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Electrical power (ELX303)

Part 1 Electrical generation

PART 1

ELECTRICAL GENERATION

University of Sunderland

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Electrical power (ELX303)

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Part 1 Electrical generation

University of Sunderland

Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

LESSON 1

SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
This introductory lesson considers the management of a power
system in which the interconnection of power sources makes their
efficient operation a complex subject. The module "Electrical
Power Systems and Machines" introduced the principles of merit
order and the Electricity Pool to ensure that as far as possible the
most economic generating sets on offer are selected for use, but
economy has to be balanced against considerations such as
security of supply. The problem for the operator is to schedule
and dispatch available generation in merit order to meet demand
whilst meeting defined quality and security of supply standards,
including statutory levels of system frequency and voltage. In
addition, there is a need to administer the settlements process,
particularly the complex computer systems needed to calculate the
payments due as a result of trading in the electricity market or
pool.
An opportunity is taken to introduce the principles of
compensation for voltage drops in a power system and an analysis
made of the factors affecting voltage drop. Various forms of static
compensation are discussed and the application of tap-changing
transformers to compensate for voltage drop is described. Armed
with an appreciation of the strengths and limitations of this
technology, the student is better prepared for the lesson that
follows later in this module on Flexible A.C. Transmission
Systems.

YOUR AIMS
As a result of undertaking this unit you should be able to:

appreciate the principles of design of transmission and


distribution systems

understand the principles of grid system management, or


system operation

be aware of future developments in power systems

analyse the contributions made to voltage drop in a power


system by real and reactive power flow

analyse system frequency variations caused by real power


changes in load and generation

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Lesson 1 System management

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appreciate some of the techniques of voltage drop


compensation available to the power systems engineer.

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Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

THE ROLE OF THE NATIONAL GRID COMPANY


IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
National Grid Company (NGC) owns and operates the high
voltage transmission system in England and Wales. It operates
within a demanding framework of statutory and regulatory
requirements. The NGC has a dual obligation under the
Electricity Act:

to develop and maintain an efficient, coordinated and


economical transmission system

to facilitate competition in the generation and supply of


electricity.

These obligations require NGC to:


(a) schedule and dispatch available generation in merit order to
meet demand
(b) plan and operate the transmission system to meet defined
security and quality of supply standards, including statutory
levels of system frequency and voltage
(c) administer the settlement process, particularly the complex
computer systems needed to calculate payments due as a result
of daily trading in the electricity market or pool.
Figure 1 shows the current industry structure with the
interrelationships between generators, the NGC and the various
consumers. This is a structure where generation, transmission and
distribution companies are separated from one another. This
method allows for the private ownership of all or parts of each
function. It allows the distribution companies and other large
customers to buy the cheapest power available from the
generators, who can include other interconnected electricity
utilities outside the geographical area.

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Nuclear
Electric

Innogy

Interconnections
between Scotland
and France

PowerGen

National
Grid

Pumped
storage

Independent
generators

Directly connected
consumers
12 Regional
Electricity Companies
Independent
generators

Consumers
(REC customers)

Figure 1: Interrelationships between Generators, NGC, REC and consumers

CONTROL OF POWER AND FREQUENCY


In a large interconnected system, many generation stations, large
and small, are synchronously connected and hence all have the
same frequency. The automatic control and allocation of load is
beyond the scope of this lesson. Actions taken to correct system
deviations should be assumed to be taken by control engineers
observing system performance in, say, a centralized control room
environment, where a large mimic diagram of the system might be
presented.
The allocation of the required power among generators has to be
decided before the advent of the load, and this involves load
forecasting. Data for this may come from an analysis of loads
experienced over the same period in previous years, the load
immediately previous to the period under study and of the weather
forecast. Indeed, forecasting activities do not end with this
computation as operational planning, extending from several
years down to a few days ahead; real time, extending from a few
hours ahead to an hour or two after an event; and postoperational analysis of actual operation covering a few hours to
several months after an event, may require attention. The results
of demand forecasting are power and energy estimates for the
whole power utility with a geographical breakdown of the power
estimates (probably to individual bulk supply points) and time
profiles, or at least, demand duration histograms. Estimates of
demand power factor or reactive power, with geographical and
time profiles, will also be needed.

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Lesson 1 System management

The rate of growth of load may be very high during certain


periods of a day and it is extremely unlikely that the output of
machines connected to the system will exactly match the load on
the system. If the output is higher than the demand, the machines
will tend to increase in speed and the frequency will rise, and vice
versa. Hence, the frequency is not a constant quantity but
continuously varies by what is normally an incremental amount.
In the UK, the statutory frequency is 50 Hz with a 1% permitted
variation. Inherent within this interconnected system are
generators with automatic governor action, which act to help
maintain frequency, system voltage and generation power factor.
There is a limit to this control action to counter the vagaries of the
load, and control engineers, faced with a falling frequency type of
situation, may well reduce system voltage and, in an emergency,
may even disconnect loads to allow the frequency to rise. The
quality of the frequency generated is conditional on the system
operator scheduling sufficient generation to meet the demand plus
the losses of the transmission and distribution system. This
quality is further assured by holding generators in reserve for
immediate availability in the event of generation plant becoming
disconnected.
The change in power for a given change in the frequency in an
interconnected system is known as the stiffness of the system.
The smaller the changes in frequency for a given load change the
stiffer the system. The power ~ frequency characteristic may be
dp
= K where K is a constant
approximated by a straight line and
df
(MW per Hz) depending on the generator and load characteristics.
K can be determined experimentally by connecting two large
separate systems by a single link, breaking the connection and
measuring the frequency change. Typical values for the UK
system are between 2000 and 5500 MW/Hz.
OPERATIONAL PLANNING
Grid system management, or system operation, is concerned with
the routine day-to-day operation of a power system. One of the
activities of management is operational planning, which provides
advice to the control room staff on expected operating conditions
together with supporting information. Typically, this might
include for the day or days ahead:

generation incremental costs/merit order

outage (plant not available)

expected available generation

expected peak and minimum demands

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preferred network configuration including constraints on


power flows and remedial switching in the event of faults

preferred voltage profile and reactive sources at the different


points of the network

any special situations, e.g. TV loads

demand forecasting, loading simulation and network analysis.

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM CAPABILITY


The principle of the national grid is to allow generation surpluses
in one part of the country to supply demand in other parts of the
country where there is a generation deficit. The transmission
circuits connecting such areas together tend to constitute the
weakest links in the system and three factors can limit the
capability of the transmission system to transfer power across a
system boundary. These are the thermal rating, voltage and
stability.
Thermal or equipment rating or capability is simply the voltampere limit that can be transferred across a boundary on the
system. The security criteria or requirement to continue transfer
of power with the loss of one or two circuits may set the level, and
is usually less than the sum of the individual circuits left after the
disconnection. This is because one circuit usually reaches its
rating limit before others, due to the resulting unevenly distributed
power flows.
Winter might be expected to produce cold conditions in which
thermal rating of lines might be raised but increased voltage drop,
especially under contingency outage conditions, may occur due to
increased line resistance. In this situation, a voltage limit exists
associated with power transfer.
Power system transmission capability between two areas or
between a major generating station and the system can be limited
by considerations of electrodynamic stability, rather than by the
thermal capability of the connecting transmission lines. Transient
stability is discussed in Lesson 3 of this topic on electrical
generation.

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Lesson 1 System management

COMPUTATIONAL TASKS
These include tools to complete the following tasks:
1. demand prediction
2. generation scheduling (including dispatch)
3. economic dispatch
4. fuel and energy monitoring
5. assessment of generation/operating costs
6. assessment of alternative operation methods
7. load flows and prospective short-circuit fault levels
8. network configuration and state estimation
9. transient stability and protection performance
10. steady-state stability behaviour
11. longer term dynamic behaviour including complex Automatic
Voltage
12. Regulator and Steam Governor models.
The computational overhead of most of these tasks has been such
as to preclude the use of real time or on-line computation and
most are computed off-line or post-event. However, activities
such as state estimation, load flow and transient stability
prediction are being performed on an on-line basis with a clear
trend towards achieving full real time simulation. Most of the
activities above require data from the power system that needs to
be refreshed every few seconds. This is provided by SCADA
systems. The telemetered data may include equipment states (e.g.
open/closed/out of service, etc.), flows, voltages, frequencies,
alarms indicating status changes, protective gear operations and
operating variables outside limits. A hierarchy of displays will be
used in the form of block diagrams of the system showing basic
operating quantities in geographical areas to detailed system
diagrams of sections of the power system. What has been
described in this section is the receipt and display of data at a
central control point using a SCADA system but equally
important to the control engineer is the ability to control plant
safely from this remote point. This may include adjustment of the
start up of emergency generation, circuit breaker operation, tap
changing, changing of protective gear status and demand
disconnection and reconnection.
Post-event computational tasks linked to the SCADA system
include performance analysis of both day-to-day operations and
abnormal events such as major loss of supply. Typical on-line

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Lesson 1 System management

data collected and used by the day-to-day performance analysis


routines might be that shown in Table 1.

Quantity

Analysis
Number of times and duration of being outside
limits

Frequency
Tie line flows

Magnitude and number of times and duration of


being outside limits

Circuit flows

Flows outside limits, histogram of loading


Deviations from instructed values, plant
flexibility

Generator outputs
Demands met

Maximum and minimum demands, geographical


distribution, profile, sensitivity to weather,
frequency and voltage

Power and energy traded

Trading, evaluation of losses and billing

Voltages

Voltages outside limits


Table 1

FLEXIBLE A.C. TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS


This is a topic concerned with the introduction of forms of
compensation directly into a power system, which may be varied
according to various conditions such as abnormal power flows or
transmission outage periods. Faced with the need to accommodate
system growth and third party access to the system as well as
environmental considerations on the building of new overhead
lines, transmission companies have investigated ways to utilize
the existing system to a higher extent. This has resulted in the
development of refurbishment techniques for overhead lines and
substations as well as Flexible a.c. Transmission Systems
(FACTS) devices. A later lesson in this module describes the
technology of solid state controlled FACTS devices, but what
follows in this lesson is a description of the control of voltage and
reactive power using shunt and series compensation techniques.
These are also FACTS devices but because they are controlled by
mechanical switches rather than solid state devices their
introduction into the power system is seen in blocks of discrete
levels of compensation. Owing to their mechanically switched
nature of operation, they are not so dynamically responsive as
solid state based systems but they still form an important and
integral part of modern power system operation.

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Lesson 1 System management

CALCULATION OF SENDING AND RECEIVED


VOLTAGES IN TERMS OF POWER AND REACTIVE
POWER
If we use a simple transmission link model to represent power
transfer, we can establish a direct relationship between reactive
power absorbed by a load and the voltage drop across the link
between source and load. This suggests that if we can control the
reactive power at points in the system by the introduction of forms
of compensation, then we can control the voltage at those points
and ensure that the latter stays within defined limits.
Consider Figure 2(a) that is a simple single-phase model of a
transmission link between a generator and a load. Figure 2(b) is
the corresponding phasor diagram.

R+jX

P+jQ

(a)
E

IX

V IR

Ip

Iq
I

g
V

(b)

Figure 2: Phasor Diagram for Transmission of Power through a Series Impedance

V is approximately equal to the difference in voltages E and V at


each end of the system. From the geometry of the system V
equals the following:
V = E V =

RP + XQ XQ

V
V

if we ignore the line resistance contribution.

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This equation shows that for a fixed system voltage V, the voltage
drop across the system is proportional to the reactive power Q.
Recall also that if resistance is ignored, the formula for power
transfer through a reactance X is given by:
P=

EV
sin
X

The difference in E and V will be small, and for a given fixed


power transfer P, the effect of introducing compensation to reduce
further the difference between E and V will have a second order
effect on , the transmission angle. The transmitted power P
dictates the transmission angle .
In the simplistic system diagram of Figure 2(a) E > V so that
reactive power is sourced by the generator (referred to as the overexcited condition) and flows towards the busbar maintained at
voltage V. If E < V then reactive flow would be back towards the
generator (referred to as the under-excited condition) and it would
be said to sink reactive power. Hence, real power can be sent
from A to B by suitably adjusting the amount of steam (or water)
admitted to the turbine and reactive power can be sent in either
direction by adjusting the voltage magnitude of the generator
using machine field current excitation variation. These two
operations are approximately independent of each other if X >> R.
ESTIMATION OF THE REACTIVE POWER
REQUIREMENTS OF A POWER SYSTEM
In planning a network it is desirable to assess the reactive power
requirements in order to ascertain whether or not the generators
will be able to operate at the required power factors for the
extremes of load to be expected. An example of this is shown in
Figure 3, where the reactive losses are added for each item of
plant until the generator power factor is obtained.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the power factor at which the generator in Figure 3
must operate to deliver power at the power factors stated. All p.u.
values are referred to the voltage bases shown and 100 MVA.
You may ignore the reactance of the generator transformer.

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Lesson 1 System management

2
0.1 p.u.

0.04 p.u.

0.1 p.u.

0.1 p.u.

Load 50 MW
0.1 p.u.

0.04 p.u.

0.1 p.u.

p.f. = 1.0

0.1 p.u.

132 kV
11 kV

275 kV
200 MW
0.8 p.f.
lagging
Figure 3: Network for Example 1

SOLUTION
Voltage drops in the circuits will be neglected and nominal
voltages of 1 p.u. assumed on each of the network buses.
The reactive power loss in an inductive reactance is given by I2X
or in per- unit terms by:

(I )

p .u .

X p.u .

S p.u.
P 2 + Q p2.u.
X p.u . = p.u .
=
X p.u .
2
V
V
p
u
.
.
p .u .

In this example the parallel per-unit reactance of the 132 kV lines


and the transformers between Bus 3 and the 50 MW load at Bus 5
evaluates to 0.1 p.u. The reactive loss in this 132 kV section of
line is therefore:

Q132 loss =

Pp2.u . + Q p2.u.
V p2.u.

X p.u . =

0.5 2 + 0 2
0.1
12

= 0.025p.u.
At busbar 3,

PBus 3 = Pload 3 + Pload 5 = 2 + 0.5 = 2.5 p.u.


QBus 3 = Qload 3 + Q123 loss

Pload 3
sin + Q132 loss
power factor, cos

= 1.5 + 0.025 = 1.525 p.u.

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Lesson 1 System management

The reactive loss in the 275 kV section of line is therefore:

Pp2.u. + Q 2p.u .
V p2.u.

X p.u. =

2.5 2 + 1.525 2
0.07 = 0.6 p.u.
12

The I2X loss in the generator transformer has been ignored in this
example and so the generator must deliver P = 2.5 and Q = 2.125
p.u. and therefore operate at a power factor of:

2.125

cos tan 1
= 0.762 lagging.
2.5

IN TEXT QUESTION
Suppose the generator transformer has a reactance of 0.05 p.u. What is the new generator
power factor?

ANSWER
At busbar 1 the real power PBus 1 = 2.5 p.u. and the reactive power by QBus 1 = 1.525 + 0.6 =
2.125 p.u. The reactive power consumed by the generator transformer is given by:

Pp2.u. + Q 2p.u .
V p2.u.

X p.u. =

2.5 2 + 2.125 2
0.05 = 0.5383 p.u.
12

The complex power supplied by the generator is then S = 2.5 + j2.66 p.u.
The new generator power factor is given by:

2.66

cos tan 1
= 0.684 lagging
2.5

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Lesson 1 System management

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLTAGE, POWER AND


REACTIVE POWER AT A NODE
The phase voltage at a node in a power system is a function of P
and Q at that node, i.e. V = f(P, Q).
The voltage is also dependent on adjacent nodes because of their
interaction, but in the following treatment it is assumed that
adjacent nodes are infinite buses in order to simplify the analysis
and give an insight into power system compensation techniques.
The total differential of V is given by:

dV =

V
V
dP +
dQ
P
Q

From this, the deviation in V due to either the flow of P or Q at a


node is given by:

dV =

dP
dQ
+
P Q

V V

This equation is guiding us to the observation that if the sensitivity


of a node to real or reactive power flows is known, then in order
to keep a node voltage constant under conditions where the power
flow might change, we could introduce reactive power
compensation to maintain the voltage. The following example
illustrates this point.
EXAMPLE 2
The sensitivity of a node to real power changes is 100 MW/kV of
line voltage and that to reactive power changes is 10 MVAr/kV of
line voltage. How much reactive compensation would have to be
introduced at a point to maintain the voltage constant for a real
power change of 50MW?

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SOLUTION
Using

dV =

dQ
dP
+
P Q

V V

this is to be zero after introduction of the compensation.


The voltage drop at the node due to the real power change of 50
MW is given by:
50
dP
=
= 0.5kV
P 100

From the equation above and following the introduction of


reactive compensation,
dV =

Hence,

dQ =

dP
dQ
+
=0
P Q

V V
dP Q
= 0.5 10 = 5MVAr

P V

Hence 5 MVAr of capacitive type compensation must be


introduced to maintain voltage constant.
Note that if the node sensitivities are quoted in terms of line
voltage, the value for Q is the three-phase value to be introduced
into the system, not the per-phase value.

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Lesson 1 System management

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SHORTQ


V
RP + XQ XQ

V = E V =
V
V

CIRCUIT CURRENT AT A NODE AND


Recall that

From this we can obtain Q in terms of the voltages at each end of


the network and the connecting reactance as:
Q=

Hence,

(E V )V RP
X

Q E 2V
=
V
X

With the system on no load, the receiving-end voltage will be E


and therefore:
Q E
=
V
X

If the system had a three-phase symmetrical short-circuit placed at


the receiving end, resulting in V = 0, the subsequent fault current
E
Q
would be
and equal in magnitude to the figure for
.
X
V
This relationship is extremely useful since the short-circuit current
will normally be known at all substations and so a corrective value
Q
of
for required voltage compensation is easily determined.
V
When using three-phase volt-ampere and line voltage values, a
Q
small modification is required to the relationship for
.
V
Q and V are single-phase quantities and are related to three-phase
and line values by:
Q=

QM
V
and V = L
3
3

Q
M
Q
3
1 Q M
E
=
=

=
V
X
V
3 VL
L
3

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This means that when working in terms of three-phase quantities


and line voltage values, the relationship between the node
sensitivity and the short- circuit current at the node is given by:

QM
E
= 3 = 3 I SC
VL
X
EXAMPLE 3
The short-circuit level at a substation is 8 kA. Determine the
MVAr compensation to correct a 1 kV drop on load at this point.
SOLUTION

QM
= 3 I SC = 3 8
VL
= 13.86 MVAr/kV
(capacitive compensation required)

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Lesson 1 System management

METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL


(I) INJECTION OF REACTIVE POWER
From earlier work in this lesson it has been shown that voltage
drop in a power transmission system is largely due to the reactive
power Q. The line currents are larger at power factors other than
unity and therefore give increased I2R losses and hence reduced
thermal capability. Substations and load points are the obvious
places to introduce artificial injection of reactive power. In
general, three methods of injection are available, involving the use
of:

static shunt capacitors

static series capacitors

synchronous compensators.

SHUNT CAPACITORS AND REACTORS


Shunt capacitors are used to compensate lagging power-factor
circuits under conditions such as full load. Shunt reactors are
used on circuits with leading power factor, such as is created by
lightly loaded cables. The difficulty with this approach is that if
the load delivered varies in magnitude, the amount and type of
compensation required will also vary. However, in situations
where, for example, a generator is supplying an infinite bus
system via a tie line and generation levels are relatively constant,
shunt capacitance compensation will perform adequately.
SERIES CAPACITORS
These are connected in series with the line conductors and reduce
the total effective inductive reactance between the source and the
load. The resonance effects caused by the introduction of the
capacitance lead to high system overvoltages during fault
conditions, and protection measures such as spark gaps and nonlinear resistors are needed to prevent overvoltage damage.
The relative merits between shunt and series capacitors have been
summarized by B. M. Weedy in his book entitled 'Electric Power
Systems' published by John Wiley & Sons. These are as follows:
(a) If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors produce
only a small improvement in regulation.
(b) With series capacitors, the reduction in line current is small
and hence, if thermal limitations limit the maximum line

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Lesson 1 System management

current, the introduction of series compensation will not


improve this situation.
(c) If voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are
effective.
(d) If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very
effective and stability is improved.
The introduction of any form of power system compensation must
be given careful consideration, usually by specialist design
engineers. For example, shunt capacitor compensation introduced
to improve power factor or voltage drop along a line may be
subjected to high harmonic current flow. This might be due to the
nature of the load connected in parallel to the compensation
capacitance, e.g. a converter load or a large variable speed drive
will draw large harmonic currents from the supply source and the
capacitance must be rated for these current levels.
SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATORS
A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running
without mechanical load, and depending on the value of its field
excitation current, it can absorb or generate reactive power.
Friction and windage losses exist in this machine and its power
factor is not zero like the static capacitors already mentioned.
However, they may be utilized in a scheme where an automatic
voltage regulator senses line voltage and synchronous motor
current to regulate the motor field excitation current so that in
situations of high load the motor is run with an overexcited field,
i.e. as a synchronous capacitor. In situations where the load
conditions are light, the motor is run with an underexcited field to
absorb vars and so help stabilize the voltage at that point in the
system.

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Lesson 1 System management

(II) TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS


These constitute the most common form of voltage control at all
voltage levels. Basically, the turns ratio for the transformer may
be varied over a restricted range to give compensation for the
effects of voltage drop due to load. Figure 4 shows a simple
single-phase schematic diagram of an off-load tap changer. The
term off-load is used because the transformer must be
disconnected from the load when the tap setting is to be changed.
On-load tap changers are available and these follow a sequence of
switching that avoids disconnection of the load.

Line diagram symbol

Figure 4: Tap-changing Transformer

Consider the operation of a radial transmission system with two


tap-changing transformers, as shown in Figure 5

R + jX

Line

IR

V3

Vr

V1

V2

1 : ts

LOAD

Is

tr : 1

Figure 5: Radial line with two coordinated tap-changing transformers

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Here, the problem of compensating for the line-drop voltage is


shared between the transformers at each end of the line, i.e. with
increase in load, T1 increases its secondary voltage by coming
down the tap setting positions on its primary side, whilst at the
same time T2 goes up the tap setting positions on its secondary
side. To ensure sharing of duty between them and an overall
compensation effect that maintains the receiving-end voltage at a
fixed level, the product of the tap-changing ratios is made unity.
Defining ts and tr as the fractions of the nominal transformation
ratios, i.e. the tap ratio/nominal ratio for the two transformers, it
can be shown from formulae developed earlier for the voltage
drop that the load voltage V2 is given by:

V2 = 0.5 t s 2V1 t s

(t

)]

V12 4(RP + XQ)

2
s

An example will reinforce the use of this equation as follows.


EXAMPLE 4
A 132 kV line is fed through an 11/132 kV transformer from a
constant 11 kV supply. At the load end of the line another
transformer of nominal ratio 132/11 kV reduces the voltage. The
total impedance of the line and transformers at 132 kV is (25 +
j66) . Both transformers are equipped with tap-changing
facilities, which are so arranged that the product of the two offnominal settings is unity. If the load on the system is 100 MW at
0.9 p.f. lagging, calculate the settings of the tap changers required
to maintain the voltage of the load busbar at 11 kV. Use a base of
100 MVA.
SOLUTION
Nominal 11/132 kV

Nominal 132/11 kV
Line

11 kV

25 + j66
1 : ts

tr : 1

Load 100 MW
@
0.9 p.f.
lagging

Figure 6: Line diagram for Example. 4

Figure 6 shows a line diagram for the system. As the line voltage
drop is completely compensated, V1 = V2 = 11 kV = 1 p.u. Also ts
tr = 1. The load is P = 100MW and Q = 48.4 MVAr or 1 +
j0.484 p.u. in per-unit terms. The base impedance at 132 kV is
given by:

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Z Base =

(KV )2
S Base

132 2
= 174.24
100

so that the line impedance in per-unit terms is given by:


Z Line =

25 + j 66
= 0.14 + j 0.38 p.u.
174.24

Substituting these values into the equation for V2 gives:

[(

1 = 0.5 t s2 1 t s

(t

2
s

)]

4(0.14 1 + 0.38 0.48)

From this equation, if we take the positive root for one of the two
possible solutions we obtain:
t s = 1.21 and t r =

1
1
=
= 0.83
t s 1.21

These settings are large for the normal range of tap-changing


transformers (usually not more than 20% tap range) and some
form of var injection would be preferred to maintain voltage
constant. It is likely that a combination of var injection and tap
changing would be the best solution in this case. It is also
important to note that the tap changing method has increased the
line current by boosting the voltage drop along the line and may
exceed line ratings.

IN TEXT QUESTION
Suppose the load at the end of the line in example 4 dropped to 50 MVA at a power factor of
0.8. What would be the new tap-changing transformer settings to maintain the load at
11 kV?

University of Sunderland

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Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

ANSWER
As the line voltage drop is completely compensated, V1 = V2 = 11 kv = 1 p.u. Also ts tr = 1.
The load is P = 40 MW and Q = 30 MVAr or 0.4 + j0.3 p.u. in per-unit terms. The base
impedance at 132 kV is given by:
Z Base

2
(
KV )
=

S Base

132 2
=
= 174.24
100

so that the line impedance in per-unit terms is given by:


Z Line =

25 + j 66
= 0.14 + j 0.38 p.u.
174.24

Substituting these values into the equation for V2 gives:

[(

1 = 0.5 t s2 1 t s

(t

2
s

)]

4(0.14 0.4 + 0.38 0.3)

From this equation if we take the positive root for one of the two possible solutions we obtain:
t s = 1.098 and t r =

Page 24

1
1
=
= 0.911
t s 1.098

University of Sunderland

Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

SUMMARY
This lesson has been an introduction to the complexities of power
system management. It has, hopefully, given an overview of the
problems of such a process and laid the foundations for further
lessons in this module on subjects like: Performance of
Synchronous Machines, Power System Stability, Loadflow, Fault
Calculations and Selection of Switchgear, Flexible a.c. Systems,
and Power System Protection. The subject is vast, and having
studied this module and the others which follow, you should then
move on to various authors' texts on more detailed aspects of
power system behaviour. Some idea has been given in the lesson
of the computational tasks undertaken in power systems study but
it is left to more detailed texts to cover these in depth. The TMA
on topics 1, 2 and 3 is based on exercises taken from the
recommended textbook Power System Analysis and Design by
Glover and Sharma and published by Brooks/Cole. This reference
text comes with a software disc containing programs that enable
the student to carry out exercises in loadflow, short-circuit
analysis and system compensation.
The analytical sections of the lesson were devoted to the study of
voltage drop in a power system and its correction by the injection
of reactive power and the use of tap-changing transformers. Static
shunt capacitors, static series capacitors and synchronous
compensators were described as techniques to combat voltage
drop due to real and reactive power flow through a network.
Reactive power flow was identified as being the major contributor
to voltage drop, and the sensitivity of a voltage node to real and
reactive power flow was examined. The sensitivity of a voltage
node to reactive power flow was shown to be related to the shortcircuit current at the node in the form of the equation

QM
E
= 3 = 3 I SC
VM
X
Thus, if the short-circuit current level at a node is known, then the
reactive compensation to be added to correct for a particular
voltage drop can be computed directly from this relationship.

University of Sunderland

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Electrical power (ELX303)

Page 26

Lesson 1 System management

University of Sunderland

Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
Determine the power factor the generator must operate at in Figure 7 to deliver power at the
power factors stated. All p.u. values are referred to the voltage bases shown and 100 MVA. You
may ignore the reactive loss in the generator-transformer.

2
0.1

0.1

275 kV

3
0.1

4
0.15

0.1

0.15

132 kV

5
0.15
Load
100 MVA
@ p.f. = 1

0.15

11 kV

Load 100 MW @ 0.8 p.f. lagging


Figure 7: Network example

QUESTION 2
The sensitivity of a node to real power changes is 150 MW/kV of line voltage and that to reactive
power changes is 20 MVAr/kV of line voltage. How much reactive compensation would have to
be introduced at a point to maintain the voltage constant for a real power change of 1000 MW?

QUESTION 3
A 132 kV line is fed through an 11/132 kV transformer from a constant
11 kV supply. At the load end of the line another transformer of nominal ratio 132/11 kV
reduces the voltage. The total impedance of the line and transformers at 132 kV is (10 + j50) .
Both transformers are equipped with tap changing facilities, which are so arranged that the
product of the two off-nominal settings is unity. If the load on the system is 100 MW at 0.8 p.f.
lagging, calculate the settings of the tap changers required to maintain the voltage of the load
busbar at 11 kV. Use a base of 100 MVA.

University of Sunderland

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Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

QUESTION 4
The load at the receiving end of a three-phase overhead line is 25 MW, power factor 0.8 lagging,
at a line voltage of 33 kV. A synchronous compensator is situated at the receiving end and the
voltage at both ends of the line is maintained at 33 kV. Calculate the MVAr of the compensator.
The line has resistance of 5 per phase and inductive reactance of 20 per phase.

QUESTION 5
Repeat Question 4 using the short-circuit current at a node method.

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University of Sunderland

Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS


ANSWER 1
Voltage drops in the circuits will be neglected and nominal voltages of 1 p.u. assumed. The
reactive power loss in an inductive reactance is given by I2X or in per-unit terms by:
2

(I )

X p.u .

p .u .

S p.u.
P 2 + Q p2.u.
X p.u . = p.u .
=
X p.u .
2
V
V
p
u
.
.
p
u
.
.

In this example the parallel per-unit reactance of the 132 kV lines and the transformers between
Bus 3 and the 100 MW load at Bus 5 evaluates to 0.15 p.u. The reactive loss in this 132 kV
section of line is therefore:

Pp2.u. + Q p2.u .
V p2.u.
At busbar 3,

X p.u.

1.0 2 + 0 2
=
0.15 = 0.15 p.u.
12

PBus 3 = Pload 3 + Pload 5 = 1 + 1 = 2 p.u.


QBus 3 = Qload 3 + Q123 loss

Pload 3
sin + Q132 loss
power factor, cos

1
0.6 + 0.15 = 0.9 p.u.
0.8

The reactive loss in the 275 kV section of line is therefore:

Pp2.u. + Q p2.u .
V p2.u.

X p.u. =

2 2 + 0.9 2
0.1 = 0.481 p.u.
12

The I2X loss in the generator transformer has been ignored in this example and so the generator
must deliver P = 2 and Q = 0.9 + 0.481 = 1.381 p.u. Therefore, the generator will operate at a
power factor of:
1.381

cos tan 1
= 0.823 lagging.
2

University of Sunderland

Page 29

Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

ANSWER 2
dV =

Using

dQ
dP
+
P Q

V V

this is to be zero after introduction of the compensation.


1000
dP
=
= 0.67kV
P 150

V
dQ =

dP Q
= 0.67 20 = 13.4MVAr

P V

Hence 13.4 MVAr of capacitive type compensation must be introduced to maintain voltage
constant.
ANSWER 3
Figure 8 shows a line diagram for the system. As the line voltage drop is completely
compensated, V1 = V2 = 11 kV p.u., also t s tr = 1.
Nominal 132/11 kV

Nominal 11/132 kV
Line

11 kV

25 + j66
tr : 1

1 : ts

Load 100 MW
@
0.9 p.f.
lagging

Figure 8

In per-unit terms the load is P = 100 MW and Q = 75 MVAr or 1 + j0.75 p.u.


The base impedance at 132 kV is given by:
Z Base

2
(
KV )
=

S Base

132 2
= 174.24
100

so that the line impedance in per-unit terms is given by:


Z Line =

10 + j50
= 0.0574 + j 0.287 p.u.
174.24

Substituting these values into the equation for V2 gives:

Page 30

University of Sunderland

Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

[(

(t

1 = 0.5 t s2 1 t s

2
s

)]

4(0.0574 1 + 0.287 0.75)

From this equation, if we take the positive root for one of the two possible solutions we obtain:
t s = 1.17 and t r =

1
1
=
= 0.85
t s 1.17

ANSWER 4
Using the formula for the magnitude of voltage drop along a line consisting of resistance and
inductive reactance of:
V = E V =

RP + XQ
V

In this case E = V and hence V = 0 so that RP = XQ, from which


Q=

RP
5 25
=
= 6.25MVAr
X
20

This value of Q is the total value of MVAr at the receiving end and consists of the sum of the
load and compensator contributions, i.e. Q = QL + QC.
The load MVAr is:
QL = 25 tan(cos1 0.8) = 18.75 MVAr
Hence the compensator MVAr is given by:
QC = Q QL = 6.25 18.75 = 25MVAr
the negative sign indicating the capacitive nature or source type injection of reactive power to be
produced by the compensator.
ANSWER 5
If the source voltage is

33000

0 0 V , then, ignoring line resistance, the three-phase symmetrical

3
short-circuit current at the load point is given by:
33000

3 = 952.63 90 0
A
j 20

University of Sunderland

Page 31

Electrical power (ELX303)

Lesson 1 System management

The node sensitivity

QM
= 3 I SC = 3 952.63
VM
= 1.65 MVAr/kV of line voltage

With 33 kV maintained at the load point, the load is 25 MW at 0.8 p.f. lagging and this equates to
a star connected phase impedance of:

Z load

p.f VL2
0.8 33 2
o
=
36.87 =
36.87 o
P
25

= 34.84836.87 o
With 33 kV as a source line voltage, the load voltage without any form of compensation present
will be:
33000
0 o
3
Vload =
34.84836.87 o
o
5 + j 20 + 34.84836.87

= 12650 14.34 o V/phase


This gives a natural voltage fall at the load point of:

33000
3

0 o 12650 14.34 o = 7484V/phase

which equates to a line voltage of 12962.9 V/line.


The compensation required to correct this voltage drop is given by:
Q = 1.65 12.963 = 21.4 MVAr

Note:
The answers to Question 4 and Question 5 differ by 14% and this may be due to the
approximations made in the derivation of the voltage drop along the line. The technique of
Question 4 is to be preferred because of its simplicity.

Page 32

University of Sunderland

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