Pituitary

Anatomical relationship of the hypothalamus and

pituitary.

Embryologic development of the pituitary.

Cytology of the pituitary.
Overview of pituitary hormones and regulation of
secretion.

Pituitary

The hypothalamus and the hypophysis (also known

as the pituitary gland) form an integrated
neuroendocrine network known as the
hypothalamohypophysial system.

The hypothalamohypophysial system consists of two

components: the hypothalamic adenohypophysial
system, connecting the hypothalamus to the anterior
hypophysis; and the hypothalamic
neurohypophysial system, linking the hypothalamus
to the posterior hypophysis.

Pituitary

The hypothalamus, corresponding to the floor of the

diencephalon and forming part of the walls of the third
ventricle, consists of clusters of neurons, called
nuclei, some of which secrete hormones.

These neuroendocrine cells are located behind the

blood-brain barrier, but their secretory products are
released outside the blood-brain barrier.

The neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus exert

positive and negative effects on the pituitary gland
through peptides called releasing and inhibitory
hormones or factors, have a very short response time
to neurotransmitters, and send axons into the
neurohypophysis.

Brain

Pituitary

Glandular Portion
adenohypophysis or
anterior pituitary

Neural Portion
Sella turcica

neurohypophysis or
posterior pituitary

Pituitary

Pituitary

Pituitary

Pituitary

Pituitary

Pituitary

Pituitary

Posterior pituitary hormones

Posterior pituitary hormones

Anterior Pituitary

Corticolipotropin Hormones

Glycoprotein Hormones

Somatomammotropin Hormones

Anterior pituitary

Anterior pituitary

50%
15%
20%
10%
5%

Growth Hormone

Growth Hormone

Prolactin

TSH

ACTH

Hypophysis

Hormonal feedback

Adrenal gland

The adrenal (suprarenal) glands secrete both steroid hormones

and catecholamines. They have a flattened triangular shape and
are embedded in the perirenal fat at the superior poles of the
kidneys.

The adrenal glands are covered with a thick connective tissue

capsule from which trabeculae extend into the parenchyma,
carrying blood vessels and nerves. The secretory parenchymal
tissue is organized into two distinct regions.

The cortex is the steroid-secreting portion. It lies beneath the

capsule and constitutes nearly 90% of the gland by weight.

The medulla is the catecholamine-secreting portion. It lies deep

to the cortex and forms the center of the gland.

Adrenal Hormones

Adrenal Hormones

Adrenal

Glucocorticoids
secreted in the cortex
induce the conversion
of norepinephrine to
epinephrine in
chromaffin cells.

Adrenal cortex

The cells of the zona glomerulosa are arranged in closely

packed ovoid clusters and curved columns that are continuous
with the cellular cords in the zona fasciculata.

The cells of the zona fasciculata are large and polyhedral. They
are arranged in long straight cords, one or two cells thick, that
are separated by sinusoidal capillaries, the cytoplasm is
acidophilic and contains numerous lipid droplets, although it
usually appears vacuolated in routine histologic sections
because of the extraction of lipid during dehydration

The cells of the zona reticularis are noticeably smaller than

those of the zona fasciculata, and their nuclei are more deeply
stained.The principal secretion of the cells in the zona reticularis
consists of weak androgens, mostly dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA).

Adrenal Cortex

The zona reticularis produces

glucocorticoids and
androgens.
The principal secretion of the
zona fasciculata is
glucocorticoids that regulate
glucose and fatty acid
metabolism.

Adrenal Cortex
& Medulla
The zona reticularis
produces glucocorticoids
and androgens.
Medulla produces adrenalin
& noradrenalin

Cells of the Adrenal Medulla

The central portion of the adrenal gland, the medulla, is

composed of a parenchyma of large, pale-staining
epithelioid cells called chromaffin cells (medullary cells),
connective tissue, numerous sinusoidal blood capillaries,
and nerves. The chromaffin cells are, in effect, modified
neurons and medulla are innervated by presynaptic
sympathetic neurons.

Numerous myelinated, presynaptic sympathetic nerve fibers

pass directly to the chromaffin cells of the medulla

When nerve impulses carried by the sympathetic fibers

reach the catecholamine-secreting chromaffin cells, they
release their secretory products. Therefore, chromaffin cells
are considered the equivalent of postsynaptic neurons.

Thyroid/Parathyroid

The parathyroid glands secrete a hormone that influences

calcium and bone metabolism. Injection of parathyroid hormone
results in the release of calcium from bone by the action of
osteocytes (osteocytic osteolysis) and osteoclasts. Removal of
parathyroid glands results in a rapid drop in blood calcium
levels.

The thyroid gland is located consists of two lateral lobes that

are joined by a narrow isthmus. The follicles, which consists of a
single layer of cuboidal or low columnar epithelium surrounding
a colloid-filled space, are the functional unit of the thyroid gland.
A rich capillary network is present in the connective tissue that
separates the follicles.

Thyroid

Thyroid

Follicular cells produce thyroglobulin 100+

tyrosine, some are iodinated

Follicular cells (principal cells) are responsible

for production of the thyroid hormones T4 and
T3.

Parafollicular cells (C cells) are located in the

periphery of the follicular epithelium and lie
within the follicle basal lamina. Derived from
neural crest these cells have no exposure to the
follicle lumen. They secrete calcitonin, a
hormone that regulates calcium metabolism.

Thyroid

Thyroid

Thyroid

Thyroid

Thyroid

1.Synthesis of thyroglobulin.
2.Resorption, diffusion, and oxidation of iodide. Iodide is then immediately
oxidized to iodine, the active form of iodide. This process occurs in the
colloid and is catalyzed by membrane-bound thyroid peroxidase (TPO).
3.Iodination of thyroglobulin. One or two iodine atoms are then added to
the specific tyrosine residues of thyroglobulin. This process occurs in the
colloid at the microvillar surface of the follicular cells and is also
catalyzed by thyroid peroxidase (TPO). Addition of one iodine atom to a
single tyrosine residue forms monoiodotyrosine (MIT). Addition of a
second iodine atom to the MIT residue forms a diiodotyrosine (DIT)
residue.
4.Formation of T3 and T4 by oxidative coupling reactions.
5.Resorption of colloid. If the levels of TSH remain high, the amount of
colloid in the follicle is reduced because it is synthesized, secreted,
iodinated, and resorbed too rapidly to accumulate.
6.Release of T4 and T3 into the circulation and recycling processes.

Thyroid

Thyroid

Thyroid

Thyroid

Thyroid

Parathyroid

Parathyroid
Principal (chief) cells, the more numerous of the parenchymal cells of
the parathyroid are responsible for regulating the synthesis, storage, and
secretion of large amounts of PTH. They are small, polygonal cells, with
a diameter of 7 to 10 m and a centrally located nucleus. The palestaining, slightly acidophilic cytoplasm contains lipofuscin-containing
vesicles, large accumulations of glycogen, and lipid droplets. Small,
dense, membrane-limited vesicles seen with the TEM or after using
special stains with the light microscope are thought to be the storage
form of PTH.
Oxyphil cells constitute a minor portion of the parenchymal cells and
are not known to have a secretory role. They are found singly or in
clusters; the cells are more rounded, considerably larger than the
principal cells, and have a distinctly acidophilic cytoplasm

Parathyroid

Thyroid

Parathyroid