G330 - Lectures 9-10

Orthomagmatic Deposits III-IV

By Dr Bill Stone
14 March 2002

Orthomagmatic Deposits III:

Kambalda Example - Introduction

Basically two types of Ni-Cu (PGE) sulphide ores

(excludes deposits mined primarily for PGE).
1.
2.

Deposits at base of channelised komatiite flows

(Archaean to Proterozoic).
Deposits at the base of layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions, commonly
intruded into old continental suture zones (eg. Norilsk, Voiseys Bay,
Sudbury): Proterozoic and Mesozoic

Both involve some form of channelised flow in lava channels

or within magma conduits for intrusions, and most involve
contamination of magma by S-bearing sedimentary rocks.
Kambalda is used as an example to illustrate the combination of
physical and chemical processes in ore genesis

Geological Map of the KambaldaWidgiemooltha Nickel District

Legend

Locality Map

Kalgoorlie
50 km

Mafic dyke

Kambalda
Dome

Bo
e
uld

Kalgoorlie

r-L

Perth

efr

6540000mN

oy
ul t
Fa

Symbols
Foster
-Jan
Belt
Ni deposit
Au deposit

Be
lt

Tramways
Belt

an

De
m
oc
ra
t

ult
Fa

gil
lic
rou
ub
Me
ep
h-R
us
eb
Blu

Widgiemooltha
Dome

6500000mN

390000mE

360000mE

10
km

Geological Map of Kambalda Dome

37 6 0 00 mE

Juan
Durkin

Legend
5 5 20 0 0 mN

Gellatly
McMahon

Long
Otter
Gibb

Coronet
Ken

Victor
5 4 80 0 0 mN

Fisher
Loreto
thrust

Lunnon

Symbols
fold
faults

Hunt

5 4 40 0 0 mN

Alpha
Beta

KIL O MET RES

o

31 15'E
121o40'E

Stone, Beresford and Archibald (2002)

The Kambalda Example II

Kambalda Nickel Deposits
Kambalda Fe-Ni-Cu sulphide deposits occur at the base of a thick komatiite
succession in the Norseman-Wiluna Belt.
Sulphide ores are, from the base upwards, massive-matrix-disseminated
sulphides, sited in trough-like structures at the base of the komatiite sequence.
The ores are hosted by anomalously thick, anomalously olivine- enriched
(very-high MgO) komatiites with evidence of flow-through of magma
(i.e., magma replenishment).
Environments that flank ores have thinner, better differentiated komatiite flows
with interflow S-rich sedimentary units, which are generally absent below the
ore bodies
The ore bodies are relatively thin (1-10 m massive sulphide), moderately wide
(10s-100s m) and very long (1000s of metres),and hence are ribbon-like.

Volcanic Stratigraphy at Kambalda

Lunnon NiS Ore Shoot in Geologic Cross-Section

West

Lunnon Shoot cross section 546 279N.

300m ASL

LU

N
NO

T
UL
FA

NICKEL SULPHIDE ORE

LOW GRADE DISSEMINATED ZONE

OR

US
HR

MULTIPLE THIN UNITS

.T
2E

CO
NT
AC

META-PERIDOTITE

META-OLIVINE PERIDOTITE

UNDIFFERENTIATED SEDIMENTS
N
HR
.T
1E

SODIC RHYOLITE PORPHYRY

DACITE INTRUSIVE

T
US

FOOTWALL BASALT
50

50

100

150

200 metres

East

Characteristic Complexity of the Ore Environment

Geochemical Evidence for Lava

Flow-Through at Kambalda

The Kambalda Example III

Genetic Model
Mine mapping shows that thick komatiite flows occur in
topographic lows (troughs) in the top of the underlying (footwall)
basalt.
Analogies have been made with subaerial systems where topography
controls lava flow and there are lava tunnels or tubes.
Kambalda was submarine and topography may be fault controlled
as on modern sea floor.
Distribution of S-bearing sedimentary units is a key to the genesis
of the nickel deposits. They occur on the margins of the troughs,
but not under the nickel ores, although expected to be thicker in
topographic lows.
On margins of the troughs, unusual rocks may provide a clue to the
fate of the missing sedimentary rocks.

Antithetic Distribution of Ore and

Sedimentary Rock

Flow-through Mineralisation Model

River Analogy

Lava Tube Analogy

Komatiite Lava Prism at Kambalda

Banded Massive Ore in the Backs

The Kambalda Example IV:

Genetic Model
Exclusively on flanks of trough are rocks termed ocellar komatiites,
which are differentiated with an ultrabasic base on an ocellar top
Ocellar rocks are composed of felsic spherules in ultramafic matrix.
The textures are similar to immiscibility textures (eg. grease in soup) and
the ocelli have internal zoning. They look like trapped felsic melt globules
Geochemically, the ocellar komatiites do not appear to be fractionated from
the komatiites. One feature is anomalously high Zn. They also have the
geochemistry of the sedimentary rocks with the Fe removed, as Fe-rich
sulphide liquid.
The komatiites are very hot (>1500oC) and therefore could melt the
sediments (melting <1000oC) in the troughs. This would provide the
S for the nickel sulphide ores.

Channel versus Flank Environment

Ocellar Komatiite I

Ocellar Komatiite II

Ocellar Komatiite Sample

Ocellar Komatiite in Drill Core

Ocellar Komatiite - Geochemistry

Ocellar Komatiite Geochemistry II

The Kambalda Example V

Genetic Model
From the field, petrological and geochemical data, a model can be
produced:
(1) There were topographical depressions in the sea floor following basalt
eruption. Sediments were deposits in these and on the flanks
(2) Komatiite lavas flowed down the depressions forming thick turbulently
-flowing lava channels with strong magma replenishment
(3) The komatiite lavas in the channels melted the sediments below them

and they formed felsic silicate melt globules and Fe-sulphide liquid

globules
(4) The felsic liquid globules floated to the top of the komatiites

(low-density scum) and were preserved at the edge of turbulent flow

(5) The Fe-sulphide globules turbulently converted (high R-factor) and
scavenged Ni, Co and Cu from the komatiite melt
(6) The sulphide liquid (high density) sank to the bottom of the flow

to form the nickel sulphide ores

(7) Late deformation and metamorphism modified the sequence.

Genetic Model I

Genetic Model II

The Kambalda Example VI

Supporting Evidence
Supporting evidence is provided by:

Evidence for melting of the tops of early komatiite flows by late flows in the
ore environment. Melting produces spectacular spinifex-textured sulphide
ores
Sulphur isotope ratios for nickel ores and sedimentary rocks which show
paired behaviour with the nickel ores closer to magmatic rations (&34S =0)
than associated sedimentary rocks.
S/Se ratios which again pair nickel sulphide ores and associated sedimentary
rocks, and are greater than magmatic ratios
Zinc-rich chromites in the komatiites associated with the Kambalda-type
nickel sulphide ores.

Hence, integration of field, petrological, mineralogical, geochemical and isotope data

produce a coherent genetic model involving chemical and physical processes

Evidence for Ground Melting

Evidence for Ground Melting II

Evidence for Ground Melting III

Evidence for Ground Melting IV

The Kambalda Example VII: Alternative Model

BUT, this eloquent magmatic model developed in the absence of any

understanding of the structural and metamorphic overprints
Even cursory examination of underground exposures indicates complex
polyphase deformation and metamorphism of the ore environment.
Supporting Evidence
1.
2.
3.
4.

Strong deformation fabrics in ore environment, which reflect extreme competency

contrasts and preferential strain partitioning into low-strength rocks during deformation
and metamorphism.
Contrast of strong P-L tectonic fabrics in massive sulphide and ultramafic hanging wall
and well preserved volcanic textures in footwall basalt consistent with structural
dislocation at the base of the ore environment.
Re-entrants at the down-dip margin of troughs consistent with parasitic folds-related
thrusting on the flanks of Kambalda Dome.
Some ore environments offset and truncated by trough structures.

The superimposed effects of structural deformation and metamorphic

alteration must be understood prior general acceptance of any
magmatic model.

Gneissic and Mylonitic Fabrics in Massive Sulphide

0

1m
PYRITE BLOB
CRACKLE VEINED MASSIVE ORE
WITH UNFOLIATED PYRITE BLOBS

BANDED PYRRHOTITE-PENTLANDITE ORE

WITH FOLIATED PYRITE LENSES

6
7

5
3

1
S2
2
S1

S3

Deposit Scale Architecture- Revisited

Trough at the 1740 cross-cut, Otter-Juan shoot
0

5m

Talc-carbonated serpentinite
Amphibole chloritite

chloritite
matrix and disseminated ore
meta-pillow basalt

Gneissic and mylonitic ore

Trough Re-Entrants: Evidence for Parasitic Folding

folded contact

(A)

S2

Folded
flow
top

folded contact

meta-basalt

(B)

folded contact
S2

Pillows face upward

meta-basalt

(C)
meta-basalt
analogue

synthetic
re-entrant

Discordant Volcanic Channel and Trough

Structure Relationships
(C)
McMahon

Ken
trough
structure
(3 Kt Ni)

0.5

kilometres

Stone et al., 2002

Stone et al., 2002

Ken
volcanic
channel
(30 Kt Ni)

Additional Evidence to Consider

Present geological configuration of the ore environment
unlikely to be that of ore formation
Sulphides and talc-carbonate rock very low strength materials at
400-500oC and can deform by penetrative ductile strain
Silicate domes could be cuspate-lobate folds developed at
contacts marked by strong competency contrasts
Ocellar komatiites represent plagioclase cumulates, formed by
rapid crystallisation of hyper-plagioclase normative melt
(i.e., kinetic controls)
Zn and S mobilised during secondary processes, such that Zn
rich chromites and S isotopes and S/Se ratios reflect
hydrothermal mobilisation rather than primary ore forming
processes.