ud Laliro translations of Ihe works of Hip
pocnle5 and Galen, . nd ltudy Ihe ","'OR: of
Caelius Au relian us, a Roma n med ieal oom
piler of Ihe 15t cen tuf)' . Th \U, the .c:livity of
Cus iodorus was b.sic to monutie medicine
.5 .... eU 1.5 to lhe I UMvalof such independl.'flt
Kientific meIDeal life u could e.ist during
the pe riod h om the 5th to the 10th century.
Wh.1 rnulls did CaSSiodONS get7
Co ndU!on, d eveloped in RaveM.a and other
centers mat ...... re very .irnll.r!C mOle in Aluon
ein... And grantl!d tbl IN:te. !Co, IN: ",eelic"; ",en
may haV1! been ch~Oy members 01 IM du,,.,h,
their meelldn.. was .nything b\ll monutic. The
mtdiOlI Uteraturt 01 IM period I1 ef'Ilirtly t.o.t
in. .. By Ih.. end ol iM 6th ~ntury a ' . irly wge
numbtrol d.llical boob hael been tnnslateel inle>
L.otin. "

This "[airI)' large number of el usiea l

books" repre5t'nted only .. small part of ancient medic;tl wildom. MOl"!'Over, iI Will u.sed
. Imo sl exclu$ively by a &mal.l g:roup 01 person'.
Then Ihe empire of Theodoric Ihe Grtat
d isappean:d, .nd ne .... l warms of b arbari.n
invl.dt!,.., p ul an end 10 that modH t a!tempt
loward a eultural ren.iHan<:e. In !hose limes
01 perpetuaJ blood.hed .nd del l ruetwn, - - ~~
study wo :' aJrnosl exdu.!ri~ 'rHtri.cte'd"tO' --:t hf dergy, bKause only the ehurcli. was
';" Mon.-tic Medidne and Phannacy
safe uylum p rov id ed. lot che 5t u d ious.
Du ri ng the e.. rI}' Middle Ages, indiv idual,
. . Thus was bom monutie medicine."
wi!h some knowledge of the o ld intel1ectual
Mediane, alter h.l wln3 pla).-ed a I0O$I importanl
lreilSurn tried to rt~e 11 leasl lhosoe parts pm
in Rom.on civUlulion, wilh.u..w inta Ihe
thaI had practica1 vafue. Most important ""U shadow of the Chtttdl " nd bec ....... ttnde. Ihe
Man;us Aure!.iQs ussiodoru. (490-5&5), a in fb ence of Chri.tian <!o",lnance. _ dogm.otie
leuned Roman and chancellor of lhe gn:al medici ne in whlen tM finl .00 rnosl importanl
Os trogo lhic ki ng Theodoric, in Ravenna pe inl w al faUh . Fal:h akm.. could CUte the
!Nort hem lIaly) . He induced the king to and the !IOuJ cf noe , .. fferer and wu Ihe e55ential
peint in the Mlp cf tht liklc."
~ate I magistrale espedaIly empowered to

1 _. __.
.

=-

bad,

Mt dir.llll EI/tOp"." Pltllrn1llCY

Therl!rorl!. little opportuniry was provided tnatiSM for mll1lY centuries, [werel . . .. the
tor Ihe developmenl cf .denee or ror the en- Passionarius Galtnl and the h er bal oi
lightenm en l of men by sden ce . In mmy Pl eudo-A puleiWl."uThus, knowledge of Ihe
mo nasteries monkt heeded the advice of rn.te ria me dica 10 be u,tel ag ~in5t sicknus in
the Middle Ager-before CrecoAn bic med~,i o doru8 thai Ihey coUecl and U!Ie the old
man uscri pls, Bul only the few Latin trl!atisel ical li lua tu re fi lt ued in lo EuropeIMt the monks had rescuedcould be s tud ied., depend ed lugely on wcondh.nd compilaprincipally " Ihose of Cebw, Scribon iw [.ar- lions based on ex lan l nm nants from anSWI. Ptiny the Eider (10 a slight degree onIy), liqu ity. ~' De5criptiOIU of indigenolH boUni.
and Caelius AUft'lianus. " l DThe Gruk mmu- CiI.I drugs and d iftttlOJ\l fo r Iheu IlU!dicin.J
Kripl$ that Ihey had collerted and preser\'ed l1H wrre avAilable in I. few fragmenu ollnror poslerity they could rlot use, "being un_ den! medical lileraN", in Latin and, hen'
able to read GI1le k." These mA1luscri plS dld Ind Ihe re , in book$ cr liats wrilten in Old
become irnpo rt ml le\'1!ral cen turies late r in Engli9h, !ruh, French a nd Gennan. (includ
Ihe time of Ihe RenahsanC<!, when schola", 11\& the f amous Old Engllsh "leech book.s") .
ugerly searched l he clobte", of lIaly and
The medieophannKeutical lilerature of Ihe
el5e"..here for original Greek medica1 manu, monute ries ruched itt dimu in Ihe Latin
KripO and lound copies in a nu mber cf in- poem about herbs (enli tled VI' 17irib:.15 /tu.0tuOons,
hnim. Cr Mllu r I'0rid"" probabll' produced
Meanwhile, a mOrl! modesllite l'ilture arose to ....rd the end 01 the 11 th rentury by Odoof
10 fili lhe gap, generlled in thai small I KtOl Meune. abOO t of Buupn,i, and in lreal;.es
wherl! there was I po u ibility of the cultiva - (phy!ic .. an d CQ U5~t d am,r) by the abbeu
tion and the pl'ilclice of !cienti fic medidne.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), The Mac~r
What w .. ",e l tl)' need~ was l hor! t""ati"", f/~ri~1lS w as a IX'Pular book and perhap$ the
, bl uact . "pito"'';I , Sivins brief iru.tructionl Ior fint independent her bal to be produc~ in
;onctice. A no-w tite,"u,.. aroee. coru;..ti"S of the medieval Wl!'St, but Its Au thor Il$ed older
utin .ources. and perhap' also d~w on
l loort Ireal!.' on urirot , puboe. k".. r, di ......
Arabk authon Ihrough Ihe writings of Con progrlOl tiC. blood lelfinl .and. abov" alf. e .. dIes.
preKriptions we ... ""ri l1m.. These ,",atilet ~II'I*" stllnt ine the AfriCa(I . Ce rtainly Hildegard
Q m. . ..... r~ gi"~" ' h ~ fom> nf "l';~.1 .... n r nf dld."
diAlaguo, 0' ", CIItec;hisInI, 1hey we"" UlOn)"
The li gh l of lcience had burned o nly
mo.... r:>. ny of t hem lalMl~ hearing l!>oe I ..... gloomily in the MiddJe Ages. lt w as oqgen
", me. c f HippD cu ln , Ga ten, Dem~ri'e., of Arabian ori gin tha I would make il brighl
Apuleiu. le give them mc ... lu1horitY . .. . '!'h is
lite .. ture luted, unchl"Sed in character. until ehe agai n.
11th cmtury. TM tumi", point i" tM literary de" Iopce nt was made by IM Ir..w..oons of Cen, The Schoo J of Salemo
.w.~A1ii~ . TIw.Y "tl~da~_~~~t , , Bv-~ir nature monl$lic medicine .... d - - -:= - I~~terrrot ... k' llW'e, :hic!1'fnlm NI"" on
- '
'
,
.
,
.
b';"'ably had Ir...., 0 1 Ata t>ian inJIuence."
pharmaey were ~a.hc, theu
' mportanl elemen t betng fa.l h . A growlllg tendBefore the in \'aluable Inns lations of Con- ency d ...... eloped amoT\g the dergy to disco .. er
IU niine of Alrica, the EUlo pean sdenrific presumed trace~ o{ Ch ristian ideas in lOtI'Ie
world ha d a .. ailable Ihe .... ork 01 Dio500ridu; Greco-Rom an philo!Ophens and phys idaru
paru of t he treatilM!s of Hippoctate5, Galen, and, laler on. e .. en in ArabiiUI milllte B; and
Celsus, Scrioon iul Largus, Pliny the Eide r, thus Ihey I'iItion alued the ust of paSiUI wb
CiIIe'lius Aurelilnw, Oribasios Ind _"-l~an- dODl in a d ogmatic a n isl!an w orM . Thit
der Tr<illianU!; 11'\0 JOme Inonymou' and lendency opened the way for the systemalic
p~u d DnymO u S
.b.trlct5. Two s u ch reconquest Ind KCeplance of lasl ano q H
.bslracl5, " uncloubtedl)' the most popular kno..... edge from Atabian soun::es and later

i"'.

lJlo;s'

".
aut et..'

>,

Jl

J2

Th~

A..r:\b , alld Ih r [lIrD;1tan M iddJt Iogt S

Cllaplt r 2

on !rom Ihe Creek originals thill beclml! d rug lormulu. A eopy of lhis "Large Fonnulary ," written in 01 Swiss monutery . baut
av.Uable.
The 7th b:) Ihe 12th tenNries uw Islam aru:\ 1190, C(lntairu .baut 1,100 such formulu,
Chrislianity in intim.te contact in Spr. and 5OI11e quite complicaled, and mMginal annoSidly. So munIy ;1 was ' rum theSf! ' ....0 a~as lations .baul ~m by MilthHU5 Plale. rius.
Thi s rieh store of ph.ann aceutical lore WIIII
thai the Latin West d~w Grec:oA r~ b i An
Imowledge (5e e page 28). A li ltle senide overshildo""ed laler by whill aH ms Ingely
town, Salemo neu Nl ples, was du tined 10 modified extract of the AIlIi~Clar1wm IlUgnum
play an importanl part in Ihis d evelopment. jUSt menlioned . This sma.ll fannulary con
The b.mou$ Khool of SIlemo d.tu fro:n tained only 140 formulu i..rI the mid-13th cen",beu! the 8th cen tury . Pro b ably not of tuf}'. It beume idenli6ed with the nmo.e
ecdesiastic origin , " ' he ...~ole cruo rac:ter of Nicholu, .nd 5ince 5eVeral editors had thai
Ih e Khool w aS that of .. n isoLa ted laiCi.\ in- $ame name, Ihf' genealogy 01 Ihe lreatise
sti t\ltion, a cirrilas H ippcadis, in the midil of nentua lly be.::ame puzz le. Th e AIIpurely clerical faundalio ns, and there is sig Iidol~ri!Hn Nic~I.i, traNl laled in lo various
nifle illt silene,," a baut Sal erno in the languages, by the laie lJth cenlury had beecclu iutlc chronides... a Gradu ally Salemo eome the offu:ial texlbook on mltena medica
became the seat of guild of ph~.,icialU, al- allh e University of Parb, .nd il C(lntinuf'd 10
tncting not only pill tien ts but also slu,ant5. infIuence pharmaceulical Iitera:ure' 5trongly
Arabie inuence there oonlin~d 10 in- u nt the 18lh century.'"
Of lhe knowledge emanating from 5alemo,
erease. An "lntidOlarium" by I Jew iah
ho\\'ever, the wotk motIt infh.lential on health
phy aid~n called Oonno lo (913-970) was
bued on Arabic IOUICe!,'" AfterConllanline practiee! of Europ"aNl was of quil .. different
Ih e Alrican had come to Sale!"l'lo {middle (If cha.racter. A heallh manual, the so-.:alled Rtthe 11th cenrury) these infllttatioM bKame gim~1I ullitli lis , cOMlsted of dietetie Ind
fundamerotal. In him Ihe We:>t hOld Ihe first of phannaceutical rules in vene fonn. n... ori gW Latin ITiII'ISLators of Arabian manuKrip15 , inal collKlion o f 364 ~"er5eS pres\Ullably w.u
who "translaled evel)"lh irog thilt time inlo ediled and ilIU\olaled abaut the yeal IJOO, by
his hilnds. ,." ~1 Conltilro tin~ thu, in- one 01 the most progn:'ssi\"e ilnd eMmically
fluenced the Europnn medi cal world oriented ph}'Sicians 01 the lall' Middle Ages,
enormously. ln,tud of mere frilgment!! of Arnald of Vill anova. Although pt>rhaps '101
.nciMt wi.sdom, there were suddeni)" lVail- intended originally far !aymen, the treati.5e
.ble 'yslemillie .nd complele worK5 that !IOOn became popular, and IIfte r Ihe invenopened entirely new \islas. n.e dfect be- tion oi printing iI a ppened in an European
languilges in upward of 300 ed itions, aceame obvious with in and outside Salerno.
Even the famo u5 book of malen. med ica cumulating additional verses Ind CO!"nmencaDe~.Ci~. i1l$taIU (Ihe ~nins wo:.d .-o[~e taries Ihrough the deeadu. The relaliy ely '
book) may be basieally a matiJe 6y ~tan:.' . s im p le and inei"pin-jive phlm\ace-uti ~1 1
line, as revised and enlarged by Ma tha.eus measures advocaled in iu p'ge! probably
was not the least appealing fea tul1! ol lhis
PlateilriUS (mi d -12th eentury).u
Anotne r dNg book renov,-ned in the lilte popular health guide far iI conlirwnt. JO
At Salerno the wri ting and translaling, the
Middle Ages, Ihe AIlJiiol~ri:lm IlUg"um, ilppilrently ~w heavily on the Arabic dNg education cf p ract iticnen, Ihe special studie.
formulas thai Con,tantine bad tfanal.ted, ilS avail,ble there, all inte raeted to um ill re
well u on late d nssic aJ and nrly Byu.nlirw pute iI$ Ihe lnding Euro pean medicaJ center

)
01 pre_mode m time:ll , whkh became I model
for develo pments e1sewhere.

UN1VERSmES EMERGE
Tbe laie mediey .aJ deyelopmenl of Ihe
hulth Ide nces in Europe de pend~d ultl malely. not upon any i ln gle amier, but lundlmenudly upon the key to aceumulated
knowledge held by Ihe transl,lcrs. They
eonyeyed G reoo-Roman leaming and iiS
Arlbic trand o rml lions inlo La tin u the
(ommon language of !eamed Europe.n, .
During Ihe 12th and 13th eenturies many of
the key medical wo rks th~t we have had oec.sien 10 mention ]:)e(:iUT\e Ivalla ble in manuKripi tr~Nll~tioM . The invention cf printirog greally e:dended Arilbian influenc.! on
Europ9n medicin e, and evm befure IM end
o! the 15th crnlury sorne key pharmilcotnedl~al works originated o r domiroated by
Anbie Ihought were off Ihe p~51-for
example, the pseudo-Muue's Gr.w~dill, the
Alttidolarillm Nicolai. Abukas is' Libn" 'trlOi!c , is, Senpion', Dt s;."plici m t ~icillll.
Rhazes' Ubt, IId IIlmlZfIItm, and OtMrs.
1n othe r 6eCt01'5, Europe w~ undergoins a
, imila, expansion of kno wledg~ and cuJ rural stimulus. For the m06t pan. 1I WH tm:
leilchers Oll clerieal schools i$ckolat) who renewed the ,Iudy of philosophy and ,clerKe,
despi le Ihe h<"then origin cf tM uciting
new transla tions . IISHm ed iI responsibllity,
howe\'e r, 10 provr o r 10 di spro ye luch
kno ...ledge from the viewpoinl of do~ .tic
- -=Ch~sli~nity. ScholarsNp cf I high oratt,.llt"!'
.' be=e dedicaled to religiou5 hair~lptitting
in U~u of more dispusionlte re'learch. Wh~1
hilf been eallrd med leyaJ WIeStern "'lKholaalicLsm" Wall mainly the granciiosoe ilttrmpl of
the Christian ChuKh to amye 1I a dogmatic
Iys tem In whien 5cience and pJillo5ophy-u
inherllrd from anliquity Ind more recmtly
develo peo-werl! h.nnoni:ted "'ilh teUgious

Ullrom lin Elltugr

J3

thought. "The doctrine! of medieal "iencr

werl!' finlshed book-just I.Ithr luthoriliu
of Ih e Church " 'ere linal-they might be
commrntille d, e xpounded , interpreled
.. but not C(lnlRdit:ted no r HrioWlly que:stioned. "Jl
Though urader sU<;h conditions I't'al seien.
tilie progress could not be expected, yelthere
was an urge fat knowledgr IN I expressed
itseU in the de... elopmMt of places of higher
1e.ming. These " unh-ersilies," although up
10 the 15th c.!ntwy Ind sometlmes even latl!'r
und e. the inllue nce o f the Churi:h, w el't'
open to tM layman far educllien In Ih~ arts
and Kie nces. TNe, th~se univel'l ilin were
Ihe main ,eau cf seholas tidsm, but Ihey
Wen" simu\taneously Ihe pl ace:s where '111' ....
ideas c rigin.ted and were nurtureci whenthe
time was ripe.
By Ihe tarly t Jlh eenmry, Europeiln ins tiluti ons o f hi gher lea rni ng had been
faunded It SaJemo (medical Khool, 848; univer.lity, 11SO). Panna 0025), Pilris (unh'l!'!sily, 1110-1IB; wilh medieil IIChool from
12Il5), Bolognl (1110-1113) , Onord (1167)
and C.ambri dge (1209). During the 13th eentury. 13 more un i\"en; itiu wert fowoded Cl in
haly, 2 elch In Fnmce, Spain and Portugal).
The 14th cenlury broughl the finit Genrwtk
uniyen;tic, (I'rlguc, 1:H7. Vicnna. 1365.
Heidelberg. 1385).
Befare Ihe Ren.o.issance, phannacy had nol
beoome sulfidently inde~nden t u a profession to find a 'pecial academic place, except
as expressed in maleria mediel COutSel of
urly medieal iCh?'?!s. In
11th (entury
_U\9. ~rtWll!l . ev_en J~l'iiier, J~o"f_-:Y~< .Pllplic
-pharrn.ac:ie. began tO'appear In Southern lIa1y
and Southem Franc.!,.and probably in olher
places. With the lransmiulol'l oi Arab ian
tnedicine md polyphaI'Truu:y 10 Europe, con dittons Ihilt cau.sed thr aution of publtc
pharm acie, in wbul centers of Ihe Midd~
East !hut produeed s imilar INltitutions in
European slates.

ttw

,-

Ch .ptf'r 2

Tlu Ar," .114 Ih~ Eu,opun Mjd4~ Ag<!,

"

A l~tt.med~a1 artiat car;ecl On' block of .... ood 11115 ~ IOOv"i:lg. pharm idIlaI wor!<
a,ro,
whik a phy.kian namlnu .. urine sam pie (cor.ler\ from the p.li~n th\ bd (ri8ko. 11 it

IM udiu! depiction 01 lhe ronetp! of the "tri_d of mtdlcal (Ire" 10 appear in an English
bookl TM illu strl:ion ,ntttldu(ts Book 7 (",..:!kal counsd laJt!tly den"'"'" from Const anti1lt
ti'.e AIrican) of the encydopec:lil O~ Ihr P' 11pt.ti" Q,f Thi..g5, b)' Bartholomo!w the En!\is!unan,-wI!Och come off tlw-pre ...,' WestmiNl~ lbou: H9S. Bortholomew proplbly ",rot.:
hi:a- ~- wor\ betwMn 1230 . nd U40.
. - (f roro IN: U",ltteur of \ \rl5COnSitl
: ,Ub cuy) . .

rhamac)', wilh il5 beginnings in lhe in5tincth~ deff'rISe agams! dlSl!ase by primi-

Ih'e peoples, hOld developed under ,,"veral

d iverse Influt n<:e!. It was part oi the work of
pritsl, 1.' first; laterit ren among the dutie~ of
lay pnctitioners 01 D'l.edicine and pharmacy
combirwd. 1I found irs own form and expression in the culture of Greece and Rome.
However, only unde r the in fluen~ of the
Anblc wi l dom il...',d pattern did pharmacy

... ...

,~.

take firm (001 in Europ<!an .oll II!I a dUtinctiv~ Institution 01 public welfare , tu be reipected, regwat~d and further developed.
THE BlRrn OF EUROPEAN

PllOFESSIONAL PHARMACY
Someti me betwee n 1231 and 1240 Ihe
Gennan Em peror Fredericl: JI iu ued an ediet
thal WilS to be Ihe Magna Charta ol the pro-

Tht 8i"" 0/

E~roptan P'O/t,Q01Ul! PItIl,,""'Y

"

fell,io n 01 phannacy.n Although promul find general applicaHon (esplany not in the
Sl~d byan empi!!ror of tM Ho l)' Roman Ern Anglo-Saxon countriH ) WeM:
pire 01 thI! Gennl n nation , the ediet applie d
only to that part of hit realm caIled Ihe kin g1. 111, limitation 01 litt lIumberof P~Qnl"\o1I ckl
dem of the Two Sieilie,.
Three ngul alion s 01 Ihe edict aeated
2. GOVn-lIl1Ull tIIUy jUt d prict$ Jor rtlllt rJie.
ph.rmacy alS a n independent bnnch of a
go\'enunenlllUy l uperv iHd health Hrvice.
The provisJons Md the conlext of thR lepI
They ",'On nearly universal appliOltion in the mi leslone in Ihe h i~lo ry of pharmacist$
c:enI\lMs!hat foIIo",ed . TwoAdditional regu IU88est that a fairly wdl deo.eloped system. 0'
IatioN were highly COf\Mql1mtial in the de- publk pharmacie5 mull have eme18ed 11ve!oplJU'nl of phannacy in tIlO!It of the court ready in Ih e 13th century. Whethn these
trie s coming I1nder Gennan politico-cultural pharmacies developed from the monaslic
influence.
di'pensaries. or lrom ~ntrallton!s in whieh
The Ihree e!iSenlial ~gulation5 ",-ere:
Ihe Irade with drugs be-came more and more
' pecialized, has been deba~d. In the h illtmy
1. SqJ~r~tio" 0( tlte p ltl/"l!l4lCeu/i(:.zl pro/t, of the period both tn'nd.I can be diseemed.
'"''' frotr: I~ IlUdicll ,"o/t"wn. Th i, rule, However, the deric:al d i'peNAries, open 10
transgO"eSsN now and again by both puties, Ihe seneral public ;md there:fore competi lOlS
neverthe~, colU tituted the charter 01 pba,..
01 Ihe private philrmacies. were transfen-ed
mac)' as an independent profess ion. Tbi, 10 p rivate ownen al a relatively laie period.
lieparation acknowledl!!d Ihe facl thai Ihl! In the case of the Swiss city of Ballet "monupr.:ICtice 01 phannacy n!quirll!d speciallmowl- fic and privale phimtaeies existed for a long
ed.~, ,kill, in itialive and. responsibilit)' H time s ide by .ide . ... Onl)' the d illconadequate care 01 the med idnal needs of Ihe Ii nuanee 01 Ihe monasteries alter Ihe ref
people was 10 be gu.aranl!td. Forbidding any ormation about 1528 cauled Ihe monu tic
bua ine~5 n! IaHon between ph~idan a nd d itpensaries ta di$ol ppeu." In countrin that
phanna.:itl, lhe Iaw tried 10 ~ta.bli5h the retained Or n!slared Ihe Call"oolic faith, u in
ethical principles tnat the on ly function of Bavaria .. nd Austria, .uch public monut:lc
the huling profe ..io... 5hould b., prof..- phannad ......... 1.0 until th arl)' 19th cen
,Ional ~rviee , and lhat Ihl! ,iek should n o l be tury.u
The first Europeart nonmona~tic pharmleploited .
elsts, like the norun onutic physicians in Ihe
2. Official s ~p trttil ic" cf phgrm~ceurical Middle Ages , undoubledl)' owed mO l t of
prtulice . Thus was acknowledged the impo,.. thm scientific knowled8~ .nd practical i klll
tln<:ll!'_oLphamuocy U 11 pub\i.(: health H rvice 10 their derkal predece,5Ors.
. ~r ~. p~on of the public. . _.
MofIlicisr:t haJ .,~ .tI5.'1", q<'d il thM il ~u,..
forded to cullun! a ... nctuary in IN: millll of bar.
builm lind wlth far re.u:hin8 nsult aowN the
J . Obfigll/ion by OIIIIr 10 prtpart dr.tg! nll- edl
of ciriliution ';lfIwtancoouly with thoIe of
Qbl)f, acctJrding 10 ski/ld arf. gnd in a ~" jform, lhe "".lin g Art wh .,... tlw R.oman legion. had
Juil./lI, qua/ity. Thi5 requiIement acknowl- nev .... penetrated."
edgn the necenity, not only of reliable remTbe seeds of phllrmaey, growing out of Ihe
edies, but also of Ih ei r uniform preparatton.
Th\>$ il might ~ conlidered Ihe first Euro- field 01 mediane, had lound fertile loilln the
pun legal reference 10 a pharmaceutical late Middle ages. The ciliten', ne.!d for a
s tandud , 11 harb inler of tater p harma - publi dy re,pontible .pecWi51 in dn>p lI.y
partly in 1~"Oi d i ng exploitation in a field 50
COpi!!w.
The !wo sernons of the Jaw that did not \-u1nerable ta quacb, and pa.rtly in providing

"

The Aruf Ilfld the Europwl Middle IIgtJ

expe rtn tli in I. 6eld 10 d emanding in the

range of knowledge and skills I'I!quired 10
mab and d ispense D'led ie&ments. A centr&l
function of the pharmaci$l,
600 yt'11'S or
mOn!, would be p artieulut y 10 pn!pAl'I! medicaments and to 1'1' 10 &SSu.ff th.t uch con-

rot

)
Chapftl' 2

formed to specifications luthoriud. The

charact<!l' of the pharmarut's work. .nd his
pl_ in society therefen!: would be Ihaped
by $\l(~enive impo rtant tha nge. in the
ctul racter of med icamenls Ihe mselvn, beginning alrei.dy d uring the RelMlis'"'-noe.

)
PARTlWO

The Rise of Professional

Pharmacy in Representative Countries
of Europe

--,:'

--

_~ ..:o.~

3
Changing Medicaments and the
Modem Pharmacist
THE IDU OF THE ' 'RE.:'lAISSANCE''

Ihis tilne, brought the knowledge of the new

discoveriel. inve ntions Ind id eu within
quick and easy reich .
.\low began that .d.mirable in tellectual
10 Greilk spirit, 10 111.. "51~m of Allic Greeks
competltion of European indivi dullls and
for individuali5JT\ .. nd, wilh thi3, 10 their lib- peoples that made Europe, small though it
erty of thought.' It m .. ant th at fe iten im- was, the dominan t continen t in Ehe world..
posed on Europun intellect by the ."..rabi.. n h in all r.elds of 9(lence, 50 in med ici ne and
and derical scho!asticism were removed. 1I
therapy Ihe new develo pmenl$ fa thered a
meant Ihe rebirth of independent Ihought.
wilh Ih e promi$e and lhe challenge 10 the
imagin.ation Ih .., it off .. red. It opened new
warlds of thought, di5COvered new horirons.
rn!ated unexpecled po!lS ibilities. After CoJu mbus reached America in 1492 thi~ spirit
was ~iven oppo rtunity for physical expani ion and upre$sion. Th05l! who followed
The Re".li"an~ m"ant a retum not onlv 10
lhe original wrilings of the Greekl bu t

also

Col umbUll did 50 ,,;Ih th.- (reative vigor demanded 01 them by the richness and the

promlM 01 fhe new .... arld. Vascc de Garni!

found an all-wau- r rout'" 10 fhe East lndifoJ 6
YU taler in 1498, "nd the Ire"su:e5 of Ihe
fu Eul were brought doser to eager hAlIds
by thl!'1!iso;overers . The introduction 01 prin:ing ...ilh mov.ble type, which c.ame al ;oboul
Medld... a1 mer:t.ical$ Ga!lI~ into wid ... ~ inte ....
IU!ly with lhoI: ~n.; I"na!. lhi. woodcut from
famous droS book oi tlat time shows contus;on
_rtlr bebg u.d III grind up " A.-men""N I v&ritty 0 1 cup nc (arbona~, whkh WH then obWned
plrtleul..ly from ArDlenioo. (HorllU S~~jU!;',
Chip. 13. SlTa!Iboourg. .baut 1.5C1; fror:t In.. Un i-

verwlty of WiSCONin Lihrary)

"

)
4i)

Ch l'lgins Mdic. ... t ll ls /llId llu Mch .... Plum mui$t

number o f vuyl ng idus or systems thai followtd one u pon theothe r. Many of these sys
tems Iline d in ternational ",c<:e ptance,
infl uenc:ing Ihe malen .. media and, th rough
it, ph"rIJ\I.CY.
PARACELSUS AND CHEMICAL oaVGS

The 'piril of Ihe Rena~5an(e permeated

Eu ropean K iene! u weil a ~ clher in ~ lIeo::tual
d is<::iplinn . nd led in time to the "Jcienti/k
fe\'Olution" cf l he 16th lind 17th centu riel,
associ ..:ed with the namu of Copem iw."

Vesal ius, Gali\eo, Descartfes, Ne ...'ton, HMvey . nd Diners. Cradually and .. I fint cau
ti ously i'lU\e of IM kmg-estabshrd seien
lilie theo ries C;lDW 10 No challe:>ged. The yeaf
1543 iJ .. particularly import .. n! land mm in

.~,

4H!lf'\'DflCifUfM~iU"ATI$ ~

I f

,+ f'

A-J "rc

~
~t"~;g;,. . .
.~~,

/.Vi!... ~.rf.:fr.

CMl' lf'rJ

Ihc! ru,tory cf scioence, ... hen N lcoLl u' Coper-

n k u. sla led (in Dt rttlOJ lltiOllibrts orbi~m

rofldrium), contrat)' to Ihen cumnl btlioef,
that the- u rth moves ,lIound the sun, lind
And rae ut Ve5illiut (in Dt hum"n; cOIJI Gri1
!"brie,,) queslioned certain c l the an,tomiclll
\'iews of Galen.
The 161h cen tury prod uC'ed another Importa nl figure who performed an analogo us rt'Volutionary deed in medicine 'l.I\d ph armacy
by attacking o ld Iheories and open ing the
door to new findin gs . H e wu lhe SWiS5
physic ian Theop h.ru t u~ Bom bastul \'on
Hohenho!im, called Paracelsu5 (1493-l.541).'
Wore P..:acelsu5, van ous mod iflcalion5 of
two main hypo~conC'emi ng p. thologies
played thei r part aga; n a n d . ga in : Ihe
humoral ud the solidar pathologies (see p p,
17 &; 19). P;ara~l s us in troduced inste .. d the
co nce pt of the oody a, a chemkall.iborato ry .
M a resull c f advocacy b)' ParaC'elsu$ and h is
folIow en, Ihe internal use 01 chemieal rem
edin (m ineral sa lts and acid" I nd , u b
stanee, prepared by chemie al processet luch
u d istilla tion and extraction), whlt h had oecurred 'poradkally be lore hi,m, wn made a
malter of prin cipte and study . He coined the
lamous ptu-ne th at " il i 5 not Ihe ta,k of aJ
chemy 10 make gold, 10 m.h sll ver, bul 10
prepare media nes."
Pancebus oppooed the OOOClltpt of humoral
palhclogy and, especially, the 6yslematizaticn inlo wh ich it had been plllt5$lItd by Galen
and Avicenna. In ever)" way pouib le he lried
10 deprh"llt the5e NO main re prt5entaliW!5 cf

Thia portrol il 01 FarxelsUJ convey. the NIS" e! ,

bell e! quall!)' 01 his theught .nd ae!lon. It 11. coppe< enlravil'lg made (153&) lowud the e .. d 01
Para'~lus' Iife, probably bued 0 .. ketd'ln of
Paraeelsus himself b)' A. H indl.v"l~' 8tlow the
por.rait i. hl. autol".ph, rq "oduQ!d from alette r,
whkh may ~ tranJlated, "Theophra. tul von
Hohe nhei"", Dccter of Th~loSY and 01 bolh
Medioi .... and Sw?;ery ." (Frcm Stillman. J. ....:
l1\eophlastUi tIomba$tu5 von Hehenlwim u lled
Pana!l ..s, p. 162, Chicago, Ope .. Court)

P..r.cdSf<' 11 M Clumic.1 O... g.

"

Greeo Ro mlin lind A.I bic me diein e an d d isequllibrium oe the enti re body, bu t was
pharm acy of the eslee:rn in whieb" th.ey weTt' belited 10 be louliud in a p\"lltn organ.
held. In 1527 he slarte<! bis lectures al Bas.el PMltelsus <1150 51111tssed thllt nelltd ror Il't'atwilh .. sta rtllns atu.d: agaiN t Ihe medica! ment thal would be 5pecific 10, that particu~ net, of hil time.
la r di~ase. The ac tion oI a remed y, he fell,
"Onl)' lew ," he aaid, " practiced medi o did nOI d epend upo n q ua li tiea suc h 111
cin llt sw::ees.sfully. Too clese!y di d we ding 10 moh lness, but o n its spl!cific he~l i ng virtu e,
the words of HippocraleJ, Galen and Avi which wu de~ nnined by il:!l chem ical prop'
CHIna, u if they were orades . 1I is not the ertiu.
ade mment by ti lln, eloq uente . lingui , tla
Pharm acy was enriched by P4r.l.CeI5Ul1, not
and 00010: wisdom that makel the phy$ician, onl)' by th e intro d uctio n in to in ternal
bul the knowledge of the seC"l'ls of nature." Ihelapy of quile a number of chemicali , bu l
Paracelsus promised 10 read aba ut practi<::al also b y h is IItndeavor to extract the "heallng
and Iheorelic med icinlo acroniing 10 h is own vi rtue" from Ihe m Ore Or le" Ine rt 6ub
noll'S, whk:h. he assured hili stud enh he did 5tante' in whid\ he Ihoughl it to be hi dden.
ne l "beggady coIlect oul of Hippocra teJ and Thil ldea led Paracebus to prepate alooholic
Galenos," b ul had la ken "from Ihe besl pos- linclu rn . nd ext ra c ts , e5S11tnees a n d_
~ible leacher, 10 ...-l l, from my vwn v:pe risuppo5edly the mosl eS5enlial produc'-1 hllt
~ and experimenla lion." He d edared \hal
so-called "quinl~s5o>nces ." According to the
"Ihert wiD be no .-eierence to comple~ ion$ Pa racelaian eonu:p l, lineturu as weli oll
an d humors whlc h, wh ile theugh t to be Ihe e ~t rac ls o ri gin ally ",ert consldered to be
~ause ol . n diseasn. h .. W! widely prohibited
"'chemical!i" or, to uS~ a more d escriplive
the under.!land in g of th~m , Iheir origin and u d )' syn ony m, as " spagyric" prod uctsIhei r critkal ceu rse ,"I
lrom th~ Greek wo rds 5p:m (to se pa rate) lind
In hi s ow n 5peculalion on Ihe ballic na tu re ggfir~ (to assemble).
of matter he dld not d rop the irlu of the lour
Sy emphallizing those u ptS oi Paratel.. Arb totelian" elements as such . However. .us' theories thalled 10 .rlvanC'e s in meclielne
PoU";Keltus consldered them * " also ronsisl- and ph.rmacy, we risk making him see", too
ing cf Ihe ... tria p rim . '" Th ese Ihree " modem" and "5cien tifi~," It $hould be em
primuy principlell, "sulph ur. memuy and phasuecl t ha i h is SY5tem o f mediclne was
salt" welilt by no means simpl y idenlical with embedded wilh in a larger religiolls, mystlcal
the substances ge nerally I:nderslood by these ph llolOphy (w h.ich is 100 rompln 10 be oon
names. Sullur repre5enled Ihe prindple of l idered hete). For ex arnple, hii conviction
com busti blUty; mt rcury Iha l ci liq uid ity aru:I thai the re Wti a un ity in thllt uniW!r5e, whlch
volatilil)"; !Ollt, being permanen t and resis t- tied alt Ihings loge thlltr, led him 10 belitve
ing the action of lire, re prese n~~ .lhat 01 sla.: _ .ih.aUhe .heavenly bod ies in fl uena theorgans
bility. In Paracels u" own woros , "alllh;al of the ~y and the reme.dWs. I:Hd Ig~!
furites and dilNlppears in vapor.! ii Mercury; disease.
an tha t bu m s and is consumed is Sulph ur; a1l
Pan celsus ' 5earch for effectil'e remed ies
thai is as hu 15 al50 Sall ."
W all Ihus not carne d ou t on strictly empirical
Diseue .... as caused, u:oording 10 Paracel- and scienti fic gro und s.
In this light, h is oflen rid iculed revival of
s us, by a Jocal separatien of one of theiSl!
~ pri nci ples lrom the other two. While the old th.eo I)' of "S ign~tul"t"5" beromes untbis view mal' nOI lelltDl \"t'ry differeni from d ersta ndable. Paracels us ..... as a laithful belhe old ool\(ept of imba\4ru.y of the humol"l, Ut'\'e r , 10 whcm. benevolenl Pl'OVidente was
it d id ha\"IIt Ihe lidvanlage of emphas izing lhe an indi sputa ble dogma. He was nol IurIocaIU.ed rtlI lu re cf diseaSilt. DiSllta5e was not p ri$t'd 10 find Nature hinling al the therapeuvie ...ed, aa in Ihe Galen ic Sys beDl, as being a tic bounty cl he r sle re of ra w mabe rials, s ig

-., . '.

,!

.)
Iahoch,,,,istl'!l A/ftcr,
nified by Ch'UilCteris tics of Iheir outer ap~an.nc! (e.g., tunneric, or yellow root, to be
Il!~d ilgain5t jaundice) .....'h.J.t el5'l' wen' thne
but sptci lic:s "aigned" hy the Lord h im.self,
",ith direct designaliorn; as 10 Iheir apm6<:
ll~fulne55? Fa. flom be ing slrange 10 the
Para~lsia.n war c f thought,
theory cf
signatures" offer.d him a welcome divine
confinnalion cf hi, Ihinking.
""'hile Paracelsus' relation to the ri5'l' of
ph .. nnaeeulical chemistry i$ complex .. nd
e;l5ily DversimplifiN1, ;1 <:.. n be sai d that he
dld in\lence tremendously IN! tr .. ndonna
!ion of phamucy from a profession bilHd
primarii)' on botanie sdenee 10 one based on
chemicM tc~~. If Paracelsus him..elf was
not Ihe most impo rtilnt innOViitor, it was he
who insp ired the "Paracelsians" cf the subleCjuenl century to bring to therapy a whole
ne ..... outlook by Ihe chemical procedurn thai
they developed and by Ihe d efiniti on cf
chemiu\ drugs th at thu ~ Were neated.
Unde. the influenc<:' of Ihe followers of
Para<:eluu, many dtemiul r"", edies were introdueed intc the phannacopeias of Wes tern
Europe in the 171h cenlury.6

PllIJrntolCY

4J

force. He call ed 11 IJrchIJt:u, endowed with

Ihe power of Oominati ng i n processu of life.
Thl. idea 01 a \110\1 force and the l ncept thai
sIckneu reflel:l$ chemi e"l changes in Ihe
body produ~ by a morbid mood of Ihe IJrch.t l<J Are e.pressed sti ll !flOTt definitely in
Ihe medical syUem of th e greal Flemish
ph ysician Jean Baptist \"An H elment (157'71644). He i5 famous It$ the disco"erer 01 CIorbonk acid, .... hieh he calledg. $ 'YWt5tu, Ih us
o rigina ring: lhe conce pt and the l<mn "gu."
Ho .... ever. tht real fo unde r of Ihe doctrine of
" ialrochemistry" was Fran~i, de le Boi S~1 vlus (l614-16n). H is Ihtory was a lind 01
com prom ise between humoral pathology
and the ideu of PaneelsUl.
The vanllge point of de le Boi Sylvius'
theories i, what he caned "rennentalion." He
believed thai food b ItilIUformed Ihrough
uH"a an<:! a fennent !lecreled from the panereu, Ind that blood becomea the li fe
mitlntaining sub,tanee he thought il to be
through ce rtain ferments earried ln to Ihe
bloodJlream from lhe gaU bladder and Ihe
lymph glands. These eontinuous tn:ufonnalions, in/lueneed by the body temperature
(cIIIIIT illll~twj) . nd the spiri t! of life (spintlU).
rnull in either alkaline or add end products.
lATROCHEMISTRY AFFECTS
If both are in Ihe right proportion qualita PHARMACY
tively ... wdl lS:j I.j u anllta tlvel)'. the person
Puacelsus was a mV!llic aS weil as a rev- concemed is healt ny.
Dis....se, on tne tontrary, ;5 Cilu",d by an
o)utionary empirieis l. 'He nOI only believed
in Ihe doctrine of the 5ignittures, but H- "acri mony" Or el((eM of eithe r the acid 01' the
sumed the presen ce of a mysteriow; vital alkali ...... , ubli t.mceli, or Ihei r being al a .... rong
plaee. According to ia l rochemical lheol)',
this acrirnony leads 10 a change in the blood,
the bUe or Ihe Iy mph . He-nee all disuses
The medkir.a1 bounty of nalun!!tu atwa)'5"im- wffe siibdi\:ide lnto those based on alk.aline
p:ftted ph.o.~ lS.oo I.&ym~alike. On Im. al- o r an acid acrimony. The drugs used in !reat~orkal titk P alIS'"lJ (hopl h.a"8 out. banner ing Ihem had 10 be cf a eon ll"ililling na~.
p:odair;ling thol it o"",:nenb t!>e Royal Pb&r- eithe r acid or alkaline.
DIU""O?fia (I6n , p""pat'fd by II>e Frend\ ph..,m l Th i. medlcochemiul theory beu me
ciat Moise 0.. .... Helo..., lhe royal pmfHsion Df
nahlrally the buia fo r prep.iring neweherni plla~<:y on her ttHone reoI!i""" th.o: pmdUctll 01.
the animo!, I"" "~Ha.bt.. a nd lhe ll\ineral Idog- cal drugs. II was "'ekomed still more u 11
doms frcmo repre.enLtti"". 01 I:" mntinents (I. 10 convenienl gutde for selecting lrom among a
Ewope, Mio, Afric nd the Americas . (A myriad of dntgs aJ rudy known, and .u .n
h"",ani~ ao:nfl,
!elt, iJo "",re in~:n~d In explanation of Iheir empirically o~rved efIool:ing crilically al the ruderl)
1el:15.

1.'"

r.'

'or

,)

A Ct"twry of SptC1<l~ tivt

Tkt01'i~1

45

This feit nt-ed for an Idequate ..;.;phonali"n

of knoWn dieds .ttnded. number C1f phys iclan. of lM 17th .nd the early 18th cenl\lne5
10 . !"Iother hypothe:sis, Ihe iatro ph}""5iaJ. or
mectaaniaJ. theory, d ..veloped 50me d~des
before de Ie Boi! Sylvi\l5' hypothesi. by the
U" ia n phyl k i iln SiUltoriO SiUl lorio (15611636). 1I was based on Ihe roncept of Ihe
body u a kind of " npne, foDowinl'l mainly
physicall.ws.' Th.i~ o uook led Sanl"rio to
i nve nl Ihe 6rs l in~ lru m .. nt in tend ed 10
meu ure body ~ mpen~, pn!dec:essor 10
our din ical thermomeier, and to make the
first sy,te malic .Mmpt to explain. by Dti
, ulet muns IS p05si b le , wha! we caU
metilbolism.
DRUC;S FROM THE NEW WORLD
Anolher importlnt heto. i nflu encing
European Iherapeutks in lhe 16th and l ith
cenluri u wu Ih.. introduction 01 m "ny neW
d rtlg s lrom lo.eign lands, parlicubrly Ihe
Americas, Th e most imporlant of these drtl gs
were cinchona and ipecK, bul many othe r
plant drugs 01 the New World---mch u curare, tobaeoo, caseara ! "grada, and coca-illso found Ih eir way into Eu ro pea n
medidne. Aek~rknech t has commented Ihat
these uotlc d ru g5 " un dennined Im:i"nt
tndition in 1\0 Itu an eff..di\'e war Ihan the
!;11m of Pance15us."l lt bec;une obvious lhal
lhe book of Di06eo ride!i .nd olMr GraecoRoman and Arabie ...'Orlo:.s did n ol contain aIl
01 Ihe dru g 10 ... 01 Ihe world , a nd Ihe
"I~LW:.::' Jldjon 01 d rtlgs $1.>Ch as cinchona
(which apparen lly cured only the..-..caIled
. inlennille nl f.Iovers) .... u diffKU.lt to 61 into '
ttw trad ition.a.1 Galenic ca~gories.
A CENTURY OF SPECULATIVE

TIJEORIES

.\1.

A Medy Eu.fOP"l.!> olchemisl

!IInOns"litter 01 ~ui~nt, _ishirts oul . cn..mlc.u
io r one of his upmments in mak:n5 gold. A ITlditio:\llUy ~t ...d non.d.. nlifi c art,
l ldu!my amlliM d Iol'!lgn to both lhe .pint . nd the met.'>od. 01 mod.. m ph.umlCY O!
chemis t.)'. Althouah no 10f'll!n.mner of IM ph" .,..&ci5t, IM d cllemist monsm;!tf'd 0. In~:l!ed "'Iuipmenl Ind tet hnia 01 ".1".. 10 pham\lKe"tio:aJ. develop-me:ll. (17th-oentury
pain ting by Comth. r. Ses"01. The Netherlands, in the Fisher CoI!a:tion, Fi,h ... Scienlifk
Comp.n), Pltllbw-sh)

"

The .tt;acks upon the G.Jenie tndition in

the 161h and lith cen luries h ad deshoyed ils
mO flopo ly upon Ihe rapeutic thought, . 1Ih o ugh Gal t n sti ll rt'lai ned a significan!
influenee upon medic ine, The humora l

Thb lilh century paln tl ng oo n'~ys viv idJy die

rueti"n of ruSlic patient 10 the OOpi"llS, unpluSlnt d.aught thl t One co wd v<ped 10 nc:ri""
from pharmltC ilt before In"n tl gatl on, had
yi.. ldoe4. Ihe aeti"" oonstituentl 01 dru55 in mo~
eont"".trated, palatable IM ~li l bt.. fOrmll. (Jrom
19-11 cdendar cf IM l"ecitrlandache IIVl tKha ppij
ter 8e"",rderi"g <!er Ph.rm.de: orig::ln.1can ..., by
Ad:-. ..... 6 ro ~r loeatee! .t Franl. hm a.m. MliJI)

lheory t>d l\bYbHn repla<:rd, li(iWe-.-er,-bya n )' ,ySlema lic theory of p.tho lo gy an d
lhe l"il peutics h.lving unive rn l .lCceplance.
Th e 18 1h C('nluty . aw .. arious allem pIs 10
crut~ e o mp reh~ n . i v .. med ical ' Y5Iems.
however, produ cing theorie, thal .... ere certain to be speculati"e and de baillble, sil'lCl!
the hulth p",fl!S$ions stiUIad; .. d uperimen1.1 techoi<:, for ettilbli5hing the sile .nd Ihe
med!anism of drug action,
A new kin d 01 SCllidar pathology .... as announce<:! in HaUe b y Friedrich Hoffmann, Ihe

)
o..,,,gmg Mt:tialf" , r. ' J lind fh e Modem Ph4l1'1ll:ra'1lI

ChMp f" 3

HOlflt0l'Q/ ityllJ 01'" hampu of M tdj~Q' SIQri;t"i:;1II

in Ihe ideology 01 Em51 Stahl (1660-173-1) .11

El~,ont c"ntaben m ade mo", irnpn! ive tkt old. d rugl whosc att~a1 cfltel. ... " re 1:.uoll1'
do ubtful ornon0p"dfic. Suppostdl~' anti-inf~i~ lI'tIm l li", in~n<kd to neutu.lize the"m
e ir"' ....
""rritd in contdlWlI ,ud\ os IM multicomputment pomander (Cl, wllieh h eld
Im~tgriI (1Mh eentury), ~nd ather pomande (D, f. f) af b.ter vinuge. Tht vinairettH
(H. f .. n- ~re s,...u , ilve.- ~ I h.ld .. bit of IponSt cb.o;ga<Lwb uor.uotic "i~"u
(t.!lr 19lh ~Iury). The Iodtol (J() om~nNl camphor. ~r pill bo~ IG) ~ ...... ~ ,t JUltnple (CL lSOO) . bul podte1"pil! bo ___ ~haw M""r gone compldely ou: or 51yk. BcfIk. , CA. 8 ) fo, smeningu.U. 'amDloniumcuboruote"';~ UI\'e:rw:!er-$CO!Rted u:uno"i....alt.)_,..,
popw .... "'" enswooning ..... :..hicnable . (Am/leb bom I~ Onu CoillKlton. AGleI"m), 01
Medio .... , Torontc, Onl.; Hl ()rake. T. G. H.: J. HilI. Med. 15:31-44. 1%0; photosrapk Jrom
Univellily 01 Wbrorllll n .)

Halle. H~ cc nCl! pt of UlIle" and Iherapy wu

named animi,m ll!, becluse Slahl ccNlidered
the 80ul (Latin: Q" im m) the hjghesl prindple
of Iife, b illandng .111 bodily fun(tionl by a
di,liTK I rhylhmic mOYlm\en l. This mO\'emenl produCl!d .I cei1ain bl:nsion ulled tonus. lhe individual was iU iJ thi!llonus wu
not nonYIaL The luk of remedie:s w as to help
the anima 10 reslore nOIIll aJ tonus .
Simihu 10 the an imism 01 Slahl wu Ihe
"vitalism" of the Frenchman P. J. Barthe:t, in
....hkh the soul was repl~~ed by the iO-~alled
vilal p rinciple (1776).
In England Iwo Iheories in partieular
gained wide IKknowle<lgment. (l) William
eullen (1710--1790) postulaie<! !hat alI bodlly
functions .Ire regulated by a so-called nervoU.'! princi ple. whith in Ca5eS of illness tri es
10 felilOre normal ccndilions by oom"lllsion
or by atony. Therefore. the remedies had 10
be eithe r imla ling or emollie nt. (2) Th e
hypothelis of the Sco tth h physidan lohn
BroWIl (1735-1788), a pupil of Cunen , was
thai not the neryous p rim:i ple ils~ bul the
stimuli that 'll!t it in motion ~re decisiv~ for
heatlh o r s ick.....es5. Normal lil~ is a harmony
between exeitabtUty and the ince55anl eXlf: r,
nal and internal i limuli Krin g on the body;
aII d lsl"as"" Ihu~ 10... " ~ir final ".o u..: in
disproportion between IM e~dtability 01 Ihe
organi sm and IM stimuli (100 strong or 100
fee ble) tlu.1 <li/e<:I 11.

"

...

:,-

famous inventor 01 m lny remed ies (16601742). Ac<:ording 10 rum llIe d epends-as the
uw:ic nl Sonnos usumed--on .I normal t@ns ion of Ihc solid. part, of the body. Howcvcr,
unlike Sonnw;, Hoffmann tluj5h1 thai Ihese
solid. pllm .I re not the d udl bullhc fibers .

He _wruo d a hypodu:tlc aJ elner-Jih fluid . dinS thlOll&-" the nervoWi s}'lItem Ul"'n the fibcrI
U\d kMplnl!; IMm in. stU! 01 partial \(lnk oonIractlon. and also kftpin,du:h:anonolthc body
In IM motion ~ry klr life.'

Thi. malerWislic Ihool)' had ihl antipode

KOMEOPATHY AS AN .EX.U(P-LE OF
.MEDlCAL.5EcrARlANlSM : .

_-:=:~-

Speculalive med ical Sysbl:D1S d id 1\01 ro mpletely d isappear, 01 <0W"Sl', with Ihe end 01
lhe 18th century. While ~ ttemptllia gene-ra le
a ccmp~heIUl ive iYli lem of medidn<! , based
upon a monislic palhology, we~ pe,""aps
leu rommon in Ihe 19th cenlury, a number
of medkal sed s, bued upon unorthodox and
highly speculalive Iheories, grew up 10 challenge lhe p~.. ilIng wrapeutic practicrs of
onhodox pnditionerl. One of Ihe mo,t in,
le11'sting of Ihese 5eC1S, p articularly from .I

"

poinl 01 view, wu
homeopathy, which has been d esmbed as
"an offshoot of 18th tentury theoru.ing."' Q
This peculi ar ph armacalogic syslem wa s
proposed around the turn of t:he 19th century
b y Ihe Germ~n p hy,idan Samuel
Hahnemann (1755--18 43) . Somewhal lalet
Ih i, sy,t@m fo und ",i d e acknowle d gme n l
ArId secta rian cu1ti valion, particu1arlv in Ihe
United Stares (!tee Cha p. 11)"
pharmac~utical

Th t " Simile" PriNciplt. The general idu of

home opathy ;5 10 indte the ddense
mecharsms of the body by adequate iaiulion, ralher than co a ttack the di.sease as 5\IC:h.
This lead, 10 Ihe , j",ilt principl e . w hieh
,!at@, Ih at disease ;1 cured by remedies thai
produce sym ptom, resembling the d iseu~ in
q uestion. Drugs .Ire test@d on heallhy indi\iduab 10 determine Ihe type of symptomi
IM Y produ(e, and thus their therapeu tie indicali o n s. Ha hnemann called hi s Iheory
"hameepalh)''' (froom Ihe Greek homoio "s imilar) as (onlrured 10 Iradilional therapy,
based upon the ancienl prindple of using
n:medies wilh properliu opposile to Ihe
symptoms of die d isease, which hetalled "a1Io fN lh y" (from IheGn:e blllciN - differen t).11
M i ...,/c Dc~:;. This irritalion ce ncept ako
p rov ides a rationale for the U5e of a5tonishIngly minute d~ In ho meopalhic practke.
In Ihe l~t@ 19th an tu!)" th i.s ~ pplicalion of
very small dOHS for Ihe pu rpose of irritatio n
found support in Ihe !IO-called "biologie tundame~tlLla_w:'. p~IIJ!:!lgaled by the Ge~
_ _
physkians ~( Arndt art4. Hugq SdIulz_ ,. _ _ _
This "law' stllis Ihal " minute jtlinUlr in":. , ~
ilia te lhe activity 01 living organisms and
lhose o f med ium st:11'ngth promo~ il, while
strang slimu li ~ow it down and very ,tremg
ones , top il."
Naturally, Ihe question (o ncern! Ihe de gree of "minulenua" thai still .. nows [or Iln
inciting effect, and it ~ u nderstood tlat dilu tions lTansgn:ssing lhe lim it, drawn by modem chemiiStry and ph~it5 an!' beyond &elentific evaluation and hence beyund oonsid enlion.

"

C~ ar.ging

M trliCoI mnl t, find Iht Modern PII"rm.Osu

In hi., p~~ ption, ~mann himself

iNl ill~d on the use cf only .. single act:ive

dru g 1I a time. His foUowen oftl!n hlve been

Ifon ri gOIOU$ in rega rd 10 the presaibill of
mix~ and compounded drug._ Another
ph .. rma~llllc~ 1 principle n: quire d thai Ihe
hom eop.I1hic tiilctures be made from freak
crud e dro p (not d Md). (\coeauM' c f such 5p!'ci.aI. requirements,U hom eopathic drup in
W Uniled States aften have be,n d ispensed
by konwopat:hk ph}'Jici;uu themselve o r, in
melropolitan I ru" Ihrough special pharmacies.
Writing of Hahnem ann's homeopathy, the
med icaJ N stori.. n Ern'in Ackerknt<:h l con
cludes: "The dogmati sm of h is system sep.rat!!d. it from !he main stream of sdentific: d e~~Iopment,

.. nd no",' il liYe$ o n n a cu lt w ith

CJtlZpt(~

posed 10 have a ten de ncy 10 localiu Ihemselvtt. Thus then! ""el'l! no siek individuals
but only dislinct, anatomically demonstrable
pathologies. The ronsequmce of thu Iheory
was 10 I'I!legate Ihc!rilpeutic dfo rts mOn! and
more to the knife of lhe surgeo n and to con
demn or iltlel$llo d eprec:ate internal mediciltion tNt was of necesiity more gene ral in its
eflec cs. By mid century this spirit of ske pti
cis m beclme an aClual the rap eutic
nihilism. '
The man " 'hose work crowned Ihe de
ve10pme nl of lifllidar palholo gy, Rudolf VirchOw (1821-19(2). fOUflded ~Ilular paln."l
ogy, which hilS co nl inl.led 10 dominate medica! bi ol01!Y to the present day. Hi s thwry,
briefly sta~d, is ;u foUows: The (eil ilI Ihe
b-ea~r of life. Oi5ease is Ihe I'I!Ktion o f the
ed to abnonnal stimulation . According to
Virchow' s own s l ~ttment, "the organism is
nol iI unified but a sociill arrangement." Thf!
influe nce of Ihc! work of Virthow

a relatively , m.alJ. ioUo"ing.""

Olher me d icaJ Stets, 'uch as "TholIl'IOf'Iianism" ilnd "edec:ticism" (d iscwsed in
Chip. 11), aI~ wane<:! as the 19th oentury
progrnsed and medlcal ~Ience a.d,ance d,
. ~nabled dOC:Uln to r....liu INt thf point oE
but unorthodox mediul seCh stiU ru.ve not onsb"3hfof re:nedies In It>e orpnl$rn are not:t.e
compJetely d isappeared frem the hc!iIlth-Cil~ org.tN l.n 8e" lnJ but thc 1Is. Vie :00 .... .. ne.... that
se~ne eve n toda,. (witness ch iropnctic).
there .re pecllliu IfBn itie s b-etw~~n puticular
(eilt lIn<i po:tkuln chemical .ulatanca..'

BACKG ROUND 1'0 MODERN

PHARMACl'

On thi! ground pharmotey and drug thera py

took on r""".... "d me anins and purpo uful.
An importan t adv&nCe 01 medial lciern:e M n. although it has been pointed out that
during the first h.al[ of Ihe 19th ~ntury. in cenular theory d id not truly milke its impact
pa thologie ana tomy , foe used med ic a l feit on thetape utic s untilthe chemothe rapeu
thoughton Ihe locaJi..r.ed changes ~vealed by tic wolk 01 Paul Ehrlich.' Onre all but iln
clre!ul obse rvat ions and the advan cing n ihi lil ted by Viennese n ihilism . in temal
_Iechnia.of mlcroseopy. A b rilli aot ll.neof in therapy ag ain rommanded. l'e$pect. All ceDu
la! p ltholol5y "Wlfrj omed with the nfW '
,-:utig~tor~ ~gi~ with..Morg!,~ni (1 ~82-._
-1771) or~, continues ",1Ih' COrvISMI ch'einistry ilnd bilC'k riology, f!xpe rimen t.al
(l755-lE21) and Laennec (l781-lE26) of Paris pharmacologr beg an to chart Ihe world o r
ao d i5 b rought to ih cu lmination by d tug thenpy d ... ring the second half of the
Rokitanskv (18G4- IS78) and Skoda (180S- 19th century in termfl IN I we undel'5li11ld to
da)'.
1881) of V{enna. U

Acco rding to th is ~ehoo l 01 thought ,

mill ad ies wen> localized in the in part~ of the
bo d )' and made ob vious by an a tomie
chilnges, There were gene ralized d iseases
too. their hab itat being the blood. ~evert he
Irss, even the!ie general d isea5es were 5Up'

Imm\l1lology ilI\d Medical Bactll'riology

Th~ scitntific basis for m assive ronq~ts
of d isease duting the pasl century hlld a remubble empirie beginning in the field or
imm unology.

,)

Backgrolimi to Moatnt Phllrmil.CJ/

"

The first d iMase aglinsl wtUch an ilrtifidal in the treatment o r wounds}. Later this wu
jm.D\unity WI5 produ~d w u smallpoilt. For foUowed by astpais. Pil!lteur alJo developed
many hundl'l!ds of years pee ple in En tern me lhods of pro ducing wea ken ed o r a trountritt. such I\S ChinA.- hild pnclked in- tenual~d cultures oi p.uhogenic m ictoo roru l.. tio n wi th I maU po~. This practic.! in- glll'lis rn. (viloones) for immunizatio n p ur.
volve. Ihe art ifici al communication of the po~s. Robert Koch, who developed the ballic
diseue from one individuil l 10 anolher, for techniq ue!i oi modem bacteriolOlgy, iso lated
example by scratdling iI PeISOn', um ",;Ih a the anlhr.u: biICilIus in 1876 and Ihc! IUberrle
nf'e dle thai hu been d ipped in iniectioU5 bacillus in 1882; and he dearly estabJished
material from a smallpox pustule on the body tha i dlsea.ses in higher organi mlJ, including
or a victim 01 Ihe diloease. The hope W H thai man, ro uld be a used by microorganisms.
the inoculated pe,-,on would Ihus conlract
Anolher important (acet cf imm unology is
only'" mild clSe of ImaUpox and thereafler serum thenpy . We a re indeb led to the Ger....ould be immune 10 Ihe di5~ue. The man physiciiln Emil von 8ehring (1854-1917)
tech n iq uf! Oll in oculil tion ","i lh sm.Upox, fOlr Ihe knowledge 0{ how 10 produ ce anti.
which WH introduced into Western Europe w" ins in Ihe blood se rup' of an imab by imin the lE ih centur)" is, of OOUnle. a risky pro munizing them wi lh IpeciflC toxins . In the
cedUl'l!. ln 50mt Ca$<'5 it led 10 iI !ieVI9'l!, even early 1890'5, von Beh ring and h is collugues
f.,tal, case of Ihe d unse.
developed an a nlitoxin agains t d iph theria,
A filr safer melhod was develOlped by Ihe thU$ grea tly reducing the mortality rale frem
Englilh phys icia n Edwud lenner (1749-- this dn!aded ch ildhood d iseilse.
1823 ). Leaning on ea rtier emplric:aI ob:! er....aImmunizatio n procedures hil\~ s ince bf'e n
tio ns by Eurapean farmers and on his own developed agaln SI many olner dlseases, s uch
experiments, he reporttd in 17'93 on his suc u ch ole ra , p lague, pol iomyelitis and
cess in inducin g in hum ans Ihe harmkss rne4!lJ.es. '9 Wha t this d~veJoplJWnl mesns 10
oowpox, whk h he found produced an im phannilC)' becomes evide nt from Ihe lacl thal
muni ty ag ailUt smallpox. Jennets le chnique the socaUed b iologicill produ ctJ-setumS,
of "v.cdnalion"' (frem the Latin "IICC~. cow) vaoxines, toiltins, an titoxins, e1c.- have be.
.... alI ilt MI cri licized on such ground s u Ihe
come one of Ihe importanl parts of Ihe rebelief thai th~ I.""-,, ... nce oE d .:s","5Id ani ~pn,,"l bi1ity and the service of the phit.rmilmal material into hum.ans had a d ebasin g eist. Moreover, it i, now dif6a.d1 to imagi_
influe nce. bu t eventuaUy lhI! proctl'du~ was lhe prilctice of ph armac)" Or rnedicine withwidely adop ted.
ou t Ihe variety 01 medicaled and slerilized
Immuno\Qgy could only be placed on a sei ga.afi. cottonl and olher surgical ma terials ,
en li lie basis after lhe develo pmen t of Ihe .. nd 01 steri le parll'n leral medicationl. Ihe
germ theory of d isuse. While certain indi- manulacture ilnd u s~ of wh ich an" based on
- v;au'a1s li~).l!-g~ted sin~ the 17ih- (~~tul)' _ ' the_~rinciples of i'nlii'ep$is and asepsis.
t~iIt m~nisms ~gh r be ~ cau~ of Ch tmoth erapy Ase_dan!
dlsease, lhis theory d ld not I'I! celV~ wld e
IprUd IICceptance unlil thf French che misi
During our own century drug the rapy has
Louis Pasteu r (1822--1897) and the Cerman been uNold ing largely under the ban ner of
phys ician Ro bert Koch (1S43--1910) had p ro "ch~mothentpy," wh ich resl:/i on Ihe theQlj'
vided convindng evidence to support 11. Pas of relatlon$h ips betwet'n chemical ron stitu.
teu r'1 dem onstration that miaoorgani5ms tion and pNrmacologic action. Paul Ehrlich
could spoil win e a nd beer, and oould ause (1854-1915) was the founder of Ihis new oon.
disene! in 5Ukworrn s, led the Bri tiah $ur cepl and \ine of development (allho ugh h is
geon Joseph Lisler in the 1860'5 to introduce worl< ....iII, of CO W'5e , based upon the milny
antisepsis (through the u M 01 dis inlectan ts 'JCienlific advan~s d uring Ih~ century pre.

so

)
Clumgi"8

Mtdiuml!ll~

11111 li:c Mildem Pha rmaojlll

eh,,?!" J

atoxyl (an organic lr5eni<: co mpound) ro uld

deslr"O)' the trypanosomes that caused sleep
in g ,ick nen, ElnHeh In d h is eoworken
- . I
synthes iud and t6~d hun dreds of related
~-;~_L:..
.:'>' __
arsenic compounds. Thei t aim was 10 find: a
~,'~~
'~
s ubstanee !hat had the trypanoddal actil/ ity
of iltoJt}1 bI.It W devoid of 11:$ damaging ..etion on the optic n erve of higher animali .
.1
~":';".
!t;,
Oin iul trials in 1910 .howed that the 606th
eo mpou nd 10 be p repared and tuted ,
ars phenam ine (trad enamed "Salvanan"1
"" U effecti ...e in lreali ng slee ping s ian",
and abo s}'PhUis. The s uceen of Salvaan,
in Ipite 01 its serio us side dfects. led 10 a
greal deill 01 optimi.$m l oout Ihe pro~~ct5
. fe r chemotherapy.
Thili direct atlaek on morb ifie agents in Ihe
~~,
body by me .. ns of ehemicals, wittlo ul doing
.
'''''.
unbearable hann tu ltu! cells oonlaining the
m..icmbe. or 10 the oody.t large , was alled
" ehemothera py" b y Ehrl ich. Then! is iI tend..,. , -- ~.~ ;;ency to e:dend use of the lenn, originaU)'
1- ~-..
... ,
meant onJ}" lor intemaJlrealment, 10 include
: " ' ' ' ' '. ' \
exlemal attack on micmbes u weil. Tbe di 5'
rovel'l!t 01 penicillin. Aleund er F1emlng,
la vol'I! d (1946) Ihe uu of Ihe term
chern otherapy "00 cover .ny ~a:menl in
\ '~
which a chemical. is ad minlsleMd in a manner d irectl)' injurioU& to Ihe microbf:!l infeelThe prtnapal fount1er Q! chem othe.. I'~' P. ~l ing Ihe t>ody. In Ihb I ..u ", aen ae /ll\tiaepric
Elulle!> (1854-1915) , 1I ",oft: in hiJ labofltory in treatment comes under ehemolherapy-call
Germany. (From N.tiorW Ubnry of Mdkin~)
il local chemolherapy il you like.""
After a IlWItraling quaner eentury, du ring
ding rum)?OAUhough a num ber of u~efu.I wh ieh the eonce p l a nd th e melhod , of
drugs had been synthesiud in the \.a le 19th Ehrlich (Dul d not bo! made to };eld another
___ . ClI!ntul)' ... _ thue agt M ! , I;~d prorid l!!.! major brea kthrough. the announcement
sy.mpto.'?1atic- r,ther th.an curative tR4Wrient. c&me .1rom Gerharll I)pm&gk in- 1935 01 IM
(e. g.,-analgesicsl. In modern chemOih~i'.ipy curatille adion of 'Pronto,U (4-su lfonamldw e see in a sense Ihe rN.liulion of lhe dr<l!aDl :!.',4'_dlaminoazobenwl) .golinst streptoroCo
of the Pan~lti.anJ (the prep4l1ltion of chemi- ul in/eetion in man-a l ueee n fore, hld owed 3 }'taIll e.l.llie r by tnts in mice. n
ca! reml!dies ' pedfic for particulard illeases).
Ehrlich'" approach Wti ~d o n the b~ief Like "sphenamine, thit eompou...,d w as a
that il should be pos$ ible 10 tnal .n infec- ehemothe rape ut ic 'peei6c. It Wa& soon
1101,1:$ diseD~e by . d mlnislering ~ toxk eherni- 5hown that Pronto,il was broken down in
ca! !hat had gru t dfin ity for a pa thogenic Ihe body to produce .ulfanilamide, whlch
microofgani!ll1'l but Iittle affinlty fot human was Ihe active di , e ue- fighting agent. A
ti , sues. Af~r il had bft n shown in 1905 that serid! of rela~d oompounds (sulfonamides of

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Bt:ckgr~und

/() Mcm PllIlTnlt:cy

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"Iutfa dIugs"), dfectlll! again,t IIld o us such con,epts." One dramltic Illustration of
b aete rill infeetion., we re synthe,i: ed by this disconeerting ein:umslance cln be faund
modifIcation of the parent compound, , uJ in Ihe antibiotic chugs.
fanilamide . The sulfonamides o~ned up the
The story of the exciting locident and the
area 01 anllbacleri a l the rapy; prel/lOUl pero:eptive obtlerv.. lion th rough which Alex
chemothera~ulie agentl (such l$ SalYatMn) ander Fleml ng diarol/ered penk illin (1928) it
were effeclive only agalrult prolO>: o.-like one _U known . Equally nl!marlr.able W'lS the
mleroorglnisms such aJ trypanosomes. In wait un til o the r BritON (Ol ain, F1ol'l!Y iUld
America by 1955 the official rompendia of Heatley in 1939) senS! d Ihe impon of the dis
drug standards recogn iud no less than 13 <:ove!)' dearl)' enough to Wc.e up I lIigorous
sulfonamides, nol co unting shnple varia- invemgation. which brough t the drug inlo
tion , of the basic d rugl . u
therapy_",'ith an impo rtan t assis t Imm
Repealed $UlX"tU in lhe "lulfa era" i5 im- Alnf!rican phlrmaeeu tical indua try, uni ... er
portant nol only ror Ihe spedfic diseases sities .. nd govem ment-in time 10 meet ur
brou ght under cntro l but ror the lre:nen- gen t mili tary demands of the ea riy 1940', .25
dow; . timulus and the hints it gil\"t to I'I!less wen known is the flct Ihmt the term
sea rch workers and the re,ultanl indusmal (and the vilgue notion) of "antibiosi," oe_
optimism thai led to heavier investment in curred to d w Frendunan Plul Vuillemin n
ph.arrna~utieal research.
early al 1889. Twe{ve }'tilrS earl ier s lill, louis
Despite optim is m and progre!lScooceming Pasteue himselllfWnlioned the phenomenon
theo ri es 01 relationsh ip betv.. een ehem lcal of antagon li m ~'t'e!I liv ing orgutisms. A
structures and phlnnaoologie ..elion s, the ...hole uries 01 halfforgotte n observations of
role of empiricism and quasiaccidenlid dis- antibiotk ileno n among micro-organisms
eovet} ha\'t been disp laced onl)' slowl)' from had come out cf European laooriltories bephannao::eutical ~earch .inee Ihe li me 01 fore the turn of the century; even the eflectcf
Pau l Ehrlich. Evidenoe in poinl mir be 5een 11 P m ' ciJ/junI mold was l'I!oorded in the 19th
in the musi \"e "Indom Kn'ening programs century . ~ Howerer, it
Ihe observation
whlch wen.' se i up followi ng th e ,ull.- by Fleming that p W'o'ed 10 be ronsequential ,
nilamide di!ICoveries. Thl s efiort, especially in that it giVe the Oxford group headed by
dir..:t.d loward findln g flff..ctivg anlim alarial Flo",,), and Chain Ih. di""ct lu d Ihay n.adfld
ilnd an li carcinoge n ic compounds, hiS 10 isolall' the Uttle penicillin thatwilS given 00
yj-elded vlluable n ew drugs.
a lendon polIceman on Februlry 12, 194.1.
The fruitfulneu of chemothe rapy &$ origi
Penicilli n repre!ent:e d the mosl slarlling
""Uy eono.o ived poinled the way oow ard ad- Id\'ance in medicine and pharm acy sine Ihe
ditional di sooveries and under
iniliallutnSo$ of Ehrlich, and opened up Ihe
_ ,, __
..._ ""n'_ ,_
"er:a 0.1 anlibiotics." Disco\"tri~ in tl}e ~
;tbiotieJi~ld. h alle .been..bue.d a!mast exclus ivel y upon in ' empir ieal seuc h for
naturaUycc curring produ ets, rather thln
upon synlhe tic wod inllolving slructure.
~r;~while, newe r theorelic ronceph h ave acth"ity relal ionships. Tbia fact is underiUummaled probable nl! l.ationships betwee!l scored by the fran tie lesting of thowand s 01
chetnkl .tructure and biologie ac;til/ ity. bul antimicroblll subslance:s in the entuing d eclheir pred iclive value hu been rather Iim ade, 01 which less lhm ~n fo\U\d nOleworthy
lied. In fact, it w u I !aled by one prominent use in Ihe rapy.~ How ~ v er. the puelk~1
drug rnearcher in 1959 tNt reeent major di. value of these few antibio!ic$ has improved
coverie!! in medi~ina1 ehemi!tr)" owe liltle 10 the life chince of the human race, first not~-

w.

~' _ A_

)
52

Ch"PLgi ..g M~i(lI"'ellts a nd IM Modt r" P/t",rmadstl

bly utended by Ihe Arnerican d is CQvery of

,tr@ plomycil'l by Selman Waksman Ind U

.odales in 1944 and Ihm ",ilhin a decade by
the .... idu resoun:e o f broad- spectn.un antibiolia, which i . still being I'q>lortd .
11 hu beoen said IN! "chemotherlpr" ;a
revival of Ihe '";atroche rni" .)"" cf old-ba5ed
upon Ine dodrines of Ihe P<lracelslanl .. nd
systematiz ed by Franj:ois de le BOO Sylviu"
but ims certlinly iJ not the case. Oe 11' Boe
Srlvius' sySIftJ\ wa s another attempl at a
. eherne of romprehending and explaining
the whole of medlclne. Abo..-e aa, it was a
mediul ~lation, although usln.g Ihe ron!tmpo ... ry dll~mkal concepts as it3 basis.
Eh rl ich's chem other.lpy (unlik .. iatrochemis"
try ) was rntricted 10 a special area of
chemiro-biological , lIadr., in .... h ieh chemical
ronsiderntlons play the dominan t p art. Thtterm " chemotho!rapy" ' !$elf points 10 Ihe d isti nction, giving chemislry pn!'C<ederu;e over
Ihn .. py, just n the lenn 'i~tr()(hemill try"
gives preferenC(! to iQtr()S (Ihe phyt ician),
i. e" to the medical , ide of the eoneept Ihu,
des ign .. ted.
The aeUu lar patholo5j' of Virchow, wnich
provided Ihe ground on wh ich c h e moIherapy developed, may be R'gl!ed as ..
European .. ttempt 10 formul .. te ;I. gene ral explination oflhe fundamental n .. rure of hullh
Ind !iekness I nd, by implkalion, 10 give a
guidepool lor therapy. Howeve r, reeeni years
have brought 5even .l more ,pecifie medica.l,
medico-<:hemiell I nd biologie theori es and
disoove ries thlt, like the aloremen tio ned
imll\Wlology ;!.nd med i~ b.a~nology, have
a s.reat iniluenee on Iherapy and, hen~, on
. phaImBc'y. .
..
Vitamins ud Hormonef
Among modem disooveries prom inent
pIle" are he ld b y Ihe aviUm ino$esd iiIClI!IeS c.uiICd by I ~k of $OII'\e of lhe s ubIt.n ee! found in lo o d (subst.ncu now
known unde r Ihe name of vitamirul)-and,
furthennore , by Ihe regul alive effett 01 the
honnones.
The word "vi~rnin" derives from the laHn

Chapltr3

vita (life) and amine, the chemical clau to

which Ihe inventur 01 Ihe lenn (1912) enoneously considered the vitamins to belong. The
man)'-branehed resea~h on Ihe \itam in s
e~ latsely only in oW' own ~ntury. be
ause Ihe earlier blindins revetalion 01 medi.cal bae leriology had mid I' it d iffic u ll to
grasp, in IU its lar-reach ing ccnse quel\(es,
Ihe concepl o! d isuse U c.Wled by the ab
Stllct 01 something ralher Ihan by the pre fena of inleclious organl.Jms.1& 5ince 191),
the Uniled States and Enpand h~v~ contribuled IM 11\051 10 newer knowledge 01 Ihe
vilam ins. Chemisl& ulocia led with the ag rieultural experiment st3liorul in Wi.s<onsln
and Conneclicut played instrumental rolu in
Ihe identiflealion of Ihe fir$t vilamins, "bt
sob ble A" Ind "w~t er- !IO J\lble B." The \;tamin5 have been found in food st\lffs 01 both
vegetable lind anim ..1 o rigin and hav .. bRn
synthes ized in gro ...ing number.'9
The ...ord "ho rmone" i~ taken from Ihe
Creek, muning " 10 ex~ile. " The honnones ,
produc ts of Ihe glands 01 int erna! secretion,
became 01 pr.ctlel l import.nee in therapeulies onll' alter experimen t1 of a FrancoAmerican in the 1880's. Ihe phys iologis l C.
E. Brown -5~uard. Wilh the unfolding of
endo~rinology, a f.. ", endocrine extr.cU
(... g., lup ran,nin ~I\u. lhy.oiodinl "'"re made
alreadl' In the 19th century, but, Hke vitamin
Ih erapy, elfec li ve hormon:.1 Iherap)' 15
mainly I research child of O\l r own century.
The fir$ t hormone to be isolat ed in pure fu nn
WilS ad renaline (epineph rine) in 1901. A co rnerslone in the de-.... lopment of honnomll
thuapy was theAis-,;uX~ of insulin ,hy tM
Canadi.h phys idilrl F.G: Ban ting, in collabo rltion wilh McLeod, Best an d Collip in
1922. J O I" mllllwacture on I large seale wu
made possi ble by Ihe far-sighted ass istance
given 10 theSO:' $Cienli,ts by an Americ. n
phannace ulica! fum, EIi UUy and Com~y.
This firm de... eloped the proo:esses for mau
production and put Ihe eq>erieIKe thu$ ob
ta ined.t Ihe dispos.l 01 other manufaclurer$
who .greed \Q rnCi'1 est.blished sl~ndard 5
and 10 submi! Ihe produCI$ to controlling

,)

lnln'lIctOO"$ With PhllmlllCY

5J

tesls. Thyroxin was isolaled from Ih e Ihyro id drogs previOWlly used in PIIychiatry: (t) in
gland In 1915 CE. C. Kendall of Ihe Mayo doses large enough to be effeclive it leaves
Foundltion). More recentlv, the 5O-cllled consciolllmeu unclouded, thUf .Uowin g Ihe
" su hormones:' h .. \... gained therapeutic p.ti.. nt to rem. in responsive 10 psymo
importance. The fint nalurayoo:urring .n- thenpy. and (2) il induces lad of in lerest in
drogenie hormone 10 be oblained in eryalal the environmenl, thll! minimizing aruriety
Iin~ form was isolilted (rom male urine in and exeitement.
1931 (B urennndl and Tsd!erning). The horThe SUCCUS of chlorpromazine opened up
monu from aninul ,ou~es h.ve been, tike the field of psyc hopharm.co logy. Dther
Ihe vit.min$, synthesized in inere uing psychoactive drugs , such reserpine ilnd
numbet.
meproNm.le, were soon inttOduced 10 treat
Anolhe r imporlaJ\1 outgmwth o f ho rmone ment.l d iwase .nd psyehoneurolic sympreearch Wti 11'01' d ....-elc pmenl 01 hormonal toms (sucn u anxiety Ind d epress ion).U
otal con traceptiv ... , which Ire s ynthet ic Moreover, this is ano lher pharmKeuticai oiernodiflCalions 01 nii turaUy-ocrurring lrerold velopment thll has an impact on 50Ciety .1
hormones. The fint cl in ic.' trials of or;a! eon wge, a.1 a majority of Ihe men tally ill unde r
ttaceptives were begun in 1956 by Gregory medication, who mighl otherw iSO:' be inPincus .nd h is colleagut'll. 5in~ Ih~ Mt oral stitutionillzed.. soon reswne I ctivity in the ir
c:ontraceptive produel was nppro ...ed by the horne commun ities. While lhis dass of drogs
Food and Drug Adm in istration of the Uniled has pro\'ed to ~ H~ly valuable in the
S~les In 1960 thei r U!e hu expanded tapidly
lreatmenl of men~1 d isorde.." roncern hiS
to the poinl where million! 01 oral oonlncep. b~en expre5wd in some quarters Ihat our
li...n are ccMume d d aily in v .. rious parts of society m.y be "over-usi ng" psychoaClive
the world, in spite 01 concern abaut e~ rta in d rogs to alleviate romrnon emotional d islrell5
unduirable s ide eHects. Thei r impiICl u pon (s\lch as ilnxiety).u
sodet):, in terms of thelt ~~ upon sexual
mOft'll .nd population eontrol, wiU affeel
human history but emnot yel be fuJJy 15 '
INTEUCTIONS WlTH PHARMACY
5es54!d. lI
Every
cha ng.. in ln.die .. ! eonc<opt5 that
PllyChophmnKology
influenced therap)' made ilself fell in the
Psychoaclive d rug!, ,uch as stumonium practice of pha rm.cy. The queslion ilI how
and opium, have bf!en used in the treatment far did these influences ex\Jend?
of mental illness lot eenturies. In Ihe 19th
The rapy (hel\(e pharmag;) is based mainly
cenlluy. cannabis. chloral hrd r.. te and o ther on empiric orl'llperimental obaerviitioIl5. Bul
dtup we re introduced inlo Pliychiltr)'.
even withoul new observ.tion?, chiUlging
TIie- firs t strildng tfi'enpeUffi: - SUceess in ll!-edk.~~heorie s ~YlA.sJi..!l pret Ihe C(llltbil'latkis nrea,-howeve r, d id not ocr"IlruntiI 1952, lions 01 femediu . .cThey. eou ld influ enee
whe n chlorpromazine was 'hown tu be diec- physiciarul in their ehoi c~ of drogs . Finally,
live in the treatment 01 psyd!olic patient,. in Ihmugh Ihe medical pro fus ' on, (he oriu
clinical triah carried out in France.l15 u,," in could d en)' Ih e IIsefulnen of druss al.
PlIychiatry was SU~5t!'d by Ihe French aur- logethe r. However, new drop co uld hardl)'
geon Hen ri l .. boril, who had first used Ihe be fo und in the wake of new Iheore1ir:al oondrug (synlhesized by the P.ris pharmaceuli. cepts not based on or fonowed by experimen_
cal fum Specia in 1950) 10 help prevenl potIt- lal wo rk .
opentive shod" because of ils a bili ty to
The consequences derived from this f..cl
abaHsh anxiety. Ch lo rprom.zine had two are obvious: Thue was no bas ic change of
distinct advantagt'll over hypnolics and 011'01'1" Iypes of medieation unli! the modem de-

"

eh.mgi'!! Mtdicllmn,ls 1111d Iht Malimo Pbnr: lldsts

velopmenl of IM underlying basic sciens.

Chemistry firtt, .nd bKteriology laler, furnished broitd subslantial .nd expI!riIMn tal
pos5jbilit~s fot lhe crution of new kinds 01
drug!. and experimen tal physiology and
ph.rmacoLogy fin.Uy offered I new way 01
lestlng. ched;;ing and verifylng the ,ss\llf\ed
effec:tlI. Un till he laie 18th ~ntu ry. there were
conlin uoU$, mo re or Iess h.phuard add iti ons 10 the official maten ... medie .. , hut
hardll' any deletions.
It has alten been overlooked that the musHof thc medita! practi tionen were more ind ifferent toward the ch llnges In Ih~rie. Ihm
the heo> led di scussions pu blished b y Ihe
nu'dica! elite seem ro indicate. Onlv some of
the physidan s followed n ew sp'eculative
Iheories for whieh the ... (auld not yet be ex
perim.. nta l lest, . Furthermo re , m .ny of
I hOl~nd ('ve n t he cru tOI"$ of the the
ori e_wel'l' bv no meiln s fnalical adher
enls. Thus w e 'lmow th ilt Fnn<;o is de Je Boe
Sylvius, for uam ple, made li beral. use 01 the
old .. nd trie a remed ie!! that h ad no justifica
lion according to tu, own che micallheor)' ."
This co nict betwee n theory . nd p rxtiae we
meel ilga.i n iOnd again. ilnd it a1wa)'5 end,
with Ihe viclo ry of practke,
A case in poinl is offerea by Ihe conserva tive medical teaehe r.; wh o were bound 10
Calenic theory at the Un" .. ers it), of Pa ris in
the 11th centW). leaders in Ihe fight againSi
iillrocner.-o istry, wilh ils presumed spl!(ifKS
agair.st C'! rtain disease" Ihey likewi5l' were
an lilgoni ted and confounded b y the arrival
. of new dru gs co ming from Am~riq,.
:;-":,-.Thelioe ,.,~ft'"'"MrI> prq>al'ltions ...ru ch \iM IM
chem;cal p~paiitio its uerted violeni. in 'lei
Ipifir, elleds ..;t!wut the ;odc!;oon ",I ot!\e . "'.~ri"' . F<>remosl cf them .... u "u;nine tat Ihal
!H'riod n,,1 Ihe alkaloid bUI Ihe cinchona bar!<l
"An im!H'rt inent inr.".... t;"n: it """ "allod by
Gu)' P.tin. but its dfed in mal aria wU I"" .pp"""
enl to alJ"....ny of itf oFpont"ts tu hold out
. p",,;t its Q e lot Ior.g. Even tht Paris faculty Nd
lo..:bnit it lhamt!oc...ny ....
Even if Ihe "Galenists" had 10 admit dru gs

C},<lpltr 3

of Ihe new Khool in formularies appuring

under lheir aulho rity, they retained thoile of
olr;!.
1I has bee n poinled OUI above thlll in the
phannacopeiu Ihe authorilies had for 1I 10n8
time merely Idded the ntw diugs 10 the old
o nes. Th us th e !int edit ion of Ihe Phgr
/lUiCOpctiil Allpslflllo:r (1564) contained about
1,100 med. icament5 .~ Yet Ihal " numbe r is
relatively ~iIll "'hen comp;orecl with thai of
Ihe oificial and unoffidal phann iKopeiu of
Ihe 171h century re sul ting lrom Ihe union of
Calenical ~nd chvrniatric reme<l.iu."" One
of the best-repu ied phatmacopeiu 01 the
18th cenNI')' Q'h flnn"topot io:r Wllrltmbtrgico:r ,
1741) contains 1,952 differenl d rugs and lormula.s .
When in 1746 the Royal College of Physia a'1.5 o f Landon published a "purified" revis io n o f the Ph",rma copotiil l. o" diulI,i.,
pu..--ged 01 iI num ber cf oulmoded drugs, it
tOnsidered itself :'10 be 100 fi l'l!l medio;al soc:iety in E\lrope which shall ha~'e dul~' \lnder"'ken thi, reformation."" After ;t(ceptance
oi the chem kal theori e!! o f LaV1l isier, such
"p\lrificatio",s" of ph armilcope ias {i.e .. the
f;mllssion of man}' old 10 L'Illuias con laining
dozens (lf in gredienl5) became more ge neral.
When Ihe fir51 PltllrmQccpoei<l BrmJ,$$ic~ appeall'd (1799), dects iv~ly lnHuenec d b)' the
great pha rma.cisH:hemi.$ t M. H. Klapralh.
med iul.s wdl as philnnaceutical p r,}(tition!T5 ccmplilined so vehemen tly abo ut it5 radially ,imp1ilied maleriil medicil thai same of
Ihe omlrted drugs were again induded in the
1827 edition of the Prussl an standard .
rn-.dditio n fo the offic ial standards, there
has atwa}'s bren-iln unof6cial lite..ature deal- ..
ing wi th d rugs nol ildm ilted to the official
bockt. That !ileralure grew wilh the inCT1i'asing lrend IOward pruning and simplifying
the phannKOpeias. Many of the romplicated
prep.anotions, sandiened more by Iradition
nd f..rung belieI Ihiln byeffm, di&ilppean! d
a1togethe r. How ever, a greater number remained, altere<! o r UlIltered.;md fo rmed the
conlents of unolficial bocks. Th U$ lhe "extra"

,)

lr. ln-4 rtic~ s

pharmlcopein (Englind ), th e olficin,u

(FJ"iIIlCe), Ihe E'Xi/U!l.."I"'clr~~ (Germiny),
the " d i. ~ n"lories," Ihe "nalionill lo rII'Illlmes" a nd Ihe "recipe bocks" (Americil)
c;une inlo being.
Slill not"er lactor helped prevent Ihe disappearance of uselul drugs merely because
Iht!) d id nol fil into. mecl iul sys tem. E~n
d,,"ng perioc:l$ dominated by certain meclk'"
theories there alwavs wen! infillenti... an d u'teemed eclectic phrsic ians who wenl "back
IV H;ppocrates:' i.e . . who air;!ed the healing
power of nalllN wilh all reasona bl e and
avajlil blt means regardless of theory. Amon g
s uch famous physicians were Ihe English
praclitioner Thom as Sydenham 3t (16241689), wh om his graleful contemporarles
cillled the English Hi ppocrate s; Ihe Dotch
physicia", . nd teacher He rmann Boe rh;u.ve
(166S-1738)}O;md the Ge-man C. w. Hukland (1762-1836)." These men grea tl y
inHuenced Ih e praetice of medicine.
The common peeple, a mservators of folk
medicin e. also held fast 10 tradi tionall v
proven remedies and ccnlinued to
Ihern.
Somelirn es drll gs th at had 1051 o fficia l
iOClmowledgment beCII\IU Ihey were nol in
hatmony wilh the domi",anl medial lh eory
Wert preserved by popular l1.'Ie and, later on,
",1th Ihe rlse of a new and mon: uti ~ l ..... to:,,)'
theory, were again offic:l~ly approved, A
good example is ro<JUver oiL4'
From the ea rl)' 19th century on. Ihe developmtl'll of sdenlifl( chern islry prog rt'li.ively replaced holmie drugs b)' betterchem. ical qrug" .nd even Ihrulened..to eliminate
_. the forme r entirely b)' a!llOCkm mate riali.%a'-.' non o f l he PilraCl!'lsian idea of Ihe "essen
tial." The vegetable d"'8', Insofa r iI' lheir
u~eful nen WI 5 100 obviou! 10 be dmie d,
Wert! invl!!iltigate<i chernicillly, in order 10 iso
late and Identily their active ron stltuenls
arui, fiJ'laUy, 10 synthesize them. Alkalo ids,
glucosidu, vita min s . ", d hormones are
;lInong lhf impo rt''''1 res\llt & o f Ih i. deveklpmm t.

\I""

Will!

PI!~rmll cy

55

A5 poinled oul a bove. iatrochlm'oi5fry ~ nd,

s tiU more, chernothe rapy were " medical"
theories mainly wi th negw 10 thei r I pplkillion to medkine. However, lhey _ne based
on chemical conC'!pu. Sylvius was not only a
phy,id8.n bul, wi thin the limits of his time,
an exc:elle n t ehemiS! i05 weil. It ""u hi s
kru:lwledge of chem b lry !hat milde him con ceive 8. medical 5f$ tem in which chemiciOl
coneepts pla)'ed an Importanl part. Ehrlich,
the founde r of ch emoth erapy, pIISsed the
medical examinations but, IhroU3hout hi,
Im. p ncticed c:hemistry. not med!cine. He
d id nol tUe his Ideas from med idne and
S\l pport Ihem by chemio;:al know ledge; he
too k thern from c:hemil try and lrilns ferred.
them to medicine. From the efleet in vitra,
belh mtl'l 15Ilumed I like or similar effeet in
vivo.
The empiri~"perimenta.l rool of med:ca.J
chem ls try, growing \lP from the 5011 of pure
chlm'oistry and , end In! its branche!! into Ihe
ai r and Ihe area of medidne, made possible
lhe fru;1S thaI w e are enjoying lod a)'. FurthermOn!. the origin of medieal che mi61ry
expl. ins wh y, in thi s e poch o r therilpy,
philnnacisb then played such iln important
role in Ihe finding of new remedie s--for
~xample. such men as the discoveftr of morphine. the C~""",n S.rtu ..m ...., and Ihe d ';"_
cov~ of quin ine , the Frendunen Caventou . nd Penetier.
A5 th e reqlliremenls in mel ho ds and
faeili li es srew, m uch o f thi. inve!! tigali\e
b uh of modem Ih erap)' hils been el.bo rared
elegantly ~ fruitfully in the la.boratories of
pharmaceutica.l ind\l5lry .
The dl'\-e'klpmen t oE Iherilpeulic thOught
and p ractice, as e.-pLained aOO\'e In il' relati on 10 p h armlC)' , has bun c:o mmon to
We!!te m civilizalion in genenl. Was that the
case Iikewise in regard to the pirtirular de
velopmenl of professional pharmacy in Ihe
impo rtan t culmral ae nt l!!l$ of Europe, in Italy.
France, Germany and Engl;and7 M a matter
of lolCt, il was not.

-.".""

4
The Development in Italy

Phnmacy' s dC've lopm.ml rO!ived utly

stimulus from tM ~a\,Ml"diterranun trade
in drugs thal funnded through ltalian pom
and from frequen t (ontacts wim lsJamic con
cepts of ordering soe;"'t)" includi ng pharmaceutical sC'n';Cf.".

lIaly ia the classic soil cf European pharmacy u jt ia that cf most 01 the European
proll!!l!Iions and Im. The law cf Ihe Germn1.
n.lier of Ih e Two Sici lies, Fredl!rid n (~
paSe!! 3S .00 467), although promulgatcd in
ltaly Uld tor Italial1 territory, .... as bom more
0101 of the Cennan sp irit. Theo first real Italian
leJl:a1 regulation 01 Ihe duties of both ph)'s;
cians and apotheuries known are the V~
tian s/QII.I.<Z promuJgaled in 1258.' Although
Ihey ~mble tM edict of Frederick U. the
' ldu/41 mention m~i ther a limiling o f the
number c f pharmlcies nor goveommenlall)'
find price, for remC'dies. The 5t~l\ltes rorNde Ih. pr..:tice of medicine by .he phil11T1a
ci,t, @mj 8~ifically sta~ ttu-I he wu IlOt allowed t(I exa mine- !he "urine of p alients,
which up to !he 17th cenhlr)' WiU one oE !he
mos! importanl mun~ of medical diagn~i.lJ .
Official lupe rvis io n of Ihe drug tru le,
whole,alen u weil as relailers (!he latter
caDed $ptzi"rii and "romll!jlrD), hold e;.o:isted in
Venict as ta rly a~ the 12th centwy.'
ORGANIZATION IJI.:-rO GUILDS

ItalLln ph annacies we re no l crealed by

go"emmtnt'" edict but uisted Iong before
legblalion deal t wilh memo Consequently,

they had found their nalural place within Ihe

frame ..."OrI< 01 Ihe guild system_n orgaro iz ....
tion tha l had a special d ignity and tuk, palticularly in Italy.
We know of guildlike usoxia lioNl already
in anelenl Rome, where some"'t\al shadowy
predeceuo rs of th e pharmacl& I', Ihe
rluiaT;; (see page 21 and 4B5), are ""ld to
h ave been united in such I g\,lllli.l !her were
rolJIlded mainly fo r sodal and welfaa purpose!, and Ihe regmalin g of (onditioN of
tro\de." In wartime lhey could be mobUl.zed
fOI military purposes.
The orga nizati o n of metch a nl a a nd
c:raI"tsmen inlo guilds. aa:ordi"g to the kind
of goods sold or manufactured, is one of the
1lI0al signilleAnl fea~s of the Middle ASes.
During tfuo pe riod of feudaJism tfuo guild i Y'lern c:neated a bourgeoisie regulaling both
production "nd distribulion ,' However,
IMre w en: &re al d ifferences in the manner in
wh ich. Ine guild; - in tRe 5e\'e n l c01,lI\lrie ilw lfilled Iheir task. In Frmce, EngJand a nd
Germ/lny Ih", guild~ were re,lrieled Iargely to
Ihe intemal organization, regulation or administration of tMit 5pecial oupa tion . In
lIaly, mueh more Ihan elsewhere, IhO!)' " 'erle
also polilieal, im po rtanl cogs I" Ih", govemmentallllChinery of I"'" city republict u p
10 the 17th cenNry ,
h\ Flo",n~. pbysici.ns and pharmacisls
l;Dmbined in the $.1ffie !!\lild, tagethf'r ...'ilh
IOme others, toward Ihedoseor Ihe 12th ~n-

56

,t-

. ~--:~~~ :~~~
~?~l,.rr .......'
< ,'" .
>"" :;~

.c..:... ':~ "

..

..

the"n r;l cf th~ 14th co:ntury.

,. 1956)

tury.6 When, in 1236, the principti tnlde l;Drporations of Floreru:", " 'e re diY ided inta
d ivisions, 1.",., Ihe stven major am and lhe

foutleen minor arls. the dililinc: tion WH ON!

bolh of led\nic and of d ass.' ~ group si.>:,
Iht ]!:uild of ph)'~icians and ph.arm acis~ be-

"''0

"

..

'''-.'

"

Tltt Dtlldcpmtl1t in Imly

longtd 10 Ihe mljo r a.rts. the arls of higher

estHUI.
In Ihe membush ip lisl5 of the various
guilds (1297- 1444) about 70 different callings
Wen! ~pre5ented. Among thut the phannacist, and Ihe wholenlers of drogs outnumbered a11lhe athen. That is underslood .-eadily If we recaR thai al this lilm' Itaky (more
particularly Florence, Genoa and Vel'llce)
govemed the enlire European trade in orie n tal dru gs and spices.' Guild s tatut es (1349)
mention 1'10 leu Ihan 206 different articlu n
belcnging 10 Ihe monopoly of the ph.umaeist, or spieers. Theu tnde extended to milny
products thai at Ihi . time wUt rare and
CO!Itl y, sIKh a5 bool< manusaipi s .nd Wall
candles . Even funerals, espedany Iho~e of
the weillh ier citizens, were condueted by the
phannaci!ls. 5I.lpervis ion was ri gid . Once a
rear Ihe phannacie. Werl' inspecred by ;I.

commisaion of Ihe guild . Dr\lgs nol meeting

Ihe requiremen ts wete coniii>l:aled .. nd ttw
culpri l. ududed from professional p"~t!ce
for varilble period~.
The part played by the guild of physidaru;
and ph ann .. eht5 in Florence was eharaeleri2ed br Sialey: ". sreat gu.ild it troIy w~
. . it yielded 10 none in th e loftine ss of Ih
.im and in the ~ p lend a r 0 1 U, uh i..... menls."'
In varlous olher Halian eitie s, guild s of
ph arrNlcisls _ilher ~para le o r logethe:
with physiciant-first a~ar in 'cords of
th.t 13th and 5\1bsequent cenruries."
The oldesl ltalian pharmilCe\ltieal gu.ild still
eltisting ilI Ihe Kobile eollegio chimico rarJIl/lCle\lt~Q founded in tiJ!l.e immemorial &nd
soleclnlr IYIlewed in 1429 by a special edict
of Pope Milrtin V. U The tuks cf the gui ld
we r! (1) Ihe (~cf poo r Ind siek membe rs,
(2) Ihe " Irnma lricul .. tio n .. nd loca lion" of all
phannacisl:!l who have plSSed the examina
lions, (3) the regWltion of Ihe dis tance between philrmacies, (4.) Ihe regulation of Ihe
poces for remediel, (5) the collection 01
laxn, 10 be delinred 10 Ihe govemmenl and
(6) the super"hion of Ihe producers and Ihe
relailers of food, liq uo rs, pastries and medi-

CMp' t r4
cinal herb i. These task! can be reglrde.::! as
Irldil ionll for the IIllan pnannaceuti(:4)
guilcb.
01 (oune, pharmltO;eutical (onditions were
not unifo nn in the different ,tales establisned on ltaHm soil belwem the 13th and
19thcenluries . Thus, there were variatio .... in
the iJnportanl provision for se plrl ting the
medic:allnd the phlmlaceut!cal professions.
While an oo mmercial associa tion belween
lhe prolessiolUl was forb iddm (;dthollgh not
always rigidl)' enforced) in SOlllhem II~Jy,
Rome , Pi$l an d man)' olhet ltalian sl~le" u
the Flore ntine stalute (1313) allowed the
ph.rmltO;ul to employ a phy,ician In his shop
and 100 physician to employ a phannaciSl. A
s! mitar I'('8wation appears in Ihe MilIltl.lan
,taNte cf 1303. In PiSloia, I nd I ~ter in Florence, ~irnilar arrangemenls permitled pnysid",ns and phlnnat:hh to share in Ine owner
ship md inoome cf pha=KY. The ph.J.rmaci s t was fo rb id d en 10 reirn buue Ihe
physidan lor indi... idu;o! prescriptio ns, however.
In mO$llIali&n Iowns il WIL'J CI.Islomary ror
the physic:ian to ~ his patienl In a pnarmacy. o r at In!1 to be avaiLable throllgb the
phartTllCY.
Unti l lne dose of the 16th cenlulV the cuI tunl influence of the po" erlul o ty-state5
m .. de their inati tutions a mod el rot olne r
parl:!l 01 Ilaly. FlOm tne 121h to the 16th cellt\lriu Italy Wa! once more tne cIIlturai center
of Ih e world . Pharmadlls 01 ~orthem
Europe, A5 weU a, ph)~ici .. n5 who desired a
better edu~ation.than they could acqulre al
horne, cnne \O..the renowned Itali.a n univer, ilies (npKia.Dy Padua, "Bologna, Piu and
Ferrlla). This cultural developmenl re!lted on
Ihe wealth acq uired b y the cityllaln. Their
merchanl p rince5 , sueh iIi!I the Medio of Florence, not ON}' con troUecl. the oriental spiee
trade bul were inlernalional bankers.$ weil.
Tbe Itahan trade, including droS!l," exlended from Conslanlinople, Darn lseus ,
Alexandria Ind Tun.is 10 southem Germany.
France, LOfldon, Lisbon, Antwerp and
Brutgge in the north .u

)
frDm Glli/d ta Gov t rr:mrnr Rille

EARL'r LARGE-5CALE
MAI\-UFAcrtJRr.-IG
The Hallan drug Irlde Will supplernented
very early by the dewlopmen t of a cnemiel l
industry, the fuat on European seil. In 1.294Venic:e wu producing oon"Olive sub limite
and cinnab;\IIC and., somewnat laler, s upr of
lead, borax, 'IOlp, $11 &mmoniac, Venelian
ulc and Vmetlan turpentine. 16 A \'ery importanl pna.nn.:eutica! export was Veneti l n
lrelde (/rom Lahn, 'her:acg, an antidote, q.v.
p. 489). Another W~ the farnous Venetian
troches cf \;pers. legalI,. re quired in seme
Europem slates 10I the locaJ prepuation of
Ireade. "
In Italy we also obsel'\'e for the fllllt time
indus tri.! ph .. rmaceulic~l act iv ity b y Ih e
monnteon. Thus Ihe monastery of the
chuIeh 01 Sanla Maria Novella in florence
was famo Wi for dtilled WI I@ amt cosmel ir:s thlt the monks prepared .. nd so k!.

e~pressed

"

slatus by roOlJU of arch itectu ral

bea uty, ";Ih equipmen t that today is h ighly
vi lued by connoi5lieurs of ltalian art" and is
Ine pride of rnlny museWJUI ind privale col~ions. ,o Th(! de..-elopmen t of pottery hom a
simple h;mdicrafl to an a rt WI' espedally
lIimuIa led by Italia n pharmaey. Private
ph.J.rmacim:, hospitals and lhe h igh nobility
eom peted with elch olner i n ad om ing Ineir
sh ops or phannaceutical ,,'orkroo ms .nd
storeroolJlll wi lh preciou$ fmience jars a nd
iugs to hold procious medicament s.
FROM GurtD
TO GOVERNME!IrT RUlE

ltalian trade Ind weal lh dedined after the

d iscovery of Americi and, particuJ.rly, of th e
alI water roule 10 lhe East lndies. Ai ea rl}" ..s
1501, King Manue! of Portugal wrote to Ihe
Ve ne lia n gove rnmen t tha i Ihere WIS no
longe r a rea500n ror Venetian merchanbl 10
send ships to Egypl (and the Levan l),
$uS':'sling th,. t they shoul d rather b uy their
STATUS IN SOCIETY
oriental goods in Port\lgaL" The time of the
The imporu.nt mit' played by ltal ian phlr- Italian InlermediaU! Irade was .. thing o f the
macy .. n d phlrm aci5ts in the political and ~ past. The drugs of the Orient wero broughl
ci allife of the eountry mund one upression directJy 10 Europe by th e Portuguese and,
in publi c esleem as wel! as in Ine equipmenl late. , by the Ouleh; the dfllgs of the New
of the phaIm .... i,,~ . n ,c It"'iAn pll..... ...: i! 1 Wo rl d W .. r .. mad e avai lab le firs l by th e
"'u alway! conilldered a palrlcian. ln Veni ee SpaniatOs and lhen by Ihe English. In the
Ihe profession W<lS offio;ially recosnized as an unhappy Itillian s itu ation of Ihe 17th centu ry.
gr1r nobirt; and pha rm .. chls Were grmU!d lhe
'Veniee and Genoa were on the road to de.:.
rigbllo mllT)' Venetian ladl es of noble ran}: . Idence, Lo mbardy wu pilliged by Ih~
0uriftJ! Ihe middle of the H lh een lury. the Spanish, Freneh m d Gennans, the , mall 11"'_
FIorenline_ pha.M~dst MillI~ Palll1iep "'a~ ian sliltes w.ere . torm!!l~d ~y Ih e figh lll of
an:>b~adorofh i scounlrytothe(ourtof lhe. .. princes.": _ ..
_. _
_
The polilic.aJ. importotnee of Ihe 8uilds de.
King:ofNapln." Up to the preSEn llheie has
a1WI)~ been a number of pharma cists aeti ... e clined ...;th Ihe declining wealth and political
in Italil" polilics and represenle.::! in Ihe lil- poweT of the Itali m mun.ici paUties. HO"I"e rarun. of their coun17). E\'en in the military ever, unde r govemment luthority they Ieservice the 'IOC1al and profess ional recogni- tained. ce rtain intemal aulhorily within
lion of Ihe e...ning found e.. rly expr..ss ion. the ir own occu p ati onal fjeld,.
pulting Ihe phlMadst on In equal level with
Condltion5 changed in Ihe 18th eenlurv,
Ine physic ian. This hall bet'n toue from the whieh Wa!! dtaractemed politicaUy by in leresta blishmen l of the modern Ilal ian kingdorn ferenee on Ihe part of Austr:i.a, Ihe ri se of
up 10 our lime.
9a\"oy in Ihe North , . nd Ihe re-es tablishmen t
The ltalian ph lmt.cies of the Ren.ai5SanCe of Ihe southe m ltala n kingdom ., the King-

'"

Tltt

Dt ~t!opmlllt in

Cllilplt r f

llilly

.)

Fro"! Guild 10 Govemmrnl Rillt

61

The unre stri(: led a nd uncontrolled ~sta b

lishment of new pharm;acies thU5 proved of
uniform ')'5tem . From 1888 n!gi.5te~d pharo no ad ... anlage either to phannae)/ itse U o r 10
lNCisli ",-ere authoriud 10 pr",tice lhe ir pro the public. 1O 11uerefure in 1913, a new set of
fesd on anywhere in Ilalr, ilIld were alJoweo re:9trictio n s replaced Ihe freedorn o f Ihe law
Ihe unreslricted opening of pharm.cies. Un- 01 1888, alte r Iong rontroversy.
fO rlunately , Ihe new pharmaciu Op4!ned
Wlth Ihe new enaclme nl, regio nal dlfferunder tha law were for the most part in Ihe ences in p harm ace uliea l Iequirementslarge cih es. Sev",", com p<"tition dest ructi ... e \'el liges o f the .... rie d s lal es lind prinof standllI"d~ deveJoped in lhe metropolitan cipal ities of earl ie r centurie5-finally dieapd istricU; while in the rountry the ne t d for peared. Everywhut, the op enlng of a phllrweH distributed phanruoc ies w as n ot met. m.a.cy he notfo rth Wal; considen!d p ri vilege
The new Ital ian Kingdom established in

1370 8T11du;ill}' reduced the $e variations to

Thc 1\11tm1.ll gu.ikl. 0/ ph)."id.. " . l1I4 phuml d lts in Flo",",ce, ttaly, oouuni,
, ;oned the 5Ol.1pl0l$ den. Ro bb;'" 10 OK'U1e lheir embieDl c.bO'l!t) ..... poly.
ctuo~ moeda.U'0n, ont of a . " ne. dcdlcl t. d by ,-a!'ioul profletllion. and practiCl) artl (l5th Dl!ntury) . 1:.0 s u;>efb campe,i!ion, ie~ity .nd gr..: ., may Itill be
acI,., i",d 100..)' high on the .....6. !ob~ of the dturdl Or s.m Midlf,!,. Qthl!\'"

chwchts; 100. bur

mu' ''~ii:fend. rll'\t"p,i'~eof

mo<io:m-Pho imaciil tl.\MW>sri?~.

Imm

dom of r-= .. plu . 11 was Austrian regulations

tor Lornb.trdy (17;8) thai gay" lhe impulse
Iot PI'OIlre!livt pharm i>Ceuti callegililation in
Iw)' ~$ .. whol" , One 01 the most importan!
in novations was Ihe limitation of ehe nwnbtr
of phannaciu, aUowi ng one pharmacy to
5,000 inhabitanU in the Northem ltillian terri lo ry , lhen u nde r .... u' lrUn rule. However.

Ihnblr.g dalSvfearl,., -':--;-: - - - - - .

Ed . A~nl lj, Flc ~ ~.)

the organi.:eatlon of phann ac y in the vari o\1.5

Ilill i.J.n sl"tes exisli ng before 1870 differed
gru ll)'. In ,o me of Ihem the num b~ r 01
pham'l",ies was not limited; in others one
phann"'Y was aIIowed to 3,000 in h.bitants,
IS in Rome, or a certain d istanee W a:!l req uired b elween Ihe phaImac!es, as in
Naples. H

The ~autilul oId FlIIIT:Ilcl. OlU\le'" Mlnin ~d D Rrvtll Ihe popul.-. of Ven~ al Cr.npo
San Fandn . Th. terr,..cctta KUlptureo INI ...... tch over lhe wone of ptuorrnaci. t Gu i$eppe
Zain! ,00 hio Ul<K i.olH .~ thougt\ll" be W w"r\I: of the .,."thtn Z,ndomeneghi, ot Iht
19th-cr"tury lclIoo1 of Clnn ....,. tPholo8raph Q)pyrighte<! b}' Foto Gi&<lOII"Ie\li, Ve,,''''''.)

"

Tht D t lltt"Prnt7!t in ItQ/Y

Ch~p't'

..

10 be u m e d throug h .. gove mmenl - co mpeli tive v:am inatio n . The d051ng 01

admini stered (om~lition . The lIumbft and municipally-owned pha rmacies, Iote,....n aldistribution 01 phlrmacies becam e gov. ready in Ihe 1913law, has not materiOllized.
emmen t- con trolle d: 1 pha rmacy per 5000 lndeed, ur.dei curr en ! 100w m uni ci palitiu
cituens, Md. i n Ihe cities, at l... ut 550 yards and civil ho.pi lm rould pref!mpt up to half
a part. If ont e..~nlually bK ame a phar:nacy tM pennits .
""rule control of Ihe number of phannOlo"s
owner ;1 WIIS a lifetirne privilege.
The old permanent priv ilegu. gran led by hu been conlin\led, lhe 1968 law dropped
ruler!l or b y municipalities, wen! suppo:sed to the ratio from 5000 to 4000 peTSO I\3 per phOlr
be closed out within a 3O-}"eoll" grace peri..od. mac y (in li.., ove r 25,000), and Ih ..
U not sold by lhen, a goVl':l'Tlll11!!1 t rompeti- minimum disluCJ' between them dropped
tion w o uld be !leid 10 pASII Ihe phannacy into ffrom 55(1) 10 about 21 1 yuds. The traditio nill
new hand, (although eKCeptioM laler prove d fO(ial ratio nale for assuring that iI pharmacy
10 b<! .. poli liul nKeas;ty). In I'\Ital areu
will hav~ a reilsonabLe numb..,. of cl ients i5
....l1eR' the practiCl! ot ph .. rmaey WiJ$ ~u a: thilt il compens-ales ror Ihe govt'mment ceill racth~ and le:lis prosperous. subs idies ""eR'
ing placed upon the phannac ist' s lees, as
p rovided 10 indu c! bII lter geog riphk d is- wtil as helping to maintain the prolfl$5ional
tribution of pharmaclSIs-a method !radi- via bility of a pharmaost'5 establishment. To
tio nal in Sweden ;md IODlt' othH co unlries . try to deal .... ith Ihe problem of equilable d isThe dispensi", of alI medieation pi ckaged 15 tribu tion 01 medic;al ure, ph.armacists who
6eparale doses WiIS n!Served 10 phannarul$. practi(e in a rural commllJlily of lt'ss than
FoI pre!<ription med k atio ns on a n official 5000 population are given preference when
list, p rieu Were govemrn ent-controHed. A pennib 4tIi! granlt'd Ior opening new pharsys le!l"' of inspectior. .nd control of phar- macies in larger tOWTIS. Jt ,.",main. 10 be ~en
m",euti cal se rvices in lIaly .... as f"md ..d b~' wheth.- r Ih is provision will entice enough
youn g pharmacis\$ to p ractioe fo r iI tim.. in
licens .. I ....s.u
Sodal ch ange beginning in the 1950'5, areils n....d ing mDre acceuiblo> phlrmaceuti+
..,peciOl lly an u p~ufge in the num ber o f cil , .. rvlee." As in va rious other co unlries,
young ph mrmOlCY grad\llte5 fIooding ho rn th e ownershlp of private ph lnnao es Is limited
u niversitie5. comp.-Ued the govemmen l 10 10 pharmacl$t5 (o r, In the cue of . corpor<.
oons id er rel uing the r"'stricti on o n the lion, p harmacists m U$t own (on lro\) . Pharnurnb.-r of phumOlOes OIutho ri ~.-d and other macisis are aided by a technician-<Ius of M'
,.",forms. The question was complicared by ais tants.'"
the relu cta:lce of-cld phOl rmacisl, to give up
A phannaceutical o rganizati o n, th e
the ir ph.rm.td es and relire, espiaUy w ith F..duazione Ordini dei Farmacisti Ital iani,
__ the.ron tinuing dev.lua ti(1 01 IlaHan CUT' with hea dq uOIrter& in Rom"'. l'.'Oru in d o,..
. "ft' r>Cy. Thi. move mer.1 culm.inated in a ~ ' . cor.lact v.i lh, the 'govem'menfa\ .auiho rftie'l.
"ised pharmacy "faw ' adopred by the I t..li~n The re' ilI 1ti"l Ot'I'Iini de i Fannadsti in eve r)'
parliament In 1968, which brought notab~ province, as iI branch 01 the gov .. mmenl an d
under the auihority o f the provincial go\..
changes.
Phannati.., in ltaly hence lorth ro uJd be emmental .dmini s lrat ion. Membershi p is
boughl and sold freel)' among phannacisl" compulso ry ror phann.dsts, since authori ty
but s\lbject to ce rta in limitati ons (e .g., hil, been delegaled to the Ordi ni to register
minimu m fivey.ur inre""al, to minimiz e pharmad.!l tl and to di'ICipli ne those who
s peculation). Kno phannacies, howeI,"'r. still oVfi"Slep legal or et hlcal bo unds (l imilaT, Ior
rould be o~ by private ph anucish; onty uam ple, to Ihe Phannaceu ticaJ Sooety of
b y government perm it OIw arded Ih rough Great Brilai n).

DEVELOPMEJ'I.'T OF EOUCATION

Dtvtl"Pmt"' of Educiltilm

63

inglo en ler a mMufacturill8 lil.boratory, tox.

i(o log ic work , o r a p ha rrnacy . Th e buk
H ow one p repared for th e praelice of $truClUTe of bolh cu rricula 15 a found.tion of
phamtacy durin g the earlier p.-riod of or- ge n e ral 'Ide n tific sludies lollow ed by
gan il:ed pharm ilCY in Haly milY be ex.. m- spedaliud. pharmaceutical e ducation.
plified by the V ... nt't ian statutH (1563). A
Anoth.-r change during this pe:riod tut the
,ludent hOld 10 Soe rve 5 fea" u an appren tice practical -experience re q uirement in half. In
and another J years as a clerk; firutlly, he Wil$ , lead of a I'rear probationary period in a
required to paJS a rather rigid e:xamlnl tion, ph arm acy dt ... r univ .. rsi t)' studies . the
after which he beu.me a ph;trma.cist fuJIy neo phyte now receivel (; months oi Con.
qualified to openle a pharmilC)' of h is OV.TI.lI Iroll.. d expe ri en<:e beloTe beco ming fuUy
Sach requiremenls w""",,, more or leu g~ ral qulil1ed as a pharmilclst (pennissib1e durinE
for Ilong perlorl.
the ' yea r currk ulum, but In the 5-y ..... Cur.
r he Austri.n l.. gisl ati on of 1778, ri cu lum pennissible only aftt r th", aeademie
abovementioned . regul.ting pharmacy in Itudies).
Unlik .. in lo me Euro pein co un tr;'-,. in
I\ort hem ltaly (Lombardy), made academic
study and ...:uminalion a req ui rement for lta ly t:t... univt'rsity dipknna aJone doeli not
phannaciM' in Ihis I ~a . This req ulrement entille one to the prOlctke of philnnacy. Qual.
wn utend ed in 18Cl5 to the Na poleon ic ification 15 by . pD5tgradual... board eXamina.
Kingdom oi Haly during its short li.fe. Phar- tlon, 5Om .. wh.t1 anaiogous to Americl.T\ cus.
mau utica l educalion Ihus, grad uaUy, ,,"'15 10m, bul wi lh note worthy differenca. The
trans~ rred fro m th.- nutHke schooU ng by eK.afllining bo;ud. consisting of unive!",ity
the guilds 10 the Italia n unh.... r5iti..s. H ere as prolessors as well as p racti lioners of pha.relsewhere, the trend toward so.. ncebased macy, sets both oral M d practkal examina.
hi.-,n ... r educltion was nt'ver ,.",versed by laler tions. A s ucce$'fuI candida te may practi~ as
political even ts.
an emplo}~d pharm..tci~1. To hlv", the full reTraditionally , admiu ion to a university Iponsibility o f owning I.nd op ... ra ting a
course in ph armacy was Hm ited 10 those pharmacy, a ph annaci, t-afrer at least five
holding 01 secondaryschool diplom a from a ).... al"$ of pract\ce--mIY lu", a furthe r com'y""""', m ...,lcc:tivc p",s r;:un p"'pa.DlOry to poe-I;tiw e"""';n>o; li oo (115 J"l Tevio u,ly me n.
wUversityb;tsed (alft:rs . Under democ... til: tioned).n
Ing pres5uru common 10 h ight'r eduCl.t ion in
Afbe r Ihe dOH of the 1" th cenlury Ihe !tal.
\1Iriow; parts of Europe, ltali an ur.ivel"!lit ies
ian p harmac illt! u a clan no IonS"'r eontribthrtw open !heir dOOB in 1971) 10 a\l Iludents u ted importantly to the advAn(ement 01 the
with diplotrtls from Iny type of h igher 1. phazmaceutical sdences. llUs ""'15 in ' pite of
ond4l)' school (whelhe r lyce um , le<:hn icaJ the high s~nda~ ~or tfl:e practice 01 phar .
i<hooL _Or comm.. ~l ;l\3 ti tule). The en~! . macy and !.h!! $OCiaJ rank 01 t"he pha mu.Cl"u ti-_
ing stUdenl i5 ord inarily 19 or 20 yuiII 010., . eil practiti ol\er;' Whe~!13 in Frilhc~ arid Ga- .
5inee Ha lis n l econdlry sc hooll requ ire mmy 11. cOlUteUation of phumaclsts wer.! on
somewhat longer and h igher t'dua.lion than to . tta in h igh standing U .!J(;ienti'l$ a nd,
tho,.. in Ihe Uniled Stolle,.
the refore, recognition fo r thei, proles! ion,
The 4)'.... r pro~ssionaJ co urw, .tandard the attairunen ts of Italian phillIllKisI5 rarei)'
fOT !IOme dad ... s, oontinuu as p""'paration went beyon d Ihe compilatlon .of mati ' e, for
ror practke in a ph;trmacy. Since 1967, how the pra.cti.ce 01 the ir CiIlling. A pDli5ible exever, most pha rmacy facul ties of Italy hav~ pla nat ion m a y be tha t, Ihrough o u t the
introduCl"d a seccmd phannacy curriculum of lriumphanl development of chemiltly from
S ye.us, 3i p""'p;uation ror studenb int ... nd- the latter part 01 the 18th Ihrough the 19th

"

ClI"pt"4

Tlrl DtwWp ...u nt in lllliy

centl,ll)', progress carne b. r~l)' frum .reself(h es conducted in France, Germany,

England and Sweden. The S"'a t !Kientiflc
achievetnenl5 of the lu lians Iay ralner in Ihr
, phetes cf physio:s and med icine.
Earl)' Medidrw Bobn)'
Il a\im pnarmacists and l heir .pp~ntice5
u liUud botanie gardens er mainlaioed Iheu
own, for Ihrir l('aming in botanie seienee
was one haD mm of Ihrir (aU ing ;!.nd its ascmdant repute.
Bi' Ihr 14th cenlury, plo ts of medicinal
he rba. therewfore notable &5 an adjunct 0/
monalteries, had appeared as part of private
garden . One of
u riiest known ~longed
to Ihe hlrnous au thor Matlhaeu5 Sylvaticus at
Salemo, whc wrote a dic:tionary 01 liim ple
d1'\l8' and Ihe ir u ~5 (P. ,ult(/lit . . . ca.
1317). Similar gardms flourhhed abaut this
time at Cutelnuova ilnd Napl es . In 1545 Ihe
famous bounic garden at Padua W estilblished, which might be called Ih e firsl in a
modem sense .
The filll! chilir .. t a Europea" university fu r
ph;umacognosy (k!fu~ rkI Jtlr.pbci, was es
lablished. in Pad ua (1533), atld others ~n
foJlowed.' o The "'eU kno"'" botan isi ChilIi
I....shl IM..., . Onc oE kl , .Iud....ta p .. b!ish .. d
(1544 ) a lamolliS commentuy on Di05lri defi
thil t con tinued in IIse through nwnerolliS edi
tions and translation s a!l th e enc)"clo pedia of
herba l malen a med.it:a of the Rena issance."

t""

DEVELOPME:vT OF A LITERATURE..
The early-ph;.1:im:"ai".bOtmkal g .. rueS"i\d .
c.. b inoe., 01 materiamed iu spedmens were
,upportive of u dy p hil r.NIceulic;ol edue..
Hon, whethe r Ihrough guild or univen;ilr
Equally important----<:er1ilinly more 'ignif
jca nt for Ihe development of Europ ean
pharmacy al large-was Ihe pharm...:eutical
litllrature generated in Italy du ring Ihe Middie Ages and Ine Rfnilissance .
At firs l, !he au lno rs o f ptul nnilCC'uti ca l
i nlerest came hom the r..nkI of med ierne, as

was Ihe UM in other coun trie, of the Weslern world. One of lhe uriiesl guides 10 the
practke of pharma<:y printe d In Europe wa.s
writtVi in the middle of the 15th century by
the phys ician Siladin di AscoU.n This book
leUs the neophyte phannadsl how to co lle<:t,
prt"pue and pre:ser"e d mgs properl y. It ex
plairu the tel'll\5 then used in pharmacy and
malen. med.i(ll. It even describes Ihe betulvior appropriale to a proper phannac:ist, in
Ihe IUthor'1 view. Perhap$ il doe' nOI go 100
far to NY tha l Saladin', book ..... I S ' the first
real ue lti!e on pharm ~e)' In a modern
sense ... whieh bame the model for all
lateT te~tbool<$ of pharmacy and fureenturies
wa$ Ihe in dispenuble vade lt\eCUl\l (i.e. , ""f
e~"oe manuali of the ~ pothecary."ll
11 "'85 1 harbinge r of the growing independence and stalu r! of ase parate occupalion of philrmac:y when ltilli;m pharm acists
be gan 10 generale their own pharmaoeutic:al
t rea li sel. Especially nOlewo rthy is Th e
Gl"u.ler tuminary (LI/miliare mI/jus ). written
by Ihe pharmacist Icannes J. Manlius de
Boscc toward Ihe end of Ihe 15th rentury
(published 149"1, .... hich be<aml! an IU tnorititive g\lide fOI" pharmacists in Jeveral
oountries .nd cilies .'" Mothe r practicing
pharmacisl, Paulus Suardus , followed with a
.... Idely 11:;0:0.1 tex l callcd Thc T ..,,,s unl e hH I 01
Ihe !'hlnnlci sls (T1t ~5Q"f U.! IIfOIr..I.rn orum,

1512).
TI t\e page cf IU\ Halian b""J.:. by Pharmads l de
SgobbiJ ot Venice (16&2). Phum. t'O'ulicol booh
befa~ Ihf 181h ~iiru ry often 'had -'!liltl, Ii:le
~.ilMi:~, ind..aiitirlotow. ymhOll,lltI.
r" the QO:uroi panel a pharm. d l l {ri.fhll envisioou
tht CQI:oquy Ihal his pb:"l"!laCwhCIIl stu d ie!; givc
hiJ:l ..,Ih sage. 01 tht pas t. Shlpot !;>ear c",,!ic:
dIll gl 10 him, th:cugh .... nets inln ltd with sn
.erpen:s. Th e hil! (~ft). whh minen underground
md. flo ra .n<! fauna abovc Sround, 'ep"'.enlli In..
medidn. l "'10".11"<:<" of tne Ih," natu ral bng
dor!'ll . The:M' the pharma.rl CIU\ pUl In IM ... rvice
of manlo:.ind ;( he poueuu IM .. ~. an.:. the
know ltds ' <cp <uenlcd by .negorlc 6SI1""
. ro ..,.. d lhe q e cf lhe d~,Ign.

"

)
66

C"llpftr .f

1111 DfiJt!Opn:l1f1 in 1Ii2ly

The tradition 01 , ueh professional manuals

reKhed ~ cuhnlna tion in the 11th centu, l'
with real phAmlacelltica.! tneydo pedia ,
wltich in w me ways [oreshadows the later
"universal pharm.aoope iu ," Writtm by Ihe
o ...Tler of Ihe e,leemed Ostrich Phamw:y in
Vmice, pharmao;i!t Antonio de 5gobbis d.
Monlapvna. il contain s com~hens ive cU
rectiOIUl for the management oi a pharm.acy
Afld de$Cribes and illu, I IlI~' .11 Ihl! pilarmaceurical procuse, Uld . ppatalus tNll tItfIC
d universale tht.ztrQ t..,mlla ll.tico, 1662; fronti.!lp iece reproduced On p . 65). >l After the end
ollhi s century, the It.;tliil n phanmu;:e\lliu]
lrea tis.ts na longer attained much renoWn
beyand the bclrders 01 Jta]y .
The genes isof a special eins ofl itera ture to
unity the specifkatioru lor d rug' li es partly
in Italy. A reno..... ned earl)' allernp' wu ma de
by the Florenti ne guild of physician5 .... d
pharmKl 5ts. when ;1 isl ued a pharm<lCW t;
cal fonnulary in 1499 [titled NI<(1r1o ru ep
I~ri,,). In Ih t p refact, tht physlc i,l.ns ob 5ervtd tM:,
the in In (>ur clf)' llJII' ""'pose<!. to m. ny danse..;
fot our pI'Illm\.I.datt, wheth .... in IM city or ~nvl
runs, have = i t ted m.on)' erron bK. u5o' 01 IM
v. riotU ....; ... of pR:JU.. ion, choi~, GlM, ar.d
nanuJ.>CtUM 01 Ih~ ..iouplot .,d C<>"'f'O"".:! dru81
necH ll ry . , . . [5<>[ apolhecaries . lIo uld follo,,"
th;, IN"" Fa ..... ~ I.,yJ not only i.n the IlIItedcitybu t
doo in t1\e a,..-rounding .... a, and in your iurUod klion, wilh resud. tu prt~r. tir:>n , choke, c:om
pounclinS. and PlOtecti"" 01 drugs. In IC lar ;u.U
tlK5o' matten .rt regul.ated wiln 1I""".ry, lI)Ve,
dihlen , e. and eI re, Illen nol onlr ... ill the
l polheu rltl CUT)' out lheil .....ri: ""iL""'1 error
-bul lhe. ph,aiti.;!1\J .a.Isc ml Y be abie tr:>pe;rft<:I.
th ol l pr.e liee wilhout I n,' fur and ror that

.a.;~ "",

...-ith the help of Cod,

pr,ll~

.)

an.:! l:e.t

rtWIfll . 1i

SI"ce the guild j"tended Ihl$ book 10 be

oblig.tory for phannadStf, il omn has been
eons id e re d th e fin l Eu rop .... n " ph armiloCope ia ." The lack of evid~e of I legal
enfo n;emen! of Ih""e standard. (which the
modem Il!l.iI.ge of Ihe term pha nm.copeia Implies) le;lve. the atJ.lus of W Nuollo Rnt pt8riO in doub!. O ther ItaliilIl city-stilu, aller
a f~ de.::ades , foUowtd the lud of Florence
by u, uing thei r own d lUg standard!; {beginrun g with M;Il\tua in 1559}. In the pag~ of
Ihut early [oeal ph armacopti1l5 one sees
refll!Ctoed lhe nationaliJtic tendendes an d the
charader of phllJD\acy as il N d developed in
the vuious poli tical unl ts." The Iong 'tNggle to 1.lIlify the Italian penin l ula as a ,ingle
rountry camt 10 lruition in 1870; but the
standards for dlUgs "" t l1' n ot unified for the
entirt COI.IDtr)' until 1892 ...hen Ihe finit d ition .ppeared of the formacapau u.f.ficiJl r~ dd
ngll(1 IfItIl1~.

A period in lli leratu rt of pharm acy begiUI

at the end of Ihe 18th cen tury wilh reporU in
ItJ.llan journals 01 physk. and 01 chemistry.
and lhen was given primat}' atte ntion fo r the
finl time in Italy with the founding (1824) of
the CiarnaJr di farlflilcia , chimica t $de nzt
affini. Tbe 20th crntury h as brought many
spec:Wized phanna~u tical jotlmil.ls, but ooe
particularly repreSl'nt",tive of the pn.eticing
ph",rrnacist is the of fid",l OlgU\ of the 1I.lian
PhaIlNtcis ts' Associl lion , n farmacistll (f.
1947). (For _refnens 10 some addi tio nal
ph ilrrnllCl"lftical journal64!1d boou. of 11ali.;m
phannacy, '.~ A"p~ e'"dlic c; p:'-i22-:r
. . c.

5
The Development in France
(taly cradIed European professional ph ar- al.I their dominant feal uns, th ty Mmained a
macy, bul almosl ,imulu,neou.sJy I sirnilar Mtdi~rriUlean peep!e. ln Franoe . on th e con
de\~lopm ent IOOk pIKe in Frarn:e. Phamw:y
Inry, the pre-Roman inhabilan!3 (Aq uitani.
hlld. emersed in iI form we CilII recogni:ze by Ce llae and Be/gu ), Ihen the Ro man . Ihm
about 1300 and, during Ihe pl1'Cl!din g cen- the 5l"vtral Germanic lribes who OVertan Ihe
tury Or 10 of maturing. lega l ngulations countr)' (Visigotht, Bursundians iUld Frlmkt )
st puilti ng phannacy and medicine and set- and , finally, Ihe N OmlilIlS, blended inlo a
ting olher requirement, reminiscent of Ih e nl!W and almo st homogeneous ptop!e. The
ediet of Frederick II hall. be rome effeclive i" Freru:h are one of the mos t striking examples
MontpeU!tr, Arie, and Mat'IIeiU e. IndHd, 11' - of amaJgamiition of d ifft nnt peopl es in to a
q u inmen ts at Monlpellitr ante da tt Iht s ingle nat ion, un ited by the same customs
ethe n in Soulhem France .nd Ilitly . Perhap!! and Language, Ihe same aJms ar'ld thoughllt .
~I early .. 11SO, the pn:p~rer of drup (the
In 486 Clavis, a chief of Ihe FranQ , dennilely
t l pedado r) obligated hirns elf in man)" ,,'a)'5 put an end to Roman n.d e in the north of
...hen taklng the professional calh .. he r a Fram:f':, lind ~ t tltd l Gennan tri be o n French
qua lif)'ing t nminallon.' lt I, 5ugg~ti"" that ~o il. r ", ... !.ime, Frana: lind G~nn ... n y con ali _
Ihl"lle three Fl1'nm cenle of u rly p rofes- tuted a united empin. However, thiJ uruty
l iotW slf\lcturing alI lay on IIIe Mtdi~rra was political only. Th e divisio n of Franre
neilIl. geographic..uy expolll!d 10 in tetactien h orn Gtrmany in 987 wa, but Ihe recogn ition
wilh ltalian and Arabic influences.
of their different racial an d cultural develop
Thtn hu a1 ....ys boten a dase ronneclio" ment , .
~between Italy ar'ld Fra~e. Ouring the last
_ centuriu of the Roman Empil1', Antie.n!
Glurwh-riIo~ ~a' Roman prov inC1o tha,, 'a col~
GlnLDS
ony . Thue France feIt it5e1f 10 be a Iegilimatt
he ir 10 RomilIl dviliz.a tion, almost 10 Ihe
The In te rme dial e eultuu l position o f
"'me tiden! as was l\aly. One fundiUIlenta l France belwL'!l"1'I Germa"v 10 Ihe north and
dlffuence Influen<:ed Ihe po!itka! and M - Italy 10 Ihe sou th fi nd s' !:1I pre$llion in Ih e
tural dtvtlopmen t of both peuples, ih e dif- evolulloll of French phumaq. In Fran , as
ftrtnoe in tht elements CODpo. ing the POP"" in Italy duting the Middle Age., phannaey
lound it$ place in the guilds . However, uno
!aliom of the two CQunlriU.
Tbe original Ital iaru; did not amalg!,llla~ !il:.e Ih e greal lt allan gui!ds. Ih ei&e Fl1'nch ISI ppl1'd.. bly wi th the northern peupIes wh o 5OCi.atio n, were nonpoli tieal. They ....e re p roOVtrran the m Iot longeror Ihorte r"peri~.ln ' l"IIsional Of oommerci.d o rsanizati ons, bastd

ORGAMtAtioNiN-rO

"

,-...

)
68

Tht DevtlOiJmul

mf raMe

01"1 decree of royal, parliamentary Cl' Iocal autkoritiu. ~

The filet thai until Ihe reign 01 the House of

Bo urbon (1589) many feudal Iords govemed
thei. r territories lib sovereigns;md thal,lIIler
on. u nl il Ihe grut revolu tion (1792) , the individual munidp.dities f'njoyed widt adminis trative indeptmden ce, did not pre>~nl
a ralh er uniform develo pment of pharm q
throughout Fnnct. The guilds were given
far- reiICh il'lg !ioI!'1f-dete rminalion in aU matters
roncemin!'l ad ll'linion 10 Ihe profession,
tducatWn of apprenlices and theil' examinalion, the limitation of the num ~ ! of pharmiICies, and the .;are 01 poor mUtagu" and
Iheir widows and orphans.'rn genera l, wi se
\,I se W ;l S mil dt 01 Ihe righl c f lelfgoverrunenl.
There wtre I h~ kinds of regulation of
pha rmaceutica! li!e: b)' tbe central SO,.. mIM n!, by Iocal lutborities and by Ihe ph armaciSl5 thems e1ve! (t hat is, by thei: UlodaUOM). The last type of regulation was Ihe
most comrnon.'
Sy the 13th cen tu ry the Ii~ld of pha nna.cy
had develo ped suffjcienlly, he~ .. n<:! theft. to
generate .. group o:msciomnessilnd I<:!en tity.
A (entury o r two earl ie r1'o"\' find only tnlcts 01
i ndividual pr.actilion~t5 , the pharmacist's
fore Nnner !IOm ~ti mes being called "pigment.tiu~" (e .g., Angen in 1093; Poltou in
1123).1 An early guildlike uM)(i ati on in
French ph .. rmacy aro5e in Avignon (1262),
whe re sellersof druls joined ""tn an associa
lion of spicers. A I Dijon. also in Ihe Iate Ilth
eentw)', we kno .... that pharmacislll o~d a
. kind "'J . aS$OCiat~head9ua:rte n buildiog
(domu' a?ot~ u.<lri0 n4m) . 6 lnPari( 1.1 Teil; lils
early as the mlddl e of th e 13th ce ntury,
phllrIJ\aci~ts had an "sodation Il;>gether with
spieE'rs and othen In DlQre or Jen related
CAll ings.
To th is associa tion Ki n g Philip IV entruste<! (1312) Ihe control of w eighlll .and
b alances used by all retailers, thus mak ing
Ihe ph armacisls an<:! sp ieen; Ihe appointed
cuslodi ans of Ihe Iblml. ..rd wei!ht.l Outside
o f Paris s imilu regulations w~re Issued,

C~.<Iptn

most of them making Ihe ph armaci sts the

appointed inspecton 01 Ihe balance, a.nd Ihe
w eighb used by all retail merch ants .
1I the number gf physici.ns in I. eommll'
nity was not Iarg.." e.nough 10 fo rm a special
medical gmup. they united with the pharma
eum. AI thnu, surgeons, phannac~ts I.n<:!
barbers ,,'e re jn the same nsocialion. However. th~ special pharmacy guilds were predomi",.nt. Of 199 guilds 11'1 whleh ph~ImI '
eists .re knowl'l to have participaled, 103
w~ re eKCiusi...'!!ly pharmaC)' association5.'
Sy ml!ln5 cl the~ guilds, th e phannau,
tkal profess ion in Frmce g';l'Ied and m;ain
lamed 01 h igh standard. As measured br Ihe
values of that lime, the requ~me nls for I!I\'
trance int o the profeS5 lon were high and
stridly enforced.
11Ie applkanl Illld 10 be 01Iegi.timate b irth
.. n <:! of the Roman C.tholie faith; he had to
know ~ficient loIrin 10 reild in lelligen lly lne
formulariu iUld Ihe ~scriptions; in addi
tion, the guildrn ilsten; olten aske<:! whel her
Ihe appllcant's famil,' Wal weillthy enough to
enable rum 10 buy a ph llnn acy laler on.
:MOII 01 IM apprentio':. WMt ~il ed lro'" IM
ridt bourpol. ;., ol Ihe lo .... n., very ollen 1;0'" lhe
apolM cariH' familiu. Th, to n s \.lCtnded IM
la!he:, lhol nephe ... tlw .. nele. Th~1 explai!\5 IM

n umero,. dynun co! ~polhocvko . In Ra_n, for

i". tanQE , ' wido.... CluIndelier practice d (Iho! proI.... io n} In 1214 ' nd eleven memben of the lamily
pro.l iad pharmacy in that to wn horn 1600 10

1186.The sta lutE'$ of many guildli reslrkbl'<:! lhe

_ null!be~
!~~nti~J, GeneraDy. only one
apprentiee was I-Uo.wed for e~~ h~.i!9'2.~
- Even the number c f pharntiICle5 w u Olim
limite<!, so metime s by s tatu te a5 in Nancy
md Niee," $Ometimell by other mean Hor
i nstance. by the req u ire menl thai each
pharml-C"i$l com ing from another d.istricl pan
a locill e:t.miniltion.
In a "umber of Cl SU Ih e !imi talion srestrictmg membership in French guilds to
certilin cliques---aPPiltel'ltly wen! 100 Ja r. An
edict of 1539 i F.l prove<! the situation by Ihe
drntic remed ~ of banl'll ng the guild , 01

9r

The Fn","" ph.arm ld" Elienne Fra~o ll Geotfroy 5!I!o-d 111. nil .. n.,.., cl "".mit,l ,ffinities
rot IM /int tim. (M~1Nl1n oi the Parilian Ma <:! emy clScien. 17181, andpubl.iJh.u !he ,\>0....
talM (u. ing :1Ie cllem" aJ s}'ln.ool. of tne time) 10 iUul lnte tM pres;nned. reLatlon. hlp!. The
1!1\5fa,-ing ~ho..,ing: in detail " co"tempo~'C)' la':;ooralofY 'pp"a~d ,,-ith the !ablt in Diderot's
r:.~ d"F''''';
Lausanne. 17l1O--82 . Vol. 2. (From National lib r..y of Medicine)

. . .,

m <:!es and professions i1 S Ihey !hen u isted. "

Su b,eque ntly , many new guild statu tes
blsed on I model sbtute appnwed by the
king were issue <:! in Ihe laie 16th and early
11th eent..,ries.

l'J:lARMAOSTS ANO SPICERS

111 I Pa ri sian book on the trades and professions of 1270 (Livrt dts m ~ lkrs by Etienne
lIcileau), Ihe term lIf!othiclliu appeilfS, u it
dots in other French <:!ocumen ts .bout this
time. HOWf'\'!! r, membi!rs of tIu,> pmfession 01
pharmacy were i1 t that time mere commonly
call ed epiciu (spieer). tJ The fa.: t th at the <:! esignalion ~pl)lhic:lirt d ld not becom e genera l
unti l abo ut 1400 proves thai IIntii thaI time
neither the publk no r lhe govemrn ental all

thorities had seen much d ifference b@tw~n

the apotheury and the 5p ice r.
DIIe to Ihe lack of sh arp dlJlinclions of
righls and privUegu, lhe re had ne\'~ r been
much love los l betl"i~n Ine two grou ps. Each
accused the othe r o( trespus ing; each-I1!' __ ,_
.. qu~ d i1nd had ~nacte d-.legi.la tion fop--tts
benefit, d eali ng pMlidtlarly with the situil'
lien in Ihe capi lal, Paris.
An f'cict in 1484 fo rba <:!e Ihe pra.ctico! of
pharm acy by spieers ." Anather o l""liilanc:e(1514) 5ePilra te<:! Ihf' sm.aJ.I spieer from the
apothecary-spieer. Th e small sp ieet was /orbid den 10 prilctice phannacy, which, 1ICcording to the ordinan.:e, "requltes much Art, idence, <'!X perle nce ilod knowLedge of drugs u
weil as of the compound ing cf presaiptioilf
which enter into the hum m bad}'. " Ho .... -

"

)
70

C1tllfltf~

Tlu Dtvdopmtl1t in Frlln Cl

eve.:, the apothtury (phannacist) was permittJed. IID practi both oa::upatioru s imul-

taneou.sly.

!.icenst:S are no longer grante(! 10 herbillisl5,

and , ....-t... n lhe ownef of an oId herb 5hop
dies, Ihe doors are~ . "

Contending ambi lions and fluid boundIriU of tundion_wh ich would eo ntinut to

haunl phannaciats in other centuril'5 and

FROM "AP01HlCAIRE" TO
cil'Cums t.1.~s-fNIde phann..cy'a privileg<!
"PHARMAC1EN"
UJ\Stable. Within generation phannacists
The sociill slatus of thl" Frendl "pofhicllirt
100 had to choose boetw~n Ihe two caIling:'l
(1553). Then Ihr ki ng r<!uniled the hostil<! horn IM 14th 10 Ihe 15th centurv Will! doubtgroups wilhin thc urne guild [lS60). Re- """ Ihat of I palrician. His sOcial position
pea ted amendment of Ihe ordinances g<>vem. "'u m<rintain .. d in spite of Ihe fact thlt his
ing Ihe oompeti ng groups inlXl Ihe 18th cen- dutie~ induded not oml' the p n!paration bul
tu\'}' reects the conBict of inlerea. and the the ildmin iSlll li on o f medio:al~d dys!~n
(enemas), whkh wert a thellpt'utie fad from
friction bo:-twft'll truom. ' !
The attention paid !XI tM .pieen by Ihe the 151h to Ihe 181h century. Louis xm te Freneh authorities un til tht urly 1811'1 cen ceived no k!ss than312 dysttrs with;n 4 l'eMI
lury rmds uploma tion in the economic im. Only when the apotheearin became Ihe
ponance of thge tnKiesmen, <!apeci.Ally Ihe ~rget of ridicwe by poels. especially Moliert
impo.urs Mld whole~r5 (iUId o flen retail- (I devoelopmtnt which fortul\ilttly co incided
ers) of spire~ and drup from Ihe Orient and with lhe pilSSingof the fad), did iM adminislater from Amencil. Their influeru:e in certain tralion of co/sters ccme to seem degrading .
It i, some time!l overlooked thilt Moli ere, in
French cihe! along the changing roules cf
impo rt (until Ihe e nd of Ihe 16th century his famous play LI malade imagi1UliTe, scoffs 51
mainly MarwiUes ,md Lyons, and litter Bor phy$iciuu and ilpo lheeariu in q uite the
deaux . La RoctoeUe, Nanlet and Rouen) was ume milnn er and Iha t, for h irn , the
so gnal thai ilt li mn professionilI pharmac)' IIJX1llriClliTt', involvemenl .... ilh dysters " 'iI$
onlya w.. kome occasion
Mided ridicuJe .
was o\'ershadowed by Ihe 'pieen!"'.
The definile sepa ration of the pharmadsls At any ril te. in French publi c opinion Ihe
Ind Ih e !picel'5 of Paris was brought .. bout designation .. pothicaiT! gradually beocame iSby royal deoclilration in 1m thit replaced 50ciated .... ith the ridiculous picture drawn
tht old guild with Iht quibe different Collegt by the cariuturist5, ....,h ieh mal' h a,~ had
de Ph. rmioe. This d ..dirati on a.Ilowed 10 50mething to do ,,-i.lh the profes5 ion prefer
the spicers the whcJesale Irade in drugs, tht ring Ihe new na me ph~rm.cit rr.. The tenn
relailing cf iI f~w apecificillly enumerated made its appea rance in the 171h ( entury and
drugs and trade in a.Il heros 4r\d rOOl, in Iheir barne of50.1 with the establishment of tM
nalural stale, requirmg no preplration or Co~ da P~e in 1777~ .
in .. gianl synnge used for the application
co mpou:"ld ing.
The d isagree ments brtwetm Ihe pharmi- o f dys lel'5 was 100 good a moli! nol 10 be
osts md tht spiee rs .'.... n! not peculiar to taken adv;ontlge ef by cM'icaturists, such as
France, but cecurred in all countrle, ilnd stin the great miiSler of French poli tieo-satiricaJ
Oenlr loda)' among pharmac:illts, herbillists graphics, Henore Dau rnier, long after cly,Ind merch;on15. The French quarre l ....-i.lh lne ters, "nd especiaJly Iheir ilpplication by
herbalisi' culmina led in a law (Germinal, _pothiuiTt'_ had (ea~d to be a fashion.
ine attacb 01 Moliere Ind his littrary con1803) thai sllbUized Ih .. situation. Afler having pro,... d th.-i r knowl.. dge by examination. lempo rariu we .... 10 a \arge exlent d irected
the herbalisls wert give n a certifiCilte enti- I gainsl the hi gh pric.-5 chlrged for remedieJ.
tling them to ~1l indigenou5 emde drugs. In Fr.... ce prices fi><ed by the governmt nt

ror

Tb Frendl pltamllClst'. c",:.o;hiJ,e d ... ty oi ~dminlste~inll lrIediClllN enelNS .ti~d Ihe

imag;nation 01 Ihr gre..t cuic':l'rist. Hono" D un;=. On Iht lwi~. his " Co,..
tO:gc" (.11>ct:r<' ) f"UPO'h 10 show Ntht <ommanding YM.aJ oi Ilw Ph ......
PM"., Lanc.-Ietl
T,ieanule , "pon hi. nl'Y inlo IM cluomlloe, of Pte" .~ Who, In rulit:y, .. 'h i. officioul IM
VacUOUI general with huge tnema syrlnge in$tud of I wOrd, fuUClWed by aide. btaring
auxllL''Y eq ulprnent? Actually, IM bllb WI , thmwn.L G~,,~r.l M... "let ll (Cet "'" \..ob."I. who
hl.d etffended by o~.in, 6..e-hosH rumcd on public demo nltnolO"" (lSJI ) ;md, immediate!;
after",a.d , hK; rca ivtd his fLe!d-r:u:sh.al' s t..Iton . nd I pHrase. (From L2 Pli..... "'.. 6- L:!
Mrlhri"1 4il;.., rOt"", .. Ik H. D,,,;,,,m. leI Ph.arm~e;uI 8Iblio philes. Pa,is. 1932.)
po~"'ical

,.tJ.

a degree o(.ma!i'~ a 5 in France. As nrl~' as

1271, Ihe medical facuJty of Paris we~ acimo:>ish ing IM apolh~liW, not 10 tretpau
on the fteld of medicine; on tM ether hand,
50me Frcncll ph ysidans in Ihei. lurn sold
medicines (aslate as about 1470).'9 Th e S<arcity of learned ph}"icians sometime-s drew
pharmaci$l$ into Ihe pr.tellce of med icine.
Fot ~ample, in 1724, a roylll ordinanc.- permitted the p.hil:macist to vilIilthe s iek il nO
ph y~ idlU\ Will! availablc. u
The quarreling belween Ihe professions,

w~u never I general insti tuti on, and we

k:loW of phann<tCl"'uticaJ invoices whieb, in
deed, 5um !O bt> '''''1' high."

PHARMACISTS AND PHYSICIANS

Pharm<l(;'ts and ph}'slciam, who Ire 50
dosely associaled in Iheir proft5sion.tl Ure
lind ace the commo n litTgtl 01 ,areasm,
neverthelUJ ofte n have hild con!lict5, paniblr !;>ccau.se c f their dose n lalionship. Howeve r, nowhen! did these qlUllTels .fach such

"

a~2Ji;(f~

'.291i

)
72

T/lt Ckfldopmntl in f.flIIU

)
C"~plt'

launched by the p hy.ic ian Symp h orien

ORGANlZATION OF FRENCH
Champie r in the udy 16th centu ry. h ad
PHARMACY SlNCE 1m
gilined nolonely the ,,'Orld aver. Vitrio\k
The Royal Dedaration of April 25, 1777
treati 6u we re m et by counlertrutiseJ, In ushered in mo dem Frero. cl!. phantlacy. By 1:'5Gennany and in Engiand , echoes of !hese tabli5hing Ih e Col1~e de Pharm&cie u an
Frtnch publicationsl1 wen' hu ni later, admin isnatiw.5 "'~U as an educational incla.5lIIic souree c f barbs 10 be h urled al ph,u- sti tuticin, Ihe deelaration repbC<l!d the oId
rnaeist! on the one huld, or agalnst phy5i- guild, and i lrietly 9tated !he tuks and the
ciMa on t~ other.
righb of professional phannacy. Th us a de!Another qu&lftl arose about 70 )'tAB laler. ini le borderline wu draw n bet wee n .lei n whkh medie ... l autholll used Ihe old argu- tivilin considued 10 bc phatmiICeutical, and
mentl b\lt tried new muns as weil, wilh the hente reser.:ed to pha.rmacy, Ind those open
dea rly ex pre$Sed in ten tion of ruining Ihe 10 ever)1lf\e , ind uding the herbalist 5. The
phlrmaau licaI profess ion. Gu)' Patin, the dedo1r.ltion forb~de Ihe sc>lling of d rugs bl'
famous ile~d of Ihe faculty of meclicine 01.1 the religiow; hospitals an d sodelies (" pr~ctice
University of Paris ami a oonler,:l tive dini whkh had been rampanl before)," and it aurian, WOlS ampaigning against Ihe use in thorized phann acists 10 educale ~ i r tising
med ic ine 01 what he (onside red to bt' gene ration wllOOut medical inlerft'renc:e.
dangerou5 ehemicals. He and his asso ciate,
The French Revolu tion changed Iiltle more
wlnted phann.c ish 10 refUSt' 10 dispense Ihan t~ nlme of Ihe tested institution.preleri p tio ns con taini ng chemica ls. The Uler l sOO rt , painful tria1of " free" pharmacy,
pharmacisls' "n"wer Ihat Ihey lell obliged to which mea nt pharm.cy throw' open 10 anyd ispense 111 prescriplions ordered was con one, with out educati onal requir~e nts . A
sidered a deda/'il,tion 01 war.
deo:ree (Much 2, 1791) had declued everyone
Nt'vertht' le:fI, common sense triumphed en tilted 10 prac:tice a ny p rofenio n or Irade!
o ... er hatred, prejud ice and pre5umption. b One immediate resu lt wa:s Ihat unedut ated
I M"6, the Facully 01 Me dicine 01.1 Paris owners n lablished nllmerou.s stores caUed
legilimatized. the Iher.peu tic use: of the oon phamoacie, everywhere in Franct, especially
tl'Oversw antimon)' (in th~ fuon 01 wine oi in Paris _ Thi . p ul In end to revl,llu tio nlry
anti mo n)') "11 ~ purgative," . nd Ihe Parte- enthu,iasm for liberty in Ihe field of ph arment de Plrii even gave govemmental bless- m at)" ..... monlh.la~ r, a MW decree (Aprll14,
1791) announced lhe retu m to the CtUtomilI)'
ing to this deci.$ion.
These earl)' co nfl icts may be viewed loS regulation 0 1 th .. practice 01 pharm;t()' .
In 17% former members of the College de
more than I eurious episode in h istory; Ihe)'
illu5 trate 1 recul'J'enl hand icap tu orde rly, Ph.rrnacie , et up I new aSSOCll tJon, called
...ell develo ped snvicet ...-h~r Ihe phar- the Societe !ibre de Phann~de de P~{is . A
maci5t'5 .ro!e lackl' dur.,al1d wen' ~~- ~ If d . P-harmacie d e Paris, lound ed
bound~ries. In oountriu whe.e mero;h.nf:s ,(1803) ' 10 provide -scilintific ln lerchange and
on one sille or physic ians on lhe oth.. r h..... Uimlilus, gained an iIlustriOU$ reputation.
colUded w ith Ihe phannocis!'! prtsumed rt ArlaJogollf loca! lodenes wert founded in
5poMibilitiu (e.!'l., in America) contra ver othe rillCientific centeTll 01 French phannacy ,>l
si", have arben .g.in and l!'lain. Frante,
The delense 01 th e (omm ero;ial inl:ll!rest of
having expe rienced IRl idess overlap and f~ pharma<=y was !eH to olher and )'oungt'. U
tion, tarne, in Ihe 18th century, to a finner toCialiont ,~ (especialJy L'Anociation (now
duignation 01 Ihe role reserved 10 the pharo Fede ration] generoi e de9 sl' ndicil t$ Pharmac:ist and. 10 ~ higher Ie\'el of developmenl. maaliliqun, Iounded in 1876).

Dn1e/(lpmrnt f1{ Ihr Phllrnuci5/' 1 E$11IlJ!is-hmrrzt

Meanwhile, Ihe organi zati on 01 French

phamoacy has been chlllged entirely.!.! Since
1945 tltere has been an aD lndu sive phI!"
maautkal a5soc iiltion called L'Ordre de,
phannaclens. Mem bership 15 oompul&Or)' for
Ca} eommunity phannacists, (b) phanruocu ls
re:fiporuible for the manufacture of pha ro
mlltt'u lical proprietary products, (e) pharmacis ls rupo nsi ble for pha nnaceli lical
.... holesale distribution , (d) ph ~nnaculs nol
belo nging 10 graup' a, b or c--Ior instanc:e,
hospital p ha rma( iSI&, bio-dinical a na lysts
(whet her or no t Iheir laboralories are at_
Iac:hed to a general practia 01 phann~cy),
phannaCSIs rt'!!ponsible fo r shops belonging
to preplid-benefit I-Odetit'!!, and 11.&0 the assist'lIlt phannacislS. 11 has 10 be kepl in mind
tmo t in Frl nce lug ..s(a.le manu/aclure of
pharmate utk!lls, as weil a& phannaceutical
wholesale activitiu a re regarded IS "pharmaceulical praetia" ;and .re by la ... under
the control of regislered pharmaoci:st!l . In Mly
1974 Ihere were 29,453 ph annac ists regisbered, to 1Ie ....-e a population of fi.Ome 52 mil
lioru. Art)'Qnf! not lisn>d u a membe r of the
Ordre and .cli ve in on'1 of Ihe c.pacities
enumeraled is p ractidng phannacy In egally
aru;[ Is Jubject to punishment.
The aims of the Ordre (enactment 01 May
1945) are " 10 auure respeet lor Ihe proft'!!sional duties , rand] to l UllTe the dderu;e of
the hono r and the Independeoce of the pro
le5$ion." Tbe organizati on j, gh... n a rtai n
prafeuiona! jurisdiction. lta coundls (one for
each ~f the fOIl! groups ~Ilme:d Ind ~giOnai
oouncib fo:~ the oommumty pha!lI'~lSts).re
Sllpf'O$ed to .feml out VlolallQDJI ou ptO-_
fess iemal nalure , which onl)' too ofwn escape
Ihe juri sdlction 01 the commoncourts and are
sanctioned by the: la tl:ll! r.""
The 50ciete de pharmaeie de Pa ris hall 00oome (19-06 ) Ihe Atad ~mle de Ph.nnacie,
Ihlls undertining still mare Ihe purely se ienlifi e (hancter of this iruti tUlion;and p utting
il on the same level with th e time-honored
Academ ie de M,dK ine,

7J

Wh iJe Frel\(h la.... hiS not re strkled the

number of p hannacies Sf!\... rely, compared
with S()me other (Ountries, it do es try to ensure lai rly even dh tribution 01 phannacellti_
cai service a nd seh sOlne limit 10 Iheir
number, In the counl!)' U ~ .... hoIe, 01. tittle
more lhan ],000 persons are ~rved by eaeh
phannacy. Buldes olher condllions to be
met, a ne w pharmacy may open only where
the d evelopmen l of inhabitanls per pharo
man- "'1luld be 1I leut the rali os show"
below (for loealities in th ree populat io n
calegories):
3,000 to 1, fo r populations of more than
30,000
2,500 10 1, fo r po pu ll tions of 5,000 10
30,000

2,000 10 1, lor populatioru of less Ihan

5,000 11
In cue Ihe need$ o f Ihe pop ul .ace demand,
the p relecl may authoriu the establishmen t
01 pharmacies beyond the number s tipulaled
above.
This patte m has bee" Itlemplled to milke
phannaceutieal service relsonably aVili!able
10 the patie n t while, at Ihe same li me, givin g
real-Onable opportuni ty for a lu U time, d lg'
ni6ed p ractice ol phd.l'lllacy. It is a delicalle
balance, Ihrel lened lince the 1950's b y a
mountmg num ber of unive:rsil)' s tuden ts in
pharmacy and affe<;ting Ihe profess ionaUy
nu.-turro character of lhe phannaciat's establishmen t.

OEVJ;WPME"" OF niE
PHARMACISTS ESTABLISHMENT '

__

Up

_ _ __ .

. .

to tne"late' 16tfi een tw-y; the French

phM111ac les weIl' moslly openfron ted, wi th
the p hannacis l wortdns in the public gaze,
not unJike lhe ea rl}' phlTmades 01 Islam and
Solilhem Ital~. The equ lpment gno dually be.
(Imt' more eleg ant; but, .... ilh few exceptions,
only lhe phannacies (1{ hospitals or religious
socielles equalJed the luxury of Italia.n pharo
m.cies of the Renai!lSlJlCe. In the 17th cen.

"

71ft

CMpltrS

Dt lltlap=nt ill Fr411u

the ~ed pot$ oi ra"cm (contilinerT; of

omnonlike .hape fo r ointmenls. electuari~.
e!C.) gavt this type of contiliner likewise ~
pharmaceulical d isti.nction ,'"
As these embeUislu:tents sugg~t, a French
pharmacy i.!I often weH appoinled, ;md i$ 1.1WOlYS devo ted prim.t rily to prof~ 5ional .1(tivitiu. Legally limitl!d. to 2 1 catego ries of
stock, I. French phannacy hu as sid.e1 in es
only such products 1.5 pe rfumes, insecticidl's,
special dlet....}' . ids and the Hke. l O
Since uch pharmacy serves abou! the
same population , on Ihe average, ilS a phl.rmacy in Ihe Un ited Slales , the much DIOn!
un iform pro fessiona l ap p eOltl.n ce a nd
~pecia.liulion of French ph annacies seems
litriking 10 American pharmacists. Whill' facto" aocoun llng for thl$ iIIn! comple:><, it i$ im
pentan! 10 reoll Ihat physi.cians do not prr:empl an}' . ign ificant part of Ihe pharmacist's
praclice and, lecond ly, that weIl trained
phannacis ts ha~~ b iologk (dinical) analysis
as a second professional Eunclion. Aboul 70
per cent of all such laboralorie, were di~led
by phumadsls in 1950. Pharmacies Ihal da
nOI ronduCI Ihl' actual les ling may ob lain
rommi"ions for fo rwaro ing spl'dmem to
such a \.Ibo rMory .nd hand.le the lest reports .
Wh ile phYlid aru a re d h ided in their attitude loward th is fundion of Frend> ph ...._
macy;lls I. pubJic set\.ice, pharmacislS tend 10
$1'1' din it:al Ifi bo rillio ry work I.S a means 01
urila ing the ir sden lifk educarion mOn! fu Oy
in a 5C!co nd p rofei!05 ion;al sense, despite iI
coun lerc:u rre nt c f indus lrial and e<.:onomtc
change within th e praclke of pharmacy HSI'If.ll
lHoe

Old .00 MW ~lor.>en!S >",hiM ta P~ K"'f Frtnch ~I~."...., in IM a...OIc.e PhlrlJlK)'.1

L'Aigl. -(Om e). 1hoe 8tacdul cu"'. 01 thr m~n dlspens ing counter is omamentecl by
,hythm 't ",petition 01 phlnruocy. I )'mbol. lhe 60wl 01 HY!"ia~ W l>a.o.~ : ;d overnud
p~b.bly , eprne nts th~ goodess H)'llt ;' tw rnlf~ t!tp ng a,!",~n& !n~U11 P.~lIuti~
~ uipmen t.

(PhOIc>graph ho'" A. L H. P.)

tury, fa iener dN S ja from FIrnen potteri u

(Ne".n. Rouen, Mou5 tiers) greillly im prg"ed the appeuan~ o f the pharmades.
Afeu Ine da,.. of Ihe 18th cen lurv. matched
sets of e lega nt dfUl! oontainen Jrorn Freru:h
pol'Cl!laln manufa~n ...tso went on tO Ih r

shelvu. Indm , it was Ihe di$C()\'ery of the

boIin c f SI. '(riei", by a pharmaci$t, M.-H.

_.

_ . .,

Vilari~ 01 Bordeaux, I~t mad e Ihr French

po~u.in

industry possible.
Products of French pollet}' I!vef\ became
d istinguish ing symbols of pharmacy. The
so-<alled chnrdt15-sproaUy shaprd JU!!
fo r med iclrW syrup5. honeys iIInd o lls could
be leg.illy di splil}~d only by phi1lnTlilld slS,ll A
Pa risil;n o n:linallCl! forbiddi ng Ihe s pieen 10

Pbarm;acl'ullc allrupection
Ouring Ih e firs t centuries of professional
French pharmacy, Ih e l upervision ei lher wu
I'ntirel}' the rell ponsibility of Ihe physicians
Or was dotn in atl'd by thl'm . In 1336. for
example , the f;lC\l!ty of med icine in PHis was
cha rged with Ihl' ins pecti on of the pha rmade . Th en an o rdinance (1353) Cll."aled I.
co mrnission cons isling of the heael of the

Largt-5cau .u&Htufilcturi7fg

7S

ph.anrlflcists' guiJd.. twQ DUSter ph;lf1l'll.c:ists

I.ppointed by the municip;al I.uthoritiu I.nd
two members of Ihe medical faculty, Mixed
co mmi s, io ns o f Ihi5 typ e ap peared I'VI' rywhere , al though med ical dominl.n~ O\'er
pharmacy was maintainl'd. Supervision by
pharmiICisls exdu!ively Wll5 rl.n! ,"
The previously men ti oned. law of 1803
made the $upervision of th e phannades Ihe
funclion of comm issions elected from Ihl'
Jtaffa of Ihe schools of medi(ine and phl.rmacy in Paris and of Ihe departml'n tal COun
di s of hy g iene in Ihe pro vince s, After
another century. a new !aw (19()8) U lab
IIshed Ihl' l upe rvis ion by pharmaceutical in I pe<:tOrs, nol only o f I..... ph.annacies bu l of
the entire d rug trade. "Pharmacy wu Ihus
flftd hom a servitude wruch has las ted !Oe)
Iong and .... h ich could onIy injure its repu tation b )' ilIu!IOt}' control and Il."pn!S$ion."
PreseO! legisla tion provides far fuo-time and
part-litnl' lrup ec lon; appoin ted by Ihe M il'liiJIr)' of Heaith.

l ARGE-SCAtE MANUFAcruRI NG
In Ihe develapmenl of Ihe French pharm;llte uli cal indu str)' phamlld'l3 pl.yed fI
Jarsa ""d important part. One o ( the 6,.., in
Funce 10 menu !ac lu re ehemiel. ls ;lind
g&lenics on ;11 IArge seale was the phannacisl
An loinl' Baume, t:he inventor 01 ;11 number oi
lechn ical improvfiJll'nts, I'o-hich Ire pro\'ed in
Ma o w n manufacturing Iabo ralory ;lind
generously made known 10 his colll'ilgues .
: I::!is prke Iisl {l(75)~!iaws !I~Ul t~ p~pa-.
filltlo ns, aniong t1, em aoout 400 wh ich can be
co nside red chemical.
Sa me of 11'.1' early French discoverers of ;albloid" for ins lanee Jaseph Pe ll e tier
[quin ine) m d P. J. Robique! (cod eine) , made
thelr d isco ve ries Ihe basis of Il.rge-Kotle
manufilcturing. Furthe nno rr:, in the 17th and
the 18th cen turil'5. communjty phannacies
contributed most of Ihl' pro prieury reIMd ies
on the marke!, and con tinued 10 do so, Fo r it
ha5 been ch aracterislic of 11'.1' French pro-

)
76

"

TIIt Dtv tlGlpm .."r in

fr~ '1ct

p rlelary industry t hat, bt')'Or.Q few ver)'

lug'" dru., ma nu. faclurers. th ere sta n d
" countJ ns 5m.U manuh,cturu s , eich 01
wnom specwizes in DM cr two ~medie$,"
.. nd thai in Ihe 1920's s lill " f\ln)' 50 per ~nl 01
the licensM pharmacist5 in France ~re m
pged in lhi s businen, mo~ 1 [)f t he:n in ;0
small way."'" Fro m ttm group ci practk ing
phumacis tJ eme rg ed Stanlslu Limo~ ln,
the inven tar cf the IIp pilr.IlUS fu r ..d minist:ra
lie n of oxygen, of warer-cap1 uk!s and , abo~
a1l, of p arentHilI ampuls. J
Aroun d the middle cf Ihe 19th ~nrury.
F~ phL"'D\acists crea ted thl! fimt coope raliw of natioNl soope cO\"e ring phomnaor uli call ndustry and romme rce . The ~imilar venture undertaken by Lonwm apothecaries In
the em y 17th Ci! nlwy (see pa ge 1(2) was only
lOOlI in 5cOpe and I'1"stri.ctl'!d to the membel'1l
of the Society of Apothecaries of London.
This (oop eratl ve, the Phannacie cen~ d,.,
Fr;mt'e. who,e shareholdu, ue exdu ~i vely
French pharmadsts, de\'elo ped inlo e n~ c f
the world' , large pharmact!utkal mmufacturing ;md ",hol esale enlerprise). It alfects p racticd,. all aspects of the lire of French pil armaosls.
The abilities grc1\oing out Qf French pharmacy thus nounshed in impcl rtanl ways the
gro wlh md CQnlribtrtie n oi modem ph, ,,,
mac"utical man..uacruring. Yet, it W <l5 Ihat
very d e\'t'lopmenl wh ich ~rioU$I}' wul ermined the scienlific rouooa tion lor the emlnence c f at In st a practitio!'le r elire. For IM
tue of ind uslrial productiQ n inevi lably "CUTu.l1e d Ihe ind\v'd uial phannacis t's dlem ical
a nd p harlllat.tu lical m ani p ulatio n, and
slifled the -SCientific Iife of the offio'll( -(I:e .. the co:nmu n ity phiUIIla.cy] in a lorrent o f prefabriealed speci;!.lliel!."'

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION

During the time cl lhe g uilds the a ppfieMI

fOT apprenticesh ip had 10 meel high 5OCial,
flJlancial and educatio nal req uirementi . To
bece me a muter he hld tQ pass diffieu II

)
Dtv ~lop "l tn l

ChI/pluS

exa.minationl. In ~Unellles , uch exarn in ations W l!:l'le required as url y a.s the 13th ce" lury. A Paris ian cmlinance in 1484 stllled thal
the candidate had le p rove his knowJedge cl
drogs and of the compo und in g cf medicamen h by u nderg o in g a p ro tra cted an d
diffiCI.I11 examinatiQn and , lastly, had 10 perform h is " mas lerpiece," b y p reparing ,I
n umber c f galenic5 requiring special technica! skill and 5cientific knowledge. Th i. Ina5te rp ie ce b eca me a g en e ral requ ireme nt
Ih roughout France up 10 the 18th c:ent u ry .3'
nt was in thls tradition thill stile bo~rd$ 01
p hann.1.cy in Ihe USA dun ng the Llte 19th
and t'ilrly 20t h cen twy asked c;mdid ales 10
oom pound com plex prescri plion ~.) The pros-pective pharIrnlosl also usually had to serve
a certai n time as a clerk Ccompagnonl bt!fore
he oould berome a cilndi dale fo r murersh ip.
Tbe entire time Ih ul 5penl varied fro m 2 10 8
yeal'!! U Ipprentire, tQ il lotal ti:r.e c l" to 10
years as a ppn>ntice and c!erle _'"
AC.ldernic studi ~s were inlroduced co mparatiy~Iy u rly, and gr,ld ually became general. Alreildy in 1.536 il Parisian o rdinanre required apprentices of ph,,,"naq.- 10 alle nd
",,"0 !eclurt'$ each ....eek re lating le the Ilrt c f
the ,1potheca ry, given by a membt!r of the
faculty 01 med icine. In Poitiers (1588) only
these cand idales who had artended lee lu re'!'
on the .rt .nd the Kienc:e of pharmacy for 1
~"t'ar could become m.lslers of p harmiKY _
ln the famous Un iversity ci Mon tpeUier
the doors were a lw ays open 10 the studenls
of pharm KY c f the e nli re w orld . In 1588, the
ph armaci,t:s at MentpeliieT esta blished , 1I
lho!ir e" ", expense, an in' lrucli<?_nal......i:ollection of d rug "Specimens, lind Ihe p raclicinS
p ha rmaci $1 Be mardhin Ou ranc w u . ppo in ted curator, obligated to exhib it and u plieale Ihe materia med io 10 the l uembled
studen ts three times a year. It was a 51gnmant, if lim ited, bt!ginning_ opening IM
doon 01 IM univenlity ro r lhe first ti me le
instrudion by a maste r .pothecary_ Indeed,
Ouranc appear:s to bt! the firs l pracHelng
pharmaei,t to bemme oftkially a member of
Ihe teKh ing stilif of I Eu ropean universf ty.

During l!-oe 17th century pharmacy mature d

aCilidem ically at Monlpellie r in succeni\-e
. teps: Henry IV erealed Ichair fe r .wgery
and phnmacy (160 1); the fimlous mu ter
p harm aei$1 l a ur ent Catelan lectured en
medicinal herbe and demonstrited the an of
phannlCY (1 605 ); and Louill XIV c:reated I
ehair of phllrnlilCeu tical memislt}- (1675).3'
In PMis lhe Garde n 0{ the Apo thec:arles
(/ou nded by the pharmacut NiCQlas Houel
on the basilI oE a special ordin;mce of Henry
m, O etobt!r 1.576, and pre 5erv ed and en\.arged durin g SoeVt'rai (en tun es by the pharuw::i!ots' gu Ud) pIO\.;ded general !!cienti6c inslrUction to r the a ppre nlices 01 phumacy.
Other courses W eIl.' given primariIr .t lhe
G ard~ n cf the King (fcunded 1635).< 0 These
rou rs e& w ere 5uppl eme nle d b y p riva te
oourse s on phannaceu tical eheffitltry glven
by some of the fao:::w\lS pharm acisl-c:hernlsts,
such as le1ebvte and Lmery in the 11th century and Rolle ll e and Baume in the 18th century .
Th ese couues ha d 10 bt! a priv~ te unde rlaking, beCiIIll$e the ~veral altem pti of the
Pansian guild to organize official ilCade mic
ins truction me l wilh Ihe same lack of fair
professional ",ntimen l on Ihe part of physiclans Ihl t has bee n nOled earlier. OEtlcial
COUr3U Iw ice la un ch ed (I 705-1nl, . nd
1753--1765) had 10 be ab;ondened because 01
oppos iti e n by Ihe Paris faculty cf medieine.
'The)" ,,-ere resumed after replacemen l of the
guiJd by the society eaUed the Co llege de
Pharm ac ie (1777) and wen! oontinued dunng
the lifeti me of thi s institution. Th e 5uccesso r
org a n i~! I.!~ es la bli ihed ils o",n " (re e
schoOJ." after the Revol ution, which evolved
inlo Ihe p reH nl-day lac-ullies of pharmacy 01
the Un il-el'5i ty of Paris.
The legi$lati on of 1803 provided , ix hlgher
schonl, ol phannacy for Ihe edu c,l tion of
pharmacists of Ihe fi"t dus, who we re pe rmitted 10 p r.lCtice phannacy Ihro ughou t tbe
nation. It also provided for the examinltion
cf phannac ists of the seoond d ass, who were
dowed 10 practice only in the dism ct where
!hey p!lllsed !heir exam in ation.

01 fdu calWn

77

Havtng pharmacUiti ,I two differe nt levels

o f quaJifieltion w u 1'101Wilhoul pro blems (u
other counlrie$ have fou nd Iikewi5el; and in
1909 the .ecund-c:lass ca.tego ry of pharmacist
was a bolished. A1though o ther prov isions of
the edllcalional structure have also been a1tered periooically, Ihe b uk req uiremenl
un til the 1960's cons is le d of a second ary
school ing 1I the un iw l'5ity-p repill'alo ry "',-ei,
a pre-u ni vers it)' year of apprentice$h ip with
,In offi eially-a u th or lUd pharmacis t (unti l
1962) ilnd a lour- yea r un iversity curriculum,
offrred by ~ veral type! of uni\-erslty faculti~,.

Phannaceutical education, meanwhile, has

bt!en co nside rably affected by the in l"ns e
ree~ iml i n .tio n of Freneh h igher edu cation in
general during the \.a te 1960's_ The old faeulties we:-e replacecl in 1969 by a new i tructure
of "univers ities of .tud ies and of re5earches." Twe n ty-three un iv ers ities of ph ar macellticill s tu d iu wen! d esi gna led_" AI
Pari s the lamous ol d "Faculte d e phann acie"
ha s been d ivided in !wO. One h i lf bt!ca me
part of the University of Paris-South (Paris
XI), haus ed in imp n!lIive new f.ciliti es in
Ihe suburb Cha tenay- ~ a1a bry _ Tb e olhe r
half beeame p ...rt o f the Un iver-sity ReneI:H-~cartet (Paris V) , retain ing the building in
thc e Id un iver:;ity q u.:uu r, Il1O long known
and hono recl inre m ationally.
b eh part cons;sts 01 Ihree of the ne ....
a.:ademic 5Iruclure. (" U. E. R: 1 :' 1 o ne deYOled ma inly 10 the p ro fes.ional CI.Irriculum
leadin! to the d iplom. q wdilying 11.5 a pharmac is t; I nd two othen w here_resel ~.h p re _aominates. EilCh of the 1"'-0 P I ~ cf .d~ Paris
filrul!)' hu been g iven a IIOmewh al different
forus: At the Univers ity Rene-Desca rtes, tbe
ih ree Itruclures (O O p ri H phllrmaceu lical
and biologie seienee,; me chan isnu of a<tion
of medicaments and po iso n; a m! human and
experimental bieJ.cgy. At the Un lvem ity cl
PMis-So uth, the three oomprise phaTllllCl!Utica l a nd bio lo gie .cienees ; Ih u a peu lic
chemblry; I nd hygiene, incl uding the p rotection of man an d h is environment.
The I dmi"ion stand&rd te sludy ph ar-

"

Tht Dtvdopmt nt in

Structur. of Pharmaeeu1D Educatton

(Fnnctl, as lmended 19681

S\>e<;.I

_,.,.-teII.,.,.

. ~ . _licn

Pruel cl ed_l ....

..,~i ..I_'o f .. ftCh
~I.", ....

cliplc .... .. ~n~.tl'"

odml.ion l _

..... 1, ... ,"11 tor

_ ; IOio~

rI>o<>;o I......... 1

~,_"'or. I.~i .....:

_ " , i n I p/II'mo<Y

"'-

iO.dml.i"" to JMJ ...... tho

,itI. "LHjP ," "M"C.~
"'Spel'!" 0' Q~"I!Iao ,I ....
......i. . '_ ....

F,,,,, ""I...... ;IV

~_IIIO_"

",,,,,...-.;"'''';\10 .

_..._.01 ..........._

'''''''''''''OOOOWdI"1

/1"' ...... ' ,1V<I1eo; to

-,

bo~_ .1t..-

f1"'y"' bu't:>tf<Ioe
fiftlov_

I-

_IOd """"".,,,

.-

.. lo>d 01 fim-v-..

TlIird ""i ...... 'y

Fo."'~ ~t>I_"w

,.'

....., . ...o<y.op.ri....,.'

_1'\1_.,, 1,, "

"""""""'-' Y-_.

",,,''''"'
'0
_1'OKio'
!phanTIKin',

".fth ..n-.kw

"""--

_~ I utlon l

Tobo U_"'~"''''''

...

-"'"
_
I....
,.ion .. "'. ond

... ' -... v ....

.. ..

I--

. / ..".1

",-11OIIp/llf1'I'*q'.""
_
_
1010-1_
Io
l_ _
......
.~

i:

".':.'

D t r;tlDpmt nl ilf

Chl/pla 5

fT~na

_.

i
~

{
l

1J I

-r

<

( Sto.. Ptw ....

DipI""'.

macy conlinues to be lhe "bacc3lJ.a~ate"

d iplolTl" frolll. &Ond .. ry 5Cbool. at a h igher
w,vel thln an Ameriun high-'lChool d iplom ..
(5CJ metimea nid 10 boe equi,"alel'lt 10 perhap'

".

.-

.~

iso.
\
Iwo p", _professio nal col1~g~ yun in Ihe
USA) .

Th~ formal curriculum in phannao:y .t

Freneh unh~nitiu requiru a t lust 4 '/:1

yean. The main subjeets $tud ied an: (a)

ml.th~m l.tia a nd . tatistic,; (b i the phys
icochemlcal ,dences of inorganic .. nd 0 ....
gan ic chemi' lry, m ineulogy, analylieal
chemisay And phylKS; Je) Ihe nalural sci
enen of bot.ny, cryplog;uny, zoology, an d
parasitology; (d) Ihe biologkill scit!''' <'es of
biochernis lry , hygit!'nt!', toxico logy, microbiology, and pathology; and (e ) the profe,sion.! INbjttt area' of chemieal pharmacy,
galenical pharmacy, matm. m",dica, pharmacodynamic" and phumaceutkal l",gi~a
rion .
Part of the reform introduced a terminal
spe<:i.ali.zallon in Ihe fiflh year. The student
chOO5" one of thret!' option, Or specialized
tracks : oommunily ph .. rma<:y, indu l lrial
phalmacy, or d inkal laoora tory an.!yses
(termed "biology")--Ihe latteI having Iong
tndition among French pharmacists i5 one
of theil health-care 5ervices. One dilemma
was resolved In f.vo r of maintaining Ihe
"unit)' of the diplom .. ;" that is, an )' of Ihe
three ,peciillizaliorul would lead 10 a d iploma
giving Ihe legal righl 10 practiee as a pharmaeist.
The in-service portion of lhe requiremenb
(contro1led experlence) ...15 rt!dueed in 1962
10 two unequal parl:!l : I six-week stin t afte r
the timt un;w~ i ty y(4lr, thcn "" ad diti on;
tw",n ly weekJ intt!'rpO$t!'d d u ring Ihe I..,t
y",a of IM: 6vt!'-year prog::am. Part of Iht!
qualifybg ellperlence Ulay Oe obtai~d in a
manulacturinJ5 laboratory vr a clinicaJanalylkal laboratory, iI . ,tudent hall chosen
one of those options in which to spedalize,
;md the remalnder 1$ ,erve<! in a communiry
pharmacy, Pos tgradui le programs ar~ 01
course avaHablt!' for those who ele<:1 10 (alT)'
spe~ia l i.ution 10 a more advaneed leve l.
Tho ~ i ludent9 who ""ave the univenity
with ou t co mpleti ng Ihe fuD curriculum mal'
",Leet to qualify U "ulistant phannacists," a
technici.n category initiated in 1969--:ro. ont!'
chMl on the opposite page show:; in ,implifit!'d fonn the ~Lation,hip cf tht!' edua
lional requ~Ult!'nts afte-l968.t"
Befo ~ the ehanget in pharmaceu tial edu-

<I

Littr<lh<r-e

"

(a li on could b", effectualt!'d, some ralher

difikult i" ues hiod to ~ ~50h~d d unng tM
1960's: in~rchangeability cf d iplomas with
olht!'r mem~1'!lI cf the European Econom ic
COUlmunity; how 10 reconcile the pum Ior
s pe<;la1ization with the IrliditionaUy t!'ncyelopedic ch.rac~r of pharmaceu ticill educarion ; and whelher adequa le spe<;ialization
could be achieve<! .nd slill legally acmrd the
right 10 plactice pharmacy to atl graduates.
DEVUOPJ\.fENT OF A LITERATURE

The professional spirit Ihat has anlm.t>td

Ihe d e velopmt!'n l of French pharm.tcy
Ih rough man)' decades lib."ise found ellp~ " ion in profession ..1 literature. The
u rly tre.tilf'S thai guided p hMmal;t!'utical
...-ort<. dt!'rived largdy from lsillmie tDurce5, as
...u tru e throughout Southt!'m Europe, Sy
Ihe 16th century, when we saw Ihe Kademic
Inle~J" o f pharmKisls becoming more vis Ible, Ihe bes l French practitione rs had
~ached Ihe ,tage of gene rating original Ut>t rature ol lheil own. Probably Ihe nrliest was
Michel DusSC'au' s manual of phllnnlCeutlc.l
Il!Chniq~ published in 1561. After Iht!' mid 17th ~n lury the numb"", of books by French
ph.mllIeisls increased, the authorsh ip cf
.am. JO ilI"., trious I1u.I Ih.ir namlS 5"....i".
in tht! h istory 01 se ienee, be)-ond the puo(hlal cirde of philrmac1Sts IhemSf'lves-men
such.s Chans, Leieb\Te_ Lemery, and Geof-

fro,.

11 was . lso in the 171h ct!'nlury Ih.t Ihe fint

loea l pharmacop",ia of Franct!' ap peare d
(Lyon" 1628), whleh was won t!'mulaled by
olher cille" This locaJ:approach to un!fylng
drug ,tandards wa9 not superseded enlirely
unti11818, when Ihe filSl edi tion of lhe Codu
mt di camtl1ll1n'Ii , .
beeame an obli gatory
phanna.copeia for the ""holf' cf Franc",.
A rl ch lite rnture began ...-ilh the Journal 01
the Society of Phannac;ts 01 Pans in 1797jusl 4 )~arll.ut.er the launching 0 1 its German
probOtype-then periodicalt: branched out
divt!'f$e]y during the 19th cen huy_ MUlY conlributtorul 10 their page:; inOuenced pilar-

.)
Th~ O~tJ(lP"'t l'!l

80

i"

)
eh.pur 5

fr~ "CI

m...:y and hea[th Cilre ja. beyond the borders

of France, includ ing Amerlca.
Th .. authors of~ n d l'l'w .Iimulus from the
scentific and cliniul lJ\i.lieu of Pm !, where
ph a rm acy in le racted wilh .den e. and
lI'\edid ne in a way leidom , urpas~~ . (IIpfU " di;r; 6 inc1udn add itional li tera llU'e references, p. 424, for those ",-ho w ish 10 consul t
french hislorioil SOUICe!l 1.1 fi rsl b and .)

'
I, ~2~ ~Q
i

,' @
A. ',,;"':'/"
- . ,,' M
bJ A
bt
~.I' .

.~ M..

...

11
a,~ ~

Jj.)

~ 8

,q"

~ ~

PROMI I\""ENT PHARMAOSTS

ANO SOENCE

E1 \(1J
\1

q ...

~{)m~~'~~
~ ~ r)
~tJtJrf~ ~~ tI Q t
~ ~i~ ! -~;= -1
~~
@ ~4)~
'I"

--

L~

:l=...:.:!!

The

d\ .rllC~ f"r

Fl'en.ch r nuJ:llIcloet and th,i r , maJI laooratQ ru.., abo "t the middle ol the 19th cenl"~ry.
ur by this p.a.flde of eq uipment. Reprod uc..c lrom a p rirt! lal of a Para

ii almofl tangibly <:a:'lj urd

ca,.... Ihe numbe..d

i~"" ~ft

10 "3"ll

.l.~'

I. Mahopny dispi")' rKk 1"ilh cylirldriaol

cover
2, J , l eech )ars

si....

f . Jar ror awdieamen:s

S, 6, 7. Show-,.. indow bo ttles 4g1obe-sha ped,
um, haped a nd "gg-sh apt!<.i)

The prominence oE tll e namn of ph armacist5 in ttu? Fre nch develo pmenl of Icilm ce
was no mino r or Ir.uuitm)' phem:nnenon. AIre" dy oll the end of the 18th ~n tury , the f.o-

1(1. Co",",,,,, j~n with conH Pari, markr.

an<! Ch irw:1<! ~Ovu s tyles, rtspectlnty
Il. 12. 13. CE r~m!.c pNllmaoy jan. witn CnillESE.
a.;om and co r.HJ< WH' . ty~. IUpocti .... ly
14. Cast ifl)ll mo:Ur. ",ith peile
15. M~rbI. aort.ot
16. ~rpenti"" mQrt.ot
17, I B. Sm aU ""'1'mhne m<>!1U I, witn .nd witn out 6p
19 . '\V"* "'""t.... ""th Pf'.u.
l(J. Gt. dwo.:cd meu u..'1t
21. L.mp 10. spi .i t gf wine (i.e . ~nyl alcohol)
22. Bulb of bvcmetu
23. 24. Pestll:s of gu"i.c and of boxwood
25. Ruten l bo~
26 . Lo n l!- nE cked, round-bo tlo m tluk wHh
Sround glall stopp ...
17. SalM withoUI fUbf,
_ 21. Cuc:urbi l (Le., bolle.; ... ,Ih dislillarion head
29. Tut...l.ated rtlo!1 will! pound-sJ .... ltop pe.30. Cu ~d adapter o. co uple.
31 . StTlight w?,er O' wupler
32. F10rmtine lYa!i .... r
33. Eye rup
34 . Focted. q lineler
35 . Mortlr 01 t\<,.I~,b,u d porcelain
3fi . GI .... mo:tar wilh pe,tle
J7. Test tube
36. Disinfecting boule
39. Bollie ... ilh .toprod, for I)'1"\IP 01 ~he r
8.

~.

Pro~;,tt1lt

Phgrm:(iI aruf Sdeltu

81

moU' chemi5t I. A. Cha plill obterved tha t.

"The re lations betv;een chemistry snd pharmacy an! 10 intimate that they ha ve boeen
c;onsid ered for a Iong time a5 one and Ihe
:'41 Sy the nil~ of the
l ame !lCieru:e
ph arma dstlil' centrill task of el rug maki ng,
they camtd oyer inlo general chtmica.l work
~ "e mphui5 on factu ill. em p iricaJ dilta .t
tM "'pe nse of lheory," wh ich in thi& period
ma y h ave been m Ol"!! advanta ge than handicap, as one It:ading pharmacist after I no ther
made rus ma rk 15 a supe rb "nalyst o r topRolch experirrumtalat.
Du rin g Ih e 19th cen tu ry, mo re ov er,
ph arm aci u-ch e miSls cont in ue d to a p ply
their chemi.try-based resources wi lh grea t
versatil ity in l udi d iVi'~ field 5 115 biolO)'.

ikl. Unc!omed conserv. jar w ilh ChL-w_sIyJe

lid
41. Woulf Iluk with o ne tube below
", fJ . Woulf flub whh n.o .nd tt.r-M tubu
.bo,~

H. 45, 46. Cl~" - 1I0 p pered bellle.. o ne whh

g1 u.s-labf,l
47. N...,ud boltle for dil tiDed Wll1I!f
48. Sal'-moottl. s!\ort-Mcke<i boI:Ie
4g. \\-ldemoulhed be ule for heros
SO. Funu.ce wilh copel~ f
SI . Fumace witn b uin
52. Tu be fum~
53. Reve..wr. tory fuTTUl<"<l!
54. AIkalimelel
55. SpillU ll
56. Cuppil\g giasl
57. GIns Io , e~ perimenl
5/1. Ingot moId
Sg . Sip kon
60. S- lUbe
6l. Pipe tte
62 . 8\o... pipe
&3 . 8 u,.,...ltt
64 . Oval <;upping glase, Engli.k
6.5. Infant f"'ld.ing-bolt \e
66. Du ... er labe! .
(Pho,.,gnph. University of W i!KOnsin . l""Or.l a
broc:hure of Ancie:uw Mai3on. Adoque. Vime""
Vieillard &: Cie. SUca:Slon.)

y
82

Tht

D~lopMtnt

C},4 ~!"

in FrQ"u

hygie ne, therapeutia .nd tolricology . " In

Ihis sense," Alu &! rman .:onduded. "seien ce WilS CWlivaled by many 19th-cent\Uy
F~nch phannAci sl5, ro r its own a.Ue, where,",ver il5 .pplicalions migh t leild
.lhe
cumu lative r~ul ti wert! imp ressive: new
thenpeu tic .gents were uncol'e l'le d, nl!w
elements brol.lghl ja light and chuactedzed,
and \"i.riolU significant beclmiques and . ppara tuS" .... ere introduced :'
Thi rty-two page, cf IM histoT)' of French
phann;sgr written by And.ePontier .nd {8
p agn c f Bollvet'. hislory'" are deYObed to a

brie f enumeration of famous French ph.nrua

eis Is frem Ihe 17th to the pre,ent centuIy.
These men intensivel)' a nd often de.::ilIive!y
promoted scien tific progress In the different
brancl\e, of !he natural !ciences. While so
doing.. &OT/1e 0{ them ser"o'ed eheir country in
prominent positions with remarkable suc
eess. Some name, have already been men tioned . A ~w further e)(amples (fo r whom
biographie no te, may be found in Appendi:c
7) a:e Balard (1802-1876), Bayen (1725-17%).
C.ventOu (1795--1877), Parmentier (17371813), Pelletie r (1783-1801.2), PrOU5t (17541826), Robi qutt (178G-1840). G. F. Rouelle
(170)-1770) and N S brother H. M . RoueUe
(171S-1778j, smillas (117 ......183Z), Soubeiran
(1797- 1858) and Vauquelin (17--18l9).
Thirleen pharmacisl$ w en members of the
Fre!'lch Academy 0 1 Science be fore 1803; six
phannacists w ere membe,., o f this Academy
in 1936 and eleven ph armacists w ere membe,., of the French Audemy 01 MecUcine. 4 '

HOSPITAL AND AffiITARY

PHAIlMACY

w.,

Mod em ha' ;nlal phiormacy

beim in Pari, in
Ihe urly 19th century , A. a Ijl'ecull), il cansti
flllecl one cl t:he unique featt:.reI b Ihe cle~lopo
menl of ? !urmacy in Frana:' .nd ,..as wi t!>oG t
prKedenl in OIher countri .... r.= in C ....... ilny
.... hert Frtnch pham\;llCisl5 enooWllertd thei, most
Itnmid..ble ,~~nti6e .nd ptnIowional rivaiJy."

The role ol lhe hos pital phann<>eist in !his

Pffiod h as been characterized md d",tin-

Born "n.l. hu:nb~ Normano:!y farm, L..:>l . Vauquelin b~ilme .l. pharmocy Dwnc. in Paris , e"o'mtu.lUy re.c.... ma I ,a..ntifi~ distindion t:u.t u med
him lbe tit~ of ~val i.n of tru. Lesion 01 HoftOr
" 'Iel his I?poinlmml b)" Na p<>le<m &5 dirKtor 01
lhe .choal 01 plunn.cy at Paris, "'1d lat~. u pro
fHlor 01 ehe",,":,), in th Jarelin ~. PL>ntn.
(D:awin a by J. Bomy. 182[); ColJection L. 5erpn t;
repmducd fmm Still. Soc. H i.! Plu",n , No. 65.
1929)

guished fro.'TI both mon astic and Ja)' predecessors as follo.w 5:

1'0. OM thing. he w as . UI}' pr;aetiticone: an d n(Jt
:ne",~ 01. f'fllgico1lS order. Unlib me Englh
h""?ital lpotlw!cary col Ilw! 18m 100 urly 19th cm11!ry, lw! did 1\01 usume th e d ual rote of p!urnu.
cist ilnd minco: ",,..{kill pnd ilior..er. The Parisi...
IIolpital phiomuoC ;"1 "'"' municipal emple>yH,
... lected con Ilw! b .... i. cf I rompetiti .. e eltlminaticm
(t<)nCO ~,..) . nd, Ifkor 1314, rtO'Uited ho:n lhote
baving wrnp~led iln Intern .hip in hc. pital PM 'm ocy . Tho! intem.hip bea:1\! more . nd mof'f im
portanl during Ihe wune of Ilw! mntury. nco: only

)
H aipi ta! " "" Mi/ilary PIo"nII""Y

83

fcor .U ffing hos pit al pharmadu bU I l ilO in

Ilimul. tlng fo ung ph ..mac'ltI to Mcot:te ~d.. n.
ti ,lS. Thi. roo:'w h.:.",tal pharmaciat ..... , ..n .. rally

Qriented I_ud resean:h and Will olten an exotl

lent analylieal dI"",i,1 wco",ing in the Selds of

biodle mi, lry , toJ<icclo,y, .nd

h~gie:\e.

n"...

wi lll Ihe pa!lSiJll 0( the YU, I tnditico:\ 0( seim

lilie em.inence ....... n tabli slw!d . and we ..,,, Ilw!
h<>S?ltal pharm.ldsls cof Paris acq uiring I dvanced
d~~, becoming rn_be 01 Iooam~ 106Mlu
.00 prelen,,:. in tlw! ... rio,," Fac ulti os. rn.king
origina l di "","erin. nd p ublish ing in JeHlled
joumala.

As i n Ihe comrn unity pharm<>eies, dinkal

!illboratory wolk hai ~t!m an IUlportilrll fu netion oE hoep ieal pharmaci.tl!I, but recently IIS
volum e and compl e)(ity make il dlfficult for
the ho.pital phil.l1J\i1ci't to M illi hill tradition.1 role of join l d irKlor of Ih ... pharrnillC)'
Ind the medieal b ioche UliclI.1 servit .....
HOi pitai phannacy hold~ . spe<:ill piace in
mili tary 5e.....i ce, " 'here we find Ihe Ff1!rIeh
pharmad~t fi ,.,t mentioned in 1630,n Frorn
the beginning he WaS plaeed o n Ihe Silme
fOOling w ith the surgeon. The permanent
office o("a pot hecary-rnaj o r 01 the battlefi dds
and the arm~, of lhe king" was ereated In
1766 ( a litle usu.lIy abridged to " apo!h
eCllry-miljor general").12 To acco rd wilh Ih e
rill .. of "';"".... i",~"","ll"r gttltTal held by the
leadi ng military phYJician , th is lilie W&J replaced (1824) by the designation plumr.~d~"
ir..!ptcftllr gttltTal. The French milit.ry phar.
macis ls, caUe<! phllmu,ntlU-chirnij!ti. h.ve
enjoyed (since 1928) ranks eq ual with thO$e
o f the army ph}"5U:ioons.
In the phllrmaci!lls' e[folt 10 ",oid !ubor
dination -Io military medicine, " the most &Ig.,
nifiean t [aclor WitS the impressive d isplay of
thei r .fCien tific accom plishmen l5-ill dillplay
with out p recedent in p har ma cy of the
Engl.iJ.h-speaking world . and urunatched by
military pharmillCY in o ther Europea n coun!ries at Ihal time ."'l
Many o f Ihe bHt-Juy;,wn French phann.cisl:$ h ave seen se .....ice in Ihe .umy, such &J'.
A . A. P arm en li er (1737- 1813). All hough
farnou, forreseuch in food chem istry, wh lch

Eme,1 F. A, Fo umuu (1872-1949) ....ho own..c

a ph.rmacy for "'&nY yeal'l, tose 10 int-.TT\IIli"nal

far.w as I brillianl in"e5t;ga:o r in pharmaceutiCl!

~hfmi.l r~. For )Q yun hf di reeled Ihe
chemot herapeutic laboratof)' of t~,e Plsteur Insti_
' ule . ,..hose resureh pavN Ihe way fo r s ulfonamide prod"ell. produced piOroo:'f: an lih' ..
lammk asents ilnd yi~ lded other I!gnilicant dis_
coven .... When F<)cmnu !ioIn: Ilw! above pklUre
10 c..orge L"t&ng (19-17), he inscribK ;~ On ~
bloCk, "With cord i.l homlgf foom phanru.c,.."

"~amed

Ms ele.::tion to the French Arldem)' 01

Scicnces. Parmen tier remai ned for most 01
h is car"'er in mili tary phann.~}'. He w as
Ch il!'f Pha nnacist al [nva/idel, and eventually
became Inspeclor Genenl of the Health Oe
partment of the Armi~5 of France.
The pharmad5t-general eh. Lau bert, of
Ihl!' so-~aJled Gra~.u ~ rm!~ of Napoleon t eTljoyed the special ronfidence of the Empenl r.

"

T~ Dntl(lpmul in Fr~"ct

)
C~lIpt"

uy .fter lang study of Fnm ch phannacoplanned a mini 10 Itamp coiN out of lhe gold acimtific deonlopmenl$: " .. . The h islori4n
Vtd Ihe silvet thai IN> fm'lch tuod !ound in ~me5 Iwan of dominant chanoeteristlcs
the conq~red city. Vvlltn uked ",'hether he not present in the dl!Wlopment 01 phannaey
knew soCleone who could nt up . nd O~nt~ i n the EngIish.spoe<lking wodd, naIMly a tic:h
a mini, the Emperor Vt swered , "Don' , wo! diversity and veTSatility ,md an impre_;".
have our pharmacist-generaJ? 1 comminion .dentiSt o rientation which resulted in con
moorions to the 5elds cl chemislry. h}'giene
turn w ith r\~rrthing! "
Jt was Ws remarkable versatility- in .. and public health, tol<iCQIogy and Iherapeudiffe ..... nt contv;t-that led Mex Benn"n 10 tics:'"
Af~ r the ,;'ge of MaKO"" in 1812, Napoleon

6
The Development in Gennany
of manufacture of specified pltlduC~'ere
.
accorded by Ihe ruling luthority through a
Pharmaciu may have a ppured m G~nnany pn'~iltgi~m, th~t is, 5pei:il.1 privil~gn gnll\ted
during Ihe 13th eentury, but queshons of on Ihe bas is of dulie! canofuUy stlpul~led ,n l
definition le~ve uncertainty. Dur;n.g t~e signed _nd , uled documenl c~rry ing full
MiddJe Ag ~, Ihe nwnber of phattnaoslS ,n legal power.
Germln communitie, remained too SIndl 10
Such a contr~ct-typicaJ of the feuda l sy'
!nah pharrnaceutial guilds or guildlike aj; ' lern, especlaUy in Gennan)'-wu beslowed
lIOCiatiOn5 pC)55ible. P~armacisls were fo~ed on a pharmadst, fot example, by an ind io
at times 10 join I guild of anolher callmg, viduill ruJer or by In a risloaatic goveming
si nc e so me dtie6 in Germ ~n y (. nd t~e bod,' of a prindpillity cf the Holy Rom an
Guman-speaking part of Sw, :zerland) ~Id Empire. This pril!iltgi~m tou ld be of various
nol allow trades:nen not belongmg 10 a guild types. 11 rnighl co nc.ern the pharma~ ~t5' es
to operate busmesses.
la blishmenl in whlch case the rK'plent of
Fot examp!e, in esteemed gui~ds in Kas$el the "privilege" would have to buy Ih e buildand in BaMI, ~omprised of Jud ,,,!! cornJrul.... ing. Anothe r type of " prlvUege" ml&:'t con.
ci~J groups ~d IMmbers cf the ll\telle~;;u IM I proviso Ih" 11 would end w,th the
professions, phann..dst5 nOI onl)' w~ 1[Il~ granlee', dea th or, c:onveBeIy , that it would
mem~", bu l often were elected to omce.
be heredit;I.l)'. 1I might be a type granll"d by a
Genn;tn phannadsts often obj~d to be- ruJer withollt reslriction, in which CIse the
coming memberr; of tllot! guilds c f crdinary phannacisl . l any tiD'le co uld l ell Ihis exclure tailers, and in such a " ~a~ge.of con.ven- .. I ive right 10 operate a P':t0lJ'lT\i\C)' in the ar@a
ic!nce" o nly Ihe commefClal sl~e Of~e phar- IptlCi1iEd.1. An "exclu,lve" . lI(!;h l-by no
m..:isl's activit)' was ~ubjeded to'~a regu- miins r~ up to the 11th ce nlury-exduded
larion.'
the establishment of anothe r phannaC)' in the
comr:1unity o r the _rea concerned , no maUer
how large Ihe population mighl gmw.
SYSTEMS OF PHARMAC\'
Eithu with o r wlthout the "exdusive"
OWNERSHIP
fight, privile(!;et remained the 1151,1_1 legal
basis of philt'lN.des in the Gennanic ,tales
Feudal Gr~tII cf "Pri-rilege"
untillhe early 19th cenlu!'}'. From thEn on, nO
Cc n trols guaranteed 10 merchants and new "privil~ges" were gr. nted, generally
crafts!Jun by their guild5-for exampll', the spuldng, a1 lh ough Ihe old On!5 were nollll"do5e'd Jhop" ~d th~ monopoly 0( sale an d va!idated.
TIfE BEGlNNINGS

"

)
Conc~,.1on SY't~m

The arbitnriness .00 the Ilnlimiled ",,tho rit)' re~led in the oId feudailIll'chanllm
we rt re placed by a competiti ve system of
pnling govemmenl ~cc n"",mcn" 10 cpIf r.!e each pharm;acy '!ervins a spe.:ified SE'gmen! 01 I~ population . Thf' conCe:55 ion 5)'5tem re<:ognized .. Re W time, without a b.,"d o n in g Ih e German ""lue s o f regula led
order. dign ity and quality in phannaceutical
de ...elopment.
If w e ino re minor differe~ i n pmv isions ameng thf! various ~rman 51ate1, the
proced ... re may be summarized as foUoW!l :
The town, o r aru in .. lown, wnert a ph armacy was d~lJI'e d to be needed , issued
pu blic .nnouncement. Intereste d phannaeisl, we re in viled to apply. A oommission
com p a red the qualifications of the appli ,anl$, b ut , in general. the rig.."I' toopente Ihe
pharma c:y (the "conce5s ion") tended 10 be
ilwill'!ied 10 the employed pharmacisl who
had bee n lo nge ~ 1 in practice.
These valuable right5 oould be neilher sold
no t inherl~d in som~ G~rman slal~s . However, in tht largest 5tate (Pru5l5ia) , .. concessio n hold~r couid nominale his 5ucre:!lSOrwh ich, il"l praclice, was almo5 \ equivalenllo

CO\1f\try (oll< viaiti,..g lhPir~;ll~e pharmadst in

.he 16th to:ntury. Thi . ...oo<ku' from " bookkt
rout "'r>ol1l G ..-man c:n iU an<! ;rn>iesliom haod
in mY'IW . ~ath i . the ph nn;loci,t ...."ing (in
GtTm&lI):

In "'l' F!>amuoty IIY-,oc ploc!

)'!ud> ...... ..-.aI of~' tute.

SUlu

wi'" . pIc1o."".!nO
1 P""?U"

CM ".'hlrtb ... ~

[ hbw iH .akOft.
Abo 11;> . ... "C'-\en ihr oid oac:! '-' " ..."NI<
M... y ..tf p rep....,~ IOnk I _lo...
Fot oll lhlo. "". dooc:r' ......;.:.. I lun
Wlw!tu' th, Fatie:ll'l ...u.. _ no

(Wood",,. by 101. Am",an ; rttymes by HaruJ Sac:hs,

in Eygen.Uc..y ~.dll'e;blU1g . ., Frankfurt ...'M,
l568; th",ugh !DU'llierter ApothUe-r- K. lendu,
Sru tts , rt, 192.'5. )

System' ~!

p"",,..ucy OWPlers"ip

"

rlght of .a1e or of hereditary traMmi.lion . The govenunen t (O\l.ld !oJ.y " no" to a
nomiruation, bu t seidom did ~. The "co nces. ion" 10r a pruum a.cy pr;actl.caUy iUSur<!d a
large and prosperou.s profes5>onal practice:,
&0 il was a sought-4fter property of high
value, (and henc:e caRed a Real-Ko!IUssion).
Such conotssions nny ing Ihe "righl of presenli tion" ....ert d iscontinued ew:n in Prossilo beginning in 1894.
The p.ttern of . .... aretina: a permil fo r a new
pbann...:y, or vaeated oId ph.mn...:y, Wa5
by competilive il'election .mong .ppliants
(Iermed a " Pt""I1III-Ko"uJ:!ilm) unde r w h icll
the 5l!led<!d ph. rmadst ha d Ihe rigill to o pI!n :e the pharm aey only during h is lifeliml! .~
Unlike Ihl! speculallve n lut of a "real" conce5s ion. thl! " personal" conCf!Mion chang~
hands on paymenl of only tht v.uu e of Ihl!
stock and equl p men l, and pouibly I certain
amount fo r Iny ~ pH.llmpro\'e memti made.
Until Afte r Wort d War TI German ph arma.eist, opemted under a ny On!! of Ih ree lyp" S of
permi!; tor, "'hen one oi Ihe German s lales
modified itlt permlt i yslem. Ihe Iction wn
not ret roac!ive. Hence in some pharmacies
righls thai had been granted in a remo te time
persiste :
1. Prilli/' giQ could be i$posed of qu ite as
Ih. OWTI ,,", migh ' dni ....
2. R,Q/-Kol1'u""'''" could be tnnsmitted b v
sale o r inheritance, hul gO\'e mment con'firmaliOll of each tn.nsfe r w ;at required .
3. f'tTS()nQ/-Kom:u ,;cm gi _oe Ihe right!O the
o peratio n a nd Ih e ]ncome of a pl rl icul a r
phiUUlacy for a person', Ufetime on the basl$
o f pro fess ion.1 lIuiti l a nd . especi.ny , of
Jength cf service: u an employid phlrmacist.
Being I personal concession 10 a particula r
pharmacist, it co uld not be!lOld orinherited.
Exceptions to these utegorits Wl!fe usually
pharmacies ow ned by communilies, by OI'"
ga:,izationa or b)' Ihl! oId ari$tocricy.
Munldp.al ilnd Prlncely Phannades
A few ph.mnacies in celtlin German , tales
wen! owned by the governrnent "r by fo rmer

"

Tht Dorodopmtnl in GtrlfloVlY

)
C/I.pt,. 6

SY5fnn! 0/ Phtn7ftacy

Ow~rs/lip

"

so veJt'igns, ai1e:r Worfd War . Most of theS(' ei ple was lbandon~ in Pruui.J. fo r only one
had been "tl~ in the 16th .. nd 17th year (18H11. with IM introduction of general
cenw.ries U Ihe COIllt pnarmacies of Ge:muon Iiberty 10 praetice a ny caUing iGewer/ltprinC". Then pharmacies often had alao frdhtilJ . Another exception. for almo.t a Cetlbeen llperated by Ihe larger munkipali tin, lury, 'w as Hamburg-a city i n uetlced by
especWly in Ihe imperiill. alies, which pos' England as a re~ull of it l locltion .nd
Sf'5Sf'd Ihe urne g~mmental sovereignly "' Irade-where anyone ..."ho co uld pn;we hit
Ihe Germ." p rincu 01 Ihe li me. 6 The pharmaeeutical knowledge ....as permitted to
munjcipalili e9 d id not d eri",e Ihe advantage ' f en ,. pharmacy. How ~ r, Ihe d ifficulties
from Ih elr pharmacies thai Iher had u- o maintaining profe:ss ion;l! s tanda!s and
pected. so Ihey lea, ed or sold them . Still, in order broughl back, in 1818, a limitation on
tnO~m timl!$, commun itie$ in some of tht
the number of phannacif~ in relation to the
Ge= 5talu (Anhalt, Bad..", HessLa. a.rod population &frved.
Thuringia) h-'Ci govemmmtal pennission 10
The gene ....1 tradi tion of co ntro1Jlng Ihe
f:5la bli sh pn;;lIrmao: ies in pLaces where tht numbe r and Ihe distribu lion of pha rmago~~mmenl eo nsidered them to be needed.
cies---al a certain priee in freedom of opporThese pharmllC~' we~ \ea.sed to phamudslll tunity and decision--d id ac:hieve. high and
who we~ !Jt!~ed in the U$u.aI war, by pub- unusually unifonn level of professional praclk co nl"! in ",hich. the \o:ongth of service u
liee, appeuance and pride in the German
an employee in ph.rm..cie~ played a .udsi",e pharrnaeie$, a of whleh h..tve been d evo ted
part. On 1934, HeII!i. still had 23 such corn- ellduJively to health-nlated and technkal
le rvices.
munaJ. pharmilcies IInong a total of 128. )
A5 w ith the nrl)' municipal pharmacie"
the lint Germ." attem p t at so ciali z;e d Limitation Overthrown
philrnlocy-th.i t b. phll'!l'la<:y as an instituA fundamental turn .. way from the tradi
tion of the ,ta te. (onduct~ by phar:n,ceuti- tion.tl limita lion on the number of pharcal official5-f,Ued fin;l nci<illy. The Duke of maeies came .t the emse of World Wa.r 11,
Brunswiclr. tried lhi, uperiment as u rl y a!I when Ihe four military oo:upation ZOlles of
Ihe seeo nd h.II 01 Ihe 13th centwy, when he Ge rmany bl!(aml! regulated llnOer diHelti'l
bou llht ' h. ph,..maci .. s in his country, conpb and cil"C\1lYl$ tlll\Ces. The American
creabrd nlral phuma.:eulical admin i ~t l'll tone i ntrodu{~ the lree dorn 01 establishing
tion iUId laboralo!)', and. CO!ntral department pham\.l.cies; Ihe Brili$h and French %Onu
fo r the pu.td\.uot of .l\ dmgs and suppiil!!l. nmaiMd in principle w ith the "cono;ess ion '
After 2(1 yel!1, darinS ...hidt neither the elt- sys tem: while in Ihe Soviel ElStern zone Ihe
pected pro fi t was achieved nor better service pharmaeiH gradua.1ly CAme under socialized
rendered to the puNic. the pharmacie~ were govemment operalion. This proceS! co",iIOld 10 privale indfViauals.'
. !!~!! unti l .!, .!!~_regulaEo!l._ "r..~~s.U!4- :-_
~ All oHhl!!le 'dif~renl systems of-regubtlon afterthe foundmg -of the West Ottman tt:
fou nd in Ihe hhtory 01 German ph,nn<lC)' pubUe.
Then came court proceedings culmlnaling
agree in one ded.dve principle: the Iimita.tion cf the number of pharmacies. Thi5 prin- in Ihe " Karb ruher Urteil." adecision under
the poslwar consti tution that made freflIom
o f Ioo;ation of phannades general .tIer 1959
Ho.pltal Phannacy aI ~'Iunidt. as repra!'ntN in throughoutlhe West Germ .. n republic. To be
a mid-11t!l-century e"8Tuing: by W. Kilian. swe, the spec ial pharmaceuticaJ righ ts .nd
(Frorn M. lAiger MiCl'Cl<XCTlWl Hypochondriacus, privileges were not rescinded, bu t they were
facina p. 240, ~1un lch. 1652;!hroup TM National made worthlesa by a .... hoUy new . ituation
Iha t permi tted new pharmacies 10 mushroom
l ibrary of Med.irine)

)
90

TM

Dt~IOFm tn l

in Gtrm."y

from Ine Genn;m u n d. Whueu i n 1951 the~

w ere .bout 5.000 commun ity pharmacies
operaUng in West Germ.ny, two decades
later Ihe munber h ad morc Ihn dnubled .
The aver'ge number ot citluns ser, ed by
eaeh phartnKY h;td fallf'n frorr. 9587 in 1950
to 5122 in 1970. The universilin, :n the e.. rly
1970's, could acco mmodate only I ' raction oe
Ihe q uaJified stude:nt:5 who wished to study
ph.armacy.
Whlle many }"oung ph.nrutds ts tende d to
"'''' Ine breOlkdown of the old ownl!I1h ip re-:
StriCtiOl'15 i n terms 01 opportunity, there " 'ere

)
Mo ""pDly; Prius;

Chrqtter 6

CilIh from oIder pharmacista for "vigilance,

lest the high prore,sional stmding of ~r'
miUI pharmacy is 105t.'' The President of the
Hamburg Chamber of Phann acists in 1960
said, " The put expe riern:es in Gerrmmy and
inothn oountrie!l abroadclurly indicate that
this road [freedom of Ioca lion] should not be
,ttemplled agam.'"
Wh,! make, the fJH:r sys tem mo re problema!;, for Genrum pharmllds.s in reo:en!
yel t:5 hu tM:en the introduc:tion 01 new
dass of supportive pen.onnel into Ihe ph ~r
maci es, ",hich seems almoSI 10 ~~a le a new

pharmaceutkal caln g an<! has proved attrac<

among German Jeulh whe do nel under
take work" teward lome type of u ni~rsity
degree. Under cond ition $ set by a law effet
tive since 19 68, the edu~ ation al. requi~men t
ro T tedmic:a1 nrutant 10 pharmacist is
two yeu s of ,tu4 y (h avi n g con ,iderab!e
pharmaceutical contentJ in a 'peci.il .moa!,
foIlo ...-e4 by a half yeat of on-, ile training in a
ph oarmilC)' befe re ex.aaUnation. "

ti~

MONOPOLY; PRICE$; " DROGERIEN"

Mo,t of the prilli!tgill isSlled betwun Ihe
14lh and the 18th cenlurin oontained in
struc lions abou t th e man.gem enl of the
phumacy and enumerali ons cf monopolin
gran tle4 the p larmac:ist. eftlen induc!ing even
l uch producl, 1.5 , uga r, s pi(!~s. liquo rs,
wirte.. lob acco. coIfee and chowlale. Some cf
these were II..5I!d in mediclne and were costly
l ub$ lanees . However, Ihe maln rea'lOn for
reser....i.ng them fot sale by ph ~rmadsts was a
pres\lrIled nef! d 10 U$ure a livelihoo d 10 an
essential group whe~ profHsional fun ction
was too limited q wonlilative!y . For e~am ple.
a privilege granled I phann.arul in Lands berg a.W . in 15aS, expl iciUy ' Iated Ihal he
must be gi\-en a mcncpoly of the trade in
.pie ...., win .. ;U\d liquo rs. becaux It would
be impo::>SJ; ible ror h i rn 10 um his livelihoocl
fI(lm the nie c f medicamen ts cnly.' The
same i4ea was ex p ressed in many La","" c rdinam:es and edict8. The Cmlnl cf 5<:hleiz i n
Ihe 17th cenllll)'. for exam ple. admonifhed
the town au lhc ritiu Itl proted Ihe pharmacy
from inegal competition by c rdinary re"laileri
~ I "thl.'tFloUs jewel 50 u~'T t-1lilioT
town and country becomes dalllged or e~n
perishes!"'Late r on, Ihe InOnopoly rights of
the pharma.cis ts became restricled more and
more to m ed icaments. Nue rth elus. Ihe
fundamental concept of governmenlal obli
gation to protect the phnmades in beh~ lf cf
Ih e public weilIre hl5 nOI been changed .
A consequel"l(e cf Ihe Genn.an principle cl
mai n tain ing I jUli b.t. n ~e belween th e
rights and the d u ces of the people by legal

" DTOg~ril"H

'I

regulation w l5 thilt gcve-mme!ltal lim ita tien

cf competition h ad to be suppleme nted by

governmental prot:eclicn cl Ihe people from
abuse 00 lhis restrictlon. Th is implie4 early
introduction of r<!guJ.ted p rieu (e .g . the
legal,ystem of Frederick 11 cf Hohenstaufen )
!cr remedies sold by pharmad5t5 who held
mono pc lLs Ik p rivileges. " It ga ...-e ri se 10
elaborate list, of gO\'('mmenlilllly fi xed price$,
wh ich in modem fc nn slill regu1ate cc mmerda! relations betwee n the p harmacists and
the public, wilh in tended mu tual benefil.
The price 1islll c f a U Ihe 5maller Gerrnan
s ta tes and the ind ividu al oown5," wh ieh
wilh a lew exception, had grad u ally disappeared in the 19th cen tury. were replared In
1905 by the fiQI govemrnenlal1y fixed d rug
price, e bligatory fe r Ihe enl~ Gennan Ernpile. t\ew editions h,,-e been i5$ued periodicaDy in acrord wi th chilge, in whelesale

pneu.
This Anll t illll: t not only fi~e:s priee$ ror
d rugs . bul also se t, feu for Ihe phannilce utica! work dcn e i n filling pre!lcription s. in acccrdance w ith Ih e amounl cf time required
and Ihe te~ hni.callkm Involved. u
E.-en after the monopoly ri ghts c f pha..-ma
cis ts gra dua ll y u rne IC be li m ite d to
remeciies. there was 'por.. 4 ic q~jng betwe<:n thc phOlnl\adsts and would_be Corn_
petito rs. Many c f Ihe ediclll iIJId la...~ con
ce m in g pha rmac)' throug h Ihe cen t uries
tried 10 deal wilh thh lubject." Again and
Igain. the govemmenlll cf the varicus G~r
man ~ tale~ sta ted Ihe kinru. of producls re~ rved to ph;mnades imd lhose th.at migh t be
"""iIaebtWhere.
_ . . _:...
~ _, _
__ ._
The c rig inal tendency ro resetve- in' dit- .-:-.
~
pensing (1( remedies to philIIJ\ildsts unde rwen t a grad ual change. Cc nces 5io ni had
been made le the M ~ 'trial;sun, a comb il\ll_
li on o f retaii gracer and hardware d eale r.
Further con~es,icn.s op ened the retall Irade
i n spiee5 and cesmeliCli le e\-eryone. In 1872
Ihe first of a series cf Impe rial edieb l ock oul
o f Ihe pharmac~ulica! monopoly all Iln prepared .nd unm ixed d rug&-With toe exoep lion c f. nwn ber c f ver)' pote nt e nes. -an4 an

"

TlIf Dt1Itlopmmt in Gf rma"y

)
ClII/?'" 6

prepara lion. lo ld avo w ed ly fo r IIse as no n-prucri plion dmS' ~5 lricled to pharcosmetics, foods tuff, d ie tetie aids And pre- mac:ies remains the same a5 beIete (i n IM
venlives (even 11 lhese had some properties USA sought. bul not I.ulhori ud , for pharIh al ler med heallng or pAlliative). One mull mol,eiu U I. so-called "lhirQ dU!" of drop).
....15 a nrw al1 of advertising. drveloped ID
The sho p s o f Ihe Germa n "dmggills"
reD\Ove from the pharmaoceutical monopoly CDrogUlml main their speci..al charncler, but
u man)' remedin U po5sib le by labeHng still in se ll in g dro gt have no s pecial
lhern cosmetics Or dietetic aid$ or, abo\"C! ali, p rivilegf/$ difkren t from a 5Upermarket o r
as p~ntivu (even though Ihe primary use e the r l'ype5 of rt'tail shops. Ne ither Ihe 1aw
of ~ome su ch products was medicinal) .
on the prnetict 01 phannltCy of 1%0 n or the
dmg Law of 1% 1 Ihr<mk Ihl! area ave r whirn
AJ Ihe edicl3 did nol enurne nte wh.t "'U
a1lowed for Irer trade b ut oN y sta.led Ihe Ihe Germl.. l pharrnadsl N S responsibity.
kinds of pre paraliona reserved to the phar- The drug law ,harpened stipulation, conmaciel , many po55ibililie-s fo r inlerpretation ce ming Ihe claims made for drug', Iheir
were left open. Out of these posaib ilities man ulacw.re, Ihe speci.i.1 regis tralion c f progradu aUy de\'('loped a d i ~ tin" class of . hops prie tary s peciallies, the d istributio n of d rugs
called Droguitll,sp<!Cializing in tht! ,alt! of and th e n~ guardin8 . nd Ihe control 01 Iheir
~hn.iea] chemieais. cosmeties, dirtetic a id s.
\I5e . During Ihe eufy 1970"5 the appropriateii P>CU, can dl', dye-s, toiletries , vAmime nd nes, of fu rther elaooration 01 cvntro!s OVN
all thc $e drugl and remediu thai w ere nO I medi cin al producls agaln w n being de biIted
restrictN to phar.nacies, or Ihal could be !K) in thl:' " Bundf:Stag" and in the press. A proin terpreled .
po:;ed 5C!crl nd drug law con lained a nwnbrr
Th ese I hop. (in su perfi cial appeannce like of controversial feature s Affechng: drug manbelow-average Amerlca n dNg~ lo ..U , but ufach:.ren, and indirectly Ihe phnmaelst and
wi thoul any potent d rugs or pn'scrip lion ihe patient."
service) Are operated by DrogiJltll (literany
dNgg ish," but in no re'pect be ing or
colUi~red to be pharmacists). The o\o\"lle rs of
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION
Ihe Drcg(rin have had since 1871 a quile
separale and ver)' acti"e organization . .....'hile
During Ine e lrly pe rlod, th" prv[tJSional
~ numbtr 01 sud! ,hop~ has tMded to deedUCltton cf the Gennan phanJ\lcisIS ,,u
cline in recent d<!Cades, there an slill mo~ nol 50 weU tegulaled as it w as in France. Lad<
DrDgt ritn thiln there are Apc'''t kt" (phar. of coopetative se lf-determln a tion left the
m.lcies).
regulation of phannaceutical education 10
Ha" in! achieved their position o n the cirdes outside of ph armacy. Thus unli l thr
biSis of .a co nteution that. no . specia.l pha.... end of Ihe Vth c~n~ the n umemus decrees
mao;i!u tiCOl I~__ R ~Y':le dg . i!. needed to ..seil . CQnceming phaimac)' W!llain onry vague
"hilmles," drugs;-l"fie brogisfiil liti'r- rem=aru con6! ming- i"I'btes~ion.1 education,
changed Iheir tune. Since the early 20th CeII- although e:o:amination of competem:y was retury they have clamored perloclicalll' foroffl- quiM (e.g., in Bavaria after 1595 ph)'llicia~
da! recognilion u a kind o f s<!Cond -cLus admin is tere4 oral. wrillen, and p n ctical
phannaoci!! (wilh cr rlain privilrges not per exarnin.tions 10 pharm;scy und idale-s ).'6
rnilted general slorekl!epe), and as part of
An apprenticeah ip of 6 yta was customthis movt they orga niud special schools ro r .ry as a leun ing period . A sa li sfac tory
Iheit . pprenlicrs.
know1edr 01 La lin w as I general req uire.
After World War 11 Ihe Drogisltn sought mt nt needed 10 read phannaceuticaJ. books of
p mninion tO dtal in an dru g$ not requiring the time a5 Wtn as presaiptions. 5lnce no
I presc:ription, withotJ.t $!Jeorn. The group of fixed course of stud)' was spedfied, how-

D( I,lrlllpllltl1t

of Ed"c~tion

.,

f'o"l' t . Gennln phannacy O:l the wh ole coukl

sc:a.rcell' riH aoo,.-r the level 01 teo;hnicaJ. skill
unti! afte r lhe 17th century."
Th is situ.tion ch;anged in Ihe course of the
18th anlury. O bligatory e:o:;unination.s based
on definite roI!qui~menls, !it introduced in
Pruslila in 1725. gave German phannacists I
pla<:e among lhe rePff~ntati\-rs of Ihe seie n tffic pmfes ~ ions. Therufter, in Pru!sla, rn.'O
d allsel of phannacis ll existed.
Those of Ihe seamd dus, who " "ere permille<! 10 practire in small lowns onIy, W en'
not required to study . cadem]c.lly. Tht!y had
10 ~rve Iheir .pprentkeship (Ul uall}' 5 years)
and a derblUp (us ually 6 years) and !hen
paS!! an exantination bt!fol"e tht!ir provincial
me<! ical bo.ard (COlltgi"m .l!Ilic~",) .
The philmlads ts of Ihe filst d ass were re_
qu inKI to $ef\'(' longer (a t lust 7 yea rs) .,
cler'" after their apprenticeshlp and had to
Ille nd a course at Ihe h igher Coll tgi .. m
mti!itllm in Berlin. an iMtil\ltion mainly for
the scie n tific educalion of military phys idans I nd 5Urgeo~ . Th is co urse co~isted of
]eo;lU res in chemistry and botany. d i$cowses
Interior ol a ph~nnacy., ~piclr<!. in I woodcut
on the chemicals Ufied in femed ies, th e if ptlblished in 15<l5. Prob . bly il sh ow. 3 phannad't
preparation and " the chemico phy sic.1 ,uled It 3 WOrk-tdM bt./o,"" llI1 open drug book.
reuons" for the ~~raI kind$ of prepara lio n s di'KUJl lng a fonn,,\.ation with. physicilll1, wbo IS
and , lastll'. prac!ica! pha rnw:eutico-chemic a! pointing I(l , fMd idnlllngredienl. (On the ~e
in, lnleti<>n . Th i ~ dl"i. inn of the Prussian 01 the t<lp sheU CA" be lem a lotded hand .bdo nce
phannacists into t","O dasses d.isappea red in lor wl'lghlng _nd. oI'J'llMn.ll'. IM coa.. of amu; of
thl' nol>km .... un~J wt.o. j" risdictiDn l!w pha ..
165-1.
Dunng the last tllird of the 18th cent111')' mac:) i. Dpe'" ti n!.) (From A. Ne"b\lrge:: Er_
fonch"ng .. , p. 2.'57; original in H. Brunlchwis.
the Germa n p harmlc; ls themselves had Kumt
:tu d eslillieren ... )
begun to increa~ their educationa! opportunlties. Asedes c f priutt institutes , devoled 10 the educa tio n 01 phannacUts". wu

. __ .
. ~._-- __ .
eSI.ibfli nN:"'5bmIU!1=Oliie beo:""ime-Hiiot.;,7 ,fudyobliSltory-fo ...... pnann.cists; I nd thr
iar beyond Ihe GermAn fmntiers. Fo r exam- other German stales soon fo1Jowed B<lva.na's
pie. the ins titule of the pharmacist Johannrs leid. , ..
Bariho lo milll!us Tro mll\ll dorff in Erfurt
The pre~n t edutational ~u~menl8 to
fl77tl-1847) had ImIny stl.ldtmts (rom foreign p ractice pharm acy in Gmnan y beca me eife<::countries . Th e Pru~siln goye rnment tive in 1~71 , supersed ing a p reviollS p attern
ad..nowledged the education Icquired in lhi. tha t h ad pen isted in its fundamentals s ince
insti tute a5 eq ui ..-.Jen t to Ihr study"al Bulin 1935.
or at universities.""
PreU", jllQ'!I ~duCQ/iplI; Und er both the old
Thls trend continued in the 19th c~tury and newlaw, an en tering pharmacy s tudent
when B.varia. in 1808. made un iYersi ty mllSt h.,'(' hltd 13 )'eaIS of preJiminary rduca-

"

C~.pttf

TM Dtllt /opmtr.1 in GtrmllllY

lion, induding tM type of secondary sdlool

th .. t p~pues for uniViersity s tudio (.. Gy",..
nasi~m' , This f'!Khes a level I50rnetiIDu estim .. ted u equivl.lent 10 2 10 3 yeaB of preprofusion ..l college studiu in the Uni~d Slales.
ProjtJ5101lld It~dits occupy 7 semes ~rs of
5uccus!ul werk, one SOI' mester Ins Ihan
under Ihe pre vious law . The univer.sity aub-

SccillJ

Stndi~g

,;

A {i1tllJ tDm;llliSon, following the intern,ki p, comp lel es the q\LI.lificario n for ttu:
pnctict of plw'mac:.-. This third-,u,j5' niIITIin.tion (DrintT PriifJillP'l"sekliitl) is I.dmifUs.tue-d by Ihe fludent's univl'rsity in collaboration with the ;administrative/regulator)" body
(Al'otlItUrb mllllr; se.- pp. 971.) /teil"! on behall 01 the ,tale. L.

je.:!:!! and the ext1!n t of laboratory ill5t!'Uclion

1111" leg.lIy dehned In lar more detaillh;m in

the Uni~d Slah~'.
SUPERVISION OF PHARMACY
En ... ill~tio"J; A.~er the firs t 2 yeilB 01 uni
Fo 10
. d h.e' perti
IG
v.ers ity educ.. ti on, written and oral examiM plur:r,- :,;sS
the d:r:
tlons
' " an e d"d'-'
.
T(Vo,er,;rmell)
kno 1 d lestIhthe level
ualify'of gene ral c, ans. y I.......
' ISSU"" f o r
ow 01
~enn I(
wege, us q
mg ~ aJ'" 8 randenburg officially adrnitted the coo pera
plIcant 10
Imal
sla
ge. t.: pon ,'_
I

" , . 0""y oft. r,,,,

'-"',80
of h 10 Ihe
".d
....."oapar:n
.. cls
" proceed
ca mp ,eho~
t e s pee' e ~ ,ve:s , ty pro- vears did thi, Iocal regulation become gen
gum, wn l te~ and oral exam~allo~5 that fral 10:: ttw enlire Prussian Idngdom. In IOme
~~ the enln~ range of the U!",~r.l!ty tur other Germ .. n states the supervl$io n of
n
um are .a n. .
.
ph;mnacies was placed enlirely in Ihe h".. ds
PhQ,ma
l(~h:" ......
co nslSl:S
" "a5"In H
" S a......
-- nyan d
" " c~ .mll!"?!
.
LA 010""one )"ear
. of 0Ip' umacl55
practlca rillNng 'l' rh"$C.~ t ~"
~"g) In a TIn.:r!n ia). However the Pruuian s)"stem of
pharmacy
purposes,
g.
.mspecllon
. ' bv a me d""
h' hf 110authorld
th
. for teachmg
' 1 tud
d th
cocperahve
lC 0 11"""
ICI
W IC
0
ws e ~nl~r.;l y s
,es an
e and a pharIru1ce utical praCl itione r persisted
s.t<:ond-lIage enmmahon. Under Ih e prevl and, sincl! 1~35, has been obliga:ory for the
0.1>5 (1.~3oI) law, Ih~re ~'a'l a 2-year appren enlire Germm Reich. The pharmacisi par11l:"'sh,p .tJrfort UNVe:s.' t} study: Ihe n.. afler lielpat ing in the inspec tion i5 coordi n ale
grad uati on , an add it ional yellt of pro
,'In
I s bore!. t I the hysid.an H
1>ationuy p.... ct iClt" .... as ..... quir1!'d
fuD
:;. h n!rar; offic;a';
respons lb llll y for ownlllg or managmg a (with!he titlePhl1"':tU~TIII Or i n special CUts
p~armacy could be ~$umed . Befon!! Wa nd even Obt rp"~""ulzj".<It) . The in s peclion 01
War 1I the probat.lo nalI'
.. r v 'yen
served.. .L" d rugs ou , ""d e p h arm -__
,- ~,
the
" .. re ' 8 "' ' "
.. 11 d e m
seron d ary pu..- pose ~ . I!Vlatml!! . $(anty heru:e the inspection cf Ihe Ort/gerit", i. the
pharmac.eutical suv,,: e In rural dlStrict.~ . The res po nsibiiit)' of phanna~uticai p"'"ctilion'
e~pecut1.on "'15 thnt half the probationar)"
time 01 YOLlng .gradullte5 would be 5erved .ill e!"S .
_o?- Vi!!i.s!! having a ,~~Ie .low inrome phi t<- .;
,-. "._. ~S"oCtAr:" 5iANDiNG
mai:y, In retLlrn ror llttle mOr@' lhan 1Oom"and ..
board.
The position of the German phannacist so
The lengthy, demanding apprenliteship,
for ~nluri es cham: teristic of the pharmacy dally hu been similliI to Ihal of h is French
Indi tion in Geruany thus has given ground colleague, i typic al representative of the
befo ...... Ihe sl1! pwise advlIno:t" of academ ic middle clHs. Throughout Ihe centurits, repsludies, ai in othe r oountries. Yet, sublim r@sentath ....sofphann iK)'\\ave\:leen awarded
t:i..al formal leaming continuf'S in ce:ruin di .u Ihe hOnOIS wh ich oroina!)' dvU liIe hu to
re-c:tions durlng the intemshi p period s li!! offer. We li nd p h armad ! I, u mun icipa l
today..-:ertainly more than (l('c:urs in most deputies, senatDm, mayors and, \aller on, U
members of parliamenl. Th ere ,,'ere Ihree
i nlemshi ps 01 the USA.

!:~~Ba~:5

I'"of;~
,"

""61".

befo~

~~~ ~ ~)"c~r te.:,.n.aa~

Plwrrnaey of IM Gotd.!n Star in Nuremberg .. lt .~';"d in Iheu ,ly tSth OI!ntury m. y be

:onlru ted with Ih~ Angel Plwrmacy of Men;:l< (on page 95) ;1 .ppured in ..ud-2Oth
ten~.uy. ~~n phl nnacieJ, oid or new. '!eil h;g;h standard 01 professi(Wl.a\ charad er.
In the SI.. Pharmacy, the ch~ pham:Llru.: (21 IM dnt O ~ IM Ief!) is ~ringing hi~ "'coocb
t:p tel dal~. whll~ " ,"' ..... N' ~~ Io ...!oe ";3 /'' ) M_ to bo P""P"ring. d",p"''''''S
conll..h>e r. Thc r:uin prHCription counler . ur.ds in the un berofl!>e pharm..:y. surmounled
"" Or:>l men tal n;>mCO S--illeworlc . Mn:hlNl set. 01 Slod:. cor,l. ine iiIl the dteh-a . bio..'
",a,stIe...1 tho pharmacy illi~d "" In -..n ein_... (Cc p ~r engravirlJ! by H. Bo!...m.nn .
1710)

reasens ro r this sodal esteem: (1) Ih! p.Kir. greil~5t "Germans. Ihe ~t and slatuman
milcIsl for the most part beloitged '10 ih"i!- CoeIhe; InAy&equoted. &J.etIie i lated (i822)
well-to do c1ass; (2) olten thert' wert' "dyna, thai "in Germany Ihe pharmacist enjo)'S ties" of pharmacist'l active for gene rations in highly u teemed position wilhin sodety ....
the ume p1ace ; (3) Ihel' were the mOSI ilvail The Gennan pharmKisl:S cultiva~ science.
able and sometimes the onl)' representatives They U1! aware of its impo rtance and enof ruolwal !IoC ience within !heir communitiu, deavor to utili%e it in pra.ctical phanniK)' . "~'
and their knowledge often benefitted thei r
!b is $(ienli6c endeavor 01 the Germa n
fellow ol ~en5. >O
phann.acitt .t times prov."ked literaT)' den
Als a dauic illustriltion cf the 5Cientific and . ion, as he s lood betwee n In d., and 50"
soda! stand ing of Gennan pharmacy al the e nce .u Partieu l.. rl)' in Germany, wllh ils
beginniT18 01 Ihe 19th century, one of the prec:isedan d iatinctio nnharply d iflerenti at-

...,.. -"'"'"

)
Ciulp~r6

Tlre Dn::t10pllUlI! in GumallY

ing ~i.lIy between lradelmen and seienIb is, this hybrid condition (ould ( ,"",ate
Iragicomk , ituations.
In the 17th ~ntury the phannadH began
to Il\irrQr the sod.u position of ~ir o .... ners.
German pharmacists tried 10 make thei r
hornes and shops plattS of digrtity and of

Gtll"Q!e (1S61), whieh offered. a eompre~n

s ive formulary, d.irections for prepmng both
galenical and ehem;';al rernedies of tlle time.
and. instructioNl on Ihe In of compound.ing
and. d.ispensing prescriptions , One of Ihe
herb .. liSI5, Orto Brunfels, pu b lishe d. I
speci.aJ.U:ed. worlc on equipping .IlId managartislic (U ltute. l l
ing a pharmacy (Vi! ~lcrm~ticII dt r Apell,,In ~ponse to a gm ...;ng demand , falenee k! lI)already in 1536. 1I was symptomatic of a
production spread DVer lhe l'.1tole 01 Gt'r" m.a.lwing European profession that I simUar
many after the 17th centu!')'; and thlU. most lrel ti~ WI' publ;"hed in Ita.ly (by Saladin d i
pharmKies obtained elegant sets 01 drugjan A!.Coli) In I h~ preceding cen tury, and. would.
fo r their ahelves, v.tlich p~viously had beten ~ published in Fnn~ Iby lean de Re nou) b
restrided 10 the r.e ... who co uld ;Uford to im- Ih .. nt1l1 ( .. nNry . ApPlrently Ihe firsl book
port Italu. n, Freru:h or Dellt shelfwal"l!.
written by I Gennan pharmaru l on pha rThe filet thai. {rom the beginning 01 theit maro-chem ical su bjects wa s I. c. Somprofe55ional ~rYlce in Ihe arme<!. fo~, merhors ex~llent Lukon pllarmJUlilicopharmacists "'tre given rank and par ccm- ci!ymiC1lm of 1701. In this oenturyGerrnan sOparable wilh that of comm iss iontd officers enlifi c phannac)' <ame of age; and fTOm the
teslifl es 10 their loci ~l '" well u !heir proles - mid -1Sth century on. the number of 5urn
.kma.! level. The Gennan military pharma- books by phannacists surg.. d uP" 'w ,md ~t
e isiS (in r.mk up 10 colonel) have been en- a high st.mdatd almo5t withou l l!lC(eption.
trusled no t only wilh strictJy pharmac::eulical The laboratories of sru:h phannarut-authol'!
WOB but also with hygienic and. chemieal often were precurson; 10 the later chemklli
"'anlre tasks, aNi w im the rnponsibilitiu labo .... tories of un iwBities and to I~ m.a.nu fle turing and sci.. ntific labo rl tories o f
of wen-~d.ucated na tur~l ,denti5ts."
large- lQl.. pharmaceutical industry.
With phatm.ceutical $ervices now com'
monly separate phys ically, as weU as funcPHAllMACEIJTICA L LITERATURE
tionall)'. fmm Ille pract!oe of me<Ucine, need
The ce nturiesold CermiUI tradition of wa &feit by th e 16th eentury in v l dous Europainstillking sdIololl'5hip In~ seientific com- pun centers rormo re unilorm d lUg produ Ch
petition produced a profif'ic lilera ture, In and more unifo rm prescribing nomendature
clud Ln g a pharmaceutical hterature of int ..r- fo r use between phY5idan~ and pharmacisr,.
nmtLol\LlI mflu.. noe m every perio<! from the Out of this nted grew a special standardRe~i$5anOl:' anwnd .
_
_ __!.ett ing liteuture, ohen (alled "pha rIn the ~ntury Afte r the in,'t'ntion of prillt- maccpe ias." In Ge rma,ny~-!h~ fiBt oificial
ing: wh~n so much blthe ppulatiotf dia not pharmacopin was the Di5pm5~loriuni pubhave professionll health services available, I l is~d by a ph)'sidan VII .. riUll Cordus in
numbe r 01 herbi!ib "ppeared tha t reinforced 15%, and made offid.. l for the imperial cily
the tilerapeutics of folk medicine, 15 w en.u of Nuremberg . Probably it s hould be cans!dIer.-ing lOS an ..arly resource fo r phannilcilt:ll ered the prototype of all pharmacopeiu. in
and ph~icia ns. Ameng such bockt, vusion s the modern sense of eompulsol'J' ,tandards
of the "Garden 01 H ealth" were PIrticu1arly fo r d rugs with in a s pecilic political ju ri sdkof popula! renown in the 15th and 16th ~n- lion, sinee Cordus' Di~pu,ateri"m Wa5
turiu. In th e 16th centur)' e:lcyclopedic enacted as legaliy bin di ng on aU practitioners
books appeared, covering the entire scope of in Ihe Nuremberg a.ea . (The urlin book in
phannaey, such u J. J. Wecker'sJ\ntido>larium Florence, 14\1'9, had gu ild au tho rity ~hind il,

-i,

,..

,., .~

' ,~

)
O'!llnizah'O>II$

but apparently not I documented eniOetment

by civilauthorities.)
Outing ensWnS dec~, pharmacopeias
wen col:lpi!ed lor otherGermanic Iren. The
Pharmacopo t iQ BO>rIoISiSiica (1799), incorporaling the first Pn>5.!IlAn standlrdS, WI' u pe
dally noleworthyeven beyo nd the borden of
Germany .. a WOB of high quality, as one cf
the firsl pharml<XIpeias to reflect Ihe ne ...
chemieal theoriu Ind as Ihe finit one in
Gennany to ~ prep.iLred malnly by pharmaeisis (rather Ihan mainly by physicia ns) .
OnJya)"'n after the unific.otion ofGermany,
Ihe IUsI Phanr:ar"pCfQ Gnm.!lIua Ippe.~d
and was made oIfidal lo r lhe entire German
Empire.
German pharrn acy likewise IOOk Ihe lead
1.., pu blishing lhe 6 n t pe riod icals p rimari1)'
deVOIed 10 pharmacy. Beginning in 17BO Ihe
phl rmacisl loha;./! Coettling edited an annual caIIed the Pocketbook for a-. .. mi $1 and
I'hilrmacis l (A.!mallQch <>der Toasrltmbrtclt fi<r
Sc~dtkiiltlLtler lind J\pot~ t ~er). Another d is
tlnguished pharmacist, J. B. Trommsdorff.
~gan in 1793 10 edit h is /o Nm;u der Ph:lrmgcit, whieh in its charaeter as well as rnore
frequent appeallnee has a claim to be il\g
pharma.cy's earliest scienlific journal. SinOl:'
then many screnlific and professional pharmxy journals nava bINn publi.hed in Cuman, some.o important a9 10 mal~ a knowl
edge of Ihe languig e almost obligatory ro r
phalllUlcist. with scre ntific prelensions in
other countries Ihroughout Ihe decadn.
Add ition al biblio gra ph ie notn on representil tiv-e pharmacopeias. o ther types of
books, Ind phann.ceutieal ~riodical5 -wilr
bewkiund in Appendix 6 (p.- 425) by those
who wish to Ia<:ate and coruull I I first hand
$IOme worb representalh", of eontemporary
Germ.n pharmacy in variou. periods.

"

leastthree o ther 10eal societies were tunction.

ing by Ihe udy 191h century.:I> Regional or.
gAllizations for north Germlny (1820) and
south Gennlny (1848) were formed., Ihm
ilftel the federation of th e German states, the
1....0 il1I'I.Ilgamated inlo I national Gennan
pharmacists' s o de ty (the Deutscher
Apolhekerverein, 1872) , Specificl Uy to pro.
mote phannaceutical seienre Ind re~a n;h,
the Deul3Che PhIrmazt'uUs ch.. Gesellschilft
wa~ organized in 1890.2<1
Ouring the Nui pe riad (1':133-1945) a new
l o t ~lihrian a",od l tion was Ihe only one
perr.titted to represent Ihe professional and
comm..rdal interesi! of Germ.n phannaciSIS
during Ihose years,l1 SeveraJ of the estabIbhed pharma.cy Journals also ...ere victims
of the regime and had 10 ' usp.md p ublica.
lion,
Altempts nave b .... n mld .. repU I.. d ly,
l in~ 1818. 10 0'!ianize ~ paralle asioOdation,
of employed phannac;"' ts . A lasting i1Jld aclive associat ion of this kind was founded in
1904, caUed after 1910 th e alliance cf Gennan
pharmac ists (Verb.and Deu tlicher Apotheker). lt hld grown 10 represent Ihe m.a.jority
01 employed phannacists by 1934, wh en it
.... as ab sorbed by Ih e new IOl .. litarian
pharmaceu tical aSsociation.
Apart fro m Ih e \'olun taty a 5socia tions
menlioned, there h.ve be en official bodiu.
In the in itial form ofGumilim (finlorganized
in Bavaria, 1842', membership was compul.
8Of)' fo r all oWTlers of pharmaciu in each
govemment dutrle" These were ad ministraliv-e bocHes auxilia ry 10 stille regulltion of the
prac lice o f phlrmacy ~ ~e ri odicllly I . ~he
Gremium repert! d 10 the !ov.. mment IbeUt'
conditions and desinble danges in pharmiK}', and. it ' upported soc1a1-welfare progril1!15 for its membem. In more recent dec.
ades, the Apolhd:trbmmem have served
esaentially the !.iLme purposes. but have additional disciplinary power ove, unethical
ORGANlZATIONS
ICts among phannacists. During Ih .. Nazi
In Gerrun pharmaey Ihe o rg ani2.ltion of period Ihis typ .. of organization was given a
Nuremberg phiIfmaCish in 1632 appeiIs 10 totalitarilrl form thlt had Iar-readting power
be Ihe earliest sodel)' of some importanee. AI over pharmaeis ls polit ically., wdl as proies.

- ....
- ___

2:~

7
The Development in Britain*

(oft:l! n .. bbrevialed ABDA). Thi.s ties togethe r

and ClIord iro~tes the mmagemenl of Ine Bundesapolhek.erl<ammer (regulative aflai l"'$) and
Ihe ~utKher ApothekerVerein (professional alfa.ir.;).""
f'hiIrm<lC)' in West Gennm)' ,iner World
lital e!i. Each
"-cofPOnte bod;-unde~ War n can.be seen tu unIold facets of hl n.da
pu blil:: law .. nd connot 'properl}' u nde rtili mental ct\arige.::Un-precedented rreedom 10
administrative tasks on behalf of ph .. rma- open phannade" a wid e r opportunity fo r
eists' p rivate intere$t,. For SIKh a purpost, Ihe ind ivid ual ...;xe.:! w ilh a Ihreallo p rofes
bes ide Ihe t:.zmmu in each stall" s tands a pro- sionalis m (and in Easl Germ .. ny Ihe soci ..li
fK!iona.l soci~t} (Apol h~kerverei n, a.s a con z.alion of the ph .. nn<Kies); imponanl new
tinualion of th~ urlier Deutscher Apothe- liilw$ concern ing bo l h Ihe pracher of the
pharmacist a.... d d rug producl$; and ne .... orke ...erein and ils li ua:e~f!lI.
kJ a roof organiuti on uniting Ihese vari- ganizational con cepl5, 15 exe mp lified by
ous elements of Gennan ph ..nr"UlCy there ...u ABDA. Thus German pharm acy is forging a
ne .... cha pler in il5 h istory thai ....ill be ouch
~ .. Ied after 1948 Ihe Arbeitsse meinschaft
du Berufsvertretungen Deutschn Apotheker more thm a new expression of the old.

sons on the Europearo con tinen! had p ..ned

THE PKUllAR BRJTISH SITUATION
.
. .
the euminalion, both in phannacy arod in
A Ilriking feature mark! Ihe hIStory of Bu hSh medicine and, therefore, were entitled to
phannacy: A profession based enti rely on pr<Ktier bolh profhsions . Moise Charas, (thoe
Ihe ..rt of pharmacy, with Ihe purpose of deo aUlho r o f the famou! Ph~rm~coptt Ttlyll!t,
\"eloplng the profe!ls ional and soda! stand 1676), Nkola.s Lemerv (the "uthor of Ihe !illli
aM! of its membelll, did not exi~1 in Eng Phj/ rm "copo~jd ulfivt",dlis, 1697) .. nd ma ny
land , W"les and Ireland befo re Ihe 191h cen- othe r Fren thmen .... ere s imullaneou ,ly
lury and in Sool land before the 18th Cenlury. pharmacisls and ph ysidan,. In German y Ihis
In Ihis resped Brilain diffelll sign ifican tly dual educalion was even more ClImmon a nd
ho rn Ihe othu lu ge Europea n eu ll u ral caused many con.flicu.' However, EngJand,
u.nes-t uch as the l talian. the French In d Wales and Irelmd were the only Europ ean
the German.
countries in whkh an en lite caUing gained
N.. luully, In 8ritain a~ wen 1.5 ~ Ihe Con- Ihe legal recogn ition of its ambition to praclinenl, the~ were early deale., In drug s. lice in a n eighbnri ng fil'lrl an rt bl'r a ml' p" rt of
Moreover, the tenns designati ng them. were anolher profession ...; Ihoul-llnd Ihis ;5 the
the same u those usoed on the ConIIDen!. irony of the situalion- ruigning complelely
Howeve r, while the creation of l he calling.of Ihe ri ghts o f the 5151 profHllion.
the cont!.nental phlID"UI~ls was based pnnThe reasDn for Ihis peeul"' rity is found in
cipally on Ihe ea rl}' tiep .. ralion of the medlCaI Ihe in su lar cha rader of Bri tain. wh ich iso.md lhe phannaceutu:al profesSIOns. elwr laled il fro m con tinen la l Europe . O f it)
by t.. w o r by regulations ud privil~s,. In .. bariginal Inruab itanls, the Celtl. onIy Iho:se
Br! la 4l thil: !ep~tion ~as ~Hhe-~_lnIJ!ng- .... 00 lived..in W ..le&and SCOtland.o r ....ere able
b ut a I.. te iHull of the' de velopmenl.
10 fiel" !.neo these a reu ,urvilled the conquest
In aU Europe.. n (ou nlrie,. ttan5res, ion5 of Ihe cou n try by Germanic lribe, (.. bout
01 IM ~a1 boundarie5 of both profes~ ions
Wert freq ut'nt ; Ihe complainls on both ,ides
belol"lg to the histo ry of continen tal pha ro
macy as we n as of medicine. Ne~ertheles" 'Whilo an "fo:t b... bHn m.,;!1 I() dI" .Kleri:.e Ehe
the p rinciple of se paration Wit5 In general pha.."1II&CN1ic.I d ...., ....... n. in Crul eriw... IM 1i<:I.
<oru ide re d 10 be be yond ,,11 d i5pu te. At H..c. ~ .,.. il. Wo in . le::<lbook nd n<>, IUIt:>n.:..Idr~L_ ol.... e. plocw. E""L-wlln the rnaI.-. """" cf
times, even in Europe, the transition from rliO<llPion
and Pft ........ all bIll curool")'''''''_ cf <li/.
one professiOn to ' he olher was not difficult. It .. n"" an<! I I.. i1<orhIH .1' ....."".. !n IM Brl tlth 151..
In the 17th arod the 18th cen turies many per (. udI .. i!. Ne't"'em l ~""'d L-wllreland).

"

"

The Merd plul'DlJoCy I.s IM modem vonleIn CIf the tarne pllaTm"'), in Dumsta dt out o f
,,'hieh grew th gr..' m.onulaoluring laoor.tory. (The Ameriean ~1=k i . anoffshoot Q! the
la tter, which bame Independml,) The ml.ln lrea Icr prescripticm ,..ark in rhi. pha rm acy i.
10 the right (Rt:::ql~ ' l . The Kction on lhe lefl re D...:u the ~rious survi,"aJ of hDm~path)' in

lufficie n! .tn:ngth 10 Wien"! I spKlal departm,mt. Modem ph.J1l\aci~ such u thls one111<. !hole 01 prect'dltlg cenWrie~."t' seYe rAi othe r rwm. MSido!. I:" publk di.pen ,in!
room sh""'n in IhcK phDtognpla: an Clffice ....;Ih refenm<:e books. a la'x> ralory, a s pecilltief
room and steck~. indudinsC<>ld 11:".gl. (Photogroph by Apotru.bn '''11 Mayn, 1954)

siorWly." After World War I! th.!5e d is trkt

offices mol'@ an d mo re be<:ame regulative
bod i eli (L.<zndtupol!l t !:t rhmmtrffj bro..d ly
concem ed ",ith Ihe SUPM" o( med icamenlll
and che minls i n the ind ividual Guman

K.,..."'!"

"

.)
100

Tht Dtllt hlFm,rr ' irr Btil..in

)
Ch:rpt" 7

British b Iet u early u the 11th cent u.rv:

Their number mulliplie.::! , and ,,; th in a
tur)' or !IO they had taken over m uch 01 the
drug lrad.e-th e pepperen IS wholet alers .
Ihe spieers alL retailers. The rnain ItOd< in
Ira de of bOlh was "s p icery," 5ub~ t~nces
" mainlyof vegelable OI an im alo rigin; Almosl
in varia b1 r de rived from Ihe Easl o r Ihe
MediwlTallean; cf high value in ~la tion to
!hel. weight." This variet)' 01 5ubslances of
ro urse Inclu ded splen.Same of Ihe m ore know\.edgeable alld skillful ~piters $pe ci ~l iud inc~asingly in dapens ing Ind co mpoundin g rne dlcine s. By
Ihe laie 13lh centu!) s-o me were being called
" splctr" o r "ap:othe<:ary" interchanlV ~bly.
This ...u a t m nsitio na l period, aperiod of
ma!uring for an ambitlo u$ group tha.1 ",ould
bel:ome distin ctivel)' '"apo!hecll.ries."
Meanwh ile , ' h e pe ppe~ l$ ( whole~aleB
~!\d shippers of spicer;. etc.) ehanged the
name of the il" guiid to Ihe Gl"oce rs' Company:
in it. al leasl h orn the Hth century on, Ihe
apo lhe<: ar Ies obtained guild benefits as a
specia l section until the y fmally seceded in
1617 .5 In 14th -ern tu r)' Engla nd , Chauce r
eou ld w ri tll! of his Ph}'5ician, " Fcl redy h adde
he hise apothecaries to send hirn drogges."
We an not s Llfp ri.sed Ihat , itI the absenre
oi legal regulation, Ihe fun~1i\Jn, of medki... ,..
a!l d pharmacy f"mained poorly se parated.
PHARMACEUTICAL BECINNINCS
The 16lh-cenlury "apolheui"y" has been~
The sodal circurnstan cu thul help vs 10 [ened 10 not onl)' n an ass ls lant 10 Ihe physiutu:lersland Ihe errati( roU1"!I e thaI must be eian, but also ilS an inde penden: prep~rer
laken to follow Ihe pharma.~ ulical p;l lh from .md d isp enser 01 drugs ""ho no t tinlrequently
ili !aint begi!lI\inp;. in the .I.a.t1! M id dle Ages . tool< a hand in mNita! practice. In the time
0l H el"!.I"V :Wlar!!i~ Io!'S. ~r:.!erlticiir betv.~~
on .... ud..
apothennn' pI1j5U::lan, over-the (llv>- _.'
In Suon Engl. nd and in the UII:j.,iD r:n~. sio n cf funm on 01 rned ic:al eare !lad begun,
pe-riod Lh~re w~, no di iferenu ~lWe<'n ph ,..i. alld ln 1311 the king issued Ihe fiel n>guIa( Ja;) . I fOl" ""I<)' or III<S e<ln. The pr.>Ctiticne ...
tion, for the English practke 01 medicine and
kllown llIi leeche. perfom>ed the funetions cf ~ll
Ihree Duting Nc nn m t,me, the trade in drugs phannacy, ordering Ihal
Alld , pi<l<' s .... '" e ..... n ~,, ;aJl y lundled by lhe men:e:s
... 110 person could Ia....fully praetiie medicin..
(I lerm w!lich originally ~ imply mt m l a merch~nt
Cr awgery in lhoe City of londen. cr wi!hi n Je""n
wno ~;aJ t in ImaU W""'")'>
m~ a 01 H. "nI".. he ....d been finl u amL..... d.
From Frilnce a few $piO!n and pepperers app ... ,..d, and ad "tted by lhoe 8ilhcp cl lond<>n
ma}' ha\'le ca rried tbei r t"des across 110 the or It-.t Dein of SI. PluI's,. .... ho were 10 be .... is""d

450). Throughout Ihe centuries, ttw!"e was

nol much h;J.rmony bl"tween the people of
Wille, and Soolland and Iho5e of England.
The ama lgam"tion between Ihe AngloSuons and Ihe laler conquero rs of Ihe islands, Ihe Normms. who came ove, from
Franc!! (Nonnandy) and dom inilted the CDun IT)' after the ballle of Hu ling$ ( 1066), look
place vel)' g raduall~.
Conse quen tly, unli l Ihe Eli2lbe than
period (i n Ihe 16th century), condi tions in
Beitain we,.. not sufficienlly stilb it! 10 cast
pro fusio nal Hfe intc uni fo rm and rigid
mc uld s. Even laler Ihe pro po rtion of ecuca:ed people wM relativei,' smal1. All a resuU.
Ine Wl V had tu t,., free for each 10 make Iht!
most of op po rtu ni!)', Indeed, this fl'\!'edom o f
every Brilon 10 seek adv ... nture and Success
in$ide .. nd ou tside Ihe Bri tish 1 ~l'S ~aled
Ihe ...nl lh and Ihe po ....e . of EngJand. O n the
ether h and . this !yslem o f laj,uI f~jTt
which found il s Iheoret ie d bilJi~ in M~nches
te r libe ralism and was fo nnu la led in Ihe m irlin cf Ihe 19th cenlury by Ihe Ma."1chesleI
school of economia--has ollen retilrded Ihe
Ilead}'. un iform development and b illanCl'
",ilhin a nd lorthe tolil1il}'of Ihe people . Such
m a)' be ach ie..-ed onl}' oy s'~li ng and protectin, definite prind pIes a nd regulatio ns.'

cen

PhiJmllut"litlll ihg:n>l ir.g5

101

in IM ,"""",in.lic" of candidatos by fout donon 50cn after the firs l medical regulation and
of phy"ic . 00 of lursl<)', 0' other upert pc.,gnl liun sing-was empowered in 1540 10
In lhot Ia.:ulty.'
"search. view and see Ihe ipolheo:ar;' w lres ,
This system even lually wa$ extended 10 drugs and stuffs ."
the prov ince 5 and 10 Wales. The College of
Thereby the rontin en tal practke su bjecl '
Phys ician.s Oi ter, "Royal" College}-founded ing apolheca ri es 10 medkll $upervision WalL

Thi.o;>i n 111, ~,n Uw ccal aI ~I 01 Iht Won.hipful Seciety of ApothKarieS c/

Londcn , ...1Lh ltll Lotin mottc, ''Throughoul l:oe wedd I u n ealll!'d helpbringe-."
(polych... me Engl i. h delft. 167'0). Such tile, perhapa .... ere 11 mIlCh I , ign c,
membenllip
Iymbolic cmament 10 Ine phannacy .u they wen: usftul fo,
pl"1!3Crip tion work. Bel"'...." \he twc unkom. in IM he!lld<)', Apollo (In.. 41\cienl Greek mediCill Iod ....h<> bthered Asklepics) is vlJ\qulllhlng a drl.(!on.
(0risin&l, l bol!! 11 inches hi," ,,9 ~'1 inches wi~, in the col!K"tion c/ thoe
Ph.o.'"I"tLlCwlical Sooety cf Grell Bn ll in. I..c>ndonJ

..,d.

)
102

Chaplt r 7

The DtvtwpmntJ in Bntll m

introdl,lcw into England.ln In.cl of 1618 the

new poweIll of !he college we~ stated mon:'
s~d5aUy , Four membe.., weM luthorized
10 , urver Ind exami n e Ih e stocks of
"Ipothecaries, drugg;s tl. dlslillers and seilers oI .....lel'5 and oils, ;md prtparers 01 chemjcaJ medicines." Thil; enumu,tion gives a
complete pictulle of Ihe different groups thai
wen! in atI)' way aclive and officially reoosniud in Ihe field of pharmacy.
Evolvlng la.... lended lownd m idcing the
p ractiee 0( medicine Ihe monopoly of ph!'$id aN lIcensed as such. Bu t physicians wen>
more tuJous in derending Ihe.ir fights than
!heir ,mall number and tne UtVn' nted of
medical help, espleCially in tne open c<!unlry ,
w llTanled. Therefo re , a !'lew lei WolS passed
(154J) confirming Ihe righ l oe "e'-~ry per,;on
being the King's sub;ect Mvin!! knowlec.ge
a:1d ~ perience of the natun 01 he rb!., roolll
Ind wate n to use and min is ter, accord ing 10
their cunning. experience and knowledge."
This le i is I typical inslanee of I.criur% fairt . II
pa~"!d !he ... ay Ior e"eryone who had "(unn ing.. e~perienre and knowledge," lu\ing
IM decision .s to the Jl'O'session of thesoe
q ualities entiTely 10 Ihe indiv id ual daiming
them. Howe \-er, it R'la~d only to medica~nt5 fo r u~ mal applieation and ''Drinks
fOl the StoM, Strangury, o r Ague,." Th.i5 act
no l only prot!"Cted the nl,lmetoll$ irregula:
practitioners, but encounge d the arnbi tions
of the "apolhecaries."

lHE APOTIfECARIES-THElR SOCIETY

.. AND ITS LAllORATORY

. 'When Kmg James I first gave prhileg';' to

the a potheca ries (1607) as a sec tion of the
po_ rful Grocel5' Company, he did not give
Ihern independence. The mon' a mbitioll$
apothecaries were neilher contenl nor oomplao:ent, "nd, after many dissensiolUl, Ihe
King granted thern independenre In a new
charter. Thll.'l was founded on December 6,
1611 a separate City Guild caned the''J\.!:aster,
Wan:!enJ., wd 50ciely of Ihe Art and MysteI)'
of the Apothecanes 01 the City ollondon,"

Thachal1er conferrd uf'O" lkem 111, mo"o~l~

of \<ftPi " jan apol)w(:ary'.tho." anc t'f".:Ierd i:

unlawful or Ihe !roa:", Or any persons. "10 mw

Or .ell, 10 CDmf..:oWld, prepOl"'. Bi"e, .pply Or administer . ny m~iein" or medleln.ble rompositi"ns, vii., distiJl.o:d w ate .... rom~un.:ll or ein
chirn:':l, lpote",.t., ItlTuPI , canse ..... lS. ecle!mata, eled-.. ariI. condill, _dici"alia. piluw,
pulw:ft, IrodIn. olea , ""1W!'n~, emp!&Stra. Or
by a:,y other war to . - or.,.m:lse the Olrt. fao:ulty,
or mrt!fty 01 an apothuy or a"r pa:1 the~,
withitl lke City 01 lo" .:Ion and I"" luburbt er
withLn Mv.n milos 011111" City.'"
Natural!)". the grocer.!l prolested. The kin g
he ld 10 hls original de dsion, s lati ng !hal Ihe
groOl!r$ were but Ir<l.ers, having no professional , kiD .
Outing the 17th century, the wealth .00
ltue ISbeem cf Ihe calling increased. The guiId
haU, whkh lhe apotheariH aequired in 1632
(n'bl,lill after lhe Greal Fite, ..... hieh destro)'ed
the largest partof Landon) 51and5 even today
as a witnen of Ihe old glo ry .10
Early i!l ils history, the Society s larted to
manufacture gale nic and ~hem ical medicines
oooperatiw ly. In 1682 Ih i5 cooperative acquin!d the status of a regular corn mercia.l
CX)mpany. The laboralol)' had bec:orne a real
chemical pl.nt, a:ld in 1703 Ihe Societ y was
e;n n",d, rene"..alof Ihe monopol!, of suppl!,ing Ihe English nav)' wilh drugs. latn (V66)
Ihe Easl Ind i&. Co mpomy also decided tu buy
huge unou.nts of drogs and medlcines annu;illy ftom Ihe Sodely of Apothecaries." The
"companin" of th e London Sodely of
. Apothecu;e.s. organ iud on I IDeal basis, He
Ihe fint-known example of, .phanna.oe.u.lkal
toopt!tatlve opera.ted On . - Iarser !Lale:~
Phlrmacie CentraJe in France (fou nded in1852) in CX)ntr;lsl ronsisted ollhe pharmao:ists
uf Ihe enlire nation and Wl$ Ihe fint n.tional
cooperali w pharmaceu lical undertaking.
Apothecarin 8<!roming Medical
Pr~ition en

Only I fe w d eca.des ...lter Ihe lound ing of

the Society of Apothec:aries of London the
new group found itself in a fight on !wo

A~U-arin' Hall (pilgrim 5t.. 8h<*trius. London) os itlooked In thetarly I~h cent,,<}". Thia
building, wrech ltill survi"l$, W ItS ~"'" in 1669 to reploce.an .... rliuhew qUlrtfon d~fO)"t!d
in the Creat Fm cf London. In Ihe e.orlr l67<Yalhe Wonh.iplw Sodft y 01 Apolhecaries es:at>.
IJshed both. dw:nical1l1,onlory and (in ChNe~J' medlOO-boWlkal !m1en. (Dr.lwinll br T.
H. Sh'"f'htfd.; pkatogr""h from The 5rnithsotlian Inttitutionl

fronls: against the phys ldans, 10 defend the

UIIumed righu of "Ipolhecanes" 55 minor
medic.l praclitione", in _ddition 10 Iheir
pha rm,celllical dulles , lind. against Ih e
. "druggistS'" and "chemislJ" who, in spite 01
the monopoly of the apothecaries, oon tinlled
to mulliply and ourish.
The strugg~ IMtec mon' than a cenlury.
Witholll any do ubt, apothecaries practieing
medicine lrespassed on territory not belongins to tMm . Yet, Ih ey had graduaUy gained.
large nUClber of c1ients ,,-ho depended on
them. and Ihey hld proved themsel\"eS U!Ieful in lheir IJ1O!'dlc. 1 toll' in a time of need,
during the Gff'al Plague (1665-ti6). At Ih at

lim e, when the majorl!)' of Ihe physida:lS in

Landon either hld d ied o r had fled , "" Ihe
fri enels cl.the siek we re obl iged 10 call in Ihe
, aid cf the.apotheca.nH, who.!!.dJ.1y- forsQo.k
Ihei r sh ops 10 vl.slt IM sulfete .., al thei r bed
,ides:'"
Even a t Ihe end o f Ih e 161h century
IpotMcl ries in the provinoe, had begun 10
gi~ medieal advice and prescribe. as weil as
10 mn Iheir drog . hops. By the laie 17th cen11ll)', the emphas.is had been (u mplelely reversec!, .nd a majorily of provincial
apotheca ries w~ englging aJIT\()st full time
in the p rao:l ice of medlcine, to Ihe ~ 01
phannacy. They obvKlu$ly fiJled a med icaJ

100

.'--

".

)
Ckllpt~r

Tht Dtwlopmt n' ;11 Britilj71

need lind w!re 50cially accepted in Ihe eO\ltryside Ion g before they were legi timatlzed
il5 gener.ol rned.ical practitionen in Ihe London a TelI, the I tronghold of lhe fully qualified
phys io;iaN ."
So fM as .ction wu concemed , the q uar!'e\
cent1!red on the opening 01 d illpensariu by
membeno of t he Co llege of Physici=s, Hld
on Ihe pmsution of ilpoth('Cuies practic ing
medl eine . Tbe di spen , atin harmed Ihe
apothecarie!l---for in 1703 they "1'.0"'- male
up 20,000 p rucriplion 5. "14 On the Dl her
hand, Ihe pm5eCution of the apotheclrits,
led 10 the deleal of Ihe phys id mJ! At flist, a
judgml!nt of Ihe Court c f Queen'. Bench decided (No~ember 10, 1703) i n fa vorof lhe collegeof phl"lciaN and agaiI'Ist an .pothecary,
William Rose, ",,-ho h ad been <tCCUsed of presal bing medkine-s . However. the HOlue of
Lords ord ere d " ThM In! Siid Judg emen t
gi"etl in Queen ', Bendl. . . . against the u .id
WiU ilm Rou shall be, ilnd is hereby, TeverRd." From Ihis time on the apothecaries
we Ie re<o gni.ud medic:o-ph nma(euti ca l
pnctilioners." Ol'\! evidence wu thai, afte r
anolhn q uarter century, the temu "a pothe(,uy" and "5W'S~n" wen! used in terchangeab ly, .t leasl in Ihe provinces."
The baltle on Ihe olh"r fron t, 4S ainol lhcir
competitors, the chemillts ,lind the d ruggists,
WaS 1'101 so favorable Im Ihe apothecaries.
The " dru ggilll:l," 01 "drugslen.," al'\d the
chemi61S o riginalll' wen! d i5tinguishable, if
ovull.pping, <lasses. The Engli, h druggist
o rigln;illy emphuized wholesaling, serving,
among othe r functions, "115 amiddieman in
"the .p anlng- 01 dlug Ir\l m importer 10
apothec~ry . " l~ter, in the H th cenlu ry, he
seern, to Mye been ral her mdinary .ort of
, Iore kee per-at leas t out in th e COUI'\tryside--ofttimes ~ gmcer who also hMdled
medkines, whether 1I wholesale or n! lI.il. "
(The 18th-century English druggist and the
apothecary bo lh served as prototype, fo r
w idespt"elld emulatiol'\ in u rly Ameriol). The
"cheml sts" w ere pt"ep~rers and ullen. of
ehem;':al 5ubstilnCes, wllh a practi.cal ,kill in

processes employing the use cf !ire and particularly of d illtill.tion. However, lhey wen!
~"isans 1OOn! aki n to the druggists than to
the e>:perimel'\laI dIemists of Ihe time. The
h lslorn.n Leslie G. ~.tthewi hu intnpreled
this deyelop~nt u follows:

Tlu Apolhr,~ri~I-Th~iT S"d~ly lin d itj Ui!>(7TlltOry

12th. C.
1311lc'

P",,;>Hrr

14111.C.

S~ .r

P' PPff. r

j
p.t>!'.r...

ws

~M'Gry

.I.p~t"uory

S;.L;rr

fR.l.H~N IH/Of 5T."Nt~pNY

~ wieler sp ~MI 01 ch~mi<:alJ ... weU .. lhe

in:lw< 01 eiNS-, hitnerlo unfamlli.u, hOlm lhe

.'"'..l' opmtd-np co-.mmn adckd complm.ty 110

t h~ Ir":e or Ihe whol csalo!: who h~d fo rmerly
Itocked druss and chemlcol. . . grocery.' Som.
men nDW ~gan 10 thl:\lr. th.ol Ihre lO'U .wr;~ nt
!n<I~ !O be ob tained in theloC commoditiH al>c\
that concenlut!on upon Ihe .polhec iH' <I~_
Jrt&t\<b; woWd yield greater profil. The me:. ..,ho
die! I.'oi. IIj"kd ItltmMlvH. Or w~ SO . t;"~d iry'
ethen, u ' drugmen' or '<lNgsten: on<l towanb
lhe end. of the 18th cenlury they bec.une kno wn u
'd"'WItI' Or 'd\e:nists and <Im";, ,,,.""

It miY weil be,

Kelt cond\lded, Ihat "Ihe

d ruggbt of the trighteenth centwy " on simpI)" respond ing 10 demand s cf poo~r people
for cheap medicAmel'\t9 by c:t) mpounding 15
....~U ;os $tocking drugs, jtl.5t as the apotheca ry
had begun to!nett demand, fOI chnp medical old\Oice in the preceding century by pre$cribinx OIS " 'e lL u compo u nd ing med ieines."I}
11 wiU ev ... r n.. a historie.1 remInder thai
oo:upalional houndaries He man-made md
not dlvi n ely o rd~i ned thai Ihe Britith
apotheo::ary no aooner had become adju ste d
to his ~dklll fu n d ion than he was dbco mfiu ed b y Ih e chanenge to hi l p harm.ce\lticAi function {rom th ill rising class of
chemists. and druggi' ls. Proba bly Ih_e_p~
, ure h ulened Ihe apotheo::ary: .. .tranuo_rm& :" .
tion into a medic:iJ practilioner, over a convolured historie'" path, Ulustrated in rough outIlne bl' the chart on Ihe facing page:
After unsucce9sfu l au empts, Ihe apo thecarie$ finally got pariia menl to pa" a n
Apothecir ies ' Act in 181 ~. This ga ve Ihe
Landon Sodety of Apothecaries ce rtain powe l'$ over professional Itandud5 and medkal
edu catiol'\ Ihroughoul England and Wale,.'"
and forb~de "unquaUfied persoN from judt;-

,:~c I ]""";''"'''' -1'''''''''lJ

'""
I......""
on"

I
G~OCE ~S

COMP.l.IIY

~,,~\l
"

OIll~9iIU

CII .IIIi$l. l

.I.I'OTHEClJllfS

llJ

tatll.c.

"
,

191 /1c'

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XlII.e.

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~u I ~AHI.C(\JTtC"L
y

SOe lElY

U~,

E''QlnIiO:l of phum.cy ;1'1 Ens1and (wilh I pecilLl ",I.",nce to Londo n)

lroln i1s btginninp ta the prnent d~. (Dilgrar.'l ""urin,. 01 T"'.se, G.
E.: I'ttannacy in H;'tory, p. 32. London: 8.aillio.-e, Trndalt . nr::l Gooc. 19601)
ins. disease by e:<lemai SymptOIrul (Ihe qua[- .
_ ifi~ .N'QP.~_be l ng Ihe phyaician!, . urgeDl'\S
-.nd apolhecaries):
.
Th rough an emerg~ncy organiution Ihe
chemIsI' aruf druggists bid lua:e5. fully 10
amel'\ d the Apothecaries Acl 10 pl1!$enre as
rights Ihe phannace u tkal services !hat I1 had
now become c;llstomary for Ihem 10 render .
The,. defined Ihne righl:!l as consisting of Ihe
bu)"ing, the com pouncl ing . nd the d ispensing cf d mg s and m edicina l compoundi ,
wholesale al1d retaii. With Ihis definition the

.ch emist~ and the d rog,gis ls, ~dudi ng . all

medic al ilmbilion, drew thc. .boun4ary_be.. _

Iween the medical an d the pnannice-ut:i.car .
p~renions. The more Ihe apotheca ries be(ilme m edkal practilioners, Ihe mOn! the ir
origlnallasb paJSed inlo other haruU .
The Scottish and lrish Situation
In Scotlan d and Ire land the phantlacis l
took a similarly wind lng h i~torica[ path. He,
too, eventually merged i nto medi c ine,

Chll",i5ts-ll1Id-Druggi,ts ~lId Thti~ PhllrnUlceulical Society

m.inly wilh 5urgery, ra ther Ihan ,,'ith interna! medk ine ;lS in EngJand . HOl',eve r, lhe
bounda.ries were d nwn loo~ly , . nd- lhe
surgeon pothecary urne into 5trvke as the
genetal practitioner foI' ord inary foI l: by the
17th century in lome parts of 5ool13nd.
Phannacy now "-aIl taugh! w im 5urgery and,
despite divis i~ h!ndencies, e....enually onl)
. u apotheUr1es ...~re perrn itted 10 bea!mt':
meD'lhers of Ihe co rpo rat ion of 5urgeons
without examination, on pavmen t of 50
poultds each!
.
At in EngIand, .. new dass of practitioneTI
of phanrtaty then a rose . Unlike their English
!;'Qlleagu es, they r~eh~ immed.iare ,md full
recognition by physkians; what is mote, the

College of Phy~ici.n5 in Edinburgh prohibiled its members horn oper.. ting pharma<:in.l'
In Ireland, 100, th .. apothecaries w ere in a
guild wilh the surgeo l15 (1456); but, afte r a
lew centurie9, lhe apo the<aries of Dublin
wert! granted il1\ independent <;harter as the
Guild of SI. Luk~ (1745). Th;, guild larer
.lma lgama ted w ith Ih e Company of
Apothetari~s' Hall, whose jurisdidion extended over th~ whol~ of In!land. Like their
counterp;l.I1S elsewhere in the British !sIe:!!,
lrish apoth ecariu drifted into the genera l
practiet.' 01 mechcmt. The Medica! Act of 1853
induded Apothecaries' Hall as one of the
liCl.'nsing bornes lor medleal praclitioners,
but the Hall h ll5 sinct been do,..d.
Many medical apothecaries eventually refus.ed tooperale pharmiIC~s open 10 tmoo public, which.further slimu lated a ruing ~ass of
'd ~. " Tht Iriah "d::w~'::"' ~.
olhtt hand, WIIS blod:ed from tali.iilg a plaet.'
~s i de Ihe d ispensing " dtemis(' as a funl'

Prof~nion.ll ()' trad~ u rd 01 ..... . lril r. "",~

h. U,N i1!u.trati:og tM combinationof generalmedIcal.nd phamoK'll!uliu!p~ . Th~coatofarm.
11ooIt_, wilh unicorn i .amp;ont) ia th.at 01 Ihe
~Iy of Ap<:>thKuiH . (Fn:>m ; Amt riun Institule of the Hislory of Pha:mac)"; gUt of T. Dougllf

Wh:Uet)

Hi7

rtl(ognized phannacy practi lioner (Ac l of

18iS), being hdd In a subordinate da" reminil-cent of the German Drogii!, bul pennitted a wide r 5(ope of function. He hu bo!-en
oontinually I1 odd s with Irish "'clle mists"
(pha rm iKi5t1), frequenlly tresp~nin8 ilIegall)" on their senices. FinaUy .n enactmenl
of 1951 dikOntinued .1'11' liuther regis lntion
of new dTUMisls. while pennitt ing tho&e in
practice who could pass an e"MIlinatien to
bemme pharmaceutlcal chem ists in everything bllt na.mc.
Whlt becarne of the apoth~Clries?
Th t lri l h ... ,li~ 1111 English, II.~"t pu sed
from ph~nnacy to IJlltdlcine, bul not to comp~
Iy ... . '-jan)" o....n ph.omoaciel ...... PII u medical
pndicn. Same clll their pllimulcy " "potheory's
Hall" b\lt the I1!mo "Medical Hall"la mo,"" popu-

I.,..

n..

blter letm b abo oo::aslonaUy u.ed by

phor.nacist. who aequlred medic . l II . 11s (rom

. pethecariel. Thus the Irlah ' potlle':'llin haV<! the
be.1 of botll worldl, beins belh phy. icl..oN . n d
phnmad11t;. troly lrbh , itu.don."

A1lho\lgh Engllnd sen:es u the m~in focus

of d isCll.lls ion for the p re!lenl purpose. the
Srilish !sles in genual iIIu,tl"il tt Ihe tangled
.kein thai (an . esu lt when closely related 0<':cupational funetlons al'l! eo<erdsed in a social
almo,phere mOn! heavily charged with the
ideo! o f "wall and ste how 1I deve lops" than
with p reconceived ideal of discipline and
pl~:med de\"tlopmen l of a Malth system.

CHEfl.fiSTS-,\NO-DRUCCI5TS AND
nlElR

PKARMACElJT1~L S~IETY

In the coww of negotiations with the Col'-. -

lege cf Phys icians In 18-11. Ihe m~m~!lI of

tile board of exa mlne o f the Sociely of
Apctheclrie" d eo;lared
_ th~1 01lC of ttle (!\iei evi" if\ tM p.-nt
podien cf Ihe Apotllecary 11 1111 I\lll\e, .... hieh hal
littie ref<orence 10 hb aetu.J dutte,. thai M is in
I&CI 1111 Med ical Atltnda.nl on the luge< :n.u, of
Ihe commll:\ity. In<! .t.ould ~ dHisnal1! d tltt
Genn-a! PTac:titioner cf Med icin,.u
Thai yen th e Phannaceulica! 50ciety of

)
lOB

Tht Dtt'4!'lopme.. t in Bri/ain

Grl!ilt Bntl in was founded " 10 ben<!fil me

.----

Ck~plfr

An amendmom t pused by Parti.menl in

publk and elrvate Itw profession of Phar- 1898 e xtend ed fu H membe n h ip in the
m;t()' . by fum ishing Ihe means cf prope r in Socie l ~-res e r"ed hi the rto 10 Ihe Pha rstruetion. IKOb Bell feit thai he voiced a cel'\- maceutica1 Olemists (tilN- of all thOlle who
tnl i<:wa oi IM chemisl and druggist when he h.d pIIS!Il!d Ihe "majo(' exami~tion}--to the
uid in 1642 that ph;mnacy -had herome fO Chem ist olnd Druggisl (ritle of an those woo
compliciltlld and had embraced ~o many IId- had passed Ihe "minor' e:umination). After
ences '"that a co mplde knowledge of Ihe sub anolher decade Ihe Jaw (1908) brought Ihe
ject C.u'1 only be acqu ir<':d by 'hose wh o call ing of phmnacy more fuUy under Ihe condl!'o"ote Ih ei. e~dusive attention 10 Ihe pur- tml of the Society an d &a\le il power 10 insti
tute a ~mpulsory curriculum . H owever,
sult.""
The Phumace ulical Sodet)' con tinued on a membership was \loluntary, and. d es pite the
road diverging lrom that of the apothe<:arie-s , Society's <!lIamination and reglslration !une!I'1(Iving slowly toward profes sional status for 1101'15, il remained auxiliary to t~ officw aua"~ dass of pril cti tiont'1"5 of pharrnacy. The Ihority . The Society became such an authorSoxiely'sch.rte r (1843) .. mpowl!:E'd il 10 ~u ity Il$elf in Glea t Bri lain in 193:>.
The Pharmacy Act cf 1933 made member
laie Ihe I! d ucat ion and Ihe adm ission of
members . The ob;ectlve5 $peciMd wele (1) ship in the Pharmac.l'ulical Society t cmrpllladv ancemen t of chl!m.istry and pharmacy; (2) 'OI"J . [\ery person regl5tered as a British
promotion of I unifonn sys"tem of educarion pharmacist be<:omes a member b~ \I!rtue of
fo r pr.. ctitlone!'li ; (,3) protection of " Iho~e who h is regismtion. The litles "plu.nnaceutic~1
carr)' on Ihe bU5ines~ of Chemitt and Dmg- chemist' "pharmaceutist, ' " pharm lci.!ll,"
gist"; (4) relief of needy members, aS!:IOCl.ltes "(hemist and druggist" or "drugglst' were
pretteted. The te rm "chemist" beame and
and thei. widow$ and orphans.
The lirs t Pharmacy Act i n 1852 empowered remaim the most popular designation u sed

Ihe Sodei)' to co ndu ct e><aminalions b~ b~ commu nity phann<ocisllil.

The s latutory commill~ cf the Society hn
meanl ot 1"'0 boilrds (one fur Engl l nd . !'Id
Wales and aMther for Sco Uand) and to grant Ihll power, subjllct to appeal to the High
cert ificates cf qua lification fo r "pho.rma(l!u- Court, 10 remo\le names from the regisler.
liu l chem ist$," the tiUe being re:s:ricted Je - fad'l regl~lered phdrm ..d 51 ( o "ducling "'1'1
gaUy to those so regiSlered. Medic.al men en- establ ishment Icr Ihe d ispensing cf drugs is
gaged in prad ice rould !'lot be registered U authorized to dispense poisons also. hUPKpharmaceutiul chemis ls, allhough they to rs, "'00 must be registered ph armllCisl$.
ro uld dispen~ drugs land a majority d id so). are appointed by the Society.
In an ed itorial explaining Ihe new Act , the
The mott importanl change in a new Phar- m aC)" ACI ci 1568 ma de qualificalion and reg- Sodety's Journal ~1_a irned .. ~'Pha~acy is
jslration co mpul,~ry roT an membel'!l oi-Ih! re.cognized_ as .a s_~~go~~j"g_.~m.ll!l.!!lit)"
profess ion . In addition, Ihe sal~ oi poillen!
was henceforth perm illed only in pharmadn
ser.lng Ihe g<i'neral public . The Act wa s a C.,;ooture cf il1\ Eng/i. h practitioner 01 phannacy
comprcmise between rival factioN of pharo in th~ 1820's. TI... p.atier.l already ja ,"Ore th~n
mac isls . howe\ler, and i n eff"Cl made educa- 111* l:np ren ed Iry Ihe prcscription bn"8 hil1\do!d
tion serondarv 10 examination. The hhlorian '" hirn . er"", n, &nd e." ,lier, ~ pretO'i pt ion 1&bel
Melvin P. Earles infem.-d that by Ihus " fa il- .. ., wrilten on ~ to.g ti~ 10 the bottleneck.) A
ing to 5a~guard againsl 5Uperfictal forrns of daily tuJc of the ptwmacy o.pprer.t~ ( ng"l) w.u
~arni ng. Ihe Act de prl'ssed phanJlllCeutical tID tom.mr.ute drugs in ~ ....0:10lf. (Eng",";n8 by
education in Brilain 10 a leyel from which it Henry Heath.. 1525, in Ihe William HelfandCoIlKhon; photo from The SmlthllOnljn Institution)
look mo ~ than 6fty ~ars to rect)\er. " u

::: --

::~
r
~=
.l' ~ , . ~,~1-.r-~,.
"'"-~.
-~<;!' \<'
.

r...7.!

'!!l",' .

)
110

Th e D~I"pmtnl ;11 Sril<!;"

fre~ to co nduci it s own af!ai rs and 5ubjecte.::l

10 gOyemmental con trol onl y in those maUers
whue its aclivities a ffec! the publi c.""
"Self-g{werning oommunityl" The prin dple
e mployed by England in relati on to her {cl
anie, (advancing them 10 d ominions if th~
have pl'Ove d 10 be sufficien tly mature ror
self' govemmen t) ;5 here applied in internaJ

ail.iB.
The Brilish h n'e enrcised thi , stHresporu ib ility ",;th the dl!l Nrn and ""tute ntJS that 50 frequently mark ome r seclors of
Bdtish pubi;, life. It als o hu included a
Itrong element 01 respect for Ihe traditions of

the "dispensing ,heInist. " Yet, there have

been 51rong pressures lowatd change, not
ar ising so much lrom a ny inte rna l inadeq\lKies .. 5 fro m ou ts ide pretsures, lrom
soooeconolllic trend s in Wes te rn iOcieties at

Luge. Th ree 01 the~ particulilr:y have been

alfeeling Ihe "chemist's sho p" as a part of
medi,al 'are.
Fir-,t, despite the pers istenee of a variet)" of
smalI, inde penden t shops--to a 'a r mere
ten;>Clous degree than in Amerk l-the independent pharmacy owne r hn fel! th~le~d
, inoe .bout mid -century by Ihe encrohment e f multiple-uni! erganizatio"" . Alrea.dy
in the u rly 1960's abo ut a seven th of L'le
p ha\"lJ\<ll,ie in W Un iled Ktngdom had beco me " eh ain stores ." Th ia a nd e ther
ecenomlc preSliu res, including transfer oi
some proleuienal fun,tioru , dec:re~S<!d the
number of dtemist' , sh ops in operalion by
about a flfth between 1955 ~nd 19n.
Seo:o nd, the ava ilability of DWiic:aLure to
an u nder .Ihe 8.QY~!,!!"enl-o perlited program
h u tended 10 redu ce the fieedom 01 lion of
the ph. rmotds : in professional as well aS
I!(o noml c m att er& . ~oreo.... er, the sh ift 01
rnedical se rv ice!; into ne ighbomood health
oenterli, a<:<;@le rating in reeen! ~lIrli . rai5es
Ihe spKto r 01 on-,ite pharm ac:y servke in
competl tion with Ihe neighborhood "ehemist." Provision in the National Health Service
Act (1946) to pro .... id e on site pharmae ists W.il5
l uex_fully block"d b)' o rganized phil.J"Il\MY;
allhough under Ihe eq>andec constnlction

Clulpte, 7
program fo r he .. lth <;@n~ n sinoe the eariy
l %O's , In im:rus ing proportion of ~neral
medkli practitioners w ere being absorbe d
into Ihis work-setting. According 10 one es
tirna~, lewer than 50 cf 1300 h ealth cen~rs
built or proj e<:led b )' 19n ind uded on-site
phannacistl in !heir PW\J . Ye t, .... ilh the natiOl.. 1i health program 50 oenlral iz.ed iUld inleg r.ted, man)' Briti,h p h;r.rm aclltl have
conside..ed lhe future work settirlg 01 the average practitioner an opt'fl q uestlon.
Th ird. th e dilappe;r. ra n,e 01 the drugmaking lun,tio n from Ihe phamlllCY MlOp
hu entered a fInal stage, as In IIl()IIt highly
dl!~loped , ountries. To eompeniJatt.' for this
foJ nctional lon, the advisory fu netion 01 the
pharmilds t has bei?n put forw ard as a geal by
otganized pharmacy and ha$ been, bO a limited ex ~nl . recogniud in law. T.... o factol"5
Ih us far in.'"Iibinng thi s se n"i<;@ (in eommon
wilh American dI"cumst .. nces) are Ihal W
traditional chemist's shop ia poorl)' des ign ed
ior such a lunction an d. Ihat third-party remune rati on lor pharmaoeulical service does
nOt I!l"ICo urage it. l7
OTHER ORG.o\:-.lIZATiONS
As a ~55aI}' firsl geal In Ils e.my deeado::s, ll", pt' .. nn ...... ulk.l Sodcty p dually
lormed d ass of unifo rmly and suffiden l]y
educated ph,umace u tical p rac titioners , on
whorn could be confen-ed the legal right to
lUpP])" the peeple wilh d rugs and medicines .
The Seel et) !ried to make pharmace u tica.l
.denee a\'ailab~..JQ -,he average chemisl and
druggist. but it_CDukl. not pm.roQ!e. ,cj~tifi~
reseilrch to the d esired n ieni, sinD:! many
pha rm ...:eutical scientists we..e not membel"5.
Fo, th is reilso n Ihe Brin sh Phannaceutica.1
Con lereoce, "an organiutl on fo r Ihe mrouragemen t 01 pharmaceutkill research," was
founc ed in 1863. The Co nfe ren<;@ WilS nol
connected officiallv wi th Ihe Phlnnaceutical
Society until 1922, when 1I beeame an autonomous part 01 Ihe Sociery. Th ill d ose conneellon between Ihe !Wo u,o ciatiol\5 h;r.s
conti nued e...en Ihough it It nol romp ulsory

)
for a Conference nu~mber 10 bewng 10 the
Society.
The foundeB of the Confere nce appanmtly
had bee n influenced by
.. . the good .... e,k dont ... by the Amfrican
Ph a"""ce.,lleal An ocl.a tion . . . in Ihe fi.~ d 01
phann-a"ticol Kiene. panicularl~. .
Reynolds desa;bed me American ~tbod of . 1IottinA .,bjecb fo r Invesli!M:ion to individ oat. fo,
rtpOrt4I: the L..... uiIlIl>H linS. and refened to Ihe
Indusi.<>n in dte p.,bli.lwd Proo.-edin,,~ of Ihe
Americ.t.., AMorlali on cf . ~ction ..-hkh mrmed a
'Yur-Soo k of Plt., maey" both horne I nd

I~dwn

IUId RegutGti(J1t

1II

inle re ,ts of pharmilC)' owners as entrepre~ and h.u the impo rtanl du ly of repfe$<!nting phllm\.l.ty iri. 111 aflairs con<eming
natio nal health inaurance. In Scotlmd, ,imiI..... funetions are shared bel..... een Ihe Scottish
Pharmace ulical Fedenti on (found ed in 1919)
and Ih~ Pltannaceu tical Standing Committee
(Scotland) .

Th e repres~ nta li v e Gu ild o f Hos pital

Philrm acists (forme rly ulled the Gui ld of
Public Phanntsl,) was founded in 1913 by
ama lgamaling Ihe Public Ph~ rmacists Asliod .. tion .... Hh membeB of the phann;r.clsls'
fomgn.1O
s l!Ction 01 the Hos pital Offieel'll' Association .
The Phannace uticaI Sodet) d eveloped in lo lt Include!; abo u t 90 per cenl of the hospltd
the .dmirli strati~-e and educiltional body of phMmacists in Eng!.and, Sco tl and .. nd Wales
Ihe professio n wi th Iht! Srilish Philrn"la.:euti- a nd h.il5 branches Ih roU8houl the three coun,al Confe rence repl"l!Sf!n ti ng ils s cien li 6 c m cs. The Guild o[ Publk Pha rmacilll3, after a
.... ork . su ppll!n\en ll!d by Ihe Socie ly's Oe. ballol ameng Ihe mem bers hip. joined iI trade
partmem GI Phannaceulka l Scienoes (as s uch union , Ihe Asso ciil tlon 01 Scienti.6~, TI!(hn.j_
, ince 19$9) .
eal and Managerial Staff. This improvl!d the
Durin g the late 19th centu,), Ihere had negolialing power ol lhe Guild with th~ Oebee n indications Iha t th e ordinary "ch!mist parlmenf of He alth and Sodal Secudty,
~nd druggisl" sedously doubted, however,
wh ieh .... as reflect"d in 5ubslantial s alaT)' in_
tha t h is businen inrerestlJ were being laken cteasts aViard ed 10 pharmacists in the hOi pi_
cHe of adequately by the Pharmaceutical 1.1 service. (Sirnilar organizationJ e:Qst In
Society. This discon tent crys talliLed e.my in North.em In!land and the Irish Republic.)
fhe presenl ce nlury .... hen Ihe di5p ensing
cht!mi,l, we re squee:z:ed economicall)' by un INSPECllON AND REGULATION
.... p.-.:t ..rI ..ff'-"C1s hom lhe fi~1 so,--.mm. nl
heallh legislation. In r@spons.., a new ' 1.ocal
Th e insp~tion 0 1 Ihe pharmades refleets
Ex ecutives A saociatio n" wu org a.nited the general d evelopmenl of English pharunder ausp ices of Ihe Pharmaceutical Sodety m!l(}'. A royal orderol Henry V15rsl gave Ihe
10 seek redrus . A ,ourt test case (th! "Jen- grooers power 10 uamine "anis, wOrmlle('d,
kins judgment") s howed Ihal Ihe chemisq' rhubarb, S<:ammo n)" splkenan:l, senna &T!d
business in teresu I.)' outside the d,artertd aII sort of d rug!.,.bel onging to fIledk ine, so as
responsibil ities of !he- PI,..m\ici-utici Sod- 1"001, in.lhe b~in3..of th~_to. he..hurt..in thei'_~~~~ _
e!)' a, a professio nal body. The Society"s roJe bodil)' heallh" (144i).u l a te r d~ (t540,
-being tftus d efined md lim ited. a new inde. 1553) ga~ the supervls lon of phannacies 10
pendenl otganiu lion of pharm;acy owners Ihe medical pro/ession. Howewr. wht!n Ihe
wa:; set up in 1921, to pursue the bUllineu Societv cf Apolhecaries WIS chartered indeinlerest~ of phamtacy unde , Ih~ li tle Retail pende'ntly (1617), Ha master and wa rden,
Pharmacis l5' Union (known as the National Viere ernpo"'el1!d to inspect any phannac)'
Pharmaceulkal Un ion ,i nce 1932) . It w as and 10 bum before the o!fenders Coo r an
erealed wilh Ihe support of lhe Phannac:euti. dmgs and preplratlons Ihe"}' deemed COfT\Jpt
ea! Society, since Ihe lalte r' s quile d iflerenl or unwhoIesome.u
l;r.sk WH 10 repres!'l\t aII pharmacists profesIn lhe 18th century. pow er to ..xamine Ihe
'io"",Il),.'9The new Union milinly sen:ed Ihe shops 01 apotheearies, dtemists ilnd drug.

)
JIl

Th t D~IC7p"'erlt in Sn/"i"

gists was givet! to the College of Ph ysictans

(1723) , and cun involv ing ques liona b le
dNgS ,.-tre judged by I rourt comp osed
putly c f physidans .nd partly of apoth
ecaries (1730) ,n
Scotland a1ao placed inspec tion of the
a pothecariu' stock in the hand! of physidaN in Ih e 11th century, so:netirnes wilh IS, i,tanee fro m repfesent .. tiv es of Ihe
apothecarie, Iht'mselves. 3l
The regulation stemming from the ?hilrmacy Ac! 01 1933 made Ihe pharmadstJ
Ihrou ghollt Engl and, Srotland ;lnd Wa les
definilely ~ll'gove ming, under the ~lIp<" ..... ision c f their own Society.
TM Ph.rmacy Md Medidnes Act of 190&1,
ame ng o ther ch.inges, rela"ed distri butive
co nlroJs on (e rU in poisons , abolished the
, tamp dut)' on proprielary medic:ines I nd
differen li al ed be twu n p harmad s tl In d
e lher peBCln5 dilltributing them Ind dult
w lth Ihe advertising 01 medkines."
Further legal ch ange, in 1953 allowed
ev~on~ on a single ngititer of phannacis rs
to u~ the lilIe pharmac@ulicalehemisl (ll.IUa1ly shOlUned to "cMmist" ). and authorited
the Societ)' 10 ngister ...;Ihout eumination
(a r wil h a modified eummati on) penoOl'15
granted degrees in pharmae)' by uni\~!$ilie.
in th.e Uruted Kingdom _ Additional chlllltiO/lo
in th~ o pera ti ng ITIu:-oewo rk of the PharmilCeutical Society eame with a S\lpplemen~l
Charter gran ted 10 it b,.. the gove mm ent
(1954).

The prese nl complex ion of BIili. " pharma<:y hi1.5 al.o be en .haped during Ihis e~n
!Ur)' by. leg~slation otl;er Ihan. the pharmacy
acta. nie' eomp~hemive Mewein e'S Ac! "f
1968 partkularly (in relevant sections cf its
165 page,)!! reaffi nned that the Phannaceuti
cal Society continue to register phumades,
mai ntain d iscipline over those carrying 01\
phum Keutieal acti vitie" en fo ree Ihe law
nlati~~ 10 subs~, mat could only be sold
il\ phar!l"Lllcies, I nd con lrol lhe use of li lies.
How ever, these became po ...
delegatl!d by
IM Ministe rs cf Heal th (who have enforeement respcnsibility) 10 the Phanrulceutiul

-e,.,

Ciuipltr 7

Society. yat recognizing the Iong ~ition of

self-governance and the n s ponslbility of ils
e xercbe by Ihe Sociely on behIlf o f the
Crown.
The Min.islry cf Health is also empowered
to hlve ils own inspectors, md 10 ml trucl
the Pharmaeeutical Sociely 10 withh ol d
licenses in cases of unsuilable prem;,e$ fo r
the p rac lioe of phumacy, unlil necesnl'Y improvemII'nt:! have be!n made. Th is respond s
in part to the Sodety's attempt in 1965 to gain
oontro] over the nature of the premililes fo r a
phlrmacy. whieh wa s thwa rled by the
coures.
11\e IE' rms underwhicha phannacy!rulY be
eonducted are simib.r to Iho$e pre vlO\lsty
p re\'3i1ing (and compan bll" to most of Ihe
USA) . There has been no legal lim ita tion
pla~d on the number of ph;urnacies, whkh
In 1972 ap proached the ral io of Ipproxi
ma tei)" 1 per 4000 penons in the United
Kingdom. A pharmac)" must be conducted
by I pharmacist or partnersh ip of pharmaeisIS or a corpo rate bod}" having a pharmacist
u &uperintedent. And medicinal produClS
mu.st be d ispensed under the pe nonal oontrol of a ph.. rmacist, uruess it can be shown
thai th ey can. ...; Ih reasonable salety. be
supplied otherwise. Ho ....e vtl" safe Ihe p:od" cU, if ,,;,] d in an cs l"blishrnen l otn ... than a
p humuy the y mus l be form ula ted
ebe ....here and sold in sealed containers. One
In te resting feature 01 Ihe Med idnes Act 1966
pennil' extemponneaus di spen,ing in conneellon wilh co unter pre5Crib ing, IJ Ih! pet'son who will take Ih~ medicati on Is present
in. the pha.mac:i::..... the first IPO: p~SS recoS') l:
tlan 'ol"tO unter prescribing by phatmaei!ls-rn--:-'
modem English Ja .....
y,."hile the former Secr<'!lary of the PharrnaceuticAI Soeietv. F. W. Adaml, conduded
thai the current legislation w ould indirectly
"improve the slatus cf the phutnAc:ist.'" it
also appeared to entail a "formidahle and
highly centr.dised s)'3\lem of .... ide ranging
authority ." Certainly it stands _ Iong way
lrom Ihe British conception of I" i _ fa irt
thlt led to a n ation' s apothe(:aries t'o"Olvi ng

)
into ~gI\lz.ed medieill practitiOMrs; or. on
ano lher tum of the wheoel, led 10 a large
numbu of drugg istl becoming d en lists
(1878) '36 N part 01 a Bri tish trend , pharmacy
for mol"ll! Ihan a d eocade has beoe n lurni,,!
. ..-ay from the degree ol l4 i$Sa {oIir~ Ih l t hu
1000g 5tood ln contrasl to pharmacy on the
European Continent.
This ;5 exemplified by the overwheJming
vote (belter lhan 4 to 1) by which membe n of
thePhannao;eu ticllSociery-cfG~atBritainin

1965 IPPI'OVed seeking a limitation on the 10ulionlnd operatio n of philImacies. Pharmaeis is wished to limit the Iocat ion of "eW
pharmacin 10 such U .... ould be physically
di slinct and ft puatl! hom other ty pes of
pnmises, and wished 10 limit Ihe funetion cf
new pharmacies 10 the dispensing of drugs
and other heill l h-~llted products, excepl for
a Ji m it~d number of unrelated items Indilion al ly usocialed ""ilh British pharmacy
(e.g., pholographlc supplill!5 and toile tries l.
Although not required to change curtent
pl"1lctices, establilhed pharmacies would not
have been permitted 10 expand fur.he r iota
sidelinn p ri ncip ally un~ laled to health.
The acti on ' tem s !I}'m bolic of a change in
social and profess iona l attiludll!. but in priKtice it ...15 fnlstrated by a coun:eractio n. a
s u cceuf"l s. ri es of s ki rm ish"$ fouIJht
Ihro ugh lhe British cou rts. by the Iargesl
Brilish chain SIO~ opel"1ltion (Bools, Ltd .).
Thll! Pharmace uticill Societ,.. lost the decisive
wund when th e House 01 Lords decided
agains l Ih! I tan ee ta ke n by the Sociely
members-pe:haps partly bfocause it oou/d
~_. lnterpreted u a move bued more on a
desire 10 fOre1taU Mrlericil n'style mMS mer-
chandising by ma in &tores than on public
welfare . In any evant it seerns alandmark
dec ision. 5inoe it marked the .first time thai a
chuge of "constraint of trade" h Old been
brough l ' ucceufuUy Igainst ~ prof~ion .l7
In effll!ct the PhilImlOCeuticaI Sociely was toId
that it bad 1'1 0 power 10 decide wh.ll a ptoarmacis l could o r could not selllrom bis estl bli~enl (aplrt from medlcine&and poisons
5Ubject 10 $peci.fic regulation).

Insprdum an" Rtgltlalio"

llJ

Anolhll!f recll!nt lendency of Briti sh pharmacy thallppears 10 draw more from Co ntinen tal models th.an trom ill own pilSt hu
bee n th~ con ~de ra tion of p lanned d istribulion cf phanJ\;lcies. In 1967 the Phannaceuti
eal Socie ty nlablished i Committl!e on the
Planned Distribu tion of Pharmac}' (~narnd
Ih e Cotnmittee on a Planned Pham'\.llce \ltlcal
Service); but did not rom'mce the British
govemment to ehange from the system of
fret!dom of Iocation of phumlcies . [1'1 1974
the issue was brought up again incol\nection
""H h a new Na lional Health Services Act. an d
Igain d id not a ttract 5wfi<;ienl suppo rt ."
11\e unlvenaJ guvemmenl hea[1h ins urance represented by the Act il a British txp~.ion 01 the Io ng-toerm , worldwide tre nd
In heallh-cal"ll! eoconomiQ that i$ d iscu.ssed on
p . US o It meri ts mention hefe partly beocaun
t h~ Brilish enac tment has had an im pact on
th~ dewlopment of British phannacy in the
20th een lu f)', and partly be C1.13t It CO N titutes the health-insuran ce experienc:e thai '
h as been most influential on Ameriean
thought. Th e o riginal govemmenl health in, urarlce enaC led in 1911. whlch was reliri eted 10 lower-i n co rnll! groups. help ed
Briti sh phannao;y by suppress mg through re. Iric li on!! on remuneration Ihe prevalem
physioc ian_d ;'pensing of m ..dic,.ti on. wh ich
hu been an outgrowth of the oId " e pothecary Irad ition ." AnOlhersalutary effect . inee
health insurance was IPO:le nded to Ihe en ti re
popu lation ln 1948 has been a defin ite improventent in Ihe status 01 h osp ita l pharmlci,n in Britain. The overall impact of gov~mme nt M.ilill iri"iiuran ce hu been ch aras.:
-ienud 'by Ihe historlan- Leslie G . Mattht v." - as foll o....s:
!his Siva tha ph annacist opportu:>lty to de
velop the di lpen>ine; lide of hi l bUIWiI , those in
EnSllnd . nd W~le. b<eing mo~ alfeeled tha"
IboK in Scottand. ...1te-n the .., pantion of p~.
Kri1;oi nS horn dispensinl! h..t long bn gi ve n
Sft~Ier

tecognition. f rom 1912., Ihe~f<lre. LW dil-

PflIslnS of prncri;>tions and the upply of dftlfinS' Ind applianca bq;;ut to 1'11)" mut h greater
pan in IM d. U,. work 0; the phln:>aebt. though 11

_.,--!..

'"

1M Drln'lopmtni in Sri/.i"

w.. noI IInlil lhe },Iati"",,\ Hultn Act of 1946,

",hieh tarnt into o~r.tion in 1948. wh." Ihe
Hultn trvlet w ... extended 10 the whole pop"lalIon, tNt tho! phum,Jcist bame mo~ importan!
10 IM ... Uon and when, a lm'at witnout t ><plion, .. ~ In IIOCN! counlry are .. elr In tl'Mrg.:'ncy,
l!oe dClCtOt enxd 10 dispetut the medicam"",1s
tlu.! he prftCri~"

Wlth Iht IleOrganiuotion of the N~tional

He.al lh Serviu ' in 1974 on an IU'U UKI regional buill, Iht community pharmacist has

become a more integral part oi lhe tolitl cornplt)( of hwlll services. al Ihe u me timt M5ililing ero~ion of h is independent sta tus 01'
absorption inlO the NHS arn heillth centeB.
The I(rual oonsequences wm of course become clearer afte: a k ..... decades.
SOCIA L STANDINC
To gAin an impressiol\ 01 Ihe soc iaJ posilion held by Ihe mtmtbe rs 01 Ihe phannaceulical calling in Eng1~nd, we mull cheese a.s
repre8ent~tives. until Ihe end ef the 18th century, Ihe .. pothe<:aries. From Ihe middle of
the 17th cenlury on. we abo musl consider
the chemist and, from Ihe beginnin g of the
19th century, the ru!W professional group I""I!su lting from ehe gradual mUl!g.m;ll lion of
ehemists !Uld drugg iSls, whlch CONtlru tes
the rmk-and-file 01 mode rn Srili.!lh pnar

Chapfn 7

but ..-hen Ws was rollet! up the)' were open

to Ihe IItTeet ." ..
The equipmenl ot Engluh .polhecams 01
Ihe 17th U1d the 18th oen tu riu - unlike thai
01 thtlr counterparts on lhe Condnent, i n
genual--does not seem 10 havl! rdlecttd
their prosperity and sodaJ position. The fact
that Ihe apotheary eonsidew;i hiD"lSelf 10 be
primllrUy 11 medical prll ct1 lioner probably
made I1 seoem unnecess;lf)' to 5trh""!! for .;a pa...
ticularlr dign ified pharmaceutical atmosphere.
On the WAll hang ... wa, 1<nh.... , fon:eps and
OIher lW"iiul in.tru ment.; 10. the apotheCllry wos
,..,o<Ir 10 perfO rIll any op.".tion, frorn IM cultinS
off 01 t we-n 10 the amput.tion of a ~B ' ... The
w&& IR lined wil" ih~lvn bet rlll, In arrar of
~lfl jon cl blue.t>d whibc Co. whidl l!Mo lambeth
potten Wert 1......0 ....

Anolher type of pNn'no1(eutic..1 eslablishmen t was represented by Ihe c hemist',

lhop$, whkh are hinled. al in 1553 bul d id
nol beccme numerous bdol""l! Ihe Hoond half
of the 17th century.
The mos l famous af these chemiat3, the
Gennan-bom Ambrose Hmckwitt. (in England named GodfI1'"Y), ""n broughl to Engl;IInd by no leu;ll pt=On than Robel1 Boyle.
Tog.:1 h"r wil10 H.ond:wi loc, Do)'I~ found" new
method lor Pl1'"paring phosphorwl .nd "for
macy.
rnany yean the "English ph osp horus'
As in an olher countries. the iIOCial posi- supplied by Hanckwilz lrom his laboratory
lion of Ihe Srilish apothecary was b~ sed, on . . . monopoHzed Ihe European m.arkel ."
Ihe one hand. on respecl for his professio",,1
Around 1800, such manufacturing
work and, on .t he uther hu\d,. on Ihe fact.th.tl _ chemist:li parted rom?my wilh Ihe d~pe",5mos l 01 the apothecarif:l. wel1'". o r ;J.tJusI, .. -ing chemiJlts, although some of Ihem t'ewere CONidered to be, weD -to-do.
.
tained both fUnct:iON iM ca riied on (o r,
lhompson descri bes two apothecary shops ra lhe r, crea l<:,d) Ihe idn of profenional
tlf Ihe 161h CtnruIj" ~ weil eq uipped w ith phannlCY ud, laler, be.::ame founders of IM
fumilure, containers of vlriou5 kin<h and Pharmaceutkal 50ciely 01 Grell Srit..;n. In
.i2e!1, and weights and b .. llnas. The pre- general, however, little of the oId glo!)' of ehe
scriptions of the physlclans wel1'" copied in lo arI 01 the apothecaries o r ol Ihe recenl fame af
I great book which stood on a raised desk Or chemillI)" came do .... n to Ihe new combinalable. As in other countrles. the apotheary lion of chemists aruf druggist s. They pracshops in England in thia pe riod had '"a ...,in ti~ pharmacy, il is true, 001 prirnarilY;l.5
dowframe over .... h.iclI C!Ul\"aS w.s stretched, metchants Hke !heil predecusors, the drug-

)
psts. This background diffe ren ti lted Ihe
chilr.l.cte r of their shops and Ih<:'ir gener.al '0eial position fl'tlm Ihose of Iheir continenlal
eolleague s, allhough theIe were numeroU$
excep tions to the rule . In continental Europe
the ph~rmaceutical profenion, as a pmfu,ion, gave and giv., to aU of its memben I
cert.Un traditional I1'" pu tation. In Eng1;11nd,
Wa.Jes md lr"f'w,d rnost of the mditi on and
the presli ge 01 phitnnacy passed w ith Ihe
;llpothecaries into medldne. How<:,ver. lhe
modem calling of ph annacr h~s done much
10 regaln lo st ground .. nd erul<:' new
p rntige--espeeially u media led b y their
prestigious Phlrmaceutical Sodely-even
thaugh 1I limes progress has been 510 ..... or
uneven.

PII,mrrlUn.I:CI1I f.t"cl1liorr

115

brcughl uFoin.l:uctO'd, and I"ught by the "F;jI('If of

Se"'!" 'tu", "I the Ieas l, M App.e-ntioe 0< Ap~_
ticu ....Hh
e~rcisi "g

lhe said

",m~ Apo t h~c.ry

the " m~ Art,

Myue~'."

or Apotheta ....

."d being ~ Frec!mUl of

Botanic courlU ..... ere o rganized (l627),

..... hich 100 to Ihe establishment c f 1 famous
;lind still exl;lnl " ph)'$ic g.lrden" al Qelwa
(1673).
Appn!nlic~ were e:xamined befere entering Ih e c~lIing and, o n oceasion, wer e
rej eeted "Ior in .uffie ie ncy in Ih<:, La Hn
tongue." Le clul1'"S in mal<:,ria media ....ere
offe red afler 1753.
When Ihe firs l regular curriculum of the
Sodety o f th e Ap ol he.:aries W;IOS issued
(1827J. it was mainly medinL Ir required. 5
Y<:'ArlI of a ppren li cesh ip. indudi ng a Uend;moe;llt cou~s in s uch su bj<:'cts as I.nI.lomy,
PHARMACEU11CAL EDUCAT ION
physiology and Ihe lheer)" .. nd the pmctice of
One of the m051 important means af build- medicine.'6
,
.
.
Re.al pharmllceu llcal educ.atlOn began 1I1
ing up .. prof<:'uionall1'"pulation is, n atu. aUy,
Ihe eduation of the rising gene ralion. A" Engl;llnd only a~ler the found"'g of Ihe Pharexamina lion waa required by law for the first mltCeutlca! Soclely. One of the fun~menta l
time in Ihe "Brirish b in in Glugow, Scot- ~emMlds m the progra~ o~ ~he See.leI)" was
la.nd. On the blsi. of the charter granted to
Ihe development of .cenli!'lc acqUU1:"~n~$
Ihe Glasgow faculty by James VI in 1599, the
. 10 remove .0'!-T {Ihe English pnanniIC l.51s )
faculty " is, ued a lioense 10 practioe phllrD'\.lCY ;IIpparent def,cle n ~' as pharma~opo l!,5 1',
to candid~les who pau <:,d ilsexarnina tion in when eomp ned .Wllh ot her na lons. In
ph'lfln.. ~y."" In 16'7. In Edinb urgh , dU 1844_1845. Iho:o: ",.::etr:" ' o:t'oo! of phannuy
examiruttion became compuI!;ory for an IhOM beCilme Ih<:, first .1Nl1 tul~ on m london to
who wished tQ practice pharmacv wilhin the offer bbonlOry 'ns tru chen fo r pharm~C)'
city..... In England Ihe fint afficial require- student!; under proper guidlnce.~'
mentof a definite time of apprenti aship and
. Secause oitheeentra! Impol1anee of edu.caan examInanon of Ihe prnumplive Ilon n a 1001. i~r shllpmg a new pmfesslon
apothecaries i. amt.alnfd _in the chitrU'r of ~ut of .th~. on8',~al he~ro~~neou5 ~roup of
Dember 6. 1617, creating !he. Seeiel!' of. _. fl'em 'Sjs _;li nd d ruggl.St:li, theSeeletyc:on_
Apotheca. riesol London whlCh ord-ered Ih;ll!: Sls tentl)' fOl5 lel1'"d and v1l1lied the ro1<:, of edu.
'
<alion in the life 01 Brit;sh phann;llcy. The
1'0 Penen DI P'!fiIns ...IUI ........' may hlve, $ociety's commendable hi5loI)' in Ihi5 a.rta ,
h.old. Or ktep , ." Apot~eU')~' Shop or say' J. W. h irbaim, "ri$tl up from th<:, past
W;u-eho\l5e, or . . , mly D en:"" CI use Ihe Art or Jike a signpost pointing out Ihe onlv Wa.ll to
Myslery 01 Apothec ilrl~s , CI ... may ""U. M!t On
. ,. ru! .
f
. _,' ,
' .
ni e, utter, .el fortII. or lend an.,. Ccmpo"nd or mam am a. Imp~ve, pro e!I?lOn~ $ atus In
Composition !C .ny p,,"on OI p""ons what_ ~ mcreasmgly ~lenlific soc~ety 15 by co~;
- .... r, ...imin lhe Oty of lond(>n . "d 1!Mo Liber. linually mcreasmg academ'c $ I ~nd ards.
li". lhe reof, or ""Ihin Sev"n MiJa; 01 1!Mo .. 'd H cw<:'ver, in view 01 the VIrIoU5 levels lind
City, 1In1~ . \ICh pen<lM 0' perlons It.ow bell,. types of knowlecIe asi<ed for b~' the complex

)
116

Tht D t litlopl1U ltt il'l Bri tllil'l

of pha rm ace u tical un"ices, ho w sho uld

pharmaC<l'utiu l e duca tion be structun!d?
Thil q UflSllon recurs again and again in
phannacy, in variou 5 h istorical contl!xt5,
In England. even after phnmaey proper
divorcrd ilself from dw! "a poth~4ry:' !'wo
~1!1s of qualilk.ation peBisted. Originally
lhe Phannaceutica l Sodetv of Gru t Brilain
e nvi saged a 50de ly of 'reg istered ph armaceutic,.] che mislti and regi5U:~ auis/ants. Influenced by ehe relalive ly undeveloped stile of Srilish pharmacy, however,
Ihe usilllant's uami na ti on (eherni! ! a nd
Orugg:ist'5 Di ploma) by 1869 had become Ihe
basic qualifintion forcommunity ph ... rmacy,
wnile Ih e D iplom. of Ph arm.ceu tica l
Chuu5t (Ph. c.) benme a h igber-slatus
qua Lificati on fo r a minori ty, w ho te nded to
en leT manufacturing pharmacy, hosp ital
ph. rmacy, o r leaehmg. "Thi5 two-dus sys lem of phannKeu lic:al ~du<ation penistl'd
fo t illmost .. hund~d YUr5," Fairb.airn poinl~
out, "and a1lhough Ihe Phanna~uliea l Sociely in 1954 abolished the old (hemisl and
druggisl course_ the idu oi anordinary and a
mo re .. dv&I'Ict'd pharmadsl tilill persists.''"
During the 196O'ti a vestige 01 Ihls wn~ pI
temained in the a rrang~menl bj' which an
as p iran t mig h l earn ~ithe r I h~ p iurm.l~utical-chemist d iploma of lhe Soci~' or
the phann.cy bacca.1.. u~ .. le of a un iver5iry.
In either eil&~ Ihe leyel 01 ad mis~ion 10 pharmaceutkal sludies was the s.unl!-estirnated
u perhaps equival ent 10 one yea r or more of
preprofessionaJ coll@ge studies in the Un; bI'd
Slo1te'5_
___ ~e o;urrio;u lu m fot a un iwr5ity degree Of'-:
dinarily reqll ires Ihree ..ead emi c year5. The
l Itern ative no n-d egree coune, whieh ..1_
ttacted Ihe majority of stude nh, requ ired the
urne time and mvere<! Ihe same subjects,
bu t tended 10 l:N' some...hal more practicaJ
and !es, concenlrated. Whichever cu rriculum
Ihe prospeclive phannacist followed , he also
needed one yen of practical tnlin.i ng under a
phlumacisl bdore becomi ng regi ti le~_
Cradu .. tel taking .. non-degne course

)
D tvtlapme~1

Chaptu 7
we re ~uiJed 10 pass a comprehens ive qualifying (d iploma) examination given by the
PhannllCeut kal Saciety,) whern s holder5 of
a univenity degree co uld become regi stered
by being exarn il'led only in Ihe law and practic~ of phannAC)'. Successful c..nd.idales w~ re
regis lered 10 practice as " Pharmleeulical
Chmtists ,"
Sefore 1954 a m aj o ri tyhad heen regi.tering
II Ih e lowe r leve l of q ua lifi c;II li o n litled
"Chemisl al'ld Druggis l_" Th is al lernative
n on- d egree cours e fo r regislutLOn U a
Brilish phannac~t w as ph~sed out In 1967,
lind one qu alifies only by earning a universit}' degn'e . Afte r gradua tion from .. unh'ers ll!, o r pot!'techn ic ~lI ege , (o rdi nuily a
three-year curriculum) the candida te en ter!!
upon a conlrolled expuie nce 0 1 one yu.r in
hospital pharmacy. comm un ity pharm oK)', or
(up to lWf o f IM year) in industri ..1 ph;ormaey.
Just as Ihe PharmaceuticaJ Societ)' ....i lhdIe .... from teach ing-arranging fo r ils famous ol d ,ehool on Bloomsbury Sq u .. re
084.2-19.si to be absorbed by Ihe Uniwr5iry
of London--now it withdrew as ...... e"am ining body for lice nsure, recogniz ing ~ un iversi ty degree llseli as a qu.ilification standard (following a Continental p attern, and unlike the USA) .

The transition 10 a single lev-el of qualiJication , by univenity g ra duation, has been

facililaled by lhe es tablishmen t 01 l'Iew uni versities in Brilain, U one re!iponse 10 Ihe
Ro bbim Repo rt on Highe r EduCillion (1963)_
Same of the$e new unil'enities gnsped IM
opportunit'.. In break..dQwn.$Owe Irad ilional
baft1ers ~tW';e'n subjec;l-areas of "Ihe o;u rriculum. One univers it)' (B radford) in lroduced a "sandw ich cou rse," w h e re Ih e
pnarmaq li luden l spends ....'0 years in ~
un iyusity, one yea r in genera l practice o r
hospilal, then a final yeu in the un ivers ily . ~
Eduea li on al stan dard s in Ire\an d .. nd
Northern lreland are . imilu, and there u e
reciprodty agreements ....ilh Great Britain.~
An examinalion q ualifying for a c~rtificate

as "Alsistartl in Dispens ing" hall heen conducted by Ihe London Sotiet)" 0 1 Apo thariu sinee 1815. Holder5 of this ce rtiCilte
.cted n drug d lspensers in Ihe dispen'ing
prlclkes thai _pothecaries continued afler
Ihq moved from ph4Jm"')' in:o medld n e.
However. crution of the National Heallh
Servi~ (1~), ~ulled in Ihe virtual d illappearance of Ihe "ditip ensing doctor, " Henee,
the In in ing for Ihe d ilipens ing a55is lant's
ex.alnln;olio n was amended 10 make $UC<:e$S-tu l cil.'ldidalu suitabJe 10 H t"e as techniciaru
under Ihe supervis ion of pharmac ists in
community phlrma.ci ~ti", weil as in hosp ital
phannaciu.
The Pharmaceutical Sodely ....u nO I sucteiMM in its eIfort cf 1965 10 gain control
ov~r Ihe lraining and exam inalion 01 these
"iMis tants . Neilher w as Brili sh p harmaey
IUOOl!s d ul in g_ining eoo:em ption und er Ihe
Industrial Tr.ii ning.".cI of 19601. Therefore, a
Pharmacy Aulslant's Training Baud was SoI't
up , milinly under the d irection of Ihe N ational Phann;l(eutieal Unio n (1965) . In 1969
du! Bo.ard ;naugurated a reviSol'd syllibus ~_
qui ring a 180-hour min imum, bas~d on
part-ti me !.!udy (induding e....ening and COfrespondenee courses), whlch leads 10 Ihe
"City Ind Gu ild s di 6 p~nsing teehniciln 's
certifieabl' _"JI
. Th i$ de\<elo pm mt was pos!; ible because
the mod~m praclic:e of phannaey, wh i\e in volving a heavy resporuibility, aUo involves
many rou lin e lec hnic:al tuks tha t do not
neceS5 .. rily have In be performed pet$Onally
by a university gradu ale in p.hitr.nacy.
Diplomas in b ioch-.ica1 In~y~ls .AIld_ i!:'
pharmaceulica! analysi s, offered for wme
fun; by Ih e Pharmac::e utical Sodety, h;ove
been d isrontll'lued. Postgndulte diplomn
in phannace ulkill analysis, dinical ehemilitty and [000 and drug analys is /Ire ava!lIbJe
10 pharm .. d sls ,t the Ro~al Inslit ute of
Chemis try . wilh Ih e eooperal ion o f Ihe
Pharmac::eulkal Sodety. Phumaei5ls look .. n
.clive part in Ihe fou nding of this In sti lu le,
and man}' pharma.cisrs hav1! beeIl Fellows

Df ~

Littr~tuTe

11i

Ihroug holll the lllltitute's existence_ Ph;ormacis~ also were p rominenl in Ihe fou nding
of Ihe Chem ic.1 Sodety, the Socie ty fo r
An alytic .. 1 Chem ;stry, Ihe Brilish Pharmacologieal Sodel}', Ihe Linnaean Sociel)'
and Ihe Botanic..1$odel)"_
Whelher Brithh pharmacy has permanenlly given up a dou ble 51andard of pharmace u lical educa ti o n , or only moved il
wilhin Ihe fnmework of univer5 ity degrees,
remains 10 be seen_ The eXlle nl to wh ich the
burgeoning of advanced and post-gnduale
education w ill find ne,." po tential in communiry ph~rmaey, or largely b ypau il , is
likewise apart of Bri tish hislory thai is s lill
uniolding_ J~

DE VELOPMEm OF A LITERATURE
The !angled Ind dispanle de~<elopm ents
in English ph .. rmacy ..nd medicine be lo~
Ih e 191h cenlury were not conduci v! to a
luge, f)'Ste matl c li terature on pharmlceutiea! 5u bjecm. Untillhe 16th cenlury Ihe same
ma nu scr ip l.$ ;lind incunabula of Ih e
Cilenic-Arablc 5chool we te used that we
have seen in Ihe hands of pharmadsts in
Wes t European countries. Laler, the bes l of
Ihe Freru:h and C;.."....,an tno~ I; S"" on phar_
macy were sludied by the am bitious, be fore
Brila!n genented a !iteratu.te of ;15 own.
Duri n g Ihe 161 h and 17th cenlurles a
number of English herbal$ .... ere pu bUahed .
Copies of 5e'.~nl o f IMSoI', such IS IheHtrllalf
(lm) by Ihe blrber-surgeo n John Cer<ml
were carried 10 Amerlca bl.f.olonist5, IQ h~lp
meif Ih'err health -pro6ie ms. The B uiwQr~t 0/
Dt/nu ~gtli"s t Sicb t ss
(1652) by the
physidan-botanisl WiUiam Bullern induded
21 often-quoted mies fo r the ;o polheCllry's
guidll nce.
Eflorts to bring uniformily into the medicaments p rescribed carne ra ther early to Engla nd _ In fa ct Ihe London Phannacopeia
(Ph. ""tlcopot itl LOlf.t;lfnuisJ beame Ihe fir5t
in Europe for .. n entire nltion. 11 geems not

,)

'"

Th~

Dtl'dcpmtnl in

Brir~j"

)
Chapttr 7

complel"'ly !urprisil\ g. in view of Ine history Phllrmlley, an English version of Carl F.

cf British health care, thai Iwtl difftrtnt finl Mo hr ', Ger m an lex t (which thlln wu
editions .. ppeared in l !.1S beetll5e of d iffer- Imllnded by William Proo::ter lor \l5e in
e nt conrept ions of wru.t ihe plulrmacopeia AmIlrica.S limt sdlool 01 ph .. rmacy likewiw ).
Thll durth of "periodic publications" illso
should be ~mong members of tht College of
Ph )'5 icia ns c f London!UA d ist inguished WH soon l"IllJ'llldied. Ap parently the first Eng
5rottish pharma<:ope i. iil'$ l .. ppure<! in lish journal oonneeted "'':Ith pharmacy was
1699, followed much Ii,~ r (1807) by an lrish Tlr t Clre",;'!. which Ilxist~d for on ly 13
phannaropeia. These ehrte d iifttent sets c f .months (182425). In ( ontrnt, the Phar
dnig standards Wefe suppbn ted in 1864 by mKllutical Sotiet)"'5 influenrial Pl!antUlctun.
Ihe Brilish Phll""'UD;1CtllI, which hu been of- (411"''''71.1 h;as beIln in oontl nous pubcation
ficial, in rtvi$ed ed itions. fOT IM whol\! c f sinee lhe bt>ginning in 1841 (aithough .1 Eint
the Un ikd Kingdom up 10 the pfeSen t time. pub,hed on lhe privatll initiati~ of Jacob
From the 1;0.1", 18th century on, pharm.llCY .1- Bell, a principill fou ndllr cf the Sodely). Al.
u. ined an in~,l$ ing role wiln medicine in Ihough mainly for practitionl!T3, this l"lImrU
origirlo1.Uy il864} induded Ihll proc:eedlnS' of
devising Ihe offici..al drug standm:\s.
Tbe 1973 edit ion of the Pharmll,,,potiil the Brifulh Pharmaceuti~ 1 Corullrence (Ki
marked two h istorie shi fts of phann .. copeial entifk arm of lhe Sodety, previously mlln
pali<)', It was Ihe firs t revision to be under- lioned), whieh e~'o lved into the Sll paralll
t ..bn by legal re ' pon!ibiJIty cf the govern- 10l/mal of Ph~.,.",acy lind PharmlleoJogy 01 in
ment's Ministry 01 Hulth,. rathet Ihm by Ihe lernational standing. Other spedalized jour.
p rofessions Ihemselves. 11 wu the finl l 10 nab ha\'e appeare d, ~eanwh illl, one of Ihe
plodaim 11'1011.1 , tand ards in the Ellrop~ n most reelln! bei n g the Trllllsac tion , of t ~ t
Pha rmacupMili (5f!1! p. 138) wouhi take pIece Bri!ish Soety fo r the Histtlry of Ph ~ rma,y, of
dem:e over thll Bri ti~h Pharmllco~lUili in Ihe fiei ..! organ of the society organized in 1961
e vent 01 d iffeI'/lIlceII in specilieations lor the in response to re.::ent i n~lsed interest In
same drug-one ref1ection of the developing exploring the profession'. h;'tory .
(For bibliograph ie referen(1l to !KIme of the
Council of I:uropll. '
FI(lm the Ilod of Ihe 17th eentul)' onwlrd , oll. othe r periodicals of Brilish pharmll)', pharo
number cf "dllIpensatorit.'lI" ..... ~n! Fublithed, 1IU\cop"i;>l li~r3.lur .. a" d key phannaoeutlcal
expl ..in ing or fup plementing Ihe offidal books, see Append ix 6, p. 429.)
p hll.l'lnoll.OOpeial liltralUfe. Seven! weR: ohm
fi eienl 'nlerest-such U Ihost! by 8ale.
Quincy, lewis and Duncan-to be brougl'ot
SCrE fI,'TIFIC CONTRlBUTIONS
oul in Europllin ed ilions o r tTlnslatioru."
While IN' lirn iting oon_di l.i~ns. ~t Io!!g in
But Uril ish textboob cl phann.w:y or phM'
I'IlllCeUtical Kience weN! slow ir) d~":t'Joping, hibited the deyeloprnent Dlp.ro r~.i01)"" ljt _
c:om~p,ared wi lh lhe plenliful supply in h ighly era tur~ illso .Ifected the oontribution lhal
d e~...loped c:ount ~ 01 lhe Conti.noent by lhe phannacy muld makt 10 8 ri tish s<:ienee, it
eadv 151th c:en lurv. ""'hen the Mlarmac:eulic:al shou ld be noted that Ihe scien lif ie
sodety wH organiz ing il$ fi rs l CIIrriculum contribu lions--whethe r growlng from the
(1843) " books a nd periodie publiutions, ranks of apothllcar ies o r ehllmi,\s.nd
convt}':Ing educational knowlc!dge in lhe deo d ruggi,ts-ha, ... blllln by no mUNI fuUy
partment of pha rmacy, were ... wannng."" txplored h istorically. 1f WIl in cl udll
!his l'1ran l in phanIl,)()' prope r wu partly apothecar1es in this phil!TnI Cllutical contribu
remedied in 18451 whm Ihe Brltish pharma tio n (and thai invol .. es quest ions of both dal.
cs! Theoph ilu5 Redwood publlshed Prlleticlil ing and definition), ,ignilicant "':0"" already

Tiu Bo!twUJl Dispensing Itnd

ein bll id entfed in the de vlliopment of

botany, cheml5try and olher SciencllS.
Apothecarles took part in the faunding of
thll Royal Society; T. D. Whittllt found that at
lust 30 Brit;,h lpothecaries and 12 pharm.t.
ci,ls hue been Il lected Fellow'. The
lpothecaries conmbuted many pape n; to tht
Society's Pt.iIo50ph ical TtarI$Ictions.
At one time, botanic 5ciencll in Greal 8rit
ain was largely the pro"ince of apolheearies
.u,h a5 John Houghton (a pioneer ol good
IgriClilture), Samuel Doody, William Hud"
son, James Sht rard, tsaac Rand, Phillip Mil
ltr, R. Pulteney and N .. thaniel B. Ward , aU of
whom became Fellows of thll Royal Soc:iety.
Among t:hose w ho m<lde important eontri
butlon:; to chtmistry .nd were eJected Fel
low' of thll ROYIl Sodety .... e re Timo!hy
L&ne, who made some oi thll earliest investigations on rusting cf imn; lOliah Colebrook,
who inve"igatlld pai n ts used by the an
cienl!il; Thom..., Hen ry-, a fou nd er of the Man
chester Phllosophieal Society and of ac hemi
ei l man ufactory , an d William Thomas
Brandll, a pionellr of o rga n ic an d clin ical
chemi, try, who a lso co nducted import"n t
melallurgie investigatioNl.
Sit WilJiam Watson, F.R.S., a ve rsatile sc
antist and lpothecary, made significanf ron
tribuN"n. In bn t ~ny. c" .. mi~try ""d J'hyoi"" .
At JeU! four of the "chemieal operat on; of Ihe
Apoth eca riell' H illI" bt>calJ'lll FeUows of the
Royal Socillty (Godt;reyHanckw it1:, Hen ry
HennllU, W.T. Brande and Robllrt War
ington).
Six lpothtcariH o r p hafl!'l~ts associaled
-l'(iJh ~ Jinn_Qf Allen and Hanb ury became
~ FeUows of Ihe Royal Socitty. Silvanus Be\'"an,
WiIIi.im Allen (distingu ished ..5 a chemat),
Dan ie l Han b ury (bo lan;st), Luk e Howard
(botaniu a nd p ioneer meteoro log ist),
Richard PhiUlps (analytic chemisi) and Wil
Ii.m Wes l (e he mi sl and invlln tor) . Luke
Ho ...... d', 'on John Eliot Howard, the
quinologist, alao wn honored as a FeUo... ci
the Royal Socllty-the hi ghH t d istinction a
5cientist can be given.

PTCHi~ rnon

'"

A. W. Gllrrard, w h illl chief pharmacist of

Univan;;ty Collegll Hospital in London, wu

thll fi n t 10 isou lll pilocatpine Ind &everal
othe r plant principles. He later found.ed Ihe
presenl firm oe CUX50n, Gerrard and Co. .. I
8irmingham.
A chemisl. and druggi" in comm u n it y
practice, John Wflktr, inventtd the friction
ma tch . Sir Joseph Willo n Swan, F.R.S ..
pioneer of photOF'a ph}' and electricity and
0Il1l of the fin; t to produOl! arti fic lal silk, re-mained a practidng phannadst most of his
life, 15 d id H . B. 8 rady , F.R.S., a g reat
naturalist and George C. Druell, F.R.S .. the
greatest British field botaniat of his ti me .
Sir Robnt Ka ne, F.R.S., a p rom inllnt
IJ'IIlmhe r of lhe Oub tin Apothecaries' Soc:iety,
became onll of JreJand', grearest chem ish
Ind a foundllr o f Ireland', dlllmieill industry .
William H iggin" F.R.S .. who antic ipated
50mll of Dill ton', atomlc theot}', W All for a few
Ylliln operator 10 thll Oubl in Apothecarie!i'
Hall. Other important name, include those of
Thomas Johnson. thll previously mlln tioned
apolhecary and urly be lanist (d. 1644), and
thll 19thcentury figures Jonathan Pereira,
F RS.. ~pothecaryphY81e1Inprofessor, WH
Harn Tilden, F. R.S., orglnic dIemist, Edward
Mo reI! Ho mes, botanhl, John AUfill ld,
pharma ci .l.pm f ~ ~"" ...... uthor. "nd Ed'Ward
Frw Harri50n, who contributtd to the defenSll of the a!lied Irmin aglliNit gn att~
d uring World War 1."

TIES BETWEEN DlSnNSL~c;..

AND .P RODucnoN--
Ir is signilkant that the organiz.en of the
Phannattutical Sotillty-William Allen,'7 its
fint prtsidtnl, and Jacob BtD-....ere owntrs
not o nly of phatmacill$ bu l . Iso of pharo
mKllu liCl I manuJactoriu (founded about
1800) th.at still ex i,t. Thi. un ion between pr0fess ional inillrest Ind lechn ico,commerci;d
in teU igence and .cti,':Ity was no t rare in
Uritish pharmacy. 0 1 the Brltilh pharmlCeu,

)
kaJoids , 1I finit in lru. Iiloorillo.r:y of his pharI nd later On in the manulactory tha i
g~ ou l of it. The fact thll iIOme cf the same
people in England who, in the beginning 01
Ihe 19th cenhlry, <:rea led ane ...- the profE"5Sion
of ph:um;ocy , I Unull;meously look In imporlant pa rt in the d evelo prnent of the Briti sh
plurma.ceuticill induslry is a funhe r proof of
jhe intimate h iston.; lies bdween dispensing
. n d produ ction in ph armacy. whirn one
fitub in te rn .. tion.aUy.
Ol"le cf the l.rgest pharmiOreutical con>i"1\S
11"1 England. with headquartem in lendon
and with usociated hauses across the world,
......, d evelo pe d by men with _"-mericiln
pharmaceutical education. S. M. BUl"TOughs
iI5 weU u Henry Wel kome, the two late
lounders of BUl"TOughs Wellrome In d Cornpa ny. were g ra duates of the Philadelph ia
College 01 Phar ma C}!. Although Henry
Wellrome became a naturalized British 3ubject and later On an English knig..l, 1 .and fello w of the Royal Sodety, he ne~r Jo~t his
connections with h is native coun try and,
through life membership in the American
Pharmace utic al Association, he maintained
his rela tions w ilh Am e rican pha rmacy
Perhap!l this ii Jymboli~.

Concl~di"g

Rtmarks

121

CONCLUOIl\'C REMARKS

IJUIoCV

Th~ lo ng- tenn rel.ations belwn Brilish

and Arnerinn p ha nnacy ha'oe had comequences, on both s ides cf the Atlantic. In
Ame rican hlstory we will m~t apin the
".apotheury." the " dNggi"." Ihe shopkee;;>er tr.. d ition .nd o u tlook . the lingering
devotion to occupational inde pendence and
self-de term inati o n . Under 5p eeificall y
American oon d itions and a new time. these
traditions hoIve been modified , renamed, or
hybridized w it h o ther i nU en~5; b u t so.
100. have tru.y in Brilail"l. The 2Oth-cenrury
disperuing "chemisi" or phannacisl feets Ihe
lig h ten ing (l rde of regu lati on wilhin the
concept of the welfste slate; Ind he feels Ihe
dilemma of h.ving ~o mueh spiritual and
capital inves tm elll in the corner "shop, '
whiJe a new role .nd status fo r the pn:>fession
ml)' be slipping from hill o..... n contra! into
the develo ping plans .nd rhing he"-Ith centers of the Nati onal Hulth Service I CroSS
Britain_ Yet. an}' professional group that hah
survivt d such an erratic hIstory seems li kely
to continue 10 prosper in some 9et1ing-and
to ronti nue ii!l interaction s with Ihe forme r
American (o lanin.

Tho hild-room I"borllory 01 a mld.-I~I'I cenhlrY plw'macy In Lont1<m '~pil,n p... ctiOl' bei"""
la:Jile.",aI<! !n"'~ stri&lillt lon of O?'t,uiw pha=acy. A fu ..... ce (14!) is fitte<! atlhe top wiltl ~
distillatioo head, a':"d to loondenslnJ wenn I'\1f\ning thmugh IM larJ!e ..-oodm val b<nlclo
it. ll".roug." IM doorway C;tf\ be Hffl a tom'"" of IN hoot di';>enliins roam . A t..rv ma:bk

m<ll'tlITun be sem in :he eXl~mt ri ghl loreground. HnI', I I ZZ5 Ward Strut, pno<ticed)ahn
Bel!. lall'..... of licob Se:.! who,,-as I {oundr. oI llw Phatma<'ll! .. tic~ Society, lounder and ed:tor
_0' IM P/!",.""enIJC3' Jo"no~1 ar.d oWner of .hil fhop after IM duth 01 hi~ talM< in 18019. The
firm~ .... dovelo~d inw. ~ .... sc.o:t mar,,;la.."tUring 1,OOJatol')"". (Enpn-ing frorn .. pLinting
by W. Hun:. 1840; IU KU$"ef,c.. w.;J. Am . Pharm. Au . 20:236--246. 1931)

ical industry in the Manchestera re.. , In Secl- lru.m induslrial o rwholes;ole est.lblishmen ts .
li\lld. La ndon and ~e<b. a nllm~r of Ihoe T0 lru. name!! of Allen and Bell ~~ should
indus lda l p huma ceu lica l laborat o ries, be ackU:od Ihose of ' ohn May, Thomas Morsen
wholeule dmg hau ses .nd se\leral non- and ,ohn 5.avory, a.ll of LondDn, and Iho~ of
pharmKl'u tka l u tablishment:s ,. origina~d F. B. Benger of Manchester In d Richard
in the shops of dispert!llng "chemists" In d Rilimes of Yori<---{ounders-of firms still servo
ing Britillh medkal care. The ehemi!! John
o~n can be traced blck a centw;' Ind more.
Sever;ll of the founde~ of lne Pharmaceutical Fl!tcher Mldarl ~n of Edinburgh WAS Ol"le of
Society extt:lded. thei r pharmades t:o mah Ihe p ionee r British manu fl cture!"$ of 11-

120

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