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1991

Coals, source rocks and hydrocarbons in the South

Palembang sub-basin, south Sumatra, Indonesia
Rubianto Indrayudha Amier
University of Wollongong

Recommended Citation
Amier, Rubianto Indrayudha, Coals, source rocks and hydrocarbons in the South Palembang sub-basin, south Sumatra, Indonesia,
Master of Science (Hons.) thesis, Department of Geology, University of Wollongong, 1991. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/2828

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Library: research-pubs@uow.edu.au

COALS, SOURCE ROCKS AND HYDROCARBONS

IN THE SOUTH PALEMBANG SUB-BASIN, SOUTH SUMATRA,
INDONESIA

A thesis submitted in (partial) fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
(HONS.)

from

THE UNIVERSITY OF

WOLLONGONG

by
RUBIANTO INDRAYUDHA AMIER
(B.Sc. AGP BANDUNG)

Department of Geology
1991

013657

certify

that

the

substance

of

this

thesis

is

original and has not already been submitted for any

degree and is not being currently submitted for any
other degree.

Rubianto Indrayudha Amier

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF PLATES
PAGE

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

1.1

AIM OF THE STUDY

*2

1.2

PREVIOUS STUDIES

1.3

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN

1.4

LOCATION AND ACCESS

1.5

. MORPHOLOGY

CHAPTER TWO - TERMINOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL METHODS

10

2.1

TERMINOLOGY

10

2.2

ANALYTICAL METHODS

14

2.2.1

Sampling

14

2.2.2

Sample Preparation

15

2.2.3

Microscopy

15

2.2.3.1

15

Reflected white light microscopy

and determination of vitrinite
reflectance

2.2.3.2

Fluorescence-mode microscopy

17

2.2.3.3

Maceral analysis

18

CHAPTER THREE - REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC

SETTING
3.1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY 19
3.2 STRATIGRAPHY

21

3.2.1 The pre-Tertiary rocks 22

3.2.2 Lahat Formation (LAF) 23
3.2.3 Talang Akar Formation (TAF) 24
3.2.4 Baturaja Formation (BRF) 26
3.2.5 Gumai Formation (GUF) 28
3.2.6 Air Benakat Formation (ABF) 29
3.2.7 Muara Enim Formation (MEF) 30
3.2.8 Kasai Formation (KAF) 32
3.3 DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THE TERTIARY SEDIMENTS 33

CHAPTER FOUR - ORGANIC MATTER TYPE OF TERTIARY 38

SEQUENCES
4.1 INTRODUCTION 38
4.2 TYPE AND ABUNDANCE 39
4.2.1 Lahat Formation 39
4.2.2 Talang Akar Formation 41
4.2.2.1 DOM 41
4.2.2.2 Coal and shaly coal 42
4.2.3 Baturaja Formation 43
4,2.4 Gumai Formation 44
4.2.5 Air Benakat Formation 45
4.2.6 Muara Enim Formation 46

19

4.3

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RANK AND MACERAL TEXTURES

50

AND FLUORESCENCE INTENSITY

CHAPTER FIVE - ORGANIC MATURATION AND THERMAL HISTORY 54

5.1 INTRODUCTION 54
5.2 RANK VARIATION AND DISTRIBUTION 55
5.3 THERMAL HISTORY 61
5.4 SOURCE ROCKS AND GENERATION HYDROCARBONS 66
5.4.1 Source rocks for hydrocarbons 66
5.4.2 Hydrocarbon generation 74
5.4.2.1 Timing of hydrocarbon generation 77
using Lopatin Method
5.5 POTENTIAL RESERVOIRS 82

CHAPTER SIX - CRUDE OIL AND SOURCE ROCKS GEOCHEMISTRY 85

6.1 INTRODUCTION 85
6.2 OIL GEOCHEMISTRY 86
6.2.1 Experimental Methods 86
6.2.2 Sample fractionation 86
6.2.3 Gas chromatography analysis 86
6.2.4 Preparation of b/c fraction 87
6.2.5 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry 88
analysis
6.2.6 Results 88
6.2.6.1 Gas chromatography 89
6.2.6.1 Gas chromatography-mass 92
spectrometry

6.3

SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY

6.3.1 Experimental Section 9 5

6.3.1.1 Sample extraction 96
6.3.2 Results 96

CHAPTER SEVEN - COAL POTENTIAL OF SOUTH PALEMBANG 100

SUB-BASIN
7.1 INTRODUCTION 100
7.2 COAL DIVISIONS IN THE MUARA ENIM FORMATION 101
7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MUARA ENIM COALS 103
7.3.1 Enim Prospect Areas 104
7.3.2 Pendopo Areas 105
7.4 COAL QUALITY 106
7.5 ASH COMPOSITION 108
7.6 STRUCTURES 109
7.7 COAL RESERVES HI
7.8 BUKIT ASAM COAL MINES 112
7.8.1 Stratigraphy 113
7.8.1.1 Quarternary succession 113
7.8.1.2 Tertiary succession 113
7.8.1.2.1- Coal seams 113
7.8.1.2.2 Overburden and 114
Intercalations
7.8.2 Coal Quality

115

7.8.3 Coal Reserves 116

7.9 BUKIT KENDI COALS

117

7.10 BUKIT BUNIAN COALS

CHAPTER EIGHT - COAL UTILIZATION

120

8.1 INTRODUCTION 120

8.2 COMBUSTION 121
8.3 GASIFICATION 124
8.4 CARBONISATION 125

CHAPTER NINE - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 128

9.1 SUMMARY 128
9.1.1 Type 128
9.1.2 Rank 131
9.1.3 Thermal History 132
9.1.4 Source rock and hydrocarbon generation 133
potential
9.1.5 Coal potential and utilization 136
9.2 CONCLUSIONS 137

REFERENCES 143

APPENDIX 1 Short descriptions of lithologies and

organic matter type, abundance and
maceral composition from wells studied.

APPENDIX 2 Summary of the composition of maceral groups

in the Tertiary sequences from wells studied.

ABSTRACT

The South Palembang Sub-basin, in the southern part

the South Sumatra Basin, is
oil production.
region,

an

potential

In

an important area for coal

order to

understanding

of

the

of

develop the

of

Tertiary

the

economy of

coal

sequences

and

and

this

source

rock

the

South

within

Palembang Sub-basin is essential.

Collisions between the Indo-Australian and the Eurasian
Plates formed

the

South

Sumatra

Basin

and

particularly

influenced the development of the South Palembang

Sub-basin

since the Middle Mesozoic to Plio-Pleistocene.

The Tertiary sequences comprise from oldest to youngest
unit; the Lahat, Talang Akar, Baturaja, Gumai, Air
Muara Enim

and

developed on
complex of

Kasai

the

Formations.

pre-Tertiary

Mesozoic igneous

These

sequences

rocks which

rocks

Benakat,

and of

were

consist

of

Palaeozoic

and

Mesozoic metamorphics and carbonates.

Coals occur in
Formations.

The

concentrated in the

the Muara Enim,

main

Talang Akar and

workable

coal

Muara Enim Formation.

coals are brown coal to

measures

are

The Muara

Enim

sub-bituminous coal in rank,

the Lahat and Talang Akar

coals are sub-bituminous to

volatile bituminous coals

in rank.

From

economically mineable coal reserves,

locally the most important coal unit.
coals range from 2 to 20 metres.

Lahat

while
high

the viewpoint

of

the M2 Subdivision

is

Thicknesses of the M2

The coals can be

utilized

for

electric

power

generation,

generally unsuitable as blends

have

some

potential

for

gasification

but

are

for coke manufacture.

the

manufacture

of

They

activated

carbons.
In general, coals and DOM of the Tertiary sequences are
dominated by vitrinite with detrovitrinite and telovitrinite
as the main macerals.

Liptinite is the second most abundant

maceral group

coals and

of the

DOM and

comprises

mainly

liptodetrinite, sporinite and cutinite.

The Lahat,

Talang Akar,

Formations have

good to

potential.

Baturaja

The

Air

very good

but

in

have

unit contains
these

Enim

generation

Formations

as this

some places

Muara

hydrocarbon

and Gumai

significant source potential

organic matter

Benakat and

less
little

formations

are

considered to have good potential to generate gas.

The vitrinite reflectance

data and

Lopatin model indicate that the

studies using

the

onset of oil generation

in

the South Palembang Sub-basin occurs below 1500 metres.

general the Gumai

onset of

oil

places, the lower part of

Air

Formation lies

generation zone, but in some

In

within the

Benakat and Muara Enim Formations occur within this zone.

Crude

oil

geochemistry

characterized ' by

high

shows

ratios

indicating a source from

of

that

the

pristane

oils
to

phytane

land-derived organic matter.

presence of bicadinane-type resin

and oleanane in the

is further evidence of a terrestrial source.

The

studied.

Formation

are similar

to

those of

The
oils

biomarker

and thermal maturity of the source rocks and coals from

Talang Akar

are

the

the
oils

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This

study

was

Geology, University
Colombo

Plan

carried

out

at

of Wollongong

funded

by

the

the

under

the tenure

Australian

Development Assistance Bureau (A.I.D.A.B).

Associate

Professor

A.J.

Wright,

Department for his support

Department facilities

the

my

of

of

International
I am thankful to

Chairman

and for allowing

during

Department

study.

of

the

me to use
This

the

study

was

carried out under the supervision of Professor A.C. Cook and

Associate Professor B.G.
Associate

Professor

guidance during the

Jones.

B.G

Jones

for

finishing of

grateful especially to Professor

me to

the

field of

assistance, patience
this study.

I wish

A.C. Hutton

for

organic
guidance

McGoldrick

R.

who

Varga,

gave

and

I am

also

introducing

also

suggestions

for

his

throughout

deep appreciation to

Dr.

encouragement,

and

help

finishing of this thesis.

also wish to thank all members

including Mrs

suggestion

his

this thesis.

and

his suggestion,

of

to

A.C. Cook for

to record my

University

like to thank

petrology and

general assistance during the

Department,

I would

of the staff of the

Wollongong,

Mr Aivars

general

for

Depers

assistance

Geology

their
and

and

help,

Mrs

B.R.

helped

in

of Indonesia, particularly

the

Ministry of Mines and Energy for selecting me to accept

the

numerous ways.
I thank the Government

Colombo Plan

Award.

The

author also

wishes to

specially

thank the management and staff of PERTAMINA, particularly Ir

M. Anwar, Ir L. Samuel, Ir L. Gultom, Ir. H.Hatuwe and Ir A.
Pribadi for allowing me

to collect and

to use the

samples

and technical data from various wells of the South Palembang

I am also grateful to Ir Busono SE, Director

Sub-basin.

of

Directorate of Coal and to his predecessor, Drs Johannas for

permitting me to study in the Geology Department, University
of Wollongong.

I would like also to thank the staff of

Directorate of

Coal who

helped and

supported me

the

in

this

study.
Special appreciation is given
J.M. Hope

and

Resources in
Rock-Eval

P.

Fletcher

Canberra, for

pyrolysis

of

from

to Dr R.E. Summons,
the

Bureau

carrying out

the

source

of

Mrs

Mineral

oil analyses

rocks

and

samples.

The

assistance and guidance of Dr R.E. Summons particularly,

is

gratefully acknowledged.
The author
A.I.D.A.B

wishes

staff

to

express his. gratitude

particularly

to

the

to

Training

the

Liaison

Officers such as Mr B. Rush, Mrs G. Ward, Dr D. Engel and Mr

B. O'Brien, and I would like
Ms N.

Lim and

Ms

also to thank Mr K.

Lisa Huff,

for the

Passmore,

assistances

given

during this study.

I am

thankful to

all

my colleagues

particularly

Panggabean, S.M. Tobing, N. Ningrum, T. Ratkolo, B.

Susilohadi, Y.

Kusumabrata,

Hartoyo, Herudiyanto,
their help,

support

K. Sutisna,

A. Sutrisman
and

and A.

suggestions

R.

Daulay,

Heryanto,
Perwira K.

during

this

H.

B.
for

study.

These contributions

of

all

these

people

are

gratefully

appreciated.
Finally, I

am

forever grateful

to

my wife

Ida

daughters, Indri and Emil who gave me endless support,

and encouragement during this study.

and
love

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1

South Sumatra coal province and its demonstrated

coal resources (after Kendarsi, 1984).

Figure 1.2 Location map of Suraatran back-arc basins.

Figure 1.3 Tectonic elements of South Sumatra Basin (after

Purnomo, 1984).
Figure 1.4 Oil well locations and their relationship with
major tectonic elements of the South Palembang
Sub-basin (after Pulunggono, 1983).
Figure 1.5 Geological features of the Bukit Asam and
-surrounding areas, and locations of boreholes
studied (after Kendarsi, 1984).
Figure 2.1 Flow diagram showing the method for polishing
and mounting samples (after Hutton, 1984).

Figure 2.2 Alteration of the macerals during coalification

stage (after Smith and Cook, 1980).
Figure 2.3 Diagram showing optical configuration for
reflected white light and fluorescence-mode
observation used in this study (from AS. 2856,
1986).
Figure 2.4 Visual aid to assist in the assessment of
volumeteric abundance of dispersed organic
matter in sediments.
Figure 3.1 Lineaments of subduction zones in western
Indonesia (after Katili, 1984).
Figure 3.2 Pre-Tertiary rocks underlying the Tertiary in
the South Sumatra Basin (after De Coster, 1974).

Figure 3.3 Distribution of Talang Akar Formation within th

South Palembang Sub-basin (after Pulunggono,
1983).
Figure 4.1 Abundance range and average abundance by volume
and maceral group composition of DOM, shaly coal
and coal in the Lahat Formation at five well
locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
Figure 4.2 Abundance range and average abundance by volume
and maceral group composition of DON, shaly coal
and coal in the Talang Akar Formation at ten
well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
Figure 4.3 Abundance range and average abundance by volume
and maceral group composition of DOM in the
Baturaja Formation at six well locations in the
South Palembang Sub-basin.

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

Figure 4.6

Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2

Abundance range and average abundance by volume

and maceral group composition of DOM in the
Gumai Formation at ten well locations in the
South Palembang Sub-basin.
Abundance range and average abundance by volu
and maceral group composition of DOM in the Air
Benakat Formation at ten well locations in the
South Palembang Sub-basin.
Abundance range and average abundance by volu
and maceral group composition of DOM and coal in
the Muara Enim Formation at ten well locations
in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
from the MBU-2 well.
Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
from the PMN-2 well.

Figure 5.3 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the GM-14 well.

Figure 5.4 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the KG-10 well.

Figure 5.5 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the KD-01 well.

Figure 5.6 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the BRG-3 well.

Figure 5.7 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the TMT-3 well.

Figure 5.8 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the L5A-22 well.

Figure 5.9 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the BL-2 well.

Figure 5.10 Plot of reflectance against depth for sample

from the BN-10 well.

Figure 5.11 Schematic cross-section A-B through the Muar

Enim area showing isoreflectance surfaces.

Figure 5.12 Schematic cross-section C-D through

Limau-Pendopo area showing isoreflectance
surfaces.
Figure 5.13 Plot of reflectance against depth for sample
f
rom South Palembang Sub-basin.
Figure 5.14 Pre-tectonic
coalification

Figure 5.15

Syn-tectonic
coalification

Figure 5.16 Post-tectonic

coalification

Figure 5.17

Figure 5.18

Figure 5.19

Figure 5.20

Figure 5.21

Figure 5.22

Figure 5.23

Figure 5.24

The relationship between coalification and

tectonicsm as proposed by Teichrauller and
Teichrauller (1967).
Karweil Diagram showing relationship of time
(Ma), temperature ( C) and rank scales (after
Bostick, 1973). Scale H is used for
calculating thermal history of Table 5.11 and
5.12.
Hydrocarbon generation model for oil and
condensate from source rocks containing
terrestrial organic matter (after Snowdon and
Powell, 1982).
Pyrolisis data S2/Org.C Index, which is
indicative of the amounts of already generated
hydrocarbons, show the contribution of
inertinites to generation of hydrocarbons. The
Tmax data showing the maximum decomposition of
inertinite-rich kerogens occurs at higher
activation energies compared to inertinite-poor
kerogens (after Khorasani, 1989).
The relationship between S1+S2 values and the
Score A for samples studied from the Muara Enim
Formation and the Talang Akar Formation (after
Struckroeyer (1988).
Generalized zones of petroleum generation and
approximate correlation with maxi mum
palaeotemperatures and reflectance of
vitrinite, exinite and inertinite (from Smith
and Cook, 1984).
Maturation model for the main organic matter
groups and sub-groups (from Smith and Cook,
1984).
Lopatin-type model for the coalification
history of the Muara Enim area. Assumptions:
no compaction effect, present geothermal
gradient assumed to have operated since the
Eocene, erosion approximately 250 metres.
Lopatin-type reconstruction of coalification
for the Pendopo area. Assumptions: no
compaction effect, present geothermal gradient
assuramed to have operated since the Eocene,
erosion approximately 623 metres.

Figure 6.11

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

N-alkane distribution profile in the saturated

fractions in the extracts from the Muara Enim
Formation (sample 5383).
6.12 N-alkane distribution profile in the saturate
fractions in the extracts from the Muara Enim
Formation (sample 5384).
6.13 N-alkane distribution profile in the saturate
fractions in the extracts from the Talang Akar
Formation (sample 5385).
6.14 N-alkane distribution profile in the saturate
fractions in the extracts from the Talang Akar
Formation (sample 5386).
6.15 The determination of petroleum formation zone
by using Tmax. (after Espitalie et al., 1985).

Figure 6.16 Modified Van Krevelen diagram using

conventional whole-rock pyrolisis data (after
Katz et al., 1990).
Figure 7.1 General stratigraphy of the Bukit Asam mining
area (after Von Schwartzenberg, 1986).

Figure 8.1 The transportation net of the Bukit Asam coal,

South Sumatra (after Kendarsi, 1984).
Figure 8.2 Generalized relationship of coke strength and
coal rank, indicated by vitrinite reflectance
and carbon content of vitrinite, at constant
type (after Edwards and Cook, 1972).

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1

Oil fields in South Sumatra and their

cummulative production until 1966 (after
Koesoeraadinata, 1978).

Table 2.1

Generalized classification of coal rank (from

Cook, 1982).

Table 2.2

Summary of the macerals of hard coals (from

I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1963).

Table 2.3

Maceral Groups (Stopes-Heerlen system of

nomenclature).

Table 2.4

Summary of the macerals of brown coals (from

I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1971).

Table 2.5

Proposed coal maceral classification system for

coals (Smith, 1981).

Table 3.1

Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin according to

some authors.

Table 3.2

Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin used in the

present study based on Spruyt's Nomenclature
(1956).
Stratigraphic column of Muara Enim Formation
according to Shell Mijnbouw, 1978.

Table 3.3
Table 5.1

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the MBU-2 well.

Table 5.2

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the PMN-2 well.

Table 5.3

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the GM-14 well.

Table 5.4

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the KG-10 well.

Table 5.5

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the KD-01 well.

Table 5.6

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the BRG-3 well.

Table 5.7

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the TMT-3 well.

Table 5.8

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the L5A-22 well.

Table 5.9

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the BL-2 well.

Table 5.10 Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the BN-10 well.

Table 5.10A Vitrinite reflectance values of Muara Enim coal

measured from core samples.
Table 5.11 Thermal history data from selected wells in the
Muara Enim area.
Table 5.12 Thermal history data from selected wells in the
Pendopo-Limau area.
Table 5.13 Summary of petrographic features and their
significance in relation to oil generation and
migration (from Cook and Struckmeyer, 1986).
Table 6.1 Locations of crude oil and cutting samples.
Table 6.2 The composition of the oils in terras of the
polarity classes of saturated, aromatic
hydrocarbons and combined NSO-asphaltene
fraction.
Table 6.2A Peak assignments for triterpanes present in
Figure 6.6.
Table 6.3 The composition of saturated normal hydrocarbons
determined by GC analysis. The data is presented
quantitatively and this is related to the peak of
the internal standard 3-raethylheneicosane
(anteiso C22) giving quantities in ug/mg.
Table 6.4 The composition of isoprenoid and bicadinane
hydrocarbons determined by GC analysis. The data
is also presented quantitatively in relation to
the peak of the internal standard
3-methylheneicosane (anteiso C22) giving
quantities in ug/mg(ppt).
Table 6.5 The composition of the triterpenoid hydrocarbons
determined by GCMS.
Table 6.6 The composition of the steroid hydrocarbons and
four of the bicadinanes determined by GCMS.
Table 6.7 The composition of the steroid and triterpenoid
hydrocarbons and four of the bicadinanes of whole
oil determined by GCMS.
Table 6.8 The total organic carbon (TOO, rock eval data
and the bulk composition of the South Sumatran
shales/coals extract.

Table 5.9

The composition of saturated hydrocarbons of

South Sumatran shales/coals determined by gas
chromatography analysis.
Table 6.10 South Sumatran coals/shales GC results:
isoprenoids.
Table 6.11 South Sumatran coals/shales GC results:
Isoprenoids ug/mg Saturates.
Table 7.1

Coal qualities of the Enim Area (after KOG,

1987).

Table 7.2

Coal qualities of the Muara Lakitan Area (after

Shell, 1978).

Table 7.3

Coal qualities of the Langaran Area (after

Shell, 1978).

Table 7.4

Coal qualities of the Sigoyang Benuang Area

(after Shell, 1978).

Table 7.5

Coal qualities of the Air Benakat Area (after

Shell, 1978).

Table 7.6

Coal qualities of the Prabumulih Area (after

Shell, 1978).

Table 7.7

Sodium oxide in Ash from the Muara Enim coals

(after KOG, 1987).

Table 7.8

Summary of coal resources in the Enim area

(maximum overburden thickness 100 metres to top
of the uppermost mineable seam; after KOG,
1987).
Coal qualities of the Kabau Seam from the Bukit
Kendi Area {after Shell, 1978).

Table 7.9
Table 8.1

Table 8.2

The differences in calorific value among the

three main maceral groups for four German coals
determined by Kroger et al., 1957 (after Bustin
et al., 1983).
Comparison of the chemical composition between
Lurgi semi cokes and Bukit Asam semi-anthracite
coals (after Tobing, 1980).,

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

In the South Sumatra Basin, coal occurs in the Muara

Enim Formation, Talang Akar Formation and Lahat Formation.
The main workable coal measures are concentrated at two
horizons within the Muara Enim Formation.

Ziegler

recognized that the lower horizon comprised

(1918)

(from top to

bottom), the Mangus, Suban, Petai, Merapi and Keladi seams,

and the upper horizon comprized a composite set of coal
.seams called the Hanging seam.

The seams are in the range

of some metres to more than 10 metres in thickness.

The

South

Sumatra

Basin

important: oil producing

area.

also

plays

Recently

role

as

there has

an

been

considerable discussion on the oil generation potential of

coals.

The Talang Akar Formation has been postulated as a

source rock for oil because of the close association of coal

measures and many of the oil pools in areas such as South
Palembang Sub-basin.
Oil production in South Sumatra was established in the
late 19th century from the Air Benakat Formation.

In 1922,

he petroleum company Stanvac established production from

the Talang Akar Formation.

The South Palembang Sub-basin is

one of the oil and gas producing areas in South Sumatra.

In the present study, organic petrography was used to
determine the coal type and rank, and to define the potential of source rocks and maturation level of the organic

matter in the Tertiary sequences of the South

Palembang

Sub-basin.

1.1 AIM OF THE STUDY

In general, the aim of the present study is to assess

the rank and abundance of coal and dispersed organic matter
in the Tertiary sequences of the South Palembang Sub-basin.
The study is based on petrological research both on macerals
in the coals and the relatively abundant dispersed organic
matter in the clastic sedimentary sequences.

The scope of

this study is to :
1. describe and interpret coal type and rank trends in
the South Palembang Sub-basin;
2. assess the abundance and composition of organic
matter contained in the stratigraphic sequences;
3. determine the maturity of the organic matter and to
evaluate the lateral and vertical rank variations
within the South Palembang Sub-basin;
4. relate coal rank variation to coalification
histories;
5

define hydrocarbon source potential of the various

stratigraphic units and lithologies;

6. attempt correlations of potential source rocks with

reservoired hydrocarbons; and
7. draw inferences concerning the future economic
potential of coal and hydrocarbons in the South

^alembang "5ub-basin.

1,2 PREVIOUS STUDIES

The geology of the South Sumatra Basin is relatively

well known from numerous publications

(Wenneckers, 1958;

Jackson, 1960; Pulunggono, 1969; Todd and Pulunggono, 1971;

De Coster, 1974; Harsa, 1975; Pulunggono, 1983), especially
the general geology of this area, primarily in connection
with the search for oil and gas.
Many authors have also described the potential of the
coal measures of South Sumatra including Ziegler
Koesoemadinata (1978) and Kendarsi (1984).

(1918),

Furthermore, a

large exploration campaign was run from 1973 to 1979 by

Shell Mijnbouw N.V covering an area of 71,450 sq km in South
Sumatra (Fig.1.1).
In
organic

general,
matter

companies
rocks

the

in

earliest

sedimentary

rocks

to define the maturation

(Shell, 1978a; Total

Sardjito,

attempts

1989.

Daulay

to

were

level

examine
made

of

by

the
oil

the source

Indonesie, 1988; Sarjono and

(1985)

in

his

Masters

thesis,

studied the petrology of South Sumatra coals, especially the

Muara Enim coals from the Bukit Asam coal mines and from
other places surrounding the mine area.
In the framework of the execution of REPELITA III (Five
Year

Development

Plan)

1979-1984,

the

Lahat

Geological

Quadrangle (1012) was mapped by the Geological Research and

Development

Center

in

co-operation

Indonesian state-owned oil company.

with

PERTAMINA,

an

The geological map is

at a scale of 1:250,000 and covers an area of about 18,700

sq km.

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN

South Sumatra Basin is one of the most important oil

and coal producing areas on the island of Sumatra.

South

Sumatra's oil production started as early as 1898 from the

regressive sands of the Air Benakat Formation.

The first

fields were small and shallow and close to surface seeps on

exposed anticlines.

Surface structure has for many years

guided most of the exploration.

In

1922,

Stanvac

established

production

from

the

transgressive sands of the Talang Akar Formation, which have

subsequently been the main exploration objective in South
Sumatra.

Between

1938-1941, Kuang-1,

wells were drilled by BPM.

Ogan-3

and Musi-1

In these wells, gas had been

encountered in the Baturaja Formation.

Moreover, in 1959,

BPM completed well Limau-5A.144 as the first oil producer

from the Baturaja Limestone reservoir in South Sumatra.
In the South Sumatra Basin, many oil companies are
operating

at the present

agreements with PERTAMINA.

time

under

production

sharing

They include Jarobi Oil, Jambi

Shell, Trend Sumatra Ltd, Caltex, British Petroleum, Asamera

and Stanvac.

PERTAMINA also operates in its own right.

In general, the oil fields are clustered into three

sub-basins;

structural
Palembang

Sub-basin

(Fig.1.3).

the

and

Jambi

the

Sub-basin, the

South

Palembang

Central

Sub-basin

According to PERTAMINA (1986), there are 57 oil

fields within the South Sumatra Basin.

The maximum oil production capacity from the basin was
62,200 BOPD and the cumulative production was 1,680 MMBO, on
1-1-1985.

The occurrences of oil and gas in the South

Sumatra Basin, largely occur in the Talang Akar Formation

(93%) with

3% in

the

Air Benakat

occurrences in reefs of the

Formation

and

a few

Baturaja Formation, the Gumai

Formation and from sandstones in the Muara Enim Formation

(Anwar Suseno, 1988).
The Talang Akar Formation generally produces a paraffin
based oil ranging from 35 to 37 API (Koesoemadinata, 1978),
but the gravity ranges between 21 and 51 API. The Baturaja
Formation typically produces oil which has an API gravity of
37.3 . Oil is also produced from the Air Benakat Formation
and this is a low to medium paraffin-based oil, 45-54
However,

from

the

same

producing

formation,

API.
an

asphaltic-based oil, 22-25 API, is produced in Jambi and

these low gravity oils are biodegraded.
of

oil

fields

in

South

Sumatra

Table 1 shows some

and

their

cumulative

production until 1966 (Koesoemadinata, 1978).

About
demonstrated

6 billion

tons

in the South

of

coal

reserves

Sumatra Basin.

have

These

been

consist

mainly of hard brown coal and are clustered into several

areas.

Figure 1.1 also shows the coal potential of South

Sumatra Basin.
In Tanjung Enim area, coal has been mined since 1919 in
underground

as well as open pit mines; the

workings were

abandoned

in 1942.

These

underground

coal mines

are

situated in Muaraenim Regency, about 180 kilometres west of

Palembang and production comes mainly from the Mangus, Suban
and Petai seams of the Muara Enim Formation.

These coals

are mainly hard brown coals, but in the immediate vicinity

of some andesite intrusions, the coals reach anthracitic
rank.

According to Schwartzenberg

(1986), the Bukit Asam

Coal Mine has potential reserves of about 112 million tons

which

comprise

about

1 million

tons

of

anthracite,

45

million tons of bituminous coals and 66 million tons of

subbituminous coal.
The open pit was restricted to small areas with very
favorable stripping ratios and draglines were used to remove
part of the overburden until the late fifties.

From 1940 to

1982 the open pit mine was operated by means of power

shovels and trucks and a small belt conveyor system for coal
haulage.
1985

Development of the Bukit Asam Coal Mine began in

when

modern

system

of

bucket

wheel

excavator

operations with belt conveyors and spreaders was installed.

The mine is operated by the state-owned Indonesian company
PT. Persero Batubara Bukit Asam.

1.4

LOCATION AND ACCESS

Geologically, the study area is located in the South

Palembang Sub-basin which lies in the southern part of the
South Sumatra Basin (Figure 1.2). This sub-basin is bounded
to the south by the Lampung High and to the north by the
Pendopo High. Eastward, the South Palembang Sub-basin is
bounded by the Iliran High and to the west by the Barisan
Mountains (Figure 1.3). The Palembang Sub-basin covers
approximately 125 x 150 kilometres (Pulunggono, 1983).
The samples studied were collected from oil exploration
wells and coal exploration boreholes which are situated in
various oil and coal fields within the South Palembang
Sub-basin. The oil fields are as follows; Prabumenang,
Meraksa, Kuang, Kedatoh, Beringin, Tanjung Miring,
Limau and Belimbing (Figure 1.4). Mostly, the oil
exploration wells were drilled by PERTAMINA but some old
exploration wells were drilled by Stanvac/BPM.
In general, the oil exploration wells used in this
study penetrated a high proportion of the Tertiary sequences
and some reached basement. The initials, depth and year of
drilling of exploration wells drilled by PERTAMINA are as
follows; GM-14, 1398 m, 1969; KG-10, 1575.8 m, 1970; PMN-2,
1959.6 m, 1972; KD-1, 1858.5 m, 1976; BN-10, 2565 m, 1977;
BRG-3, 2300 m, 1987; MBU-2, 2200 m, 1988. The three wells
drilled by Stanvac/BPM are L-5A.22, 2287 m, 1954; ETM-3,
1633 m, 1959; and BL-2, 1675 m, 1965.

Coal

core

samples

exploration boreholes,
Directorate of Coal,
Jerigi,

Banko,

were

collected

drilled

between

in several coal

Tanjung

Enim,

from

seven

1986-1988

by

fields such as

Muara

Tiga,

the
Suban

Arahan

and

Kungkilan (Figure 1.5). The maximum depths reached by these

coal exploration boreholes range from 100 to 200 metres
all were drilled
These boreholes

within the Muara

are

annotated

Enim Formation

as

KLB-03,

and

section.

AU-04,

AS-12,

BT-01, KL-03, MTS-0 6, and SN-04.

Administratively, the study
Ilir

Ogan

Tengah

Regency

area falls under

and

Lahat

Regency

Lematang

which

are

situated in the western part of the South Sumatra

Province.

The study

which

area

includes

bounded by the longitudes

the

Lahat

Quadrangle

103 30'-105 00'E and

is

latitudes

03 00'-04 00'S (Gafoer et al., 1986).

The

population

inhabitants

per

Statistics,

of

square

1978).

this

area

is

kilometres
Principally,

sparse

(Central
the

with

40.4

Bureau

of

population

is

concentrated in various towns such as Prabumulih,

Muaraenim

and Lahat.
In general, the

area is covered

particularly the hills and swamps.

also found

in some

cultivation,

such

Wildlife such as

places
as

dwindling. In

rubber,

order to

vegetation,

Irregular clearings

for agriculture

tigers, bears,

monkey roam the jungle

by dense

coffee

and

and

cash-crop

pineapples.

crocodiles, elephants

in this area
save these

are

but their numbers

species, they

are

and
are
now

protected by law.
Transport to

other areas

Pendopo, especially, can

with regular
railroad

services

connects

is by

car, rail

be also reached

run

by PT.

Palembang

with

Muaraenim, Lahat and Tanjung Enim.

boat.

transport

Indonesia.

Prabumulih,

which time

passable

only

area

muddy when wet

by

Baturaja,

The roads in this

and therefore are

are

by air

Stanvac

are partly unsurfaced

they

and

four-wheel

at

drive

vehicles.

1.5 MORPHOLOGY

Morphologically, this area can be divided into three

units; the
plain.

mountainous area,

the rolling

country and

the

The mountainous area occupies the western corner

the Quadrangle with summits such as Bukit Besar (735 m)

Bukit Serelo (670 m).

and

The slopes in this area are generally

steep, the valleys narrow and locally cascades occur in

rivers.
The

the

Braided streams develop in the foothill areas.

rolling

country

portion of the quadrangle

some 250

of

metres.

The

occupies

half

of

the

western

with summits reaching heights

slopes

are generally

gentle.

The

rivers have wide valleys, are meandering, and have deeps

many bends.

of

on

The drainage pattern is dendritic.

The low-lying plain area

occupies the eastern

portion

of the quadrangle and is characterized by meandering streams

and dendritic drainage

patterns.

range from 0 to about 50 meters.

Elevations

on the

plain

10

CHAPTER TWO
TERMINOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL METHODS

2.1 TERMINOLOGY

According to the International Committee for Coal

Petrology (1963), coal can be defined as "a combustible
sedimentary rock formed from plant remains in various stages
of preservation by processes which involved the compaction
.of the material buried in the basins, initially at moderate
depth. These basins are broadly divided into limnic (or
intra-continental) basins, and paralic basins which were
open to marine incursions. As the underlying strata
subsided progressively, and more or less regularly but
sometimes to great depths, the vegetable debris was
subjected to the classical factors of general metamorphism,
in particular those of temperature and pressure".
Based on this definition, generally it can be concluded
that there are two basic factors involved in the formation
of coal; firstly the type of peat-forming flora and
depositional environment, and secondly the degree of
alteration which is a function of time, temperature and
pressure. In coal petrology, these factors determine the
variables termed type and rank.
According to Cook (1982), these variables can
essentially be considered as independent because the type of
a coal has no influence upon its rank and the reverse is

11

also

true.

Cook

(1982)

also

considered

that

in

coal

petrography or more broadly in organic petrography, the term

type is related to the nature of the organic matter found in
a coal or sedimentary rock.
In

addition, Hutton

(1984)

stated

that

type

is a

function of both the type of precursor organic matter that

was

deposited

as

peat

and

the

nature

and

degree

of

alteration that peat components underwent during the early

stages of diagenesis which

is a

response

(biochemical) stage of coalification

to

the

first

(Stach, 1968; Cook,

1982).
Rank generally refers to the stage of coalification
that

has

been

reached

by

organic

matter.

In

coal

particularly, rank can be defined as the relative position

of a coal in the coalification series of peat through the
stages

of

the

sub-bituminous

and

different

brown

bituminous

coals

coals
to

(lignite),

anthracites

and

finally meta-anthracites, semi-graphite and graphite.

The term "rank" has been accepted as an international
scientific term.

The International Committee for Coal

Petrology (ICCP), in the second edition of the International

Handbook of Coal Petrography

(1963) suggested "degree of

coalification" as a synonym for rank.

In coal petrology,

the rank of coal is measured by the reflectance of

vitrinite.

The reflectance of vitrinite increases as the

rank of coal increases (Table 2.1).

Petrographic variation of coal can be assessed in tei
jrms

12

y maceral groups (Stopes, 1935), microlithotypes (Seyler,

1954), or lithotypes (Stopes, 1919; Seyler, 1954).

Macerals

are the microscopically recognizable components of coal and

are

predominantly

defined

by

morphology,

color

and

reflectance in reflected light.

Macerals are analogous with

the

ICCP

minerals

of

rocks.

The

(1963)

concepts

for

macerals are most closely applicable to Carboniferous black

coals because they were based on these coals (Table 2.2).
However, Smith

(1981) showed that the basic concepts of

macerals can be also applied to coals of Tertiary age.

The term microlithotype was proposed by Seyler (1954)
to describe typical maceral associations as seen under the
microscope

(minimum band width 0.05 mm).

Lithotypes are

macroscopically recognizable bands visible within a coal

seam.
On the basis of morphology, optical properties and
origin, macerals can be divided into three main maceral
groups; vitrinite, inertinite and liptinite.

The origin,

properties and subdivision of these three groups are shown

in Table 2.3.
Brown et al. (1964) divided vitrinite into two groups;
vitrinite A and vitrinite B.

Furthermore, Hutton (1981) and

Cook et al. (1981) proposed additional terms for alginite

within the liptinite group.
The International Committee for Coal Petrology in the
International Handbook of Coal Petrography (1971, 1975) has
classified macerals of brown coal as shown in Table 2.4.

^3

This classification has been modified by Smith

He recognized that the huminite maceral

shown in Table 2.5.

group

of

the

(1981) as

classification

ICCP

represents

the

same

material as the vitrinite maceral group, but at an earlier

stage of maturation.

The system proposed by Smith (1981)

has been adapted in its basic form as the system used in the
Australian

Standard

for

Coal-Maceral

Analysis

(AS

2856-1986).
In

addition,

Cook

(1982)

also

discussed

the

term

bitumen which was termed eubitumen by Potonie (1950).

In

the International Handbook of Coal Petrography (1963, 1971),

bitumen is still described as resinite which has a very low
melting point.

Bitumen can be mainly recognized at the

sub-bituminous/bituminous coal boundary (Teichmuller, 1982).

Teichmuller (1982) also noted that bitumen develops from
lipid constituents of liptinites and huminites and generally
occurs in vein-form or as fillings of bedding plane joints
but sometimes it fills in empty cell lumens.

Furthermore

Cook (1982) stated that "bitumen is the term applied to all

natural

substances

of

variable

color,

hardness

and

volatility which are composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons

substantially free from oxygenated bodies".
bitumens

are

natural

crudes

generally
by

formed

processes

from
such

inspissation or water-washing.

the
as

He added that
degradation

microbial

of

attack,

Asphalts, natural mineral

waxes, asphaltines and petroleum are all considered to be

bitumens.

Cook

(1990,

pers.coram)

also

14

considered

that

exsudatinite)

some

bitumens.

represent

(including

primary

the

generation

maceral
products.

Impsonitic bitumens generally result from the alteration of

reservoired oil, probably dominantly, but not exclusively,
during the process of deasphalting.
The coal petrographic terms used in the present study
follow those described by the Australian Standard for Coal
Maceral Analysis (1986).

2.2 ANALYTICAL METHODS

2.2.1 SAMPLING

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the core and

cuttings samples studied were cbllected from various coal
fields and oil fields in the South Palembang Subbasin area
(Table 2.5). Sampling has mainly focused on the Muara Enim
Formation,

the

Talang

Akar

Formation

and

the

Lahat

Formation.
Samples were taken

to give

as wide

a lateral and

vertical coverage of the sequences which are rich in organic

matter (coal-rich or coal) as possible.

However, samples

were also collected from other formations to examine the

degree of coalification and the origin of organic matter
occurring in these sequences.

Composite samples which were

taken through the entire thickness of a coal seam have been

obtained

from

samples were

cores

from

collected

from

shallow
oil

boreholes.

Cuttings

exploration wells

over

intervals ranging between 20 to 50 metres for coal-bearing

sequences
sequences.

and

50

to

200

metres

Sampling was based

for

on

non

coal-bearing

the procedure
(1975).

Standards Association of Australia

of

the

In addition,

four oil samples were also collected from BRG-3 well (2

samples) and MBU-2 well (2 samples).

These samples were

recovered from the Baturaja Formation ( both MBU-2 samples),

Talang Akar Formation and Lahat Formation (BRG-3 samples).

2.2.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION

The method of preparation of polished particulate coal

mounts for microscopic analysis is shown in Figure 2.1.

All

samples examined are listed in the University of Wollongong

grain mount catalogue and where blocks are cited in this
study, the catalogue numbers are used.

2.2.3 MICROSCOPY

2.2.3.1 Reflected white light microscopy and determination

of vitrinite reflectance

Vitrinite reflectance measurements on the samples were

made

under

Ortholux

normal

incident

microscope

microphotometer.

All

white

fitted

light

with

measurements

a
were

using

Leitz
taken

Leitz
MPV-1
using

monochromatic light of 546 nm wavelength, in immersion oil

16

(DIN 58884) having a refractive index of 1.518 at 23 - lc.

In order to calibrate the microphotometer, synthetic
garnet standards of 0.917%, and 1.726% reflectance and a
synthetic spinel standard of reflectance 0.413% were used.
The maximum vitrinite reflectance was obtained by rotating
the stage of the microscope to yield a maximum reading and
then the stage was rotated again through approximately 180
for the second maximum reading. The results of these
measurements were averaged and the mean calculated to give
the mean maximum vitrinite reflectance in oil immersion
(Rvmax).
ICCP (1971, 1975) and Stach et al. (1982) recommended
that one hundred measurements should be taken to obtain a
precise mean value. Determination of R max standard
deviations for a number coals showed that the standard error
of the mean approaches the precision of the measurement
standards, where twenty readings have been taken.
Therefore, in the present study thirty to forty readings
were taken on the coal.
Brown et al. (1964) also recommended that the most
accurate method of reflectance measurement is achieved by
measuring vitrinite A (Telinite + Telocollinite). However,
selective measurement of one vitrinite type is generally not
possible with dispersed organic matter. In general,

vitrinite macerals give the best measurements in relation torank assessment because they undergo changes
consistenly with rank (Smith and Cook, 1980) and show less

17

inherent variability in reflectance according to type (Brown

et al. 1964) (Figure 2.2) compared to liptinite and
inertinite.

2.2.3.2 Fluorescence-mode Microscopy

In order to provide information on organic matter type,

liptinite abundance and maturity, fluorescence-mode
examination was carried out on all samples by using a Leitz
Orthoplan microscope with a TK40 0 dichroic beam splitting
mirror fitted in an Opak vertical illuminator. The
fluorescence-mode filter system comprised BG3 and BG38
excitation filters and a K490 suppression filter. Figure
2.3 shows the optical system for reflected and fluorescence
microscopy used in this study (modified from AS2856, 1986).
A Leitz Vario-Orthomat automatic camera system which is
fitted to the Leitz Orthoplan microscope, was used to take
photographs of the samples. The camera system has a 5 to
12.5X zoom which provided a wide range of magnification.
Kodak Ektachrome 400ASA/21DIN reversal film was used for all
color photographs. Fluorescence-mode photographs were taken
in oil immersion using the BG3/BG38/TK400/K490 filter
system. Photographs were also taken in normal incident
white light with the same type of film used for fluorescence
mode.

18

2.2.3.3

Maceral Analysis

Conventional point count techniques for maceral

analysis in coal and coal-rich block samples were carried
out using an automatic point counter and stage The traverses
were made on the surface of the samples.

The total surface

area of the block sample traversed was 2 cm x 2 cm and the

yrain density was about 50%. Approximately 300 points were
counted

for each maceral

analysis under

light and fluorescence mode.

reflected white

The volumetric abundance of

various maceral groups was expressed as a percentage of the

total points recorded.
Visual approximations of the abundance of dispersed
organic matter in each grain mount sample were also made by
assessing volumetric abundances as illustrated
2.4.

in Figure

The total dispersed organic matter (DOM) abundance was

visually estimated in approximately 50 grains from several

traverses

across

described

by

each

block.

Padmasiri

Struckmeyer (1988).

(1984)

This
and

method
later

was

first

modified

by

The method used in this study is based

on the Struckmeyer modification (1988).

The total dispersed

organic matter abundance is calculated using the equation :

2 (y x a)
V =

, where
n

V = volume of a specific maceral

occurring as dispersed organic matter,

y = number of grains containing the maceral in a given

abundance category; n = number of grains counted.

> n

CHAPTER THREE
REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING

3,1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY

South Sumatra Basin is one of the Sumatran back-arc

basins located along the island of Sumatra.

These basins

came into existence as a consequence of the interaction

between the Sunda Shield as part of the Eurasian plate and
the Indo-Australian plate (Katili, 1973; 1980; De Coster,
1974; Koesoemadinata and Pulunggono, 1975; Pulunggono, 1976;
Hamilton, 1979; Pulunggono, 1983).

Oblique collision and

subduction has occurred along this margin since the Late

Cretaceous (Figure 3.1).
The South Sumatra Basin is an asymmetric basin bounded
to the west and south by faults and uplifted exposures of
pre-Tertiary rocks along the Barisan Mountains, to the north
east by the sedimentary or depositional boundaries of the
Sunda Shelf.

The south-east boundary is represented by the

Lampung High; the northern boundary, however, is poorly

defined as the South Sumatra Basin is connected
Central Sumatra Basin by

to the

a series of Tertiary grabens,

although the Tiga Puluh Mountains are generally taken to be

the boundary between the two basins (Figure 1.2). The South
Sumatra Basin occupies an area of roughly 250 by 400 km (De
Coster, 1974).
The tectonic

features present

in the South

Sumatra

20

Basin are the result of Middle Mesozoic to Plio-Pleistocene

orogenic

activity

Koesoemadinata

and

(Katili, 1973, 1980; De

Pulunggono,

Hamilton,

1979;

Pulunggono,

activities

were primarily

1975;

Pulunggono,

1983).

related

to

Coster, 1974;

These
the

1976;

orogenic

collision

and

subduction of the Indo-Australian plate underneath the

Sumatra portion of the Eurasian plate.
The Middle Mesozoic orogeny was the main cause of the
metamorphism

affecting

Palaeozoic

and

Mesozoic

strata.

These strata were faulted and folded into large structural

blocks and subsequently intruded by granite batholiths, with
postulated extensions in the subsurface parts of the basins.
Pre-Tertiary features combine to form the basic northwest to
southeast structural grain of Sumatra.
In Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary time, the second
significant tectonic event occurred when major

tensional

structures, including grabens and fault blocks, were formed

in Sumatra and the adjoining Sunda Basin.
of

these

faults

and

grabens

is

The general trend

north

to

south

and

north-northwest to south-southeast.
The

last

tectonic

phase

was

the

Plio-Pleistocene

orogeny which caused the uplift of the Barisan Mountains and

the development of major right lateral wrenching through the
length of these mountains.
features

within

this

The most prominent structural

Tertiary

sedimentary

basin

are

northwest trending folds and faults.

Structurally, the South Sumatra Basin is subdivided

21

into four sub-basins, as seen in Fig.1.2;

- Jambi Sub-basin;
- North Palembang Sub-basin;
- Central Palembang Sub-basin; and
- South Palembang Sub-basin.

3.2 STRATIGRAPHY

Regional stratigraphic terminologies for the South

Sumatra Basin have been proposed by several authors such as
Musper (1937), Marks (1956), Spruyt (1956), De Coster

(1974), Pulunggono (1983) and Gafoer et al. (1986), as shown

in Table 3.1. The stratigraphic nomenclature used in this
thesis is based primarily on that of Spruyt (1956), because
Spruyt's nomenclature has been widely accepted as the basis
for rock stratigraphic subdivisions, but alternative
nomenclature has also been developed (Table 3.2).
All these authors considered that two phases of
sedimentation took place in the South Sumatra Basin; they
were the Paleogene and Neogene cycles. With the onset of
clastic deposition in the Paleogene, basement depressions
and fault grabens became filled. Harsa (1975) pointed out
that the whole sequence of basin fill represents one major
transgressive-regressive sedimentary cycle which was
accompanied by periodic volcanic activity and periodic
movement along lines of basement faults.
The Tertiary sequences were developed on the

22

pre-Tertiary
rocks.

surface

of

eroded

The pre-Tertiary rocks

igneous

and

metamorphic

are generally considered

as

economic basement for the basin in terms of oil exploration.

3.2.1 THE PRE-TERTIARY ROCKS

Pre-Tertiary rocks crop out extensively both on the

Sunda Shield and in the Barisan Range.
occur in

uplifts

These rocks

within

generally

igneous rocks

and

the

consist

of Paleozoic

Minor outcrops

Tertiary

retro-arc

of a

complex

and

Mesozoic

of

also

basins.
Mesozoic

metamorphic

rocks and carbonates (Adiwidjaja and De Coster, 197 3).

Adiwidjaya and De Coster (197 3) have also distinguished
the basement rocks in
Figure 3.2.

the South Sumatra

They mapped

the subcrop

Basin as shown
of the

in

pre-Tertiary

rocks in broad zones termed Zone A, B, C, D and E.

Zone

consists

rocks including
and gneisses and

of

Permo-Carboniferous

phyllites, slates,

metamorphic

argillites,

occasional limestones.

quartzites

These rocks

were

intruded by diorite and granite batholiths.

Zone B consists of Mesozoic metamorphic rocks including
phyllites,

quartzite,

intruded by

granite.

northeast of Sumatra,

slates.
In

These

Bangka Island

rocks

are

locally

and other

islands

Triassic metamorphic

extensively and they are

rocks crop

intruded by granite batholiths

out
of

possible Jurassic age.

Zone C consists of

Mesozoic metasedimentary rocks

and

23

limestones associated

with

diabase, serpentine,
have

been

dated

mafic

andesite

as

Early

igneous

and tuffs.
Cretaceous

rocks
The

or

such

as

limestones

possibly

Late

Jurassic age.
Zone

consists

micritic

of

limestone

which

is

interpreted as possibly Cretaceous age.

Zone E

consists

of

band

of

irregular

width

of

granite, syenite and diorite.

The main structural trends shown in the basement
are NW-SE and NE-SW.

According to Adiwidjaja and De

(1973), the structural

probably formed

features of

during the

rocks
Coster

the pre-Tertiary

folding of

roctes

the Palaeozoic

and

Mesozoic strata by the Mesozoic orogeny.

3.2.2 LAHAT FORMATION (LAF)

The name Lahat Series was proposed firstly by Musper

(1937) for

sequence

breccias which crop

locality is

of andesitic

out upstream

situated in

tuffs

of Air

the western

and

Kikim.

The

type

the town

of

Lahat, about 150 kilometres southwest of Palembang City.

At

Formation lies unconformably

this location, the Lahat

the pre-Tertiary

part of

andesitic

basement

rocks

which

are

indicated

upon
as

Cretaceous.
Sediments of the Lahat Formation show angular grains of
coarse sand

to

pebble

size,

mainly

fragments and unstable minerals.

comprising

volcanic

In the central part of the

24

basin, the Lahat Formation comprises grey-brown to dark grey

shales interbedded with light green-grey to light blue-grey
tuffaceous shales, siltstones and some tuffaceous sandstones
and

coals.

Thin

limestone

and

dolomite

stringers

and

glauconite are occasionally present (De Coster, 1974).

Based on the lithology of this formation, it is thought
to represent a continental phase of deposition in fresh
water to brackish limnic environments.

This interpretation

has also been supported by the discovery of fish remains,

fresh water molluscs and pyrite from the Kepayang-1 well
(Pulunggono, 1983).
The

thickness

of

the

Lahat

Formation

is

strongly

controlled by the palaeotopography and fault blocks.

south

part

of

the

basin,

the

thickness

of

the

In the
Lahat

Formation is typically more than 765 metres, whereas about

1070 metres was found in the central part of the basin
(Adiwijaya and De Coster, 1973).

At the type locality, the

formation reaches about 800 metres in thickness (Pulunggono,

1983).
The age of the Lahat Formation is interpreted to be
Eocene to Early Oligocene based on the spore-pollen analysis
and K/Ar radiometric dating methods (De Coster, 1974).

3.2.3 TALANG AKAR FORMATION (TAF)

The Talang Akar Formation represents the second phase

of Tertiary

deposition

in

the

South

Sumatra

Basin

and

25

contains
thickly

continental

bedded,

fluviatile

very

coarse

sequence

to

coarse

alternating with thin shales and some coals.

facies was

firstly recognized

by

composed

of

sandstones,
The

grit-sand

Martin (19 52)

from

the

borehole data of the Limau 5A-3 well and was also named

the

Talang Akar Stage.

The lower part
coarse to

very

of the sequence

coarse-grained sandstone

in this

alternating

dark grey shale and coal.

thin layers of brown to

are not found

generally consists

lower sequence.

The

with

Fossils

upper part

dominated by alternations of sandstone and non-marine

with some coal seams.
colour and

the

The shales

sequence

indicated by the

presence of glauconite

marine

is

shale

are grey to dark grey

becomes more

of

upwards

and carbonate

in
as
and

the absence of coal layers.

Some fossils of molluscs, crustaceans, fish remains and
Foraminifera are found

in the upper

part of the

unfortunately they are

not diagnostic fossils

sequence;

in terms

of

Stage

was

members;

the

stratigraphic age.
Based on

these features,

further divided

by

Spruyt

upper

part).

Talang Akar

(1956) into

Gritsand Member (the lower

(the

the

two

part) and the Transition

Jackson

(1960)

reported

Member

that

the

"Gritsand Member" varies considerably in thickness from zero

to at

least 610

ranges between
distribution of

metres,
61
the

to 360

whereas the
metres.

Talang

"Transition
Figure 3.3

Akar Formation

in

Member"

shows
the

the
South

2fi

Palembang Sub-basin, in terms of thickness.

Lithologys

and

fauna

of

the Talang

Akar

Formation

indicate a fluvio-deltaic environments passing upwards into

paralic then into a marine environments (De Coster, 1974;
Pulunggono, 1983).
On the basis of some palaeontological and palynological
studies, and also by stratigraphic position, the Talang Akar
Formation has been dated as Late Oligocene to Early Miocene
(De Coster, 1974).
of

the

Talang

Pulunggono (1983) reported that the age

Akar

Formation

can

be

dated

using

the

Planktonic Foraminiferal Zones of Blow (1969) as N3 to lower

N5 (Late Oligocene to lower part of Early Miocene).

3.2.4 BATURAJA FORMATION (BRF)

The Baturaja Formation was formerly known as Baturaja

Stage.

This term was introduced by Van Bemmelen (1932) to

distinguish the carbonate facies of the lower part of Telisa

Layer as proposed by Tobler (1912).

He recognized firstly

the Baturaja sequence at Air Ogan, near Baturaja town, about

180 kilometres south of Palembang City.
In most areas of the basin, the Baturaja Formation lies
conformably upon the Talang Akar Formation.

In general, the

Baturaja Formation is a platform carbonate, including some

coral reefs which were developed on palaeo-highs especially
at the edge of the basin.

Towards the basin margins, the

limestones grade into calcareous clays and fine to medium

sands.

According to Simbolon (1974), in Air Ogan the Baturaja

Formation can be subdivided

into two divisions; a lower

bedded and an upper massive unit separated by calcareous

shales.

The bedded unit consists of lime mudstones and lime

wackestones intercalated with marls, while the massive unit

consists

of

mudstones,

wackestones/packstones

and

boundstones with abundant large Foraminifera in the upper

part.
The Baturaja Formation occurs only on the broad shelf
and platform

areas

of

the basin.

formation was not deposited.

Baturaja

Formation

was

In some

areas, this

In structural high areas, the

deposited

directly

upon

the*

pre-Tertiary basement rocks.

The thickness of the Baturaja Formation is strongly
variable, depending on the palaeotopography, from about 60
to as much as 200 metres thick.

In the Limau Anticlinorium

area, the Baturaja Formation reaches 60 to 75 metres in

thickness, while well data from Benuang, Raja, Pagardewa and
Prabumenang show the maximum thickness reached is about 200
metres (Pulunggono, 1983).
Based

on

Spiroclypeus
the lower

the

presence

orbitoideus

part

of

the

and

of

Spiroclypeus,

Spiroclypeus

Baturaja

especially

tidoenganensis,

Formation

is

dated

as

Aquitanian (lower part of Early Miocene), while the upper

part is dated as Burdigalian (middle to upper part of the
Early Miocene)

to Lower

Langhian

(lower part

of Middle

Miocene) on the basis of the presence of Eulepidina and the

28

absence of Spiroclypeus fauna

1973).

(Adiwidjaya and De Coster,

Pulunggono (1983) inferred that on the basis of the

Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation (Blow, 1969), the age of

the Baturaja Formation is probably N5-N8

(lower part of

Early Miocene-lower part of Middle Miocene).

3.2.5 GUMAI FORMATION (GUF)

The most widespread rock sequence occurring in the

Tertiary is the Gumai Formation which was deposited during
the maximum phase of the marine transgression.

Formerly,

this formation was named by Tobler (1906) as Gumai Schiefer

for the shale sequence which crops out at Gumai Mountain,
near Lahat town.
this sequence

During the

fifties, oil companies termed

the Upper Telisa, but

then

the

name

was

changed to Gumai Formation.

In general, the Gumai Formation is characterized by
fossiliferous,

typically

globigerinal

marine

shale,

including minor intercalations of limestones and sandstones

(De Coster, 1974).

At the type

locality,

it

comprises

tuffaceous marl layers alternating with some marly limestone

layers

(Pulunggono, 1983).

In Limau area,

a dark grey

shale, bituminous and containing thin layers of marl and

marly sandstone from the Gumai Formation was penetrated by
some boreholes.
Faunas such Bolivina and Uvigerina are common in the
Gumai

Formation.

De

Coster

(1974)

believed

the

Gumai

29

Formation was
were indicated

deposited in
by the

warm neritic

presence of

conditions

these faunas,

with the widespread occurrence of glauconitic

which

combined

foraminiferal

limestone.
The thickness
with

basin

of the

position.

thickness of the

Gumai Formation

In

the

Palembang

Gumai Formation varies

varies

greatly

Sub-basin,

the

from about 15 0

500 metres, but in the Lematang Depression it reaches

to

about

2500 metres (Pulunggono, 1983).

The age of the

Gumai Formation can

be dated by

using

the Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation from Blow (1969) as -N9

to N12 ( lower part

of Middle

Miocene to

middle part

of

Middle Miocene; Pulunggono, 1983).

3.2.6 AIR BENAKAT FORMATION (ABF)

The Air Benakat Formation corresponds with the onset of

the regional regressive phase.
comprises- shale
limestones

with

deposited

In general, this

glauconitic
in

neritic

sandstones
to

formation
and

shallow

some
marine

environment.
Formerly, the Air Benakat Formation was named by Tobler
(1906) as the Onder Palembang

but this name was changed

Spruyt (1956) to the Air Benakat Formation.

of this

formation

is dominated

part

tuffaceous

sandstones

alternating with marl or glauconitic sandstones.

Tuffaceous

claystones and sandstones are

by

The upper

by

dominant in the middle

part,

3n

while the lower part consists mostly of claystone.

According to Pulunggono (1983), the thickness of Air
Benakat Formation ranges from 100 to 1100 metres.

In the

Limau area, about 600 metres of Air Benakat Formation was

penetrated by Limau 5A-156 well (Pulunggono, 1983).
The age of the Air Benakat Formation can be interpreted
using the Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation from Blow as
Nll/12 to N16 (middle part of Middle Miocene to lower part
of Late Miocene; Pulunggono, 1983).
been

interpreted

to be mostly

In most reports, it has

Late Miocene

in age

(De

Coster, 1974).

3.2.7 MUARA ENIM FORMATION (MEF)

The Muara Enim Formation was first described as the

Midden Palembang

Series by Tobler

in

1906

at

the

type

locality, Kampung Minyak near Muara Enim town.

At this type

locality,

lithological

the

formation

comprises

three

sequences; coal units, claystone units and sandstone units.

This formation lies conformably upon the Air Benakat
Formation.

Haan

(1976) further

divided

the Muara

Formation into two members; Member A and Member B.

Enim

During

the Shell Mijnbouw Coal exploration program in 1978, the

stratigraphic column of the Muara Enim Formation was further
modified

and

the

members

have

been

divided

into

four

divisions;
- M4 comprises an upper coal division corresponding to

31

the Hanging Coals.

- M3 comprises the middle clay, sand and coal division.
- M2 comprises the middle coal division corresponding
to the Mangus/Pangadang coals.
- Ml comprises the lower clastic and coal division.
Table 3.3
Enim

shows the stratigraphic column of the

Formation.

These

divisions

can

throughout most of

the South Sumatra

wedging out of the

upper and middle

be

Muara

recognized

Basin, with

apparent

coal divisions on

the

Shell Mijnbouw (197 8) reported that the coal

basin margins.

seams of the middle and lower divisions are more

and thinner than the

seams of the upper

widespread

division due to

shallow marine influence during sedimentation.

The lower

boundary of

the

Muara Enim

Formation

was

first defined by Tobler(1906) at the base of the lowest coal

area (the Kladi coal) but

band in the South Palembang

definition could not be applied

to the North Palembang

Jambi

are

areas

where

the

coals

less

well

this
and

developed.

Another criterion used by oil industry geologists to

define

the boundary is the top of the continuous marine beds or the

base

of

the

non-marine

first

beds

can

arenaceous units,

non-marine
be

beds;

recognized

displaying

coal

the

by

base

the

lenses and

of

presence
a

lack

the
of
of

glauconite.
The Mangus seams
features, especially
recognized over

of the M2
a clay

a wide

division have good

marker

area.

horizon which

This clay

marker

marker
can

be

contains

32

discoloured biotite

which was

during a short interval of

used to

correlate the

deposited over

a wide

area

volcanic activity and it can

coal seams

over most

of the

be

South

Sumatra Basin.
Fossils

are

rare

in

the

Muara

Enim

Formation.

Therefore, the determination of the Muara Enim Formation age

is mainly

based

on

its

regional

rather than palaeontological

determined the
Pliocene on

age

the

position and

Baumann

data.

of the

evidence

stratigraphic

formation
of

its

et al.

as Late

regional

(197 3)

Miocene

to

stratigraphic

data, admittedly

rather

poor, of lamellibranchs and arenaceous Foraminifera.

On the

basis

of

the palaeontological

position

Planktonic

Pulunggono (1983)

Foraminiferal

determined the

N16-N17 (lower part

of Late

Zonation

age of

from

Blow,

the formation

Miocene - upper

part of

as
Late

Miocene).
The thickness of

this formation

is about

45 0 to

750

metres (De Coster, 1974).

3.2.8 KASAI FORMATION (KAF)

Conformably overlying the Muara Enim Formation is the

Kasai Formation.

This

formation

is

often

marked

by

distinct pumice or lapilli horizon containing rounded pumice

fragments of about

1 cm diameter.

Light coloured,

poorly

bedded tuffaceous sands and gravels, often containing

clear

grains of crystalline

light

quartz, are

interlayered with

33

olo-red

or

bluish-green

clays

(Shell

Mijnbouw,

1978).

Rare, thin coal seams are also present.

The

Kasai

Formation

is

interpreted

to

be

Plio-Pleistocene in age based on its association with the

orogeny and associated vulcanicity of that age.

3.3 DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THE TERTIARY SEDIMENTS

In general, deposition of the Tertiary sediments in the

South Sumatra Basin occurred during a period of relative
tectonic quiescence which happened between the periods of
tectonic upheaval in the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary and
the Plio-Pleistocene (De Coster, 1974).

De Coster

(1974)

stated that the tectonic quiescence probably resulted from a

reduction in the rate of sea-floor spreading activity during
that

time.

sequences

Consequently,
was

differential

mainly

erosion

sedimentation

controlled
of

the

by

source

of
basin

areas

the Tertiary
subsidence,
and

eustatic

sea-level changes.
The initial deposition of Tertiary sediments in the
basin occurred in the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene in a
continental environment.
the

Lahat

Formation

topographic

relief

These deposits are represented by

filling

which

terrain

developed

as

of

substantial

result

of

the

orogenic activity during the mid-Mesozoic, the faulting of

the Late

Cretaceous and Early Tertiary

and

differential

erosion of the exposed pre-Tertiary basement rocks.

The

34

Lahat Formation formed as a set of alluvial fan, braided

stream,

valley

fill

and

piedmont

deposits

characterized by a feldspathic basal unit.

and

is

Probably, this

unit is an erosional product of nearby granitic hills.

The tuffs occurring in the Lahat Formation were derived
from the intermittent vulcanism and probably from erosion of
earlier-deposited

tuffs.

Indications

of

local

swamp

conditions can be recognized from the presence of thin coal

layers. In the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene a fresh water to
brackish, lacustrine environment developed in parts of the
South Sumatra Basin and a shale sequence was deposited in
this environment.

During this time, the lakes may have had

intermittent connections with the adjacent seas giving rise

to

some

limestone,

According

to De

Oligocene,

dolomite

Coster

glauconite-rich

and

(1974), probably

sedimentation

of

the

Lahat

in

the

beds.
Middle

Formation

was

interrupted by regional uplift which occurred in the late

Early

and

Middle

Oligocene.

This

interruption

is

represented by the unconformable contact between the Lahat

Formation and the Talang Akar Formation.
Deposition of the Talang Akar Formation began, in the
Late Oligocene in the form of alluvial fan and braided
stream

environments

depressions.

filling

topographic

lows

and

Therefore, the Talang Akar Formation locally

occurs overlying the pre-Tertiary rocks.

This sedimentation

continued in Early Miocene in a fluviatile, deltaic and

marginal-shallow marine environment.
connection

to

During this time, the

open

35

marine

conditions

became

gradually encroached
became

less

more

significant

into the basin.

pronounced

as

and

the

Topographic

sedimentation

Subsequently, delta plain sediments developed

sea

relief

continued.
over broad

areas consisting primarily of point bar and braided stream

deposits. These graded into delta front and marginal marine
sands which in turn graded into prodelta shales laid down in
the more distal parts of the basin.
continued,

delta

plain

facies

As the progradation
such

as

channel,

crevasse-splay, flood-plain or marsh deposits were formed.

The Talang Akar Formation has its type area in the/

South Sumatra Basin but the term is also used for similar
sequences in the Sunda Basin and Northwest Java Basin as far
east as Cirebon in Java.

The Talang Akar sequence is also

recognized in the Bengkulu Trough, a fore-arc basin to the

southwest of the South Sumatra Basin.
As the sea level rose in the Early Miocene, the sea
started to encroach upon the basement highs and the sediment
input

declined

platform

leading

carbonates

environments.

in

to

deposition

reef,

of

back-reef

the
and

Baturaja
intertidal

In the early stages, the Baturaja Formation

was deposited on shelfal and platform portions of the basin

as platform
stages,

or bank

further

limestone

buildups

of

deposits.

detrital,

In

reefal

the
and

later
bank

36

limestones were formed on top of these banks in restricted

localities.

In the central part of the basin the Baturaja

Formation grades laterally into argillaceous limestones or

marl and vertically into shales of the Gumai Formation.
Deep marine conditions became more widespread in the
early

part

of

the

Middle

Miocene

as

basin

subsidence

exceeded sedimentation and the deposition of Gumai shale

continued.

In some areas, the deposition of Gumai Formation

was directly after the Talang Akar Formation.

During this

time, the basin experienced the maximum marine incursion and

the most widespread phase of deposition.
Coster

(1974),

the

South

Sumatra

According to De

Basin

was

probably

connected with the Sunda Basin when sea covered most of the
remaining topographic highs in the basin.
In the Middle Miocene, the sea became shallower and
environments of deposition gradually changed from neritic to
continental.

This event may be related to the regional

uplift accompanied by vulcanism and by intrusion of diapiric

masses and batholiths (De Coster, 1974).

The Air Benakat

and Muara Enim Formations were deposited during this time in

shallow-inner neritic to paludal-delta plain environments.
During

the

widespread

deposition
areas

of

of

the

swampland

Muara
and

Enim

marsh

Formation,

were

present

throughout the basin and extensive, thick coals were formed

at this time.
The last of the major tectonic events in the South

17

Sumatra

Basin

was

the

Plio-Pleistocene

orogeny.

This

orogeny was probably the direct result of renewed collision

betwween

the

Indo-Australian

part of the Eurasian plate.

Plate

against

the

Sumatra

Sedimentation occurred in the

basin during that time resulting in deposition of the Kasai

Formation.

The Kasai Formation consists mostly of erosional

products derived from the uplifted Barisan and Tigapuluh

Mountains and from the uplifted folds being formed in the
basin during the orogeny.

33

CHAPTER FOUR
ORGANIC MATTER IN THE TERTIARY SEQUENCES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Cuttings samples from ten oil exploration wells drilled

in the

South Palembang

Sub-basin were

studied with

an

emphasis on the organic petrology and maturation level of

the organic material.

Selection of well sections to be

examined was determined by availability of sample material

and

drilling

PERTAMINA.

data,

as

well

as

preferences

given

by

The samples were taken from the PERTAMINA core

shed at Plaju, Palembang, and were examined for maceral

content at the University of Wollongong.

The results of the

analyses are expressed on a 100% maceral basis.

Cuttings

samples were selected by the author for study, on the basis

of their content of coal and carbonaceous or dark shale
particles.

All

samples

are

from

Tertiary

sedimentary

sequences.
Because of poor initial sample collection methods at
the well site, some of the cuttings samples from the older
oil exploration wells (L5A-22, TMT-3, BL-2, BN-10), contain
vitrinite having oxidation rims ("frypanned" rims).
The well locations are given in Figure 1.4.

Some coal

samples from the Muara Enim Formation were also collected

from shallow boreholes located around the Bukit Asam coal
mine as shown in Figure 1.5.

Table 4.1 shows wells sampled

39

and the total

number of samples

from each formation.

Bar

diagrams and pie diagrams of organic matter type, abundance

and maceral composition are shown in Figures 4.1 to 4.6.
Short descriptions of lithologies and organic matter type,
abundance and maceral composition from each well, are
presented in Appendix 1.

4.2 TYPE

4.2.1 LAHAT FORMATION

The Lahat Formation is largely confined to the deeper

parts of oil well sections studied, such as in the BRG-3,
GM-14, BN-10, MBU-2, L5A-22 and PMN-2 wells. The Lahat
Formation consists mainly of sandstone, shale, siltstone and
thin coal, but in the MBU-2 well, it consists of volcanic
breccia.
Organic matter is predominantly terrestrial in origin.
DOM content in the samples ranges from 0.09%-16.99% (average
= 8.5%) by volume. DOM on mineral matter free basis
comprises 21% to 99% (average = 84%) vitrinite, trace to 9%
(average = 2%) inertinite and trace to 55% (average = 14%)
liptinite.
Several thin coal seams occur in the Lahat Formation.
The coal content of the samples from this formation ranges
from 2% to 34% (average = 18%) by volume. The coal
comprises (m.m.f. basis) 73%-99% (average = 86%) vitrinite,

40

0.14%-7% (average =

4%) inertinite and

0.3-20% (average

10%) liptinite (Figure 4.1).

Vitrinite is
formation,
preserved

both

the
in

dominant

DOM

stringers,

particles.

and

approximately
associated

equal

with

coal.

laminae,

Detrovitrinite

maceral

this

occurs

as

well

and

disseminated

telovitrinite

amounts.
sporinite,

in

It

lenses

and

present

Vitrinite
cutinite,

occur

is

in

commonly

resinite

and

liptodetrinite.
Sporinite
formation.
have

in

this

In general, the macerals of the liptinite

group

weak

and

to

liptodetrinite

very

fluorescence colours

weak

are

common

fluorescence

are dark

orange

intensity

to brown.

and

In

some

samples it is very difficult to detect liptinite occurrences

in fluorescence mode.
Inertinite is rare in the samples and occurs mainly

Semifusinite and sclerotinite occur in the

inertodetrinite.

samples from GM-14 and BRG-3

amounts.

as

Fusinite

occurs

but are present only in

as

thin layers

and

isolated lenses in a detrovitrinite matrix.

minor

rarely

as

Inertodetrinite

is present in most of the samples but as a minor component.

Bitumens occur associated

with quartz

or clay

and they are characterized by yellowish green

Oil cuts and haze are also
L5A-22 well,

telovitrinite.

oil is

seen to

in fluorescence-mode

Some

oil

fluorescence.

present in the samples from

typically where

during examination

grains

stains

were

be

expelled

from fractures
also

the

found

in
in

41

detrovitrinite

and

telovitrinite

as

shown

in

Plate

1.

Pyrite commonly occurs throughout the samples and is

typically framboidal in form.

4.2.2 TALANG AKAR FORMATION

The Talang Akar Formation was penetrated by all of the

petroleum exploration wells used in the present study.
Samples collected from this formation are mainly cuttings
samples but some core samples were also obtained. Organic
matter abundance of the Talang Akar Formation was determined
from forty eight cutting samples. Sandstone, siltstone and
shale are the dominant lithologies of the Talang Akar
Formation. Coal layers are commonly present in this
formation, varying in thickness from thin stringers to 2
metre seams.

4.2.2.1 DOM
DOM content of siltstones, sandstones and shales, by
volume, of the samples taken from the formation, varies
between 1.82% to 37.91% (average = 13.63%). The highest
proportion of DOM occurs in coaly shales. Vitrinite is the
dominant maceral in DOM (m.m.f. basis) ranging from 41%-99%
of the DOM (average = 90%). Liptinite ranges (m.m.f. basis)
from sparse to 55% (average = 7%). Inertinite occurs only
in minor amounts ranging (m.m.f. basis) from rare to 19%
(average = 3%) . Vitrinite occurs in all lithologies as

12

fragments, laminae, lenses and thin stringers

(Plate 2).

Vitrinite layers commonly contain inclusions of liptinite

macerals such as sporinite, resinite and liptodetrinite.
Sporinite is the most common liptinite maceral in this
formation. In general, liptinite has a weak to very weak
fluorescence intensity and is dark orange to brown in
colour. Sporinite occurs mostly as miospores and pollen
grains and is disseminated throughout the coals and shales.
Oil drops also occur in the samples and have yellow
fluorescence. Framboidal pyrite is commonly present in this
formation (Plate 3).
4
1

4.2.2.2 Coal and Shaly Coal

In general, Talang Akar coals are well developed in the
Pendopo-Limau area. The samples from the Talang Akar
Formation comprise 24%-82% (average = 39.47%) coal and
12%-30% (average = 23.14%) shaly coal by volume (Figure
4.2). The coals (m.m.f. basis) comprise 48%-99% (average =
87%) vitrinite, 0.1%-19% (average = 3%) inertinite, and
0.53%-49% (average = 10%) liptinite. These coals vary from
sub-bituminous to high-volatile bituminous in rank and are
characterized by a high vitrinite and a moderate liptinite
content. Shaly coals comprise (m.m.f basis) 48%-97%
(average = 84%) vitrinite, trace to 22% (average = 4%)
inertinite and 2%-30% (average = 12%) liptinite.
The microlithotypes present in these coals are vitrite
with lesser amounts of clarite. Vitrite layers consist of

43

celovitrinite and detrovitrinite

sporinite and minor resinite.

and are associated with

Oil staining

surfaces of vitrinite is commonly present.

dominant

liptinite

maceral.

It

is

of

polished

Sporinite is the
dark

orange

in

fluorescence mode.
Bitumens are common in the Talang Akar Formation and
show yellow to orange fluorescence as shown in Plates 4 to
9, and

12 to 13.

They occur mainly

associated with oil cuts.

in coals

and are

Some exsudatinite occurs in the

coals and is yellow to dark orange in fluorescence mode

(Plates 8 to 11). Sclerotinite is also present and occurs
as teleutospores.

In some samples, sclerotinite was filled

by bitumen as shown in Plates 10 and 11. During examination

using fluorescence mode, oil was expelled from sclerotinite
(Plates 14 and 15) and telovitrinite (Plates 16 and 17) in
some samples.

4.2.3 BATURAJA FORMATION

The Baturaja Formation consists of platform carbonate

deposits which comprise limestones grading to calcareous
clays

and

fine

to medium

grained

sandstones.

thick

section of this formation was intersected by KD-01 well from

1363 metres to 1572 metres.

In general,

DOM in the samples

from the Baturaja Formation is rare to abundant (<0.1% to

2.95% with average = 0.87% by volume).

DOM (m.m.f. basis)

in this formation comprises rare to 99% (average = 97%)

vitrinite, barren to 1% (average = 0.2%) inertinite and 0%

44

to 8% (average = 2.8%) liptinite (Figure 4.4).

Vitrinite

is

mainly

present

as

detrovitrinite.

Inertinite is rare and occurs as inertodetrinite.

sporinite

also

fluorescence.
BN-10

well

occur

in

the

samples

and

has

Minor
orange

Fluorinite is present in the samples from

and

has

yellow

flourescence.

Pyrite

is

commonly present throughout the lithologies.

4.2.4 GUMAI FORMATION

The Gumai Formation consists of deep water marine

shales and limestones.

DOM content of the samples from this

unit ranges from 0.05%-7.33% (average = 1.87%) by volume and

comprises (m.m.f. basis) 24%-92% (average = 63%) vitrinite,
2%-37% (average = 22%) inertinite and 0%-57% (average = 15%)
liptinite.
Vitrinite is common in the lithologies and occurs as
detrovitrinite.
as

Inertinite is commonly present and occurs

inertodetrinite

micrinite,

and

but

sclerotinite

and

semifusinite are commonly present in the samples from the

KG-10

well.

sporinite,
Sporinite

Liptinite

is

liptodetrinite,
is

fluorescence.

common

and

Cutinite

represented
fluorinite

has

is

orange

orange

to

by
and

to
dark

cutinite,
resinite.

dark

orange

orange

in

fluorescence mode and is thin-walled.

Bitumens

are

sparse

in the

samples

from the Gumai

Formation, except those from the KG-10 well where they are

45

common to abundant with

drops

are

also

present

fluorescence mode.
the samples

and

show

Some phytoplankton

colour

in

are also present

cases are very difficult to recognize from the matrix.

They

green

fluorescence

small tests

in
some

as very

yellow

which in

have

and occur

Oil

greenish yellow fluorescence.

colour.

Euhedral

pyrite

is

commonly present in the lithologies.

4.2.5 AIR BENAKAT FORMATION

The Air Benakat Formation consists of neritic to

shallow marine deposits

in which DOM

15.4% (average = 3.66%)

by volume.

ranges from 0.15%

High proportions

in carbonaceous shale or claystone whereas low

to

occur

proportions,

occur in limestone and marine sandstone.

On a mineral
91% (average =

matter free basis,

78%) vitrinite,

DOM comprises 54% to

rare to 7%

(average =

inertinite, and 7% to 39% (average = 19%) liptinite.

3%)

Figure

4.5 shows the abundance of DOM in the Air Benakat Formation.

Vitrinite is
lithologies with
maceral

is

the most

detrovitrinite

assocciated

suberinite,

common

cutinite,

with

organic matter

the

main

the

maceral.

liptinite

resinite,

in

all
This

macerals

sporinite

and

liptodetrinite.
Liptodetrinite, sporinite
present in the
fluorescence

and

cutinite

Air Benakat Formation.

mode.

Minor

greenish

are

commonly

They are orange

yellow

in

fluorescing

46

fluorinite and orange fluorescing resinite are also present.

Inertinite is rare and occurs as sclerotinite and
inertodetrinite.
In general, bitumens are abundant in the samples and
they occur commonly in sandstone, siltstone and claystone.
They have a yellowish-green to green colour in fluorescence
mode. Desiccation cracks in the bitumens are commonly
present and some of bitumens have a cauliflower shape. Oil
drops are common in the samples from KG-10 well and show a
yellowish-green colour in fluorescence mode. Framboidal
pyrite is more common than euhedral pyrite.

4.2.6 MUARA ENIM FORMATION

The Muara Enim Formation includes the main workable

coal measures of the South Sumatra Basin and contains the
large brown coal (lignite) resources of the South Sumatra
region. The Muara Enim Formation comprises three
lithological sequences; they are coal units, claystone units
and sandstone units as shown in Table 3.3. The coal beds in
the basin range from a few centimetres to about 40 metres in
thickness. The coals vary from brown coal to sub-bituminous
in rank but locally reach anthracitic rank in zones of
contact alteration.
Organic matter in this coal-bearing sequence occurs as
dispersed organic matter and as discrete coal seams.
According to Cook and Struckmeyer (1986), DOM associated

47

with coals

is

generally

similar in

its

origin,

maceral

composition and chemical properties to the organic matter in

the coals, but can also show some systematic differences.
The Muara

Enim

Formation

occurs

in

nine

oil

wells

studied and fifty seven cutting samples were taken from this
formation.

Twenty eight

from seven cored coal

maceral analysis

were also

exploration boreholes.

data

available from Daulay

coal samples

of the

Muara

In

Enim coals

(1985) who studied

collected
addition,
are

also

the petrology

of

the Muara Enim coals.

In the cuttings samples studied, coal occurs as layers,
lenses or

streaks and

contributes

(average = 66%) by volume.

analyses of these
the Muara Enim

to

Based on the results of

samples on a

coals comprise

vitrinite, 3% to 12%

between 35.6%

maceral

mineral matter free

74% to 88%

(average = 6%)

100%

basis,

(average =

81%)

inertinite, and 8%

to

17% (average = 13%) liptinite (Fig.4.6).

The

core

(average =

samples

86%)

inertinite, and
(Fig.4.6).
results for

(m.m.f.

vitrinite,
2.25%

Within

to

1.75% to
16%

the limits

coals from

basis)

have
8%

(average

(average
=

of sampling

cores and

75%

9%)

to

97%

5%)

liptinite

precision,

from cuttings

the

are

very

Formation range

from

similar.
DOM contents
1.87%

to

7.98%

of the

Muara Enim

(average

4.37%)

by

volume.

proportions of DOM occur in coaly claystone or

mudstone but in sandstone and

High

carbonaceous

siltstone the DOM content

is

48

low.

In the samples

studied, DOM (m.m.f. basis)

comprises

39% to 96% (average = 65 %) vitrinite, 0.2% to 7% (average =

3%) inertinite and 12% to 57% (average = 32%) liptinite.
Telovitrinite is the main
both in DOM and coal.

Telovitrinite is commonly present

the coal as thin layers or

detrovitrinite

vitrinite maceral and occurs

matrix.

small lenses which occur in

Some

of

the

telovitrinite

the
cell

lumens are infilled by fluorinite or resinite (Plates 18

21).

In some cases they are filled by clay.

and porigelinite

(gelovitrinite) are

scattered

throughout
,f

In general, inertinite is

rarely present in the

Muara

Semifusinite, fusinite and sclerotinite are the

main types of inertinite.

as layers or

to

Corpovitrinite

the coals.

Enim coals.

in

lenses as

Semifusinite and fusinite

shown in

Plates 22

occur

and 23.

Cell

walls of the fusinite and semifusinite vary in thickness and

degree

of

preservation.

Scelerotinite

teleutospores and scelerotia (Plate

in sclerotinite are filled

includes

24). Some cell

by resinite and mineral

lumens
matter.

In some samples, well preserved of mycorrhyzomes can also be

found (Plates 25 to 27).
The liptinite in

the coal

mainly comprises

cutinite, liptodetrinite, sporinite,

fluorinite

and

exsudatinite.

resinite,

suberinite with

Liptodetrinite

minor
is

significant component of Muara Enim coals and comprises fine

degradation products of

other liptinite

bright yellow to orange

fluorescence.

macerals.
Resinite has

It

has

yellow

49

to orange fluorescence (Plates 21 and 28 to 31).

is commonly

present

as

tenuicutinite

and

has

Cutinite
yellowish

orange fluorescence, but some crassicutinites can be also

found as shown in Plates 32 and 33.

Sporinite is also

commonly present in the coals and is yellow to dark orange

in fluorescence-mode (Plates 34 to 37). It occurs mostly as
miospores and pollen grains and is disseminated throughout
the

coals.

Suberinite

shows

orange

to

dark

orange

fluorescence and it is also commonly present in the coals

(Plates 38 to 41). Exsudatinite occurs in few samples and
has a very bright yellow to orange fluorescence (Plates 40
to 43).
In general the Muara Enim coals are rich in bitumens,
hence an attempt has been made to estimate the abundance of
bitumen by using the point counting method.
of the coals

(m.m.f. basis) varies

(average = 3.1%).

from

Bitumen content
0.75%

to

5.5%

Bitumens occur mostly as medium to

large discrete bodies which are commonly globular in shape

(Plates 44 to 47). Flow structures occur and oil cuts are
common from bitumens and indicate that the bitumens have
been soft and mobile when entering the open spaces or during
the

development

of

fracture

porosity

(Cook,

1987).

Teichmuller (1982) noted that this stage represents the very

beginning
genesis of

of

bituminization

fluid petroleum.

and

can be

During this

related

to

the

stage, bitumen

fills the cavities, bedding planes and joints.

Cook (1985)

added that the abundance of bitumen may be related more to

50

the migration

characteristics of

fluids from

the

organic

matter system than to any sharp threshold in the rate of

generation of soluble bitumens. The occurrence of bitumens
in veins may be due to fissuring caused by hydrocarbon
generation pressures, rather than to passive emplacement
into pre-existing cavities (Cook, 19 87). An interesting
feature of the bitumen under microscope is the presence of
desiccation cracks (Plates 48 to 51). In some samples,
bitumens also appear as cauliflower-shaped aggregates. The
bitumens have bright green to greenish yellow fluorescence,
but commonly they show dark yellow fluorescence in their
centre and gradually change to bright yellow fluorescence
toward the outer margins.
Mineral matter is commonly present in the Muara Enim
coals and is represented by clay occurring as pods and
infilling cell lumens. Framboidal pyrite is also commonly
found infilling cell lumens. Quartz and siderite occur
sparsely in the coals.
The main microlithotypes of the Muara Enim coals are
vitrite and clarite.

4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RANK AND MACERAL TEXTURES AND

FLUORESCENCE INTENSITY

Parallel with the increasing level of coalification,

some physical and chemical properties of coal will be
gradually or progressively changed. Peat and soft brown

51

coals have

high bulk

porosities and

With progressive coalification,

and

calorific

value

Furthermore the
during the

pore

and

high water

contents.

moisture content

decreases

carbon

volume of

coalification

content

vitrinite

process.

increase.

also

Stach

et

decreases
al.

(1982)

reported that the pore volume of vitrinite varies with

from 0.05 cm3/g

for vitrinite

with 71%

rank

carbon content

to

0.03 cm3/g for vitrinite with 94% carbon content, apparently

3
passing through a minimum of 0.025 cm /g at a carbon content
of about 89%. Because of increasing carbon content and
aromacity the
and

three maceral

vitrinite,

become

groups, liptinite,

more

highly

inertinite

reflecting

and

increasingly opaque.
Cell structures and plant tissues, readily
in

low

rank

coals,

become

recognize at higher rank.

coalification.

difficult

to

Texture becomes more compact with

In comparison with other macerals, vitrinite

textures

are

sensitive

pressure

but

they

coalification.

increasingly

discernible

to

alter

increasing

in

temperature

uniform

and

manner

during

Telovitrinite textures are more sensitive to

increasing rank than those of detrovitrinite (Smith,

1981).

Smith (1981) further reported

Basin,

that in the Gippsland

telovitrinite shows remnants

of open cell

lumens and

cell

walls and cell contents aligned parallel to bedding to about

1250 metres depth where Fornax
that

with increased

telovitrinite

depth,

metamorphism

is 0.30%.
the

appears

He also
major

to

be

indicated

process

of

conversion

of

52

textinite

and

eu-ulminite.

well

preserved

texto-ulminite

into

At 1742 metres (R max 0.50%), almost all

cell

lumens of telovitrinite are completely closed.

In the

samples

studied,

Muara Enim

coals

occur

present depths between 40 metres to 1200 metres.

at

Vitrinite

textures of the coals from the BT-01 well taken at depths of

46 to 54 metres, R max 0.36%, still show cellular structures
derived from vegetable material (Plates 52 and 53).
the telovitrinite cell lumens

are infilled with

Some of

fluorinite

or resinite but in some samples they are filled by clay.

this rank, the

vitrinite is

well preserved botanical

Plate 54.

In other

compact and all

depth.

At

texturally immature . retaining

structures and voids

as shown

wells, telovitrinite becomes dense

cell lumens become

closed with

in
and

increasing

The telovitrinite is texturally mature (i.e. it

has

been through a gelification state which has largely obscured

botanical features).

These features can be seen in

samples

from BRG-3 which were taken from a depth of 1200 metres with
R max of 0.50% (Plates 16, 17 and 55).

The cell lumens

are

completely closed in samples with a vitrinite reflectance of

0.80% or greater.

This occurs

at depths of more than

2000

metres in the Talang Akar Formation in the MBU-2 well.

Under ultra-violet light excitation, liptinite shows

progressive increase in the maximum of spectral fluorescence

wavelengths

with

fluorescence
rank, the

increasing

intensity

liptinite

maturation,

progressively

macerals

and

the

decreases.

typically yield

up

total
At

low

to

80%

53

volatile matter and contain more than 9% hydrogen (Cook,

1982).

With increased rank, the liptinite group macerals

suffer a major
content.

loss of volatile matter

Associated

fluorescence

with

colours

these

of

and of hydrogen

chemical

liptinite

changes,
change

the
from

greenish-yellow in the peat stage to orange-brown in high

(Bustin et al., 1983).

volatile A bituminous coals

fluorescence

intensities

and

fluorescence

colours

The
are

related to presence of hydrogen in unsaturated bonds (Cook,

1980).
Most

liptinite

macerals

from

the Muara

Enim

coals

(Fornax 0.30% to 0.50%) have fluorescence colours ranging

from yellow to orange and greenish yellow in the bitumens
(Plates

46

to

50).

The

fluorescence

colours

of

the

liptinite parallel increasing rank and become dark orange or

brown which are shown in the Talang Akar coals.

Bitumens

also become orange in this latter formation (Plates 56 to

61).

54

CHAPTER FIVE
ORGANIC MATURATION AND THERMAL HISTORY

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The maturity of organic matter is an expression of the

level of coalification reached.

The level of coalification

of organic matter can be also defined as the transformation

of organic matter from peat through the stages of different
brown

coals,

sub-bituminous

and

bituminous

coals

to

anthracites and meta-anthracites (Stach, 1982).

The metamorphism of organic matter is a product of two
variables;

time

and

temperature

(Teichmuller

and

Teichmuller, 1982; Murchison et al., 1985; Waples, 1980,

1985).

Cook

(1982) and

Kantsler

(1985)

added

third

suggesting that at least three variables (pressure, heat due

to burial of sedimentary sequences and the geological age of
the sequences) are involved in the coalification process.
The role of pressure is only involved in the early stage of
biochemical
expulsion

of

coalification,
water

(Bustin

resulting
et

in

compaction

al., 1983).

Pressure

and
is

thought to have only a minor negative effect upon rank

increase

(Teichmuller

Bostick, 1973).

and Teichmuller, 1968; Lopatin and

Huck and Patteisky (1964) claimed that high

static pressure can have retarding effects on coalification.

However, Bustin et al. (1983) pointed out that high tectonic
pressure

can

lead

to

abnormal

increases

in

vitrinite

55

reflectance.
In most stratigraphic sequences increased temperatures
accompany burial and thus more
exposed

to higher

generally

temperatures

of higher

documented

by

Hilt

for

rank.

This

(1873)

who

decrease in volatile matter

Law).

deeply buried
longer

coals are

time

relationship
observed

and are

was

first

progressive

in coals with depth

(Hilt's

The level of coalification or rank of organic matter

can be assessed by using a variety of chemical and physical

methods.

Some of the more commonly used of these indices

are volatile matter yield, carbon content, moisture content

and calorific value.

Unfortunately these properties do not

change uniformly with rank and consequently are not always

suitable indicators.

Vitrinite reflectance is one of the

most commonly used methods for evaluation of the organic

maturation.

The optical properties of vitrinite macerals

alter more uniformly during metamorphism than those of other

macerals (Smith and Cook, 1980).

Additionally, vitrinite is

present in many types of sedimentary rocks.

In

the

present

study,

measurements

of

maximum

reflectance of vitrinite were made to determine the rank of

coals from the South Palembang Sub-basin and also to assess
the maturation level of the dispersed organic matter in the
associated non-coal rock types.

The assessment of organic

maturation is an important parameter for evaluation of the

coal quality and the hydrocarbon source potential of the
sedimentary sequence.

Measurements of maximum reflectance

56

of

vitrinite

samples.

were

made

on

coal

and

DOM

from

cuttings

The results for cuttings samples may include some

values for

caved materials

from overlying

sequences but

these can generally be recognized from their lithological

characteristics.

In addition, unpublished reflectance data,

particularly of the Muara Enim coals, are available from

Daulay (1985).
The maturation profile for a sedimentary sequence at a
given location is obtained by plotting vitrinite reflectance
against depth for each sample from a well section.
comparing

these

maturation

data

with

those

at

By

other

locations in the basin, the pattern of maturity distribution

within the basin can be used for locating hydrocarbon source
rocks lying within the zone of oil generation.
Vitrinite reflectance values from ten oil wells are
given in Tables 5.1 to 5.10.

The reflectance gradients of

these wells range from Rvmax 0.20 to 0.35% per kilometre.

The vitrinite reflectance profiles with depth are presented
in Figures 5.1 to 5.10.

Isoreflectance surfaces have been

constructed along section lines A-B and C-D (Figure 1.4) and
these are presented in Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.12.

The six

oil wells illustrated in Figure 5.11 are located in the

Muara Enim area, whereas the four oil wells in Figure 5.12
are

situated

in

the

Limau-Pendopo

area.

In

addition,

vitrinite reflectance values from seven coal exploration

boreholes are given in Table 5.10A.

57

5.2

RANK VARIATION AND DISTRIBUTION

The mean maximum vitrinite reflectances obtained from

samples examined for this study are plotted against depth in
Figure 5.13.

The most obvious trend shown in this figure is

the increase in vitrinite reflectances with depth and this

is more marked from a depth of below about 1500 metres
(Rvmax generally about 0.5%) to 2500 metres (R;/max generally
about 0.9%).

Some reflectance values plot below the trend.

These values may relate to the presence

of cavings but

generally values from the Baturaja Formation plot below the

trend whereas those from the Lahat Formation plot on or
above trend.
Several

reasons

have

vitrinite reflectance.

been

given

for

suppressed

Hutton and Cook (1980) found lower

reflectance values where Botryococcus-derived alginite is

present.
sulphur

Titheridge (1989) found lowered reflectance where

content is high

and

it has been reported

that

reflectance is lower in some specific lithologies.

The Baturaja Formation is a marine unit

(containing

limestone).

Many marine oil shales have lower than expected

reflectance

values

(Hutton

pers.

comm.,

1991)

and

the

lowered reflectance for the Baturaja Formation is possibly

attributable to its marine origin.
In the Muara

Enim

area, the

increase

in vitrinite

reflectance with depth is associated with a high temperature

gradient as well as being due to depth of burial (Figure

58

5.11).

High temperature

gradients in the

Muara Enim

area

may relate to the effects of thermal metamorphism or

volcanic intrusions adjacent to the Bukit Barisan Mountains.
KG-10 well is an exception in that samples from it show low
reflectance values (R max 0.44% and 0.48%) at depths of 1524
metres and 1546 metres. However, these low reflectance
values probably correlate with the presence of cavings
(Figure 5.11). Figure 5.12 suggests that the increases in
vitrinite reflectance are probably related primarily to
depth of burial in the Limau-Pendopo area. In this area,
the thickness of the Tertiary, particularly of Talang Akar
and Lahat Formations, is greater than in the Muara Enim
area. The highest vitrinite reflectance values (R max
0.95%) occur in the Lahat Formation in the BN-10 well at a
depth of 2542 metres. BN-10 is the deepest well used in
this study and is situated in the Limau-Pendopo area.
Relationship between coalification and tectonism has
long been known (Patteisky and Teichmuller, I9 60;
Teichmuller, 1962; Teichmuller and Teichmuller, 1966;
Hacquebard and Donaldson, 1970; Diessel, 1975). Most
authors suggest that the relationship between timing of
coalification and that of tectonic deformation in a
particular area may be investigated in two ways based on
coal rank data. Firstly by comparison of the shape of the
iso-rank surfaces and structural contours, and secondly, by
comparison of the rate of rank increase with depth in a
particular seam compared with the rate within a vertical

59

profile, such as a borehole.

Teichmuller

and

Teichmuller

(1966)

divided

the

relationships between coalification and tectonism into three

types;

pre-tectonic

coalification

before

coalification,

tectonic

parallel

syn-tectonic

and

pre-tectonic

coalification,

or

no

applies

associated
and

took

under low
with

completed

5.14).

to an
place

would
Complete

area

in

during

which
initial

Early and

rapid

geothermal gradients

(1966)

exclusively, post-tectonic coalification

are

coalification.

post-tectonic

Teichmuller

realized in real systems.

is

In

surfaces

tectonic movements.

deposition and folding

Teichmuller

(Figure

coalification

subsidence or during

commonly

Iso-rank

surfaces

post-tectonic coalification
little

coalification.

coalification

deformation.

structural

post-tectonic

suggested

that

is probably

never

With post-tectonic coalification,

iso-rank contours are horizontal regardless of the degree of

deformation

(Figure

patterns are

produced

5.15).
in

Syn-tectonic

areas

where

coalification

coalification

tectonic movements occur contemporaneously.

In areas

and

where

syn-tectonic coalification occurs the iso-rank surfaces

are

oblique to the structural contours (Figure 5.16).

In the area studied, the iso-reflectance line of

Rvmax

0.3% is generally semi-parallel with the orientation of

Muara Enim Formation.

the

This pattern is consistent with major

pre-tectonic

coalification

coalification

also

may

but
be

minor

present

syn-tectonic

(Teichmuller

and

60

Teichmuller, 1966).

In the

Muara Enim area (Figure

5.11),

the iso-reflectance lines R max 0.4% to 0.9% generally

intersect the formation boundaries at low angles. However
the iso-reflectance lines are more regular and parallel with
the orientation of the formation boundaries in the
Limau-Pendopo area where partial syn-tectonic coalification
patterns are evident (Figure 5.12). According to
Teichmuller and Teichmuller (19 66) , this situation may
arise in younger strata of a coal basin where folding
movements are active during or very shortly after deposition
and prior to maximum burial.
The Talang Akar and Lahat Formations are intersected by
the 0.5% to 0.9% R max surfaces. In terms of coal rank, the
coals from these formations can be classified as high
volatile bituminous coals.
In general, vitrinite reflectances in the Muara Enim
coals range from 0.30% to 0.50% R max with an average of
0.37%. The coals, therefore, range from brown coal to
almost sub-bituminous coal in rank. The M2 coals,
particularly the Mangus, Suban and Petai seams, are mined at
the Bukit Asam coal mines. Vitrinite reflectance of
dispersed organic matter of the Muara Enim Formation shows
similar patterns to those of coals not affected by
intrusions. In general, it ranges from 0.3% to 0.4% R max.
Daulay (1985) divided the M2 coals in the Bukit Asam
area into two categories related to the effects of thermal
alteration by an andesite intrusion; coal not affected by

61

contact thermal

alteration

and

thermally

altered

coals.

Vitrinite reflectance of coal not affected by thermal

alteration ranges from 0.30% to 0.59% Rvmax and from ,0.69%
to 2.60% for thermally altered coals. Furthermore, Daulay
noted that reflectances between 0.40% to 0.50% are dominant
at Bukit Asam. By contrast, vitrinite reflectance decreases
gradually from 0.35 % to 0.40% towards the north (Banko
Area) and west of Bukit Asam.
Coals from the boreholes BT-01 (South of Banko) and
SN-04 (West Suban Jerigi) have vitrinite reflectances
ranging from 0.31% to 0.41%. In the Kl-03 and KLB boreholes
(Kungkilan area, southwest of Bukit Asam), vitrinite
reflectance is relatively constant being in the range 0.41%
to 0.44%. Vitrinite reflectance decreases again at the
AU-04 and AS-12 boreholes (North Arahan and South Arahan,
farther west of the Kungkilan area) ranging from 0.35% to
0.37%. The differences in vitrinite reflectance between
coals from the Bukit Asam area and other areas are probably
due to heating effects from igneous intrusions beneath the
Bukit Asam and adjacent areas. Thus, it appears that even
the coals referred by Daulay to the "not affected by thermal
alteration" category show some evidence of localized
heating.

5.3 THERMAL HISTORY

Thermal history of the basin can be estimated by

62

comparing

data

on

sediment

age

and

coalification (Kantsler et al., 1978).

the

level

of

The current thermal

regime can be ascertained by reference to present downhole

temperature

data

estimated

from

borehole

logs.

The

relationship between maximum palaeotemperature and vitrinite

reflectance has long been studied and documented by authors
(such as Teichmuller, 1971; Dow, 1977; Bostick, 1973, 1979;
Kantsler et al., 1978; Kantsler and Cook, 1979; Cook and
Kantsler, 1980; Smith and Cook, 1980, 1984).

Models for the

prediction of palaeotemperatures, organic maturity and the

timing of hydrocarbon generation

have been developed by a

number of authors.
The first attempt to define mathematically the relation
of time, temperature and rank was introduced by Huck and
Karweil (1955).

Later Karweil (1956) developed a nomogram

for the three variables and it is known as the Karweil

nomogram.

The

Karweil

model

is

based

on

first-order

reaction rates and appears to assume that a formation has

been exposed to present downhole temperatures for all its
subsidence history.

Some modifications have been made by

Bostick (1973) with the addition of an empirically derived

reflectance
Karweil

relationship.

nomogram

developments

on

thermal history

is

The

shown

in

the prediction
from

Kantsler et al. (1978).

Bostick
Figure

version
5.17.

of

Further

of palaeotemperature

the Karweil

the

and

nomogram were made by

j3

In the present study, estimations of palaeotemperature

and thermal history in the South Palembang Sub-basin were
made using the Karweil diagram as suggested by Kantsler et
al. (1978).

The palaeothermal history of the basin has been

assessed using the age data for the sedimentary units, the
corresponding Rvmax data and the time (t), temperature (T)
(RQmax) nomogram of Karweil as

and vitrinite reflectance

modified

by

(1973).

Bostick

In

the modification

used,

temperatures derived directly from the Karweil nomogram were

named Isothermal Model Temperatures (Tiso).

The isothermal

model

have

(Tiso)

assumes

that

temperatures

remained

constant since burial whilst the gradthermal model (Tgrad)

assumes

history

of

constantly

rising

temperatures

(Kantsler et al., 1978a; Smith, 1981; Smith and Cook, 1984).

From these comparisons an assessment can be made of whether
present day temperature (Tpres) is higher, the same or lower
than the maximum palaeotemperature.
The present geothermal gradient was obtained by using
the formula:
T =

To + T*X

(Smith, 1981).

where T is borehole temperature, To the surface temperature,

X is depth and T

= dT/dX, the geothermal gradient.

The surface temperature of the Muara Enim-Pendopo/Limau

area (onshore) used in the calculations is assumed to be
26 "C.

The borehole temperature data were obtained from the

geophysical well logs of the oil wells studied.

of

the

calculations

show

that

the

present

The results
geothermal

64

gradient

in these

areas varies

37C/km

from

to 40C/km

(average = 39 C/km) in the Muara Enim area and 36C/km to

40C/km

(average

38C/km)

in

the

Pendopo-Limau area.

These geothermal gradients are lower than those reported by

Thamrin et

al.

(1979).

According

to those

authors the

average gradient geothermal gradient and heat flow in South

Palembang Sub-basin are 52.5C/km and 2.55 HFU (Heat Flow
Units).
the

Furthermore, Thamrin et al. (1979) reported that in

Beringin

field

(Muara

Enim

area),

the

geothermal

gradient and the heat flow are 56.5C/km and 2.66 HFU while
the values from the Tanjung Miring Timur field
area) are 55 /km and 2.66 HFU respectively.

(Pendopo

The Benuang*

field (Pendopo area) also has a high reported geothermal

gradient having a value of 55 C/km.

Based on these data the

top of the oil window can be expected to be encountered at

shallow depths of approximately 1300 metres.
for the

top

the

oil

window

is

also

This position

suggested

by

the

reflectance data which show that the 0.5% reflectance values

lie at approximately 1300 metres depth.
Thamrin et al. (1980, 1982, 1984) stated that the high
geothermal gradients occurring in the Sumatran basinal areas
are influenced by high palaeoheat flows which accompanied
Tertiary tectonism.

Further, they concluded that the high

geothermal gradients in these areas reflect rapid burial

followed by uplift and erosion.

The high heat flow in the

basin results from magmatic intrusions and associated mantle

waters penetrating

the

shallow

pre-Tertiary

basement

to

65

within

few

kilometres

of

the

surface,

exposing

the

Tertiary sedimentary cover to high temperatures (Eubank

and

Makki, 1981).
Tectonically, the Sumatran

basinal areas are

situated

between an inner (volcanic) arc and the stable Sunda

The volcanic inner
Bukit Barisan

arc is

Range

pre-Tertiary rocks.
in a continental

which

represented
is mainly

Sumatra by

composed

of

the

folded

Eubank and Makki (1981) suggested

back-arc basin where

thinned but rifting

in

Shelf.

is not

blanket.

highly fractured,

simatic heat

Where

upward by magmatic diapirism

water in the fractures.

the sialic crust

complete, the crust

effective thermal

that

the

is not

crust is

will be

is

thin

rapidly

an
and

conducted

and convective circulation

of

In a continental setting, sediments

quickly fill the incipient rifts

and are subjected to

high

heat flow.
Scale "H" of Karweil's diagram was used in the
study to

calculate

(1982a) suggested

isothermal
that

values by

multiplying

Smith and

Cook

(1984)

Tgrad
with

model
can be

temperatures.

Cook

obtained

from

Tiso

of

1.6.

a conversion

suggested

present

factor

testing

isothermal

and

gradthermal models against present temperatures to establish

the

palaeothermal

relative

According to

Smith

(1981)

quantitative

estimate

can

history

and Smith
be

of

and

Cook

obtained

by

formation.
(1984)

defining

following ratio:
Grad : Iso = (Tpres - Tiso) / (Tgrad - Tiso).

the

ee
If the

ratio

is

gradients are

lower

probably

than

1,

lower

than in

gradthermal model.
present

present

the

If

the

the formation history approaches

the

If

temperatures

the
are

the

geothermal
and

formation history approaches the

ratio is close to one

the

past

isothermal model.

ratio
greater

is

greater

than

than

the

one,

effective

coalification temperature.
Thermal history data from

selected wells in the

South

Palembang Sub-basin are listed in Table 5.11 and Table 5.12.

From data given

in these tables,

it can be

seen that,

general, the present temperatures are lower than

temperatures.
were higher

than

sediments of
period of
erosion.

These

the

indicate that

the present
South

rapid burial

to a

Probably

Sub-basin

the

underwent

period of

uplift

and

Pulunggono (1983) stated that a tensional movement

during Paleocene?/Eocene

to

Early Miocene

block faulting with consequent

areas along
rates of

isothermal

palaeotemperatures

temperature.

Palembang
prior

the

in

existing

subsidence of

enhanced

subsidence of faulted

faults (NE-SW
the faulted

inferred in uppermost Oligocene

times

and

NW-SE).

blocks were

block

Maximum
indicated

to earliest Miocene

times.

During this phase, the rate of sedimentation began to exceed

the rate of subsidence and
infilled.

the faulted blocks were

rapidly

67

5,4

SOURCE ROCKS AND GENERATION HYDROCARBONS

5.4.1 SOURCE ROCKS FOR HYDROCARBONS

Potential hydrocarbon source rocks are rocks containing

preserved

organic matter

which

includes

the

remains

of

marine and fresh water animals and plants and terrestrial

plants.

For many years, marine rocks were regarded as the

only prolific source for oil (e.g. Tissot and Welte, 1978)
but

over

the

past

30

years

it

has

become

clear

that

terrestrial and fresh water organic matter can also generate

commercial quantities of petroleum.

A number of authors

have recently suggested that coal has played a significant

role in sourcing hydrocarbons in important oilfields such as
in Australia (Gippsland Basin), and in Indonesia (Mahakam
Delta).

Oils derived from terrestrial organic matter are

generaly waxy in character as identified by Hedberg (1968)

and

Powell

and

McKirdy

(1975)

and

are believed

to be

associated with coals or terrestrial organic material which

is particularly rich in liptinite.
Authors (such as Smith and Cook (1980); Smyth (1983);
Tissot and Welte (1984); Cook (1987) have agreed that the
liptinite

group

is

considered

to

be

most

significant

producer of hydrocarbons per unit volume organic matter.

Vitrinite-rich source rocks are thought to be producers of
both gas and some oil
(1987)

pointed

out

(Cook, 1982; Smyth, 1983).

that

the

difference

in

Cook

specific

generation capacity between liptinite and inertinite are,

68

for most coals,

balanced by the

much greater abundance

of

vitrinite. The generative potential of vitrinite is put at

one tenth of that of liptinite (Smyth et al., 1984; Cook et
al., 1985). Moreover, Tissot (1984) concluded that the
source potential of Type III kerogen is three or four times
less than that of Type I or II kerogen. According to
Snowdon and Powell (1982), the maceral vitrinite is
generally associated with the generation of methane during
catagenesis. In addition, Khorasani (1987) demonstrated
that vitrinites formed under dysaerobic conditions can
*

become perhydrous and partially oil prone.

These vitrinites

are considerably more hydrogen rich than the classical

orthohydrous vitrinites.
Inertinite may have some generative potential (Smith
and Cook, 1980; Smyth, 1983). According to Struckmeyer
(1988), the generating potential of inertinite is considered
to be approximately one twentieth that of liptinite.
Khorasani (1989), however, stated that inertinite has
virtually no genetic potential for generating liquid
hydrocarbons. Her statement has been supported by pyrolysis
the data index (S2/Org.C) which is indicative of the
amounts of hydrocarbon already generated (Figure 5.18).
These data show that the contribution of inertinite to
generation of hydrocarbons, prior and within the oil window
as defined by Khorasani (1989), is negligible. Moreover,
the Tmax data (Figure 5.18) suggest that maximum
decomposition of inertinite-rich kerogens occurs at higher

69

activation
However

energies

Smith

compared

and Cook

maturation may occur

to

inertinite-poor

(1980) suggested

at much lower

that

kerogen.
inertinite

levels of rank than

assumed by Khorasani.
According

to Rigby et al.

(1986) and Kim

and Cook

(1986), extracts from liptinite-rich coals are dominated by

branched and cyclic alkanes.

In comparison vitrinite yields

a high proportion of long chain n-alknes.

reflectance

of

0.3-0.4%, vitrinite-rich

significant

amounts

of

n-alkanes

At a vitrinite
coals

(Rigby

et

can yield

al., 1986).

Marked n-alkane generation occurs over the range 0.4 to 0.8%

vitrinite reflectance.
A model for the generation of oil and condensate from
terrestrial organic matter has been made by Snowdon and
Powell (1982) as shown in Figure 5.19.

They recognized that

the proportions of organic matter type in terrestrial source

rocks strongly controls both the level of thermal alteration
necessary
source

for the

rock,

section

and

the

to

function

ultimate

product

as an effective
(gas,

oil

or

condensate) which will be generated.

In

the

South

Palembang

Sub-basin,

coal

measures

sequences occur within the Muara Enim, Talang Akar and the
Lahat Formations.

As described in Chapter Four, in general,

these

rich

coals

amounts

of

inertinite.
in

are

liptinite

in vitrinite, contain
and

generally

significant

contain

sparse

Detrovitrinite and telovitrinite mainly occur

approximately

equal

amounts

in

these

coal measures.

70

Detrovitrinite generally

has a

higher specific

generation

capacity which may be significant in relation to oil

generation (Cook, 1987). Gore (1983) suggested that
detrovitrinite may be markedly perhydrous and incorporate
sub-microscopic or finely comminuted liptinite, algae,
resins and the remains of a prolific animal and microbial
life including bacteria, rotifers, rhizopods, nematodes,
worms, insects, molluscs, copepods, larvae, sponges, fish,
vertebrates, zooplankton and phytoplankton. Telovitrinite
however tends to be orthohydrous and may incorporate lipids,
including fatty acids and proteins derived from the cell
contents, secondary cell walls, suberinized cell walls,
bacteria, resin ducts, cuticles and spores (Shortland, 1963;
Benson, 1966).
Liptinite macerals occurring in the Lahat and Talang
Akar Formations are mainly represented by sporinite and
liptodetrinite, while the liptinite macerals in the Muara
Enim coals occur mainly as resinite, sporinite, cutinite and
liptodetrinite with significant amounts of suberinite also
present. Cook (1987) suggested that the high percentage of
resinite and suberinite in some coals may be a significant
factor in relation to the timing of oil generation. He also
added that most Indonesian crude oils appear to have a low
naphthenic content suggesting that the contribution from
resinite is typically low.
A study of liquid hydrocarbon potential of resinite
taken from M2 coals of the Muara Enim Formation, was

71

undertaken by Teerman et al. (1987) using hydrous

pyrolysis

methods. From this study, Teerman et al. (1987) indicated

that a large percentage of resinite can be converted into
hydrocarbons. Oil-pyrolysates are light, non-paraffinic
products consisting predominantly of cyclic isoprenoids and
their aromatic derivatives. The composition of these
hydrocarbons, however, are very distinct and different from
the composition of naturally occuring oils. Teerman et al.
(1987) concluded that resinite is probably not a significant
source for liquid hydrocarbons due to the lack of similarity
between these light non-paraffinic pyrolysates and naturally
occuring oils. Lewan and Williams (1987) also suggested
that resinites have not been a significant source for
petroleum.
In the Muara Enim Formation, bitumens and oil cuts
generally are more abundant than in other Tertiary rock
sequences from the South Palembang Sub-basin. The secondary
liptinite maceral exsudatinite is present in all of the coal
measures sequences and commonly occurs within vitrinites
having a reflectance between 0.4 and 0.8%. It is directly
related to the formation of hydrocarbons (Cook and
Struckmeyer, 1986). Fluorinite is abundant in the Muara
Enim coals which have vitrinite reflectances between 0.35
and 0.50%. Teichmuller (1974) regarded fluorinite to be
primarily derived from essential plant oils but some
fluorinite may be high pour-point crude oil trapped within
the coals. Small amounts of fluorinite have also been found

71

within the Talang Akar coals. Oil droplets and oil hazes
occur mainly in the Talang Akar Formation and some in the
Lahat Formation. Oil hazes are mainly associated with
telovitrinite where the oil comes from cracks or veins in
the telovitrinite and flows out during fluorescence
examination mode. Most of the features described above are
related to oil generation. Cook and Struckmeyer (1986)
summarized the occurrence of petrographic features related
to oil generation as shown in Table 5.13.
Assessment of the hydrocarbon generating potential of
source rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin was made by
calculating the volume of liptinite to vitrinite in DOM and
coal. This calculation was introduced by Smyth et al.
(1984) and later modified by Struckmeyer (1988):
Score A = Liptinite +0.3 Vitrinite +0.05 Inertinite
(all values in volume % of sample)
Score A is based on the volume and composition of organic
matter in a sample. An example for this calculation is
shown below;

Sample A contains approximately 6% (by volume)

organic matter consisting of 3% vitrinite, 2%
inertinite and 1% liptinite. Based on the
calculation above, sample A has a score of 2.

For quantification of Score A, the data set is compared

to values of S1+S2 from Rock-Eval pyrolysis (Struckmeyer,

73

1988).

According

to

Cook

considered to represent
the rock and

is taken

and Ranasinghe

to

SI

free bitumen-like compounds

as a measure

of the

generated, whereas S2 represents the

hydrocarbons due

(1989),

destructive

is

within

amount of

oil

main phase of loss

S1+S2

is

measured in kilograms of hydrocarbons per tonne of rock.

classification for source

S1+S2 was introduced

distillation.

of

rock quality based

by Tissot

and Welte

on values

(1984) as

of

shown

below;
< 2kg/tonne

poor oil source potential

2 to 6kg/tonne

moderate source potential

> 6kg/tonne

good source potential

> lOOkg/tonne

excellent source potential

Figure 5.20 shows a

for four

samples

Formations of
values have
Six).

from

plot of S1+S2
the

the South

been produced

Muara

Palembang

values and Score

Enim

and

Talang

Sub-basin.

by Rock-Eval

SI

analysis

Akar

and

S2

(Chapter

Scores of hydrocarbon generation potential of 5.9 and

19.2 have been calculated from two Muara Enim samples

and 5384)
S1+S2.

and correspond

The highest score

sample (5384).

to values

of 5.2

and S1+S2 value

(5383

and 126.9
occur in a

for
coal

These figures indicate that the samples have

good to very good source potential.

Also score A values for

the Muara Enim

calculated from

Formation have been

samples collected from wells studied.

The results of

thirty
these

calculations indicate that the Muara Enim Formation has very

good source rock potential with an average value about

23.2

1\

[see Table 5.15),

Similar values were also obtained for the Talang Akar
samples (5385 and 5386).

Hydrocarbon generation scores for

the samples range from 8.2 to 16.5 and correspond to

values of 5.5 and 78.6.

S1+S2

The data indicate that the samples

can be classified as good to very good source rocks.

Again

these figures are supported by data calculated for forty

five

samples

collected

from

the

Talang

Akar

Formation

showing very good hydrocarbon generation potential.

Score A values for samples from other formations have
also been calculated.

The Lahat Formation is categorized as

having a good source rock potential with a score of 8.96/

Reports from several sources, such as Shell (1978), Purnomo
(1984),

Suseno

(1988) and

Total

Indonesie

(1988),

also

suggested that the Lahat can be considered as potential

source rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin.

Lacustrine

shale deposits of the Lahat Formation are expected to be

good quality source rocks and equivalent sequences are known
as a good source in the Central Sumatra Basin having high
TOC values.

Good source rocks are also present in the Air

Benakat Formation which has a score of 6.96.

The highest

scores for the Air Benakat samples occur within the upper
part of the Air Benakat Formation although results may be
slightly affected by cavings from the Muara Enim Formation.
Poor score values were found for the samples from the
Baturaja and Gumai Formations.
0.7.

The scores range from 0.2 to

75

5.4.2

HYDROCARBON GENERATION

The principal zone of significant oil generation is

generally considered to occur between vitrinite reflectances
of 0.50% and 1.35% (Heroux et al., 1979; Cook, 1982; Smith
and

Cook,

1984;

Cook,

1986).

Initial

napthenic

oil

generation from some resinite-rich source rocks may occur,

however,

at

maturation

levels

as

low

as

vitrinite

reflectance of 0.4% (Snowdon and Powell, 1982).

Cook (1982, 1987) considered that oil generation from
coals occurs at a much lower level of coal rank and is
largely complete by 0.75% R max.

Gordon (1985) suggested a

threshold for oil generation from coals from the Ardjuna

Sub-basin of about 0.45% vitrinite reflectance.
Humic

organic

matter

becomes

post-mature

for

oil

generation between vitrinite reflectances of 1.2 and 1.4%,

at which

time

the

source

rocks

generation (Kantsler et al., 1983).

become

mature

for

gas

Oil is generated from

organic matter at temperatures ranging from 60C to 140 C.

At higher temperatures, the humic organic matter becomes
post-mature for oil generation but mature for gas generation
as shown in Figure 5.21 and 5.22

(Kantsler and Cook, 1979).

Organic matter type strongly influences the range of

maturity over which organic matter generates oil (Tissot and

"7 6

Welte, 1978; Hunt, 1979; and Cook, 1982).

(1980) suggested

Smith and Cook

that the effect of organic matter type

variation on oil generation is complex because different

types of organic matter undergo breakdown over different
temperature

ranges

compositions.

and

yield

variety

of

hydrocarbon

According to Leythauser et al. (1980), oil

generation occurs firstly from Type I Kerogen (alginite),

then from Type II Kerogen and finally from Type III Kerogen
(vitrinite).

In

contrast

Smith

and

Cook

(1980,

1984)

reported that this order is reversed and the inertinite is

the

first

to

generate

hydrocarbons

during

burial

metamorphism, then vitrinite with liptinite being the least*

responsive maceral group at low temperature.
Based on the isoreflectance surfaces (shown in Figure
5.11) in the Muara Enim area, the lower parts of Muara Enim
and Air Benakat Formations are early mature in the BRG-3 and
KD-01 wells, while the middle part of the Gumai Formation is
mature in the KG-10 and MBU-2 wells.

The upper part and

lower part of the Talang Akar Formation are also mature in

the PMN-2 and GM-14 wells.
In the Pendopo area, the Gumai Formation is generally
mature in almost all wells studied except in BN-10 where the
lower part of the Air Benakat Formation entered the mature
stage, as shown in Figure 5.12.
It can be concluded that the Gumai Formation is in the
mature

stage

throughout

the

well

sections

studied.

Furthermore, with an exception for the BRG-3 well, the Muara

77

Enim Formation is immature for oil generation throughout the

well sections

in the

South Palembang

some indications of oil

Sub-basin.

However

generation are present within

this

formation.
The Talang
mature to

Akar and

late mature

formations occur
(R max 0.75%).
(Durand and

Lahat Formations

for oil

within the
If coal

generation.

peak

zone of

is accepted

Paratte, 1983;

are

Kim and

as a

relatively

Locally
oil

generation

source for

Cook, 1986;

formations.

from

the organic

matter

oil

Cook

Struckmeyer, 1986), thermal maturation has probably

generated hydrocarbons

these

and

already
of

these

This conclusion is supported by the presence of

abundant oil drops, oil

cuts, exudatinites and bitumens

in

the samples from the Talang Akar and Lahat Formations.

5.4.2.1 Timing of Hydrocarbon Generation using Lopatin

Method

In order to asses the timing of hydrocarbon generation,

the method of Lopatin (1971),
1985), has been used in
assumed that the rate of
factor r for

as modified by Waples

the present study.

Lopatin

(1980,
(1971)

organic maturation increases by

every 10C increase

in reaction

temperature.

The factor r was taken to be close to a value of 2.

given 10 C temperature interval

For any

the temperature factor

(x)

is given by
x =

where

n is

an

index

value

Lopatin

73

assigned to each temperature interval.

The Lopatin model is based on an assumption that the
dependence of coalification on time is linear (i.e. doubling
the reaction time at a constant temperature doubles the
rank).

The sum of the time factors (dtn), which describe

the length of time

temperature

(in Ma) spent by each layer in each

interval, and

the

x-factors was

appropriate

defined by Lopatin as the Time-Temperature-Index (TTI);

max
TTI = s (dtn) (x),
n

min

where n . and n . are the values for n of the highest and

3
max
mm
lowest temperature intervals encountered.
Lopatin (1971) suggested that specific TTI values
correspond
Waples

to

(1980)

calibration

various
has

but

et

of

vitrinite

Lopatin's

modified

Katz

correlations are

values

al.

(1982)

reflectance.

(1971)

showed

likely to be incorrect

values higher than approximately 1.3%.

for

original

that

Waples

reflectance

Furthermore Waples

(1985) reported that the threshold for oil generation at an

R max value of 0.65%, which was proposed in his previous
work, was almost certainly too high.
different
thresholds.

kerogen

types

have

He further stated that

different

oil-generation

Therefore, a new correlation between TTI and

oil generation

was proposed

by Waples

(1985).

In this

79

correlation the onset

of oil

generation is

shown to

from about TTI = 1 for resinite to TTI = 3 for

vary

high-sulphur

kerogens to TTI = 10 for other Type II kerogens to TTI =

15

for Type III kerogens.

In the present
well

sequences

study, subsidence

were

backstripping methods
and the TTI's were
gradients.

curves for

selected

employing

simple

no compaction

effects,

constructed
and assuming

calculated assuming constant

The

subsidence

time-stratigraphic data in

plots

are

well completion

geothermal
based

on

reports and

by

correlating between wells in the studied area.

The amount of sediment cover removed from the

sequence

was estimated using the method suggested by Dow (1977) . The

loss of cover was estimated from linear extrapolation of the
reflectance profile,

plotted on

0.20% reflectance intercept.

to

the

The result indicates that

the

average thickness of cover lost

semilog scale,

in the Muara Enim area

about 250 metres, whereas in the Pendopo area

was

approximately

625 metres of cover lost was lost.

The maturation modelling and

burial history for

areas are given in Figure 5.23 and Figure 5.24.

these

Top of

the

oil window has been plotted at TTI=3 while bottom of the oil
window has been plotted at TTI=180.
For the

Muara Enim

area, the

subsidence curve

shows

that burial during Early-Middle Eocene was probably slow

moderate and mostly continuous.
the rate

of

sedimentation

to

During the Early Oligocene,

began to

exceed

the

rate

of

sn

subsidence and the palaeotopography was rapidly filled in.

During this period the sea level began to rise as the major
Tertiary transgressive-regressive cycle commenced.
The peak of the transgressive phase occurred in about
the

Early

Miocene

accummulating.
subsidence

In

when
the

the

Gumai

Middle

progressively

Formation

Miocene,

increased

the

resulting

was

rate

of

in

the

deposition of the Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations.

During this phase of subsidence, oil source rocks of the
Lahat and Talang Akar

Formations entered

window at about 7-8 Ma BP.

the

Probably during

generative

Late Miocene,

these formations would have been generating oil and some

gas.

The

sediments

were

uplifted

by

Plio-Pleistocene

orogeny probably in Late Pliocene.

Total Indonesie (1988) also reported that the onset of
oil generation in the Muara Enim area probably occurred 5 to
8 Ma

BP

which

corresponds

to

or beginning of the Pliocene.

the

end

of

the

Miocene

Based on the Lopatin model,

in the Muara Enim area, the oil window zone can be expected
at about 1300 metres depth.

Average reflectance values of

0.54% occurred at this depth.

In general, sedimentation history of the Pendopo-Limau
area is

similar

to

that

in the Muara

Enim

area.

The

thickness of section suggests that the Pendopo area was the

depocentre

of

the basin.

An

exception

is the Baturaja

Formation which is thickest along margins of the basin and

-\ 1

Ji

on

palaeotopographic

highs.

Therefore,

the

Baturaja

Formation is relatively thinner in the Muara Enim area.

The significant accumulation of sediments has played an
important role in the maturation of the oil source rocks
(the Lahat and Talang Akar Formationss).
area,

oil

generation

from

the

Talang

In the Pendopo
Akar

and

Lahat

Formations probably started earlier (11-9 Ma BP) than in the

Muara Enim area.

Shell (1978) suggested that Middle Miocene

can be considered as the timing for generation of oil in the

Pendopo area.
The initiation of the oil window is at 1200 metres
depth corresponding with a vitrinite reflectance value of
0.53%.
crudes

However Shell (1978) reported that the South Sumatra

indicate

that

their

generation

and

expulsion

commenced at an equivalent vitrinite reflectance value of

0.68%,

and

vitrinite

reflectance

value

of

1.20

is

considered to be the onset of the gas expulsion.

Following the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny, the structural
features of the South Palembang Sub-basin were affected.
The Tertiary sediments were folded and the faults were also
rejuveneted by this orogeny.

As discussed above, in the

Pendopo area, the onset of oil generation probably started

in the Middle Miocene while in the Muara Enim area the
generation

of

oil may

have

started

at

the

end

of

the

Miocene-beginning of Pliocene and prior to the final pulse

of the Barisan orogeny.

32

n relation to this event, trapping can be expected in

older structures in the Pendopo area.

In the Muara Enim

area, however, the picture become more chaotic.

In this

areas, the zones which are modelled in the oil window would
be faulted down

into the gas window, or

faulted up above the oil window.

zones which are modelled

they would be

Another possibility is the

above the oil window would be

pulled down into the oil window or the gas window.

5.5 POTENTIAL RESERVOIRS

In the South Palembang Sub-basin, a number of potential-*

reservoir

rocks

occur

within

two

main

parts

of

the

stratigraphic sequence, firstly within the regressive and

secondly within the transgressive sequence.

The regressive

sequence is represented by the Muara Enim and Air Benakat

Formations,

whereas

the

transgressive

sequence

is

represented by Baturaja and Talang Akar Formations.

The Muara Enim Formation is a major reservoir in the
Muara Enim Anticlinorium.

It has been reported that minor

oil production was obtained from the Muara Enim Formation in

the Muara Enim field.

The sandstones of this formation are

medium- to coarse-grained, moderately rounded and have fair

to medium porosity (37 to 39.5% porosity; Pertamina, 1988).
The sandstones of the Air Benakat Formation are fineto medium-grained

and

have

fair

to medium

porosity.

33

Hydrocarbon accumulations in the Air Benakat Formation have

been found in the Muara Enim Anticlinorium.

According to

Purnomo (1984), about 20 m3 oil per day have been produced

in this area and after twenty eight years the production
rate declined to about 5 m3.

The oil is of paraffinic type

with 35 to 45 API.
In 1959, oil was produced by the L5A-144 well for the
first time from the Baturaja Formation of the transgressive
sequence.

In general, the contribution of

the Baturaja

Formation as a reservoir for oil in the studied area is

minor.

Kalan

et

al.

(1984) reported

that

depositional facies have been recognized

three

major

in the Baturaja

Formation; basal argillaceous bank carbonates, main reefal

build-up carbonate and transgressive marine clastic rocks.
Within these facies, good porosity is restricted to the main
reefal

build-up

carbonate

facies.

This

porosity

is

secondary and developed as a result of fresh water influx

leaching the reefal carbonate and producing chalky, moldic
and vugular porosity.

According to the drill completion

reports of the KG-10 and MBU-2 wells, porosity of Baturaja

reefal facies varies between 7.6 and 25.4% in the MBU-2 well
to 59 to 89% in the KG-10 well.
The most important reservoir rocks within the South
Palembang Sub-basin are sands from the Gritsand Member of
the transgressive Talang Akar sequence.

The reservoirs are

multiple and the seals intraformational.

Sandstones of the

Talang

Akar

Formation

are

commonly

coarse-grained

to

34

conglomeratic and fairly clean as the result of high energy

during their deposition.

The porosity ranges from 15 to 25%

(Hutapea, 1981; Purnomo, 1984).

ranges from 15

API gravity of the oil

to 40.2 .

In the South Palembang Sub-basin, the majority of the

oil is trapped in anticlinal traps but some oils are found
in traps related to basement features such as drapes and
stratigraphic traps.

The most common setting for an oil

trap is a faulted basement high with onlapping/wedging-out

Talang Akar sandstones on the flanks and Baturaja Formation
on the crest as the reservoirs.

35

CHAPTER SIX
CRUDE OIL AND SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY

6.1 INTRODUCTION

In the present study, four crude oils and four rock

samples recovered from Tertiary sequences in the study area
were analysed. The details of the sample locations are given
in Table 6.1.

The analyses included Gas Chromatography (GC)

analysis and

Gas Chromatography-Mass

Spectometry

(GC-MS)

analysis. In addition, four rock samples were crushed and

analysed for TOC content and also for their pyrolysis yield/
The analyses were carried out by R.E. Summons and J.M. Hope
at the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra.
The results of the oil analyses show that the oils have
hydrocarbon

distributions

derived

from

proportionally

different contributions from plant waxes, plant resins and

bacterial biomass.

The oils were characterized by high

concentrations of cadinane and bicadinane hydrocarbons. In

general, the oils are mature.
The four rock samples contained 3.7 to 51.2 wt % TOC
(Table 6.8), thus the samples can be classified as ranging
from shale to coal.

Based on the Rock-Eval Tmax values,

three samples were categorized as immature, and one sample,

recovered from the deepest part of the BRG-3 well, was
approaching the mature stage.
distributions

of

n-alkanes

The GC traces show bimodal

and

Pr/Ph

ratios

in

the

86

intermediate range of 4 to 5.

Two samples contained high

concentrations of bicadinanes and oleanane.

6.2 OIL GEOCHEMISTRY

6.2.1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

6.2.2 SAMPLE FRACTIONATION

From four oil samples, approximately 100 mg of each

whole oil was placed on a 12 g silica gel column. Three
fractions (i.e. saturates, aromatics and polars) were
collected (in 100 ml round bottom flask) by eluting the
column with 40 ml petroleum spirit, 50 ml petroleum
spirit/dichloromethane (1:1), and 40 ml chloroform/methanol
(1:1). Each fraction was reduced in volume on a rotary
evaporator to approximately 1 ml and then transferred to a
preweighed vial with dichloromethane (0.5 ml). The solvent
was carefully removed by gentle exposure to a stream of dry
nitrogen. Each fraction was weighed and labelled. Percent
compositions were calculated on the basis of the original
weights.

6.2.3 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY ANALYSIS

A Varian 3400 GC equipped with a fused silica capillary

87

column

(25m

0.2mm)

coated

with

cross-linked

methylsilicone (HP Ultra-1) was used for GC analysis. The

GC analysis was carried out on the saturated hydrocarbon
fractions. The samples, in hexane, were injected on column
at 60C and held isothermal for 2 minutes. The oven was
programmed to 300 C at 4 C/min with a hold period of 30
minutes. The carrier gas was hydrogen at a linear flow of
30 cm/sec. Data were collected, integrated and manipulated
using DAPA GC software. An internal standard,
3-methylheneicosane (anteiso-C22), was added at the rate of
25ug per mg of saturates to enable absolute quantitation of
the major peaks.

6.2.4 PREPARATION OF B/C FRACTION

The full saturated hydrocarbon fraction proved to be

unsuitable for GC-MS owing to generally high proportions of
waxy n-alkanes. An aliquot of each of the saturated
fractions was converted to a B/C fraction by filtration
through a column of silicate. The sample (l.Omg) in pentane
(2ml) was filtered through the silicate and the column
washed with a further 5ml pentane. The non-adduct (B/C
fraction) was recovered by evaporation of the solvent and
the n-alkanes by dissolution of the silicate in 20% HF and
extraction of the residue with hexane. This method has the
advantage of being rapid and clean but a small proportion of
the low MW n-alkanes remains in the B/C fraction.

88

6.2.5

GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY-MASS SPECTOMETRY ANALYSIS

GC-MS analysis was carried out using a VG 70E

instrument fitted with an HP 5790 GC and controlled by a VG
11-25 0 data system. The GC was equipped with an HP Ultra-1
capillary column (50m x 0.2mm) and a retention gap of
uncoated fused silica (1.0m x 0.3 3mm). The samples, in
hexane were injected on-column (SGE OCI-3 injector) at 50 C
and the oven programmed to 150C at 10C/minute then to
300C at 3C/minute with a hold period of 30 minutes. The
carrier gas was hydrogen at a linear flow of 30cm/sec. The
mass spectrometer was operated with a source temperature of
240 C, ionisation energy of 7 0eV and interface line and
re-entrant at 310C. In the full scan mode, the mass
spectrometer was scanned from m/z 650 to m/z 50 at 1.8
sec/decade and interscan delay of 0.2 sec. In the multiple
reaction monitoring (MRM) mode, the magnet current and ESA
voltage were switched to sequentially sample 26 selected
parent-daughter pairs including one pair (m/z 404> 221)
for the deuterated sterane internal standard. The sampling
time was 40ms per reaction with 10ms delay giving a total
cycle time of 1.3s. Peaks were integrated manually and
annotated to the chromatograms.

6.2.6 RESULTS

The general nature of the crude oils from reservoirs in

^q

the MBU-2 and BRG-3 wells is summarized in Table 6.2 in

terms of the polarity classes of saturated hydrocarbons,
aromatic hydrocarbons and combined NSO-asphalthene fraction.
The oils are generally dominated by saturated hydrocarbons
ranging from 63.7% to 77.4%.

Therefore, the oils can be

classified as paraffinic (naphthenic) oils.

Aromatic hydrocarbon content of the oils ranges from
20.7 to 27%. The 540 and 541 oils are relatively higher in
aromatic hydrocarbon content

(25.6 and 27%) respectively

than those from the 542 and 543 oils (24 and 20.7%).

The

saturated and aromatic ratios from the oil samples range

from 2.1 to 3.3.
The amount of polar compounds of the oils is below 10%
(1.8% to 9.3%).

The highest amount of this compound (9.3%)

occurs in the oil 541, while the lowest (1.8%) occurs in the
oil 543.

Figure 6.1 shows the bulk composition of the crude

oils.

6.2.6.1 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY

The GC profiles shown in Figures 6.2 to 6.5 have been
annotated to provide peak identification.

The carbon number

of the n-alkanes are identified by numbers.

Isoprenoids are

denoted "i" whereas the cyclohexanes are denoted "C" with

the carbon number.

The alkane distribution profiles of the

total saturated fration of the crude oils examined are given

in

Figures

6.2

to

6.5.

The

abundances

of

n-alkane,

isoprenoids and bicadinanes are listed in Tables 6.3 and

90

5.4,
The

GC

analysis

of

saturated

hydrocarbon

fractions

(C12+) of the oils revealed bimodal patterns of n-alkane

distributions

in

all oil

samples.

These

compounds

are

probably derived from contributions of bacteria (low MW) and

terrestrial

vascular

plant

waxes

(high

MW).

The

waxy

n-alkanes, with a slight odd over even predominance, were

present in all oil samples and were most abundant in oil
sample

540

alkanes

from

the

predominated

BRG-3
in oil

well.

Low molecular

samples

541,

542

weight

and 543.

Snowdon and Powell (1982) pointed out that the waxy oils are
believed to be associated with coals or terrestrial organic
material which is particularly rich in dispersed liptinite
such as spores and cuticles.
Isoprenoid alkanes were generally abundant relative to
the n-alkanes.

Oil samples 540 and 541 have higher Pr/n-C17

ratios (2.08 and 2.77) respectively than those of the oil

samples 542 and 543 which have ratios of 0.7 and 0.9 (see
Table 6.4). Ph/n-C18 ratios of the whole oil samples range
from 0.25 to 0.47.
Pr/n-Cl7

ratio

The highest Ph/n-C18 ratio (0.47) and

(2.77) occur

in the

contains relatively high waxes.

oil

541 which

also

The highest wax content

occurs in oil 540 and this sample also has a relatively high
Pr/n-C17 ratio (2=08) but the lowest Ph/n-C18 ratio (0.25).
According to Palacas et al. (1984) and Waples (1985),
oils which

are

derived

from

land

plant

sources have a

relatively high ratio of pristane to n-C17 (>1) and a low

91

ratio of phytane

to n-C18 (<1).

These two properties

are

characteristics of predominantly land-derived source organic

matter deposited under moderately oxidizing conditions.
On the basis of the Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios, two
groups of oil can be distinguished, Group 1 and Group 2.
Group 1 includes oils from the BRG-3 well (540 and 541)
whereas Group 2 contains oils 542 and 543 from the MBU-2
well. High Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios present in the oils of
Group 1 clearly show that these oils were derived from
terrestrial plant matter. The Group 2 however shows lower
Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios. This suggests the Group 2 oils
may have originated from a different non-marine source
compared with the Group 1 oils or may have an additional
contribution from a marine source.
Pristane to phytane ratios of the oils are relatively
high ranging from 2.11 to 8.0. The highest ratios are for
the oils 540 and 541 (with 6.5 and 8.0), whereas the oils
542 and 543 have a lower ratio (with 2.11 and 3.42).
High pristane to phytane ratios (greater than 3.0)
characterize high wax crude oils which primarily originated
in fluviatile and deltaic environment containing a
significant amount of terrestrial organic matter (Brook et
al., 1969; Powel and Mc Kirdy, 1975; Connan, 1974; Didyk et
al., 1978; Connan and Cassou, 1980). Padmasiri (1984)
pointed out that a high pristane to phytane ratio is
probably due to the presence of less reducing conditions
during early diagenesis where phytanic acid was mainly

92

converted into pristane through decarboxylation rather

than

direct reduction to phytane.

Pristane

and

abundances of

phytane

1-14,

were

1-15,

1-16, 1-18

1-25 and 1-30

isoprenoids such as

accompanied
and

by

1-21.

high
Higher

(squalane) were in

very

low abundance or undetected (Figures 6.2 to 6.5).

The other series of compounds evident in the GC
were a series of triterpenoids.

traces

This series occurs as extra

peaks in the low molecular weight end of the GC traces

(see

Figures 6.2 to

Hope

6.5). According to

(pers. comm.,

1990),

these are

analogues of

the bicadinanes

blocks

the

for

Summons and Janet

monomeric

(sesquiterpene)

and constitute

polycadinane

resin

the

compounds.

T and R1 with the

bicadinanes were assigned as W,

building
These
addition

of another compound eluting after T and denoted T'.

6.2.6.2 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY MASS SPECTROMETRY

Metastable reaction monitoring (MRM) chromatograms
m/z 191 reaction of the
series of

C27, C29+

for

oils studied (Figure 6.6) show

pentacyclic triterpanes.

the

Tissot

Welte (1984) noted that these series are considered to

and
have

originated from the membranes of bacteria and cyanobacteria.

The stereoisometric ratios

of 22S/22S+22R for

hopanes, (Ja/[3a+a(3

hopane and

norhopane

can

be

for C30
used

as

22S/22S+22R ratios of the oil

high, ranging

from

51

to

maturity

C32 and

C31

20S/20S+20R for

C29

parameters.

The

studied are considered to

61%

(Table

6.5.).

They

be
are

93

close to the end-point value of 60% which occurs once oils

are generated

from mid-mature

source rocks

Moldowan, 1978; Mckenzie et al., 1980).

(Seifert and

The maturity of the

oils is also indicated by a high ratio for 20S/20S+20R with

C29 norhopane, ranging from 40 to 56%.

Furthermore, the

Ba/Ba+afl ratios for C30 hopane are generally < 0.1, evidence
of a mature signature of the oils.
From Figure 6.6, it can be seen that the most abundant
class of compounds detected were the bicadinanes.
present in high concentration in many traces.
response

of

the

reaction trace

bicadinanes

(Figure

6.7).

are

shown

In other

They were

The strongest

in the

m/z

191

oils, they also'

co-eluted with or eluted very close to the trisnohopanes (Ts

and Tm) as shown in the m/z 217 responses (Figure 6.8).
The occurrence of bicadinanes has been reported in
oils

from

Indonesia,

Brunei,

Sabah,

and

Bangladesh

by

authors such as Grantham et al., (1983), Van Aarsen and de

Leeuw, (1989), Alam and Pearson, (1990), and Van Aarsen et
al., (1990).

Van Aarsen et al., (1990) pointed out that

bicadinanes are cyclisation products of dimeric cadinanes

released during maturation of polycadinane a component of
damar tropical tree resin of the Dipterocarpaceae family.
Many species of Dipterocarpaceae grow at the present
time in most of the South Sumatra forest areas. The present
and previously

reported

occurrences

of

strong links to terrigenous organic input.

bicadinanes

show

Table 6.6 shows

the composition of four of the bicadinanes and the steroid

94

hydrocarbons determined by GC MS.

All samples contain
the relative abundance

C27-C29 steranes.
of C27-C29 steranes

indicators of the nature

terrestrial

and

In some

cases

can be used

of the photosynthetic biota,

aquatic,

while

triterpanes

are

Meinschein,

inferred from
algae

also

1979).

Land

plant

a dominance

of

the C29

possess

wide

range

inputs

are

steranes.

of

both

usually

indicators of depositional and diagenetic conditions

and

as

(Huang
usually
However

desmethyl

sterols

(C26-C29) and may produce an oil with a major C29 component.

The distribution of

steranes and methyl

samples is shown in Figure 6.8

steranes from

the

and listed in Table 6.5

and

Table 6.6.
In the present study, organic facies of the oil samples
were identified

using

triangular

diagram

which

C27-C29 sterane distribution (Figure 6.9). This

shows

triangular

diagram was adapted from Waples and Machihara (1990).

This

diagram shows that the origin of most of oil samples may

higher plants which
sterane.

The

have a strong

distribution

of

be

predominance of the

C29

hopanes,

and

steranes

bicadinanes from all the samples is shown in Table 6.7.

Biodegradation of a crude oil
removal

of

n-alkanes,

can be indicated by

isoprenoids

and

other

the

branched

alkanes, and even some cyclic alkanes (Bailey et al., 1973;

Goodwin et al.,
early

stages

n-alkanes

are

of

1983; Cook and

Ranasinghe, 1989).

biodegradation,
removed,

whereas

low
the

molecular

In

the

weight

isoprenoids

are

95

residualized.

Therefore, degraded oils contain fewer normal

paraffins or waxes than non-degraded ones. In extensively

biodegraded oils, all C14-C16 bicyclic alkanes are removed,
followed by steranes. In very heavily biodegraded oils, up
to 50% of the 50a(H),14a(H),17a(H)20R isomers from the
C27-C29 steranes are removed and finally regular steranes
are also removed and changed into diasterane (Cook and
Ranasinghe, 1989). Therefore, in severely biodegraded oils,
a high concentration of diasteranes is present.
Figures 6.2 to 6.5 show that for the oils studied,
abundant n-alkanes (C9 to C34) are present. Volkman et al.
(1983) noted that non-degraded oils show low values for the
pristane/n-C17 and phytane/n-C18 ratios.

6.3 SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY

6.3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

Four rock samples comprising shales and coals were

collected from different rock formations, that is, the Muara
Enim and Talang Akar Formations. In general, the samples
were treated by similar methods using GC analysis,
preparation of B/C fractions and GC-MS analysis. Because
the samples were rock, sample extraction was carried out as
described below.

96

6.3.1.1

SAMPLE EXTRACTION

The samples were crushed and analysed for TOC content

using

Leco

carbon

analyser.

The

samples

were

also

analysed for their pyrolysis yield using a Girdel Rock-Eval

II instrument.

The crushed sediments were extracted using

pre-washed soxhlets and thimbles, using 87:13 CHCL3:MeOH as

solvent

and

continuing

the

process

for

48 hours.

The

extracts were filtered using micrometre filters and then

evaporated

to

near

dryness.

These

extracts

were

then

treated as oil and separated into the different polarity

fractions by column chromatography.

6.3.2 RESULTS

The results of the total organic carbon (TOC),

Rock-Eval data and the composition of the extracts in terms
of the polarity classes of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic
hydrocarbons and combined SO-asphaltene fraction are shown
in Table 6.8 and Figure 6.10.
profiles of the saturated
given

in

Figures

composition

of

6.11

fractions of the extracts are

to

saturated

analysis of this fraction.

Linear alkane distribution

6.14.

Table

hydrocarbons

6.9

shows

determined

by

the
GC

Pristane and phytane ratios are

given in Table 6.11.

Table 6.8 shows that all the samples exceed the minimum
critical

limit

accepted

for hydrocarbon

generation

from

37

clastic rocks (0.5 wt% TOC) as mentioned by Welte (1965) and

Phillipi (1969).

The two shale samples contained a lower

percentage TOC (3.7 and 4.1 wt%) than the two "coal" samples
which contained 26.9 and 51.2 wt% TOC, although only one
sample can be classified as true coal. The two coal samples
also had relatively high HI values of 230 and both could
possibly represent source rock intervals, although only the
deepest sample which has Rymax 0.83%, is considered to be
mature.
A source rock potential study of the Tertiary sequences
from the South Palembang Sub-basin has also been carried out
by Sarjono and Sardjito (1989) as summarized below;
Formation

Total Organic Carbon

Tmax

Lahat

1.7 to 8.5

436-441

Talang Akar

0.3 to 8.0

425-450

Baturaja

0.2 to 1.5

425-450

Gumai

0.5 to 11.5

400-440

Air Benakat

0.5 to 1.7

>430

Muara Enim

0.5 to 52.7

>430

In the present study, the Rock-Eval Tmax data show that

the samples from Talang Akar Formation were approaching the
appropriate maturity of 433 to 446C.

Espitalie et al.,

(1985) suggested that the beginning of the oil-formation

zone is at Tmax of 430 to 435C, whereas the beginning of
the gas zone starts with Tmax of 465 to 470C for Type III

98

and 450 to 455C for Type II kerogen (Figure 6.15).

However

Tmax is infuenced by organic matter type with liptinites

generally giving higher Tmax values compared with vitrinite
(Cook and Ranasinghe, 1990).
The production index (PI) of the samples varies from
0.06 to 0.20.

Espitalie et al. (1985) also noted that the

PI can be used as another criterion of maturity.

They

suggested the oil-formation zone begins at PI values between

The maximum oil formation is reached at Pis

0.05 and 0.10.

of 0.30 to 0.40.

Beyond this the PI values tend to remain

stationary or even decrease (gas formed).

A plot of the hydrogen index (HI) and oxygen index (01)
is given in Figure 6.16. It is clearly seen that the samples
are categorized as Type III kerogen which would be largely
derived from the woody portions of higher plants.
The GC traces of the four samples all show bimodal
distribution

of

n-alkanes

and

intermediate range of 4 to 5.
Muara Enim Formation
carbon

number

waxy

Pr/Ph

ratios

in

the

The coal sample from the

(5384) shows a predominance of odd

n-alkanes

which

terrestrial plant input (Figure 6.12).

implies

high

Shale sample (5385),

which was taken from the Talang Akar Formation, shows a

predominance

of

significant

low

odd/even

carbon

number

predominance

n-alkanes

(Figure

without

6.13).

The

shallow (5383) and deep (5386) samples both show about equal
abundances

of

additionally,

short
sample

and
5386

long-chain
has

only

n-alkanes,
a

weak

but

odd/even

99

predominance (Figures 6.11 and 6.14).

Based on the distribution of C31 aB hopanes (22R>>22S),
it is clearly shown that the shallow samples (5383 and 5384)
are very immature (Rvmax 0.41
samples (5385 and

and 0.47%).

The Talang

Akar

values of

0.71

5386) having reflectance

and 0.83%, however, show some mixed characteristics with

an

immature distribution

(22R>>22S),

an

aB

immature

C29

of

sterane
(moretane)

(hopane)/Ba
distribution.

The

intermediate.

Based

concluded that

the

C31

aB

hopanes

20S/20R
ratio

20S/20R

pattern,
and

ratio

on these
deepest

mature

mature

of

C27

C28

sterane

sterane

characteristics, it
sample

(5386)

is

is

may

only

approaching oil generation maturity but the sterane

be
just

20R/20S

ratio of the oil sample 541 was similar to the sample 5386.
A high concentration
also shown

in

the Talang

of bicadinanes
Akar

and oleanane

samples (5385

and

These characteristics are also found in the two oil

which were taken from
limitations of

the same well.

the data,

for the

oils.

The

samples

could not

used to determine whether the Talang Akar samples

a source rock

5386) .

However, due to

these similarities

the
be

represent

biomarker signature

thermal maturity of the deepest sample (5386) shows

patterns with those from the oil sample (541).

was

and

similar

100

CHAPTER SEVEN
COAL POTENTIAL OF SOUTH PALEMBANG SUBBASIN

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The regional stratigraphy of the South Sumatra Basin

shows that coal seams occur more or less continuously over a
number of the Tertiary formations such as the Lahat, Talang
Akar and Muara Enim Formations. The coals with economic
potential are largely within the Muara Enim Formation.
An assessment of coal potential in the South Sumatra
Basin was made by Shell Mijnbouw during a major coal
exploration program from 1974 to 1978. The area for coal
exploration included the South Palembang Sub-basin. In the
South Palembang Sub-basin, several government institutions
such as the Directorate of Mineral Resources (DMR), the
Mineral Technology Development Centre (MTDC) and the
Directorate of Coal (DOC) have also been involved in
exploration for, and development of, the Muara Enim coals.
The volume of coal available in the South Palembang
Sub-basin was assessed by Shell Mijnbouw (1978) at
approximately 2,590 million cubic metres to a depth of 100
metres below the ground surface. These reserves are
clustered into two areas; the Enim and Pendopo areas.
Two thirds of the volume of the coal is found in the seams
of the M4 unit but the coals are low in rank.

101

7.2

COAL DIVISIONS IN THE MUARA ENIM FORMATION

As mentioned in Chapter Three, the Muara Enim Formation

can be divided into four subdivisions (from top to

bottom);

M4, M3, M2, Ml subdivisions (See Table 3.3).

The oldest
coal seams, the
5-10 metres

unit, the

Ml subdivision

consists of

irregularly developed Merapi

thick

Kladi seam

at

the base

two

seam and
of

the

the

unit.

Neither of these seams generally offer a resource

potential

within the range of economic surface mining.

interseam

The

sequence between the Kladi and Merapi seams is characterized

by brown and

grey sandstone, siltstone

and claystone

with

minor glauconitic sandstone.

The M2 subdivision comprises three coal units (from top
to bottom); Mangus, Suban and Petai.

Haan (1976) recognized

that most of these units locally split into two seams

which

are designated as follows;

Mangus unit : Al and A2 seams
Suban unit

: BI and B2 seams

Petai Unit

: CI and C2 seams

These seams

can be

found in

From the viewpoint of

the area

around Bukit

economically mineable coal

reserves,

the M2 subdivision is locally the most important coal

particularly in the

Enim area.

brown coal in rank, but

also found
intrusions.

in

the

The

Asam.

coals are mainly

unit,
hard

high rank anthracitic coals can

immediate

vicinity

of

some

be

andesite

102

The interseam rocks in the M2 subdivision are limnic

(perhaps in places, lagoonal/brackish) and mainly consist of
brown to

grey

medium-grained

claystone

and brown-grey

sandstone

and

some

fine-grained

green-grey

to

sandstones.

The coal seams of the M2 subdivision have several good

marker features which can be used to identify the seams
convincingly.

A clay marker horizon within the Mangus seam

is used to correlate the interval over most of the area.

well known tuffaceous horizon that separates the Al and A2

seams of the Mangus unit also can be used as a marker bed.
This horizon was probably deposited over a wide area during
a short interval of volcanic activity.
The M3 subdivision contains two main coal layers, the
Burung in the lower part and the Benuang in the upper part,
both of which
These

coal

are

layers

only of minor
have

several

economic

significance.

characteristic

sandstone

horizons and they can be recognized in most areas.

The

thickness of the M3 division varies from 40 to 120 metres.

The uppermost and stratigraphically youngest part of
the Muara Enim Formation is the M4 subdivision
metres thick).

(120-200

The M4 subdivision contains the Kebon, Enim,

Jelawatan and Niru seams.

The coals of this subdivision

were formerly called the Hanging layers in the Bukit Asam

area.

Jelawatan and Enim seams contain coal of a lower

rank, with

lower

calorific

value

and higher

content than those of the M2 Subdivision.

moisture

In some areas the

M4 seams offer an interesting resource potential.

103

The

predominant

blue-green tuffaceous

rocks

of

the

claystone and

M4

Subdivision

are

sandy claystone,

some

dark brown coaly claystone, some white and grey fine-grained

to

coarse-grained

sandstone,

with

sparse

glauconite

indicating marine-deltaic to fluvial conditions.

7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MUARA ENIM COALS

In the South Palembang Sub-basin, the Muara Enim coals

are clustered in two areas;

Enim and Pendopo area.

the major

program from

coal exploration

During

1974-1978,

Shell

Mijnbouw divided the Enim area into two prospect areas; West
Enim area (includes

Arahan-Air Serelo-Air

Lawai area)

East Enim area (includes Banko-Suban Jerigi area).

areas,

detailed

undertaken by

coal

exploration

DMR (1983-1985)

and DOC

program

and

In these
was

also

(1985-1988).

Data

from these institutions and from Shell Mijnbouw (197 8)

been used in the present study.
into three

prospect areas;

Talang Akar-Sigoyang

The Pendopo area is divided

Muara Lakitan-Talang

Benuang,

and

addition, one particular aspect .of

Prabumulih

Langaran,
areas.

the Muara Enim coals

the presence of anthracitic quality coals caused by

effects of andesitic intrusions.
near the intrusive
Bukit Kendi.

have

bodies of Bukit

is

thermal

These coals can be

Asam, Bukit Bunian

They will be discussed separately.

In

found
and

104

7.3.1

ENIM PROSPECT AREAS

The Enim Prospect areas can be divided into two areas;

West Enim areas including Arahan, Muara Tiga, Banjarsari and
Kungkilan area, and East Enim areas including Banko and
Suban Jerigi area. The Bukit Asam coal mines actually, are
included in the West Enim area, but, because it has already
been mined since 1919, its coal resources will be discussed
in a separate section (Section 7.8).
The oldest coal seam of M2 subdivision, Kladi seam, has
been reported to occur in the Air Serelo area. The Kladi
seam offers a good prospect in terms of quality and is up to
9 metres in thickness. The coal is relatively clean and
high in rank.
In the Enim area, the Petai seam (C) of the M2
subdivision is developed throughout the areas as a 5-9
metres seam. Locally, this seam splits into two layers (CI
and C2) which have been recognized at the southern part of
West Banko and also at Central Banko (Kinhill Otto Gold,
1987). The combined thickness of these seams commonly
exceeds 12 metres.
In general, the most uniformly developed seam in these
areas is the Suban seam (B) of the M2 Subdivision. This
seam has a thickness varying from 15 to 20 metres and is
characterized by up to six claystone bands. It has been
reported that the Suban seam splits into a thicker (10-15
metres) upper (BI) and a thinner (2-5 metres) lower (B2)

105

seam in

Banjarsari,

East

West

Banko

and

Central

Banko

(Kinhill Otto Gold, 1987) .

The Mangus seam (A) of the M2 Subdivision occurs as two
leaves, Al and
Muara Tiga
Mangus

A2, in

and

seam

West Banko.

is

split

interbeds by thick

into

these latter

numerous

thin

(8-12 metres) in

where it

generally 8-10

In

in Arahan,

fluvial intersections.

fairly uniformly thick

Central Banko

most areas except

tends

metres thick,

areas,

the

streaks

The

and

A2 seam

most areas

to split. , The Al
but it

South

splits into

is

except
seam

is

numerous

thin seams in the areas mentioned above.

A 9 to

12 metres

thick development of

occurs over large areas and

bands.

the Enim

seam

it is generally free from

dirt

The thickness of this seam reaches approximately

27

metres at Banjarsari and North Suban Jerigi area.

Another interesting seam
has a thickness

between 6

is the

Jelawatan seam

to 15 metres

which

at Banjarsari

and

Suban Jerigi area.

7.3.1.2 PENDOPO AREA

During the Shell Mijnbouw Coal Exploration Program, the

studied areas near Pendopo included Muara Lakitan and Talang
Langaran, Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang, West Benakat and
Prabumulih areas.

Coals from the M2, M3 and M4 subdivisions

are found in these areas.

Seams present in the M2 subdivision include the

Petai,

106

Suban and

Mangus

seams.

The Petai

seam

occurs

in

the

Sigoyang Benuang, Prabumulih and West Benakat area. The

thickness of this seam varies from 5 to 8 metres. The Suban
seam is found at Sigoyang Benuang and West Benakat. The
Suban seam has a thickness between 9 to 13 metres. The most
widely distributed seam in the M2 subdivision is the Mangus
seam. It occurs over all of the Pendopo areas. The
thickness of the seam varies from 6 to 13 metres. The
thickest development of the Mangus seam is found in the West
Benakat area but unfortunately the dips of the seam are
relatively steep, around 15 .
The M3 subdivision is represented by the occurrence of
the Benuang (Burung) seam which has a thickness of about 5
to 9 metres. This seam can be found in the Talang Langaran,
Sigoyang Benuang and West Benakat areas.
Coals of the M4 subdivision are found in the whole
Pendopo area. These coals are the Niru, Jelawatan, Kebon,
Enim and Niru seams. The Enim seam offers an attractive
mining target in terms of thickness as it ranges from 9 to
24 metres. The thickness of the Niru seam varies from 6 to
11 metres. The Jelawatan seam reaches 15 metres in
thickness in the Talang Akar area, while a 5 metre thick
development of the Kebon seam is found in the Muara Lakitan
area.

107

7.4

COAL QUALITY

On the basis of the potential use for brown coal as a

thermal energy source (calorific value and moisture content
being the main determinants of suitability) the quality of
South Sumatra coals was summarized by Shell Mijnbouw (197 8).
According to Shell Mijnbouw (197 8), the older coals of the
Ml and M2 subdivisions contain about 30-50% moisture, while
the moisture content of coals of M3 and M4 subdivisions
ranges between 40-65%. The dry ash-free gross calorific
value of Ml and M2 coals ranges between 6500 and 7500
kcal/kg, and it varies between 6100 and 7000 kcal/kg for the
M3 and M4 coals. The inherent ash content of coals is
usually less than 6% (dry basis). Sulphur content of the
coals is generally less than 1% (dry basis) but locally it
increases to 4% (dry basis) in some areas.
Kinhill Otto Gold (19 87) has also determined the
quality of coals from specific areas such as the Enim area.
According to the Kinhill Otto Gold result's, the rank of
coals in the Enim areas, varies between sub-bituminous A
(ASTM)/brown coals, Class 1 (ISO)/Glanzbraunkohle (German
classification) and Lignite B/brown coals, Class
5/Weichbraunkohle (Kinhill Otto Gold, 1987). Quality values
for the coals typically range between :
Total Moisture: 23-54%
Ash (dry basis): 3-12%
Sulphur (dry basis): 0.2-1.7%

10 8

CV net (in-situ):

10-20 MJ/kg

Sodium in ash:

1.8-8%

Grindability:

37-56 HGI

Further
and

Enim

details

areas

are

of

the

given

coal qualities
in

Table

and

calorific

values

are

the

7.1-7.6,

parameters of thickness, total moisture

volatiles

of

Pendopo

where

the

(TM), ash, sulphur,

listed.

Values

are

averages for each seam and for each area or sub-area.

7.5 ASH COMPOSITION

The ash composition data were obtained from Kinhill

Otto

Gold

(1987).

According

to

this

report

the

mineral components in Sumatran coals are; quartz

and

kaolinite.

Small

amounts

of

pyrite

major

(detrital)

(marcasite),

volcanic feldspar, Ca and Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates and sulphates,

and phosphates, are also present.

Volcanic tuff bands which

are commonly present in the coals, contain mainly kaolinized

volcanic glass.
A study of sodium content in the coal ash was also done
by Kinhill-Otto Gold
Enim area.

(1987), particularly

This study

for coals in the

is important in relation to use

of

these coals in thermal power station.

The Na~0 values above

3-4%

fouling

are

indicative

of

undesirable

and

slagging

characteristics in industrial boilers and strongly lower the

ash

fusion

operation

temperatures.
is

expected

Substantial
above

6-8%

impact

Na~0.

on

The

boiler
results

109

of sodium-in-ash analyses are

analyses

were

performed

on

listed in Table 7.7.

coal

samples

following

The
the

procedures of ISO.
According to Kinhill-Otto Gold (1987), the upper seam
group (M4), with the Enim and Jelawatan seams, has moderate
sodium content (below 2.5%) and peak values rarely reach
5.0%.

The lower group of seams (M2), including the Al, A2,

B/Bl and C/C1-C2 seams, has a moderately high to high Na20

content.

7.6 STRUCTURES

In general, the tectonic style of the area under study

is characterized by fold and fault structures.

Pulunggono

(1986) recognized that these structures run parallel with a

WNW-ESE trend.

He also concluded that the Plio-Pleistocene

orogeny was responsible for these WNW-ESE trending folded

structures with accompanying faults.
Within the Pendopo areas, the general trends of folds
is NW-SE.

This trend can be observed at Muara Lakitan area

and Talang Langaran area.

The NW-SE folds at Muara Lakitan

have gently to moderately dipping flanks, less than 20.

The average inclination of coal seams in the Muara Lakitan
area is about 8, while that in the Talang Langaran area, is
steeper (15 ) than that in the Muara Lakitan.
(about

6 ) are found

Sigoyang

Benuang

but

in
they

the

areas

become

Low seam dips

of Talang

steeper

Akar

and

(20) in

the

110

vicinity of

N-S and

NE-SW faults.

Numerous small

faults

trending N-S and NE-SW occur in the West Benakat area.

Steep dips of the coal seam (around 15) cause difficulties
from the mining point of view. In the Prabumulih area, dips
of coal seams are generally low (6-10).
In general, the strike direction of the fold axes in
the Enim area occurs at approximately E-W (80-100; see
Figure 1.5). This direction turns towards WNW-ESE
(100-130) in the northwestern part of the Bukit Asam area.
In the Northwest Banko area, directions of 130-160 are
predominant. The structural features of the Banko-Suban
Jerigi area are more complicated than those in other areas.
Numerous folds and faults are present in these areas. A
NW-SE anticlinal axis is closely related to numerous
displacements along NNE-SSW, NNW-SSE, NE-SW and WNW-ESE
directions. Dip angles range from 5 to 2 .
In the Arahan area, particularly in the northern part
of this area, dips of coal seams are relatively low (around
7), but they become higher (9-10 ) in the southern area.
Relatively steep (around 14-19 ) dips of coal seams are
present in the Air Lawai areas. Although the coal seams of
this area offer good prospects in term of thickness (9-20
metres), the dips of the seams are too steep for surface
mining. As discussed above, the geological structures of
the Banko-Suban Jerigi area are complicated due to intensive
faulting. Therefore, the mineable areas are restricted to
some of the relatively larger blocks bounded by fault

Ill

planes. Dip angles of coal seams vary between 5

to 20 .

7.7 COAL RESERVES

As mentioned previously, Shell Mijnbouw (1978) divided

the Pendopo area into four

subareas; the Muara Lakitan

and

Talang Langaran area, Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang area,

West Benakat area

and Prabumulih area.

Coal reserves

for

each of these areas were also estimated.

An in-situ

coal volume

of approximately

300

million

cubic metres can be expected in the Muara Lakitan and Talang

Langaran areas combined with a maximum overburden

thickness

of 50 metres, a minimum coal seam thickness of 5 metres

a maximum 15
Talang Akar
million

dip of

the seam (Shell Mijnbouw, 1978) .

and Sigoyang

cubic

resources of

metres
the

Benuang

in-situ

West

areas have
coal

Benakat

In the

less than 15

1,330

The

coal

however,

were

not

are either too steep

Prabumulih area,

reserves for seams of

The

about

volume.

area,

calculated, because the coal seams

too thin.

and

surface-mineable

more than 5 metres in thickness

or

coal
and

dip amount to 400 million cubic metres down to

50 metres depth.
Although coal

reserves in

the Enim

area had

already

been estimated by Shell Mijnbouw, the reserve estimates were

also made by

Kinhill otto

used in

present

the

Gold (1987) and

study.

The

the latter

classification

of

are
the

geological reserves used by Kinhill Otto Gold follows the US

112

Geological Survey system.

A summary of

coal resources

of

the Enim area is given in Table 7.8.

7.8 THE BUKIT ASAM COAL MINES

Coals occurring in the Bukit Asam Mines area are known

as the Air Laya Coal Deposit because one of the mines
operating is in the Air Laya area. These coals have been
mined since 1919 in underground workings but the mines were
abandoned in 1942. Since then, coal mines have been
operated by surface mining systems. Another coal mine is
located in the Suban area where anthracitic coals are mined.
The mines are operated by the state-owned Indonesian
company, P.T. Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam (Persero).
The geology of the Air Laya Coal Deposit was studied in
detail by Mannhardt (1921), Haan (1976), Frank (1978),
Matasak and Kendarsi (1980), and Schwartzenberg (1986).
The Air Laya Coal Deposit is characterized by the close
proximity of sedimentary and plutonic petrofacies. The
thermal and kinematic impacts of the plutonic intrusions
have decisively influenced the structure and the coal
quality. Mannhardt (1921) assummed that the plutonic
intrusions are probably laccoliths.
The coal seams exposed in the Bukit Asam Mines belong
to the M2 Subdivision of the Muara Enim Formation (Figure
7.1) .

113

7.8.1

STRATIGRAPHY

7.8.1.1 QUATERNARY SUCCESSION

This unit consists mainly of river gravel and sands

from the ancient Enim River and overlies soft clay deposits
which are interbedded with bentonite layers of former ash
tuffs and occasional large volcanic bombs (Schwartzenberg,
1986). The thickness of this unit is about 20 metres.

7.8.1.2 TERTIARY SUCCESSION

In the Bukit Asam Coal Mines, the Tertiary succession

can be divided into two subunits; coal seams, overburden and
intercalations.

7.8.1.2.1 Coal seams:

Three coal units of the M2 Subdivision occur in the

Bukit Asam area, they are; the Mangus, Suban and Petai
seams. The Mangus seam is split into two layers (Al and A2
seam) by a 4 to 5 metres thick unit of tuffaceous claystones
and sandstones. The thickness of the Al seam is about 2.5
to 9.8 metres, whereas that of the A2 seam is around 4.2 to
12.9 metres thick.
The Suban seam also splits into two layers (BI and B2
seam). The BI seam is usually the best developed of the

114

sequence with an

average thickness

of 11

metres.

The

B2

seam is about 2 to 5 metres in thickness.

The lowest
Petai seam.

coal seam

It varies

in the

Bukit Asam

in thickness

area is

between 4.2

the

to

10.8

metres.

7.8.1.2.2 Overburden and Intercalations:

The overlying strata consist of claystones and

siltstones which are interbedded with up to three bentonitic
clay layers

(each only

a few

metres in

thickness).

claystones are blue-green to grey in colour and are

massive

but

sometimes

they

are

ironstone nodules are abundant in

finely

The

usually

banded.

this unit.

Clay

They vary

in

size from small pebbles to large cobbles.

Tuffaceous

claystone

intercalation layers

and

between the

sandstone

occur

A (Mangus)

as

seams.

the
This

unit is continuously graded from

the base where quartz

and

lithic fragments are enclosed in

a clay matrix, to the

top

where the rock is fine-grained and clayey.

The thickness of

this unit is about 4 to 5 metres.

The interseam strata between Al-Bl and B1-B2 coal seams
are characterized

by similar

rock types

to those

of

the

overlying strata but plant remains occur more frequently

the interseam strata.

A thin coal intercalation of

0.2-0.4

metres in thickness occurs within the A2-B1 interval.

coal is known as

the Suban Coal

Marker.

in

This

The thickness

of

115

the A2-B1 interval is around 18 to 23 metres, whereas that

of B1-B2 interval is up to 5 metres.
the

Bukit

Asam

area,

the

In the western part of

intercalation

between

B1-B2

disappears and the B1-B2 seams merge together.

A sequence of some 33-40 metres of siltstone and silty
sandstone occurs between the B2 seam and C (Petai) seam.
This sequence consists of glauconitic sandstone alternating
with thin lenticular

and ripple-bedded

siltstone layers.

These sedimentary structures suggest sedimentation within

tidal zones (Schwartzenberg, 1986).

In the Suban mine, an

andesite sill is intruded into the B2-C intercalation and

increased its thickness from about 35 to 60 metres.

7.8.2 COAL QUALITY

The Bukit Asam coals are characterized by a wide range

of quality due to the intrusion of a number of andesitic
plutons

during

the Early

Quarternary.

The

heating

has

increased the extent of coalification and advanced the rank

of coals.

In terms of coal rank, three classes of coals are

found in the Bukit Asam area.

They are semianthracite to

anthracite, bituminous and sub-bituminous coals.

(1984) and Schwartzenberg

Kendarsi

(1986) described the quality of

the Air Laya coal deposit.

According to them, the total

moisture of the Air Laya coals varies between 4 and 26%.

The ash content of the coals ranges between 6-7% and reaches
maximum

values

of

around

10%

in

the

areas

of

greater

116

coalification (Schwartzenberg,

1986).

Volatile

matter

of

the coals is about 32.1% (as received), while fixed carbon

content is around 40.3% (as received). Heat value of the
coals ranges between 5425 to above 6000 kcal/kg (as
received). The sulphur content of the coals varies between
each seam. The Al seam contains 0.5%, A2 and BI seams
contain 0.3%, B2 seam contains 0.9%, and C seam contains
1.1%. From these figures, it can be concluded that the
lower part of the M2 Subdivision was more influenced by
marine conditions.
Kendarsi (1984) reported the quality of coals from the
Suban mine on an air dried basis as described below:
Gross CV 7900-8200 Kcal/kg
Inherent moisture 1.7-2.3 %
Total Moisture 3.7-6.2 %
Volatile matter 8.2-16.8 %
Fixed Carbon 75.0-84.4 %
Ash 1.6-5.8 %
Total sulphur 0.7-1.2 %

7.8.3 COAL RESERVES

Schwartzenberg (1986) estimated and described the

reserves of the Muara Enim coals in the Air Laya mine based
on the ASTM-Standards (D 388-77) as described below:

117

Group

Approximate Tonnages

Anthracite

3Semianthracite

1,000,000

Bituminous

lLow Volatile

Class

15,000,000
2Medium Volatile
3High Volatile A
4High Volatile B
5High Volatile C
Sub-bituminous

30,000,000

lSub-bituminous A
66,000,000
2Sub-bituminous B

T o t a l

112,000,000 tones

The reserves of anthracitic coals at the Suban mine

have been reported by Kendarsi (19 84) to be approximately
5.4 million tonnes.

7.9 BUKIT KENDI COALS

Bukit Kendi is located about 10 kilometres southwest of

Bukit Asam. Ziegler (1921) described the coals of this area
and identified the coal sequences as (from young to old);
the Hanging seams, the Gambir seams, the Kendi seam and the
Kabau seam. The Hanging seam comprises 2 to 8 seams which
total 15 metres in thickness. This seam probably belongs to
M3-M4 subdivision (Shell, 1978). The Gambir seams consists

118

of 1 to 3 layers having a thickness between 2 and 10 metres.

This seam probably belongs to the M3 subdivision." The Kendi
seam is 8-30 metres in total thickness in the Bukit Kendi
area. The Kendi seam comprises 2 to 3 layers and can be
correlated with the Mangus-Suban-Petai sequence of the M2
subdivision. The Kabau seam is split into two layers with 2
to 6 metres total thickness. This seam is believed to be
equivalent with the Kladi seam of the Ml subdivision.
The rank of Kendi coals has been upgraded, by an
andesitic intrusion, from brown coal to high volatile
bituminous coal. Unfortunately this coal is distributed
only in limited small areas due to the structural
complications in this region. Naturally coked coals have
also been found in this area, and they probably belong to
the Kabau seam. The quality of the Kabau seam is described
in Table 7.9.
Shell Mijnbouw (197 8) estimated the in-situ resources
of the Kabau seam about 0.5 million tonnes, down to 100
metres depth.

7.10 BUKIT BUNIAN COALS

Bukit Bunian is located 10 kilometres south of Bukit

Kendi. In this area two coal groups occur which were
designated by Hartmann (1921) as the Tahis and Bilau seams.
The Tahis seam can be correlated with the Kladi seam of the
Ml subdivision (Shell Mijnbouw, 1978), whereas the Bilau

119

seams are believed to be

and Petai seams.

The

equivalent with the Mangus,

Tahis seam is

and has a total thickness up

split into two

to 4 metres.

can be divided into three; Bilau

layers

The Bilau

1, 2, and 3.

seam varies from 0.5 to 1.5 metres.

seam is Bilau

2 about 10-15

seams

The Bilau

is a poorly developed seam consisting of 2 or 3 thin

and often contains carbonaceous clay.

Suban

layers

The thickness of this

The best developed coal

metres in thickness,

whereas

the thickness of Bilau 3 seam varies from 1.5 to 8 metres.

The quality of the Bunian
Mijbouw (197 8).

According to

coals was reported by

this report, the

values of the Bukit Bunian coals

the coals

have gross

kcal/kg (dried air

than 5% ash and

dry basis.

kcal/kg

7100-7900

of the

coals

decreases to

the coals increase

air

free)

about 4%.

and

less

to 2.6% sulphur on

In the area closer to the intrusive body,

(dried

the

The coals contain

contain less than 1%

calorific values of

and

Volatile matter contents of

to 55% (dry).

coals range from 40

of about

Inherent moisture

varies between 10 to 18%.

reflectance

are about 0.6 to 0.8%

calorific values

free).

Shell

to about

volatile

Inherent moisture

gross

8300-8500

matter

content

content of

the

thermally upgraded coals drops to 1%.

The resources of
than

35

million

coal have

tonnes,

but

been reported
these

resources

to be

would

difficult to mine by

either open-pit or subsurface

due

dips

to

very

steep

structural setting.

(20-55)

and

the

more
be

methods

complicated

120

CHAPTER EIGHT
COAL UTILIZATION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In Indonesia, the utilization of coal for domestic

purposes can

be divided

into

direct fuel, for example in

two categories;

firstly

as

power plants, lime, brick

tile

burning and cement plants, and secondly as an indirect

fuel

or as a

last

feedstock for

chemical industries.

In this

case a major use is coke as a reductant in ore smelting

and

foundries.
The utilization of
application

of

coal

behavior of

coal

coal cannot be
petrographic

properties such

generally

the

most

suited

characteristics of coal, the

used to predict

studies
as

influence the utilization of coal.

separated from
because

type and

the

rank

will

Petrographic methods are

for

determining

rank of coal

the behavior of

the

the

genetic

and can be

coal in any

also

technological

process of interest.
At

the

present

time,

the

South

Sumatra

coals,

particularly from the M2 subdivision of the Muara Enim,

mainly used
directly and
utilities for

for

steam

indirectly

generation.
in

electric power

coals from the Suban

industrial

energy
processes

generation.

mine are used

the Bangka tin smelter.

This

is

are
used

and

by

Semi-anthracite

mainly as reductant

in

121

The coals are transported by train from the Bukit Asam

mines to supply the cement manufacturing plant at Baturaja
town, the electric power plants at Bukit Asam itself or at
Suralaya (West Java), and to supply the Bangka tin smelter
on Bangka Island (see Figure 8.1).

8.2 COMBUSTION

Mackowsky (1982) and Bustin et al. (1983) noted that

the generation of energy or heat from coal by combustion is
the result of reactions between the combustible matter of
the coal and oxygen.
rank

and

(Neavel,

Four coal characteristics related to

petrographic
1981;

grindability,

composition

Mackowsky,

swelling

and

1982);
ignition

influence

combustion

calorific
behavior,

value,
and

ash

properties.
The relationship between calorific value and maceral
groups has been discussed by Kroger (1957) as shown in Table
8.1.

From these data it can be concluded that macerals

which have a high hydrogen content, would have markedly

higher calorific value.

Liptinite macerals of

coals

high hydrogen.

contain

relatively

low rank

Therefore, the

calorific value of this maceral is also high.

In contrast

the inertinite macerals have low calorific values, which are

partially caused by their low hydrogen content.
(1982) recognized

Mackowsky

that the calorific value of the three

maceral groups are almost the same for coals of low volatile
bituminous rank.

122

The use of coal for combustion at present is

dominated

by its use as pulverized fuel for electric power generation.

Baker (1979) considered that moisture content of coal is the
most important factor
plant design because
cause serious

to be considered
variable and

problems

in the

in fuel

pulverized

excessive moisture

operation

of

Therefore, coal must be dry before entering

can

pulverizers.

the

pulverized

In most power station boilers, coal must be

pulverized

fuel plant.

to a particle
Therefore

size mainly

below 7 5 microns (Ward,

grindability

of

coal

is

an

1984).

important

characteristic because of the additional energy required

grind a hard tough coal.

Based on the ASTM Standard

to

D-409,

this property of coal is known as the Hardgrove Grindability

Index (HGI); the higher the HGI values, the easier coals are
to pulverize.

In terms of

values mean less

energy required, the higher

energy is required

lower HGI values. The grindability

HGI

for grinding than

for

of the Muara Enim

coals

of a coal.

This

ranges between 37-56 HGI.

The HGI is related
relationship has been

to rank and type

studied by Neavel

(1981).

He

noted

that the HGI increases with increases in rank to about 1.40%

vitrinite reflectance (about 23% volatile matter and 90% C)
and

decreases

reflectance.

at

ranks

Low-volatile

much easier to pulverize

greater

than

1.40%

bituminous coals
than

are

vitrinite
generally

high-volatile coals.

Coals

rich in liptinite and inertinite, are much more difficult to

123

coal.

grind than vitrinite-rich

rich in

vitrinite

accumulate in

but

are

the finer

small size range.

The Muara

easy

to

grind

fractions, being

In addition,

also related to the HGI values.

Enim coals
and

are

commonly

enriched in

the

mineral content of coal

is

In low rank coals, the

HGI

values increase with increases in mineral matter content.

Neavel (1981) reported that increases in the amounts of
liptinite, vitrinite and

pyrite can be

correlated with

increase in the explosive tendencies of dust.

he added

that the

tendency for

stockpiles is mainly related to

in fusinite

or pyrite.

content of fusinite

(less than

Furthermore,

spontaneous combustion
the presence of coals

The Muara

Enim coals

1%), but

spontaneous combustion is still high

an

in
rich

have a

low

the tendency

for

due to their low

rank

and, in some cases, high pyrite content.

The behavior of the individual coal macerals during the
combustion process has been observed by Ramsden and Shibaoka
(1979)

using

optical

microscopy.

They

vitrinite-rich particles from bituminous and

coals

expand

fusinite-rich

forming
particles

cellular
show

indicated

sub-bituminous

structures.

little

or

that

no

However
expansion.

Expansion is greatest for medium volatile coals where it

mainly influenced by the rate

of heating.

They also

is

noted

that the burn-off rate is influenced by the maceral content.

Vitrinite-rich particles have

a higher

burn-off rate

than

fusinite-rich particles.
Reid (1981) noted that

the ash properties are

related

124

to mineral composition in the coals.

Mineral matter affects

the development of

deposits and

corrosion.

type

matter

can

of

mineral

properties.
likely

affect

ash

in

fusion

Coals that have low ash fusion temperatures are

to

surfaces.

also

Variations

cause

slag

Boilers

deposits

can become

to

form

coated or

on

the

boiler

corroded by

slag

deposits.
The major

elements

of

the

coals, that is Fe, Mn, Ca, Mg,

coal.

These

elements

are

quartz, kaolinite, pyrite,

and Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates,

ash

in

the

Muara

Enim

Na and K, are bonded to

present

in

minerals

the

such

as

detrital volcanic feldsphar, 'Ca

sulphates and phosphates.

is a major contributor to corrosion by flue gases.

Sulphur
Sulphur

content of Muara Enim coals varies between 0.2 to 1.7%.

8.3 GASIFICATION

Gasification of coal is another possibility for using

Muara

Enim

coals.

converted into

gas

gasification agent.
alternative to

Through
by using
The

gasification,
oxygen

gas yielded

natural gas.

coal

is

as

the

and/or steam
can

be used

Gasification testing

coals from the Bukit Asam mines

Koppers-Totzek process (Gapp,

the

as

an

of

the

has been done by using

the

1980).

According to

tests,

the coals produced good results for gasification.

In South Sumatra, a large nitrogen fertilizer
is based

on natural

gas.

This

industry is

industry

located

near

125

Palembang City.

Continued future operation of this facility

depends

assured

on

an

feedstock.

supply

of

natural

gas

as

its

Reserves of mineral oil and natural gas are

limited whereas abundant coal is available.

gasification

technology,

be

produced

economically for ammonia and methanol production.

Hartarto

and Hidayat

synthetic

(1980) estimated

gas

By using coal

can

that one coal

gasification

plant would consume about 700,000 tonnes of coal per year to

produce 1000 tonnes ammonia per day.
these

figures, about 7000-8000

He added that from

tones of

produced a year as a useful by product.

sulphur

can be

Most of Indonesia's

sulphur requirement is still imported because there are no

large

sulphur

deposits

within

the

country.

Therefore,

sulphur from coals could replace this import.

8.4 CARBONISATION

In the area of coal carbonization or coke making, the

application

of

coal petrology

plays

an

important

role.

Maceral and reflectance analysis can be used to predict the

behavior of coals used for coke.

In general, coals in the

bituminous rank range (from about 0.75% to 1.7% vitrinite

reflectance) will produce cokes when heated, but the best
quality cokes are produced from coals in the range vitrinite
reflectances from 1.1 % to 1.6 % (Cook, pers. coram, 1991).
However,

not

all

bituminous

coals

can

produce

coke.

Carbonisation or coke making is a process of destructive

126

distillation of

organic substances

in the

absence of

air

(Crelling, 1980; Neavel, 1981; Cook, 1982; Makowsky, 1982).

In this process, coal is heated in the absence of air and
turns into a hard sponge-like mass of nearly pure carbon.
Coke is mainly used in iron making blast furnaces. In the
furnace, the coke has three functions; to burn and to
produce heat, to act as a reductant, and to support,
physically, the weight of ore, coke and fluxing agents in
the upper part of the shaft (Cook, 1982).
In order to improve coking properties of Muara Enim
coals, a Lurgi low temperature carbonization pilot plant was
built in the Bukit Asam area (Tobing, 1980). The result of
the tests indicated that metallurgical coke of sufficient
strength and porosity could not be made on an economical
basis. Tobing (1980) described the chemical characteristic
of the semi cokes which were produced from the Lurgi plant
and they were similar to the Bukit Asam semi-anthracitic
coals as shown in Table 8.2. The Bukit Asam
semi-anthracitic coal is used by the tin ore smelting in
Bangka and ferro-nickel smelting at Pomalaa (Sulawesi).
Edwards and Cook (1972) studied the relationship between
coke strength and coal rank which is indicated by vitrinite
reflectance and carbon content of vitrinite (Figure 8.2).
They suggested that coal containing between 86% and 89%
total carbon in vitrinite can form cokes without blending
with other coals. Coal which has a vitrinite content
between 45% to 55% and an inertinite content of close to

127

40%,

is

very

suitable

for

coking

coal.

These

target

specifications are not met by the coals from the South

Sumatra Basin.

128

CHAPTER NINE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

9.1

SUMMARY

9.1.1

TYPE

The composition

of

maceral

groups

in

the

Tertiary

sequences are summarized in Table 9.1 and Appendix 2. The

results of the present petrographic study show that the
Muara Enim, Talang Akar and Lahat Formations contain
lithologies rich in DOM and a number of coal seams. In
general, vitrinite is the dominant maceral group within the
Tertiary sequences. The second most abundant maceral group
is liptinite. In the Gumai Formation, however, inertinite
appears to be the second most abundant maceral to vitrinite.

Table 9.1
No.

Formation

Range R max
(%) V

Coal
V
I
L

DOM
V
I
L

(%)

(%)

(m.m. f. )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Lahat
Talang Akar
Baturaja
Gumai
Air Benakat
Muara Enim

0.54-0.92
0.50-0.87
0.53-0.72
0.36-0.67
0.31-0.58
0.30-0.50

In the South Palembang

86
87

81

4
3

10
10

13

(m.m. f.)
84
90
97
63
78
65

2
3
tr
22
3
3

Sub-basin, on a mineral

14
7
3
15
19
32
matter

free basis the vitrinite content of the DOM from Tertiary

sequences ranges from 65% to 97% (average = 81%), whereas in
the coals, it ranges from 81% to 87% (average = 84%). Both

129

in the coals and DOM,

detrovitrinite is the main

vitrinite

maceral group and predominantly occurs as a detrital

groundmass interbedded with thin bands of telovitrinite. In
some cases where the coals are affected by thermal effects
from intrusions, telovitrinite is the main type of vitrinite
as reported by Daulay (1985).
Vitrinite from the youngest coal seams (Muara Enim
coals) still shows cellular structures derived from plant
material. Some of the telovitrinite cell lumens are
infilled by fluorinite or resinite. Gelovitrinite, mainly
corpovitrinite and porigelinite are scattered throughout the
coals. With increasing depth and age, telovitrinite becomes
dense and compact, and the cell lumens are completely
closed. This occurs in the coals from the Lahat and Talang
Akar Formations. For the thermally affected coals,
vitrinite is mostly structureless, massive and contains few
pores (Daulay, 1985). The dominance of vitrinite in these
coals is indicative of forest type vegetation in the humid
tropical zone, without significant dry events throughout the
period of accumulation. Cook (197 5) noted that coals which
have a high vitrinite content were probably deposited in
areas of rapid subsidence. In some cases vitrinite-rich
coals have a high mineral matter content.
Inertinite is generally rare in the South Palembang
Sub-basin. On a mineral matter free basis, it ranges from
sparse to 22% (average = 5%) in the DOM while in the coals
it ranges from 3% to 6% (average = 5%). The highest

130

inertinite content occurs in the Gumai Formation. In the

Tertiary sequences, inertinite mainly occurs as
inertodetrinite but semifusinite, fusinite and sclerotinite
can also be found in the coals' from the Muara Enim and
Talang Akar Formations. Some well-preserved mycorrhyzomes
occur in the Muara Enim coals. Micrinite also occurs in
some coals and DOM and it is present generally as small
irregularly-shaped grains.
Liptinite content of DOM ranges on a mineral matter
free basis, from 3% to 32% (average = 15%), whereas it
ranges from 10% to 13% (average = 11%) in the coals.
Cutinite, sporinite and liptodetrinite are the dominant
liptinite macerals in the Tertiary sequences.
In general, the liptinite macerals from the youngest
sequences can be easily recognized by their strong
fluorescence colours compared with liptinite in the oldest
sequences. Suberinite has strong green to yellow
fluorescence and mostly occurs in the Muara Enim coals.
Fluorinite is also common in the Muara Enim coals. It has
green fluorescence and commonly infills cell lumens or
occurs as discrete small bodies. In some cases, fluorinite
also occurs in the Air Benakat and Gumai Formations, but in
minor amounts. In the Muara Enim coals, cutinite and
sporinite have a yellow to yellowish orange fluorescence.
However, they give weak fluorescence colours ranging from
orange to brown in the Talang Akar and Lahat coals.
Exsudatinite occurs mostly in the Muara Enim and Talang Akar

131

coals, but it also

occurs in some of

has bright yellow fluorescence in

the Lahat coals.

It

the Muara Enim coals

and

yellow to orange fluorescence in the Talang Akar coals.

Bitumens and other oil
drops, oil cuts and dead

related substances such as

oils occur either associated

DOM or coal throughout the Tertiary sequences.

bitumen and oil cuts

are mostly present

coals

greenish

and

have

fluorescence.
to

orange

yellow

In

Bitumen

vitrinite, largely in cleat

with

general,

in the Muara
to

bright

occurs

Enim
yellow

In the Talang Akar coals, bitumen has

fluorescence.

also some in

oil

yellow

mostly

within

fractures of telovitrinite

detrovitrinite.

Based

on the

but

petrographical

observations, bitumen is probably derived from the liptinite

macerals where

these macerals

have

a higher

H/C

ratios.

vitrinite macerals also provide some contribution.

9.1.2 RANK

Mean maximum vitrinite reflectance of coal samples from

shallow

drilling

and

oil

Palembang Sub-basin was

Figure 5.21.

samples

from

plotted against depth

The vitrinite

basin range from

well

0.20% to

the

as shown

reflectance gradients
0.35% per

South

kilometre.

of
A

in
the

marked

increase in vitrinite reflectance with depth is shown from, a

depth of below about 1500 metres (R max 0.5%) to 2500 metres
(R max 0.9%).

The Talang

intersected by

the 0.5%

Akar
to 0.9%

and Lahat

Formations

R max surfaces,

and

are
are

-\o,o

thermally mature for oil generation.

Therefore, coals from

these formations can be classified as high volatile

bituminous coal. The Muara Enim Formation has vitrinite
reflectance values ranging from 0.3% to 0.5% and is
thermally immature to marginally mature for oil generation.
Consequently, the coals from this formation are brown coal
to sub-bituminous in rank. Chemical parameters such as
carbon content, calorific value and moisture content from
the Muara Enim coals (see Table 7.1 in Chapter 7) also
support that classification. In some places the Muara Enim
coals affected by intrusions have high vitrinite
reflectances, ranging from 0.69% up to 2.60% and they can be
classified as semi-anthracitic to anthracitic coals. The
Baturaja and Gumai Formations are thermally mature while the
Air Benakat Formation is immature to marginally mature for
oil generation.
Relationships between coalification and tectonism can
be defined by comparing the shape of the iso-rank surfaces
and structural contours. In general the iso-reflectance
lines in the South Palembang Sub-basin are semi-parallel
with the orientation of the formation boundaries.
Therefore, a major pre-tectonic coalification event is
present in this area, but partial syn-tectonic coalification
patterns are also evident in the Limau-Pendopo area.

9.1.3 THERMAL HISTORY

The present geothermal gradient in the South Palembang

133

Sub-basin

ranges

from

36C

average of 38C/kilometre.

to

40C/kilometre,

with

an

However, Thamrin et al., (1979)

reported that the average geothermal gradient in the South

Palembang

Sub-basin

is

52.5C

geothermal gradient may result

per
from

kilometre.

The

high

rapid burial during

sedimentation which followed Tertiary tectonisra.

At least

three major tectonic events occurred in the South Sumatra

Basin, that is the mid-Mesozoic, Late Cretaceous to Early
Tertiary and the Pio-Pleistocene orogenic activities.

These

orogenic activities were mainly related to the collision and

subduction of the Indo-Australian plate against the Eurasian
plate.
The gradthermal model and palaeothermal calculations
suggest that the present temperatures are lower than in the
past.

These also indicate that the sediments of the South

Palembang Sub-basin underwent a period of rapid burial prior

to a period of uplift and erosion.

9.1.4 SOURCE ROCK AND HYDROCARBON GENERATION POTENTIAL

Organic petrology data show that the Lahat, Talang

Akar, Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations have better
source potential for liquid hydrocarbons than the Baturaja
and Gumai Formations.

According to Sarjono and Sardjito

(1989), however, the Baturaja and Gumai Formations have good

to excellent source potential based on the TOC and Rock-Eval
pyrolysis data.

The differing results are probably caused

134

by the limitation of samples from these formations used in

the present study.
From petrographic studies the Lahat, Talang Akar and
Muara Enim Formations are considered to have good source
potential for gas and liquid hydrocarbons but based on the
Tmax data, only the Lahat and Talang Akar Formations are
considered to be early mature to mature with Tmax values
ranging

from

430C

to

441C.

This

is

supported

microscopically by the presence of bitumens and other oil

related substances within the coal and shaly coal samples.
The Muara Enim Formation is immature to early mature with
Tmax values of less than 420C, although coals from this
formation contain significant amounts of bitumen and oil
related

substances.

The

Muara

Enim

and

Air

Benakat

Formations are considered to be gas prone but in some places

they may also generate oil.

The organic matter in the Gumai

and Baturaja Formations comprises mainly vitrinite and they

probably generate dominantly gas.
Vitrinite reflectance data show that the oil generation
zone is generally reached below 1500 metres depth in the
Muara Enim area, but it is reached below 1200 metres depth
in the Pendopo area.
oil window

generally

In the Muara Enim area, the top of the

occurs

in

the

top

of

the

Gumai

Formation, but in some wells it occurs in the lower part of

the Muara Enim, Air Benakat or Talang Akar Formations.

In

the Pendopo-Limau area, the upper and middle parts of the

Gumai Formation occur within the top of the oil generation

135

zone.
The Lopatin

model

generation occurs at
area, while

in the

metres depth.

In

generated since

indicates

1300 metres

that the
depth in

Pendopo-Limau area
the Muara

the

onset

it occurs

occurred in the Middle Miocene

Enim

at

1200

may have

been

Ma BP),

(8-7

oil

the Muara

Enim area, oil

Late Miocene

of

while

(11-9 Ma BP) in the

it

Pendopo

area.
Gas

chromatography

and

spectrometry analyses indicate

Palembang Sub-basin
plant material.
of pristane to

were

gas

chromatography-mass

that the oils

derived from

in the

terrestrial

South
higher

These oils are characterized by high ratios

phytane and

by the

high concentrations

of

bicadinanes and oleanane.

In the present study, geochemical data from the
rocks

and

coals,

particularly

Formation, reveal that

from

these samples

the

source

Talang

are just

Akar

approaching

their biomarker signatures

oil generation maturity and

are

almost similar with those in the oil sample studied.

A number
Palembang

of potential

Sub-basin

reservoir

occur

transgressive sequences.

within

The Muara

rocks in
the

the

regressive

Enim and

Air

South
and

Benakat

Formations from the regressive sequences have good potential

as reservoirs.

The transgressive sequences are

by the

Akar

Talang

and

Baturaja

important reservoir rocks in

Formations.

the South Palembang

are sandstones from the Gritsand

represented
The

most

Sub-basin

Member of the Talang

Akar

136

Formation.
In the South Palembang Sub-basin, oil is mainly trapped
in anticlinal traps, but some

oils are also found in

traps

related to basement features such as drapes and stratigrapic

traps.

9.1.5 COAL POTENTIAL AND UTILIZATION

In the South Palembang Sub-basin, coal seams occur

within a

number

Lahat, Talang

of the

Akar and

Tertiary
Muara Enim

with economic potential

Formation.
coals in

formations such
Formations.

are largely within

The

Subdivision.

quality and

The M2

thickness occur

coals are sub-bituminous

intrusion.

Although

the

Enim

important
in the

M2

in rank

locally increase to semi-anthracitic in the area

by andesitic

the

coals

the Muara

In the Muara Enim Formation, the most

terms of

as

and

influenced

coals from

the

M4

Subdivision comprise two thirds of the volume of the coal in

the South Palembang Sub-basin, they
coals).

are low in rank

(brown

The thickness of the coal seams varies from 2 to 20

metres.
The moisture content
60%, calorific

value of

kcal/kg (dried air free).

coals is less than

of the

M2 coals is

the coals
The

is about

about 30
6500 to

inherent ash content of

6% (dry basis),

and sulphur content

to

7 500
the
is

generally less than 1%.

The volumes of

coal available in

the South

Palembang

137

Sub-basin are approximately 2,590 million cubic metres to

depth

of

100

metres

below

the

ground

surface.

These

reserves are clustered in the Muara Enim and Pendopo areas.

The coals from the South Palembang Sub-basin are mainly
used for steam power generation.

Semi-anthracitic coals are

used as reductants in the tin smelter.

for using the

South Palembang coals

the gas yielded

gas.

The

can be

South

properties and

used as an

Palembang

even where

coals

Another

is gasification
alternative to
do

blended with

have vitrinite contents

between 45% to

contents

40%,

of

close

satisfactory

to

blends.

they

The

carbonization pilot plant

are

Lurgi

may allow

possibility

not

where
natural

have

coking

other coals
5 5% and

inertinite

unlikely
low

which

to

give

temperature

more diversified

coal

use

9.2

CONCLUSIONS

The Tertiary South Palembang Sub-basin is the southern

part of the back-arc South Sumatra Basin which was formed as
a result of

the collision between

Eurasian plates.

the Indo-Australian

Tectonic activity in the region

and

continued

to influence the development of the basin during the

Middle

Mesozoic to the Plio-Pleistocene.

The

Tertiary

sequence

comprises

seven

formations,

deposited in marine, deltaic and fluvial environments, which

are

underlain

by

complex

of

pre-Tertiary

igneous,

138

metamorphic and carbonate rocks..

Economically, the South Sumatra
region

in

Indonesia

because

producing area and the

as a steaming coal.
the Indonesian
with

the

markets.

it

is

important

major

coals are suitable for

petroleum
exploitation

One large mine is presently operated by

government through

coal

Basin is an

available

for

the Bukit

both

Asam

internal

Company

and

export

With regard to petroleum, few petrographic studies

have been carried out to characterise the organic matter

in

the source rocks or to

of

elucidate the geothermal history

the basin.
This study was undertaken
coal and source

rocks in the

to further knowledge of

the

South Palembang Sub-basin,

sub-basin in which many studies have been carried out on the

petroleum but few on the coal and its resources.
of the organic matter

in representative coal,

Evaluation
carbonaceous

shale and clastic rock samples from the seven formations was
based on maceral type and abundance studies using
white light and fluorescence mode microscopy.
of the rocks was

The

maturity

assessed using vitrinite reflectance

which was then used to

described in

reflected

the

determine the geothermal history

Lopatin

model.

In

addition

Rock

data
as
Eval

geochemistry of selected samples1 was undertaken.

Four oils

from the

Talang

Akar, Lahat

and

Baturaja

Formations were characterised

using gas chromatography

and

gas chromatograph-mass spectroscopy techniques.

In general, petroleum potential of the seven

formations

139

in the South Palembang Sub-basin ranges from poor to good to

very good.

Specific

conclusions arrived

at

during

this

study are listed below.

In the South Palembang Sub-basin coals occur in the

Lahat, Talang Akar

and Muara Enim

Formations but the

workable coal measures

are concentrated in

Formation.

occur

The

coals

centimetres in thickness,

as

the Muara

stringers,

Enim

ranging

from

to 20 metres

thick.

The Muara Enim coals are widely distributed over the

entire

South Sumatra

Basin.

to seams up

main

Coal

in the

Talang Akar

and

Lahat

Formation is similar in occurrence to the coal in the

Muara

Enim Formation.
From

the

reserves,

viewpoint

coals

from

important coal units

of
the

economically

M2

in South

mineable

Subdivision
Sumatra.

are

The

the

coal
most

coals can

be

utilized for electric power generation and gasification

are

unlikely

to

be

satisfactory

as

blend

but

coals

in

carbonisation processes.
The clastic units contain dispersed organic matter (DOM)
which constitutes

up to

16% of

the bulk

rock, with

some

carbonaceous shales associated with the coals containing

up

to 40% organic matter.

Many of

the

samples

drops, oil cuts and oil

mode.

These

components

examined

contain

bitumens,

haze when examined in

together

with

the

oil

fluorescence
presence

of

exsudatinite are accepted as evidence for oil generation

in

140

some of the units, especially the Muara Enim and Talang Akar
Formations.
Based on the reflectance data, the Muara Enim coals are
classified as brown to sub-bituminous coals in rank.

Some

anthracitic coals are also found in the area near andesitic

intrusions.

The

Talang

Akar

classified as sub-bituminous

and

Lahat

coals

can

be

to high volatile bituminous

coals in rank.
The Gumai, Baturaja, Talang Akar and Lahat Formations
are typically oil mature, but in some places, the lower part
of the Muara
mature.

Enim

and Air

Benakat Formations

are

also

The reflectance profiles of the Palembang Sub-basin.

increase at 0.20% to 0.35% per kilometre and, based on the

reflectance

data

the

oil

generation

zone

is

generally

reached below 1500 metres depth.

The average geothermal gradient in the South Palembang
Sub-basin

is

relatively

high,

at

more

than

40 C/km;

therefore, oil may be found at shallow depths. Based on the

gradthermal

model

and

palaeothermal

calculations,

the

present temperatures are lower than in the past.

Using the Lopatin model and taking the top of oil window
at TTI = 3, oil generation can be expected to commence at
depths of 1200 to 1300 metres which fits well with the top
of the oil window as predicted from reflectance data.
generation

in

the

Talang

Akar

and

Lahat

Formations

Oil
is

predicted to have started approximately 9-11 Ma BP.

Coals and DOM in the Tertiary sequences are dominated by

141

vitrinite with detrovitrinite and telovitrinite as the

macerals.

Liptinite

occurs

in

significant

main

amounts

and

comprises mainly liptodetrinite, sporinite and cutinite.

general, inertinite

is

rarely present

Bitumens are mainly found in

are also

found in

coals and

DOM are

in

the

sequences.

the Muara Enim coals but

the Talang

Akar and

mostly derived

In

Lahat coals.

from terrestrial

they
The

higher

plants.
Coals and DOM from the

Lahat, Talang Akar, Air

and Muara Enim Formations can

to

very

good

hydrocarbons.

source

Benakat

be considered as having

potential

for

gas

good

and

liquid

In some places, the DOM from the Baturaja and

Gumai Formations may

also generate gas.

source rock potential of the

using the Score A

the

various units was carried

out

method which is based

composition of macerals.
obtained for some

Assessment of

on the volume

and

Score A values of up to 16-19 were

samples from

the Muara

Enim and

Talang

Akar Formations, indicating very good source rock potential.

The same samples gave

high SI + S2

Rock Eval values,

also

indicating very good source potential.

The crude oil geochemistry

indicates that the oils

derived from terrestrial land

is

supported

by

the

plant sources, a factor

petrographic

data.

The

oils

dominated by saturated hydrocarbons (up to 77% of the

oil) and

can

hydrocarbons

be

classed

constitute

as
up

comprise up to 9% of the oil.

paraffinic

to

27%

and

are
that
are
total

oils.

Aromatic

polar

compounds

142

The saturated
n-alkane

fraction is

pattern

abundant.

with

Pr/n-17,

isoprenoid

Ph/n-18

a bimodal

characterized by

ratios

alkanes
and

relatively

pristane/phytane

ratios indicate that the oils were derived from

terrestrial

organic matter.
Gas chromatography-mass
oils

contained

spectrometry

series

of

C27,

showed
C29+

that

the

pentacyclic

triterpanes, bicadinanes, hopanes and C27-C29 steranes.

The Gritsand Member of the Talang Akar Formation is
most important reservoir
but

sandstones

from

in the

the

South Palembang

Muara

Enim

and

the

Sub-basin

Air

Benakat

Formations also have good reservoir potential.

A review

of

the

data

shows

that

within

the

South

Palembang Sub-basin the Pendopo-Limau area, in the northeast

part of

the

hydrocarbon

sub-basin,
generation

prospective region.

has
and,

the

greatest

therefore,

potential
is

the

for
most

142(a)

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FIGURES TO CHAPTER ONE

AREAS:
NORTHERN PROSPECTS
BN. BENTAYAN
TG TAMIANG
BA. BABAT
KL.KLUANG
PENDOPO PROSPECT
ML MUARA LAKITAN
TL. TALANG LANGARAN-TK TALANG AKAR
SB. SIGOYANG BENUANG-WE. WEST BENAKAT
PR. PRABUMULIH
ENIM AREA
AR.ARAHAN
AL. AIRLAWAI--SJ, SUBAN JERIGI
-BO, BANKO
SOUTH EAST PROSPECTS
GM GUNUNG MERAKSA
KE. KEPAYANG
MU MUNCAKABAU-VJ. AIR MESUJI
TOTAL

Figure 1.1

"I | 330 j> BROWN COAL, MOISTURE CONTENT

i60%

400

"I 120

(WEST-ENIM J

~J> 450 (EAST- ENIM) MOISTURE CONTENT 28-36%

I 10

:} I 50
250
5135

EQUIVALENT OF 6162 x IC6 TON

(50 METER DEPTH)

South Sumatra coal province and its demonstrated

coal resources (after Kendarsi, 1984).

 10N

GULF OF THAILAND

SOUTH CHINA SEA

SINGAPORE
KALIMANTAN

INDIAN OCEAN
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
STUDY AREA

LOCATION MAP
SCALE
200

10O"i

10S

Figure 1.2

Location map of Sumatran back-arc basins

Figure 1.3

Tectonic elements of South Sumatra Basin (after

Purnomo, 1984).

4*00

a.

,fl Di
4J fl

'1l

ftH
H

,d id
CO 04

43
H -M
+ 3
rt O n
H CO 00
0) cn
M CD H

o
o

,fl

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0)H
fi 0
+>
ta

fl
0
0
oi

flfl3
it) D H
09 3 0 4

CH

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H
4J O JJ
<fl -H m
oflm

0 0
H -M
O fl
H O-H
H 4J W
a) (d
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H-OrQ
H cd P

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)

c
c
o

2 ==
5 S

5 S -"
O OOQ if O
3* 30

400

o
m
in
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0)
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0
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C CU
rO u
0

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H fl
M 0
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m 4J co
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CU U rH

X 0
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w ofl w
rH

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id ro
ca a
0 - A
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3 id x
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rfl u u
CU ro cu

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H fl id
id H *U T3
H C T3
Ol 3 CU

0 0-H
H M TJ
0 rH fl
CU fl -P
U

m
CU
H
Cu.

ca ca

FIGURES TO CHAPTER TWO

IMPREGNATION

Ji

05

<
"

cr

ACUATION
c
a

a.
F
a
c
<o

zz

3
O

<B

C3 <>
>

* SETTING
I
c
o
tS

cn

u
03

GRINDING

>
LU

120
220
400
600
''200
GRIT LAP "GRIT LAP W E T ANO ORY H*WET ANO ORY ^ W E T ANO ORY
PAPER
PAPER
PAPER

npregnation with Astic Resin

<'

POLISHING
Water

Pr

ooat

CHROMIUM SESQUIOXIOE
SELVYT CLOTH

CHROMIUM SESQUIOXIOE
SELVYT CLOTH

MAGNESIUM OXIDE
SELVYT CLOTH

JtUM OXIDE
MAGNESIUM
SELVYT CLOTH

Washed in
Distilled Water

Washed in
Propan-2-oI

Air Dried

Air Dried

MOUNTING ON
PLASTICSNE

EXAMINATION
Figure 2.1

Flow diagram showing the method for polishing

and mounting samples (after Hutton, 1984).

c
o

co

E
cr

a
o
c
a

o
s

cr

<
rLU

CO
CO
LU

z
LU

c
<
sjosjroejfj J'94) P U B E|2J80E^,' eqi jo uoiJBjaiiv }o juajxg

>?

ra

o ~ re

= E
0 = 0
dC

"

*
c o ._

"

' w
OJ u
I

~
J

c
_o
re
u
o

2 a. o
0

.* s

St

a.

E =
taffta

B>

01 c

01

01

c .a a -

\
\
\
\
= K\

3 C . .

u 0

" ~

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O

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2 =

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1
>

~~

t>

(0

m.

\
\
\
\
\

0
V

3"

0 19

o- ~ =

c fc
->

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o
0 d
u." < <

2eJ o.
.

do

5
* ~> 3

CJ
UJ

0
<
rV)

-c
S
01 Ol

cu
0 Q)
cs
H
0

a =
a
0 _

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5

a
5

T3

S
c.
E c
flj

cu 0
in m

= r 0 u.
<5-

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10

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_*
2 0u o .
c ~ D *>

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w

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S|.f 0

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a

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w
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01

ro
*~
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m
ro

c E
.2 -2

XJ U Li
IS CI3N
Li 0 *
3 Li
0 0 >
H 3 "0
W H S
C >w JJ
0
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0 T3

C CO
H (0 -H
(0
rC

XJ

QJH

DC*

3W:

a
<
o

C. c.
E _!
B

10 0 H
0 XJ

E u in

r3 u >
r l U M ^
ro >M co co
00
H i0
H
3 VO
W
Q Ll 0 rH

0
in

ro c
>. 0
> ai
ro ~
cu

a
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Si

0
J2
0

ta . C

"

ta

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r t - >< c u
- J w -_: = ; ; *i
~ ~ f
oc.ai
U
- - a. UO.- ~ 3 - - - O i 3

a
0

01

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rs

u i>.
rt

13

I!

0 _=

B
E
n

H J3
XJ 0) C

s:

0
U

<

ro cu
0 0
0 <"
(J CO

5^
_l

0 g

1 W

0 H
0 2
& 0 0
C m-i W
.2
ta. *- H H S
a 5 l-S
0
0 c
X0 s c
0

_o *-.
0

un
0 CO
'O M
Li 0

u
m 5
<u 0

a c
3
U.

\D

CJ

ro

Ll
3
CT
H
LU

0-. 5 %

SPARSE

1.0%

COMMON

2.0%

10%

ABUNDANT

MAJOR

Figure 2.4 Visual aid to assist in the assessment of

volumeteric abundance of dispersed organic
matter in sediments.

FIGURES TO CHAPTER THREE

ta O O mm). OOmmmm.

i.
m. m. &

A>

A, Cl.

JL_

LATE CARBONIFEROUS-EARLY PERMIAN 3UB00CTION

PERWIAH-EARLY TRIASSX: SUBOUCTrON
LATE TRtASSJC - JORASSC 3UBOUCTION
CRETACEOUS EALY TERTIARY 3UB0UCT10H
TERTIARY SUBOUCTrON
PRESENT SUBOUCTrON
PATERWOSTER FAULT
'DIRECTION OF SPREADING

Figure 3.1

Lineaments of subduction zones in western

Indonesia (after Katili, 1984).

fTTfflzon. A

Zoo* 0
Zona

[777?
mZZtX.
< '

gratilt*

I Zona C

Kl L 0 M E T R E 3
KRAKATAU

Figure 3.2 Pre-Tertiary rocks underlying the Tertiary in

the South Sumatra Basin (after De Coster, 1974)

FIGURES TO CHAPTER FOUR

LAHAT
N = 15

FORMATION

DOM 0.09-16.99%(Av.= 8.50%) by vol.

COAL 2 - 34 % (AV. = 18 %) by vol.

Vol. %
40

COAL
-30

COAL
20

DOM

10

Total Abundance
Average Abundance

Figure 4.1

Abundance range and average abundance by volume

and maceral group composition of DOM, shaly coal
and coal in the Lahat Formation at five well
locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin.

TALANG

AKAR

FORMATION

< ^ r r r : ^^*"*ta^
'

yyJ \

DOM 1.82^37.91% (Av= 13.63%)

by vol.
Sh.COAL 12-30% (Av= 23%)
by vol.
COAL 2 4 - 9 7 % ( A v = 39.47%)
by vol.

/
/*
j
/

llK...
XIK *
"~^J \
\V

V
\
\
\
\
\

SHALY COAL

Vol.%

Total Abundance
Average Abundance

Figure 4.2

y\ | [\ ., .

N = 48

Inartinite
| '.'.*.'.' LipTinite

Abundance range and average abundance

and maceral group composition of DOM,
and coal in the Talang Akar Formation
well locations in the South Palembang

by volume
shaly coal
at ten
Sub-basin.

BATURAJA FORMATION
N

DOM 0.1-2.93% (Ava0.87%)by vol.

VoL%.
-a.

OOM

.2

_l

Total Abundance
i Vltrfntte
Average Abundance

Inertinite
Liptinite

Figure 4.3

Abundance range and average abundance by volume

and maceral group composition of DOM in the
Baturaja Formation at six well locations in the
South Palembang Sub-basin.

GUMAI FORMATION
N = 24
DOM 0.05- 7.33% (Av=l.8 7%)by vol

VOl.%

DOM

4
-3
_2
.1
0

DOM
3

Total Abundance

Vitrinite

HUHAtmcul<
j Inertinite
aftC#)
Average.
l-.'-y.-'.-l Liptinite

Figure 4.4

Abundance range and average abundance by volume

and maceral group composition of DOM in the
Gumai Formation at ten well locations in the
South Palembang Sub-basin.

AIR

BENAKAT

FORMATION

N = 24
DOM 0.15-15.44% (Av = 3.66 %) v
by
ol

voi.%

.15

DOM-

.10

3
-5

=3
DOM

[ '

j Totol A b u n d a n c e

Average Abundance

j Vi trin ita
Inertini te
Liptinite

Figure 4.5

Abundance range and average abundance by volume

and maceral group composition of DOM in the Air
Benakat Formation at ten well locations in the
South Palembang Sub-basin.

MUARA ENIM FORMATION

IM = 57
DOM 1.8 7 - 7 . 9 8 % fAv= 4.37%) by vol.
C O A L 35.6-100% (Av = 6 6 % ) by vol.
voi.%
I0O

rr.A.
C 0 A L

_30

COAL

DOM

Total Abundance
Average Abundance

Figure 4.6

Abundance range and average abundance by volume

and maceral group composition of DOM and coal in
the Muara Enim Formation at ten well locations
in the South Palembang Sub-basin.

FIGURES TO CHAPTER FIVE

MBU- 2
TD s 2200 m

0,1

0.2

0,3

0.4

OJ

0,6

0.7

0.8

0.9

% Vttrfnite Reflectance
Figure 5.1

Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the MBU-2 well.

PMN-2
TD = 1959: 6m

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0.3

0.6

0.7

% Vitrinite Reflectance
Figure 5.2

Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the PMN-2 well.

GM- 14
TD= 1398 m

u.
u
2

N*
i

318

500

<
fi

E
84

a.
Q

li.

3
O

1000
I04

BRF
nee.
TAF
iteo
l4_

0.1

0,2

0,3

0.4

a3

OJS

07

LAF
6M

o,a

% Vitrinite Reflectance
Figure 5.3

Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the GM-14 well.

KG-10
TD-I575 .8 m

U.
<
it.

167

u.
UJ

.2
rao.
U.
<B

<

12TB.

6UF
1447.
1817.

iu

iii

u.4

iii

BRF
TAF

ii.i. ii/ -u.y

Vo Vitrinite Reflectance
Figure 5.4 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
from the KG-10 well.

KD- 0|
TD 1858.5 m

LL.

468

Sloo

u.
UJ

2
946.

1000

c
i sea-

a.

LL.
3

1500
1872.
ie7.

BRF
TAF

B M
0,1

0,2

0,5

0,4

OJ

0.6 OJ"

0.6

% Vftrfnlte Reflectance
Figure 5.5 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
from the KD-01 well.

BRG-3
T.D . 2300 m
-o
<
S4

900

U
1

.1000

o
E

1221
Ik

Q.

1900

<
18 81

u.
3
20O0

O
2 0 64
2 0 6 4 : JPOE-

TAF
|.0 *280.

LAF

% Vitrinite Reflectance
Figure 5.6

Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the BRG-3 well.

TMT-3
TD-1633 m

U.
.UJ

2
310

u.

300

as

c r*

<

w-

a
o

1000

a
1164

Urn
3
9
... ,,.

1500

issA.

O.i

33

0,-5

tt4

UJ

0.6

CL7

Q.d

3W

% Vitrinite Reflectance

Figure 5.7

Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from the TMT-3 well.

L-5A 22
TD* 2237 m
u.
LU
828.

U.

r 500

a
<

964.

1000
LL.

3
(3
1290.
1312 3RF_

1500
LL.

<

1900.

2000

U.

<
-I

SM
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.6

OJ"

0.3

0.9

% Vitrinite Reflectance
Figure 5.8 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
from the L5A-22 well.

BL-2
TD= 1675 m

03

500

8(2

U.

1000

a.
o _

1323

LS6

u.
<

1300

0,1

8RF

as

as

o^

as

o.6 0,7 o.a 0.9

% Vitrinite Reflectance
Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
Figure 5.9
from the BL-2 well.

BN G-IO
T.D. 2565 m
-O
MEF
t4

aa
<

L_

1207

3
9

i ess
a.
a)

DOC

1667

2 427

LAF
I
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

I.I

% Vitrinite Reflectance
Figure 5.10 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
from the BN-10 well.

I'

UJ

a
id
JJ

o
0)
MlH
Ll
D
0
^>M
0 QDO
>
H
I

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o c
o H

JJ ta

flJM rd
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m
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0

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H <U W
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rdM-l
** 3 b
CN
O-H 3
xn L3 to
LO
OJ

u
(_>(/)

S3M13W

N!

Hid3Q

Depth
(in metres)

U~

ScQ
5e

o+ JL
O O O B _.
1000-

* m
o+ %.
o+
0

&

0 MEF

+ >

0 ABF

o + e+

61 D

+ GUF
2000"

BRF
TAF

a
LAF

i r\s\/\ _

3000 i
0.0

'

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

10

Rvmax (%)

Figure 5.13

Plot of reflectance against depth for samples

from South Palembang Sub-basin.

0 c

m.

c ~
0

0 0

0) -H
CM
1 -m
U --I

09 S3

0 0

mm. 0

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(0.51

40
10.51

35

0.7 OJBJ O J I

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0.71 a s

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35

(6)

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5 i

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(asi
49

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(
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I!

30 75 20 15 10

V,VM

lime in million years

10 12 20 30 40 50 100
200-

100

0-001

001

002

Z-SCALE

figure 5.17

Karweil Diagram showing relationship of time

(Ma), temperature { C) and rank scales (after
Bostick, 1973). Scale H is used for
calculating thermal history of Table 5.11 and
5.12.

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v.

e
a

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GOOD
Q
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FAIR

POOR

0 Muara. Enim Fat.

Tata fig Akar R B .

0.2

O.S

i i

1.0

I '' I l I
5.0
K>

50

i I l , \

KX>

i l l '

ISO

A : Liptinite 0.3 Vitrinite +0.05 Inertinite (Vel. %of sample)

Figure 5.20

The relationship between S1+S2 values and the

Score A for samples studied from the Muara Enim
Formation and the Talang Akar Formation (after
Struckmeyer (1988).

Figure 5.21

Generalized zones of petroleum generation and

approximate correlation with maximum
palaeotemperatures and reflectance of
vitrinite, exinite and inertinite (from Smith
and Cook, 1984).

Figure 5.22

Maturation model for the main organic matter

groups and sub-groups (from Smith and Cook,
1984).

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FIGURES TO CHAPTER SIX

5 41

54 0
N-ALKANES
AROMATIC
POLARS

542
Figure 6.1

54 3
Bulk composition of the crude oils from South
Palembang Sub-basin.

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IK,
es

C27

cc

370>I9I

RI
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a
i

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C28

68.

384-HI9I

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1 Ec <c

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TIME (HOUR)

Figure 6.6 Metastable reaction chromatograms of a typical

South Palembang oil showing the distribution of hopane.
Table 6.2A
for peak
identification.
Each
Refer to
chromatogram is identified by carbon number (e.g. C27) and
specific
transition measured (e.g. 370->191). Ri: Relative
Intensity.

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<S?8

45 <8

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45 26

58 48

5? 88

53 ?8

54 48

TIME (HOUR)

55 88

5) K

58 48

188 88

181?*

I 6? 46

184 18

Figure 6.8 Metastable reaction chromatograms of a typical

South Palembang oil showing the distribution of steranes and
methylsteranes. Each chromatogram is identified by carbon
number (e.g. C27) and specific transition measured (e.g.
372->217). RI: Relative Intensity.
Notes for the peak assignments for steranes
present in the chroiatograis.

11. 20S-5a(B),146(B),lla(B)-iethylsterane(C29)
12. 20R-5a(B),148(B),17a(Bj-iethylsterane(C28]
2QS-5a(B| ,13B(B ,lTa(H)-diiethylsterane(C28) 13. 20S-5a(B),146(B),11a(B)-iethylsterane(C28)
4, 20K-5a!B) ,136(B ,l?a(B) -dnethylsterane|C28) 14. 20R-5a(B),146(B),17o(B)-iethylsterane(C28)
20S-5a(B) ,136(B ,17a(B)-diaethylsterane(C29| 15. 20S-5o(B|,146(B),no(B)-ethylsterane(C29)
16. 20R-5Q(B))146(B),17a(B)-ethylsterane(C29)
6 < 20S-5a(B) ,14B(B iHolB) -sterane(C27)
17. 20S-5a(B),148(B),17a(B)-ethylsterane(C29)
20R-5a(B) ,MB(B ,17a(B)-sterane(C27)
-sterane(C27)
,17o(B)
,146(6
18. 20R-5o(B),146(B),17n(B)-ethylsterane(C29)
8. 20S-5a(B)
*: Cis cis trans C30 bicadinane
9. 20R-5a(Bj ,14B(B ,lTa(B)-sterane(C27)
10. 20R-5afflj ,146(B ,17a(B)-diaethylsterane(C29) T= Trans trans trans C3D bicadinane
1. 20S-5c(H) ,13B(B ,17a(B|-diaster&ne(C27)
2. 20R-5o(B) ,136(1 ,17a(B)-diasterane(C27|

T' = Trans trans trans C30 bicadinane

= Boiobicadinane C31
E' = C30 bicadinane

C27

Figure 6.9

Facies interpretation using triangular diagram

displaying C27-C29 steranes distribution (after
Waples and Tsutomu Machihara, 1990).

5383

5384
N-ALKANES
AROMATIC
POLARS

5385

Figure 6.10

5386

Bulk composition of the extracts from South

Palembang Sub-basin, in terms of the polarity
classes of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatics
and combined NSO-asphaltene fraction.

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CD ro
JJ
rfl
to 0)
fl
JJ
rO ro
co H
CD ro
EH
X! CD
JJ X!
fl JJ

i CD

E
o

CM
I
i
CD
C5
O

ro

co

rx

CD CM

o.

_S
__3

C3

CD
CM

CO

CD

r LO

1
-

!_

3
^

LU

CM
0.

CD

CD
"m

"^

^*
_

^
>

~?

CD

4-1 H-l
0 CO
to JJ
to
CJ -JJ
rfl m
X CO
CD
0 CDCD ro
Lf)
H
XJ
JJ
JJ
O
fl CO
H
H
to
CO C
JJ
fl 0
co
0 H
H
H JJ
CD JJ
C CJ rfl
rfl rfl
M to 0
H MJ Cn
(fl
ro

a
c

CM

CD
"Oj

10
CD
to
fl
Oi
H

Cn
~v L _ a

cc

H to

*
CM
CM

CD
H

_w

ro CM

c
CD CM

CD

pr^-

3.

*
P3

pCD
i

"""~^
"
*"%

* 'Sc

! J:

JJ CD
fl
-5 8CD^

_='

: s

"4.

1 ^

^
-^
^

i CD
pro

alkane distr
actions in t
rmation (sam

3
CM
CM

i
i

fcM-i Cn

-^C

/ .->.->

Ml.,. I I .

LL

_ _ _

CM

=?
0.

CO

'w
CO
mm.

M
j

to 0JJ- .
Q
rfl vo
C to co
0 JJ
H
X ro
m

*> T

CM ~

0 CO

pin/f*

^.

IN

CD

-4

CO
CM

rte
CD 0
H
>W
H to

-^
^ ^

n the saturated
the Talang Akar

!
!

-a

H X! a

l to 0

pr\j

-#

VO

__o

CD
to

g
H
Cn
-CD

TYPE III TYPE II TYPE!

m\CX\

410"

-410

420 Immature Immature Immature .420

-430

450
460

1
*

>
K

o
E
\-

1 pi WilliffiQiuiiiiii -440

PI
"ml

JSasZZZ

Gas

Mmm
470. sllilllll

-450
.460
_470

Wilt InWilli
480 Condensate
wet gas
490

BOO
940-

Non existence
of
Tmax

920
930
940
990
!: dry

gas .:

-.

990
1

Figure 6.15

60O

The determination of petroleum formation zones

by using Tmax. (after Espitalie et al., 1985).

DOO

TYPE II

200TYPE ni
1

50

100

150

200

250

OXYGEN INDEX
Figure 6.16

Modified Van Krevelen diagram using

conventional whole-rock pyrolisis data (after
Katz et al., 1990).

FIGURE TO CHAPTER SEVEN

CO VO

< CO

c*
JJ H
H
^ *
fl Oi
CQ to
CD
CD
X!

JJ CD
N
4-1 JJ
0 to
10

>.S

Xi X!

aro co
o
to

0) c

E
a

CO

cn
e
a
o
i
a

\
V.
CO

CO

co

_l =cn

2 < ^<g

c
3

i_

ta

ta,

ta.

<o
a
a. /

/
/ to
/ a.
a
/
v

\* - . s-

llll 1

ro
2

JJ >

i ^ to
(i D

m)

I-3 I I

H 0

coco M to
3 = c
c e -o

JVX
q
UOjJDLUJCy IDSD>|

(<J d W )
jaqiua^

UOIJDOIJOJ

(D

IDOQ

dnojg
auaoojicj

AWVIia3l

dW)

j v a

D jaqoia/j
LUIU3

OJDn^J

UOI| DILI JO J
IDHOuag j{v

6uDqLue|oct
auaaoi.id-oiVN

auaooj/j

to
D

(0
to to
JJ CD
CO JJ

<H

rfl
rto
fl <
CD rfl
fl CD

CD to
O (0

CD
to
fl
Ol
H
Cn

FIGURES TO CHAPTER EIGHT

PAUEMBANS I

w
KrTOpoti
atang.
$Vrrrrn.'''* ProbumuUh
% Muaraenim '-,
Km 9
Ton junge nim %^

^jM"*
BUKH^ASAM MINE
( SOURCcN?F COAL )

S 0\.U T H
S U M A\T E R A

5^

SURALAYA STEAM
(POWER PLANT
(POINT OF DELIVERY)

LEGEND
i Raiiwoy

if **

System Location Waterway

L

Nsw Trade

lOOKm

Figure 8.1

The transportation net of the Bukit Asam coal.

South Sumatra (after Kendarsi, 1984).

LU

u 4in
h(3
Z
LU
C3
to-

LU
id'

o
>-

cr
<
LT
torn 1-

r*

0.7

0.9

1.1

1.3

1.5
1.5

1.7

MEAN MAXIMUM VITRINITE REFLECTANCE,%

i

80

82

84

86

88

90

% CARBON IN THE VITRINITE (dmmf)

dmmf sdry mineral matter free

Figure 8.2

Generalized relationship of coke strength and

coal rank, indicated by vitrinite reflectance
and carbon content of vitrinite, at constant
type (after Edwards and Cook, 1972).

TABLES
TO ALL CHAPTERS

Table 1.1

Oil fields in South Sumatra and their

cummulative production until 1966 (after
Koesoemadinata, 1978).
0

OIL FIELD

YBAR OF
DISCOVERY

DEPTH OF
RESERVOIRS

FORHATIOH

OIL TYPE

Kuara Eoii
Air Benakat
Air Benakat
Air Benakat
Air Benakat
6 ua i
Air Benakat
Air Benakat
Air Benakat
Kuara Enii
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar

Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Asphaltic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Asphaltic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Asphaltic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Parafinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic

API

(U
Sungai Takai
Suban Jeriji
Hangunjaya
Teipino
Bajabang
. lenali Asaa
Betung
Carang Ringing
Babat
Kebao
Raja

Boh
laipung tfiny&k
Iruh
Huang
Lilin
T.Akar Pendopo
Liiau
Gunung Eeiaia
Air Benakat
Jirak
Tanjung Tiga
ifest T.Hiring
Talang Jiiar
Prabuiulih Vest
Karangan
Abab
Selo
Be tan
Deras

1963
1905
1934
1931
1923
1931

40-595
363-763
201-2251
589-824
824-1007
320-1171

1923
1903
1902
1941
1940
1962
1941
1944
1936
1922
1928
1938
1933
1931
1940
1938'
1937
1953
1957
1957
1937
1949
1951

110-400
50-366
30-320
360-550
1983
1220
1006
700-793
900-?

854
1357-1632
1891-1934
439-467
210-290
1342-1403
1284-1537
1098-1281
1446-1720
1341
1830

580
1983
1830

43.1
43.7
24.8
41.1
44.7
23.8
40.5
40.5
42.5
36.5
55.7
46.0
44.0
38.0
40.0
37.0
28.0
38.0
36.0
37.0
28.0
28.4
28.5
32.5
27.7
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0

CUMULATIVE
PRODUCTION
(BARREL)

4,281,222
8,670,834
15,836,554
76.343.699
37,269,022
80,335,861
2,115,716
16,851,348
140,462
1,474,777
27,495,042
482,320
331,425,405
158,945,473
16,807,313
102,370,655
45,509,927
35,429,231
1,541,100
125,546,539
7,244,023
2,990,595
492,482
3,990,595
957,050

o
E
u"Hia'|OA M0|H

A I
0>

>r

= 2

03

o o =f
-J > C3

loo

isoo

u/ojg

PJH

UJ

fl
(0

o
O
IO

(0
0

o
o

o
<o

IO

4-1

sousscajonu aiqatoaiep O N

o
o o

o
IO

-*

o *.

o
o
o

o
o
o

o
o
o

o
o
o

cr
o
o
to

o
o
o

o
o
o
<0

0
fl
0

>-

o
a

>

H
4J

(0

u
H
4-1
H
CQ
CQ
T>
0)
ro CN
N CO

H <n
H
Hu H

<n <

OU.

cc o

4-1

i - e
2 5 O

O
C

id

u
cu ,*

<
o
u

<

D C

m
o
uo

fl 0 'is
CU 0

uu

?*

0
O

0
IO

0 * 0
in
^r

,1,1,1.1

CN

1.1

cu
H

2<

<

o
O
(V

>

ci

ci

odd

r.

I I [
o
O

= e
a- o

z >

I 5 E
o
2

> a

= E
* ". = e =
o o
_i

>

to

Table 2.2

Summary of the macerals of hard coals (from

I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1963).

Group
Maceral

Maceral

Submaceral-

Maceral Variety-

Vitrinite

Telinite

Telinite 1
Telinite 2

Cordaitotelinite
Fungotelinite
Xylotelinite
Lepidophytotelinite
Sigillariotelinite

Collinite

Telocollinite
Gelocollinite
Desmocollinite
Corpocollinite

Vitrodetrinite

Liptinite

Sporinite

Tenuisporinite
Crassisporinite
Microsporinite
Macrosporinite

Cutinite
Resinite
Alginite
Liptodetrinite
Inertinite

Micrinite
Macrinite
Semifusinite
Fusinite

Pyrofusinite
Dearadofusinite

Sclerotinite
Inertodetrinite

+ Incomplete, can be expanded as required.

Plectenchyminite
Corposclerotinite
Pseudocorposclerotinite

w
A:

cu
u
c

4-1

o
s
cu

10

u
a

jJ

Itl

a,

>1

CQ

CL,
rO

c
cu

o
H

H
U
<U

a,

o
B

cn

0
0
0

0> M

OJ
&w

C 3
cu cu cn
cn 2: -H
C

wO 4J
Hrd

u
fl
cu cu
CJ e
ro o
E

Dl
rH

rO CU
J*
rfl
OJ

0
G
CU

u
co
cu

0
rH

3
0
JJ

ro TJ

CO

rH

cn cu
3
0

4J

OJ UJ

m x a

0) u H
O rH
CTi -HC

4 il

JJ

0) UJ

CU J3
M CO
CU

oC CO
cn JJ 0 c W J3
JJ C rfl
H
w 3 rt CU C ro U J=
Oi -H
> U

CU

rH

rO

D U O

c cn

JJ

tn < x
O -H 0) CO 0<
c
rJ

2-

cn cu o

>i CU

s e

JJ

TJ -H >,

<-\ 0
3

tn
C
U
JJ

4J

m m

H rfl
rH rH H
>i
JH

C
H

U-l

JH rH
0 UJ

cu o
u Z

c
u -u cn cu
aj to u s

CU rH rH
JJ uj 0
CO
CU
0
3 -H CU CO
rfl
JJ1 u U -H

cu

rO
cu
CU VJ >
3 CU JJ 3 H
0O rH H
U CO
U rfl
3 U tfl
03 OJ
rfl

X X
CM

(0 rfl
CJ -H

e ,

sz ro
U rfl
g

E
CU
0) > 3
JG T3 W
CJ 0 CO
3 JJ

H
CQ

JJ

JJ

H
rJ

rJ

JJ
H

CU

rfl

I cu
cu
0
C
c CU
CU u
O i CO
CJ

e 0 cu

CU H H
>. JC
CU
rH JJ CU J J

rfl 0
U C

>1 rH

O X
rfl en
3

IJ

T3
CU TJ CO
JJ CU

CU

CU
JJ
H

>

ro cu

rfl

T3 M
C rfl C
(0 tn 0
rM

rH -H

CU rH

0 0
Cu X.

H
CO
0)
M1-1 rfl

cu u

CO
tn

CU

tfl cu cu
CU rH -H
rH TJ

CO

CO
JJ

rH

ro cu
CO
0

s O u0

c
c

0 cn
cu
>

rfl cu

CM

u o

e * u

CU

0)

;*

cn

HH 3
H r-t

c CU rH
c
H JJ ,0

r-\

3
0

cu 0
H -M

H CU
H 4J
X
cu rH (0
rH JJ 4J
3

cu rfl rfl
rO CU
0
u U S 2 ~ X ucu CO
JJ
CO
C
cm c
1-1
X
-U 4H
0 TJ
rfl A! o
ro CO
X
C
rO U CO
TJ5 4H
a
u
c
rfl
>. rfl U0 rfl CU
O Q
rfl
rH
co CU 3 U r-\
JJ
<J rfl c
<U CO rfj
rfl
cn
3
>i

0 3

H
O CO

Tarn cu

cu tr>

CO

cn
T5 H
0 JJ
0
3 U

JJ

cu 5
>,

4J
c
cn c

0 J-J 0) C IH
I 4J CU 0
T3 Cn CJ tn <*H
cu - H cu

on
CN

EH

cn

fO JJ
ns
n a UCU O

>i

>i u

JJ

0)
rO rH CU
U W J cn
JJ
c

r-i CU 3
rH rH J=. cu

u O

W -H JJ

(X H

CQ

CU
H

to

CQ

tn

ro 3
cu M
V
CO W Cu
4J
JJ C rH 0
fO
H
CO
CO >, 0O Q)
c 0)

1
H

CU

W I
H M
U) 0

JJ

c
X
(0
tn .c
CJ
H co

-4
CU rfl
N
0
-H CJ
T3 JJ
-H rfl
O
U

Table 2.4

Summary of the macerals of brown coals (from

I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1971).

Group Maceral

Maceral Subgroup

Maceral

Submaceral+

Textinite
Humotelinite
Ulminite

Texto-Ulminite
Eu-Ulminite

Attrinite
Huminite

Humodetrinite
Densinite
Gelinite

Porigelinite
Levigelinite

Corpohuminite

Phlobaphinite
Pseudophlobaphinite

Humocollinite

Sporinite
Cutinite
Resinite
Liptinite

Suberinite

Alginite
Liptodetrinite
Chlorophyllinite
Fusinite
Semifusinite
Inertinite

Macrinite
Sclerotinite
Inertodetrinite

Incomplete, can be expanded as desired

Table 2.5

Proposed coal maceral classification system for

coals (Smith, 1981).

Maceral Group

Maceral Sub-Group

Liptodetrinite
Sporinite
Cutinite
Suberinite
Resinite
Fluorinite
Exsudatinite
Bituminite
Alginite

EXINITE

TELOVITRINITE

VITRINITE

Maceral

DETROVITRINITE

GELOVITRINITE*

INERTINITE

Gelovitrinite is only recognized when

part of telovitrinite.

Textinite
Texto-ulminite
Eu-ulminite
Telocollinite
Attrinite
Densinite
Desmocollinite
Corpovitrinite
Porigelinite
Eugelinite
Sclerotinite
Semifusinite
Fusinite
Macrinite
Micrinite
Inertodetrinite

10 microns diameter and when not

0
+->
Di

a
H

M
0
u
u
ns

c
H
tfl

rO

e
re
M
rC

e
-i

o
w
CM

0
>i w

a
4J

rd
rO X
U 4-J

m
tu
H

3
tH

fO
01
w

re

LU

a.

D
CO
i

Table 3.2

Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin used in the

present study based on Spruyt*s Nomenclature
(1956).

E
o
o
o

_
**
3 oa
o O
o U
o

"O _
c 3;

3 O

CO
o

3 b a
o >.
ca ?
o

- !1
c

I I

13
C

U014DUJJO-J (DSD>{

E- = "

^
O

o
1

o
a
3
> o
e)
>- O
o
o M

s =

^> >
-

c o
o c

Ho IE

c "i

c
o

a
=

XI

.O
O

o O

JB

r> O
c '

*- *w.
2.
c
Q IH
D^cn
a n

C C j

CD

a a 3
2 1 to

JUL

(qdw)
q jsqiuaw

cn .>

v tn
o
o 2
3

CT

c
3

I I

** s
a
j

Q.

a
i

OJ

CVJ

rn

dV^

c
o

i :-=

Dl
C

a
* :*
o E

*6 SI
"> ? o

22

. <*

t $

i c]

o 8

c
LU

^ '

W 3

* *!
o

J=

g o
to -q

cu

*c a
il o

5
=
"* u.

a
_a

to

cl

.$2

" ^ *- o

o
u

in

3
O

CM -3

>C oE

o
o

J3

o co .. c
. o o
" ** tT

I
o

" J? c

H
4J
(0

mU

IO
CM
I

3
O

a
o

<\J

z: <=

? * 5
" I 2.
c
5

CD
CM

E
o

CM

E
o

I
O

CM
I

> o
o

E
o

21

( dW)

D JBqiUBW
UOIjDlUJO-j |DOQ LUIU3 DJDn^

dV
U0I4DLUJ0-J

4D>jD"uag JIV

dnoJQ 5uDquj3]Dd
SUSOOIL^

AdV|ld31

Table 5.1

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the MBU-2 well.

Table 5.2

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the PMN-2 well.

Table 5.3
Reflectance values and temperature data
against depth in the (34-14 well.
.oi'
rf w . .

Mn

' W

VJ.:l

'

Wi I

"

""-ri' "an*"* ' * 3 C "arrcc

- I.

r-ira

VJ f

2f

JMVI v

,
*.
1

/ 0*37 '

*nn_,",c

LWbll.

"20- : 5

0.24
0.25

C f II! tt
WWW
Ww

:' "

22273
;"07 '

^ 22 75

www

ww

| A *

* *

~ M ~ - el

22
WW

*2

w * w w

L. W C , . W

- w w

L w W *

r w _ f n
I W W
WW

? 1* " 3

:CI^_JR

. w

. w u

r,

i*
I

*
w

i<!ic_:,*

_ W4.W W

3 * * 2 1

0. J5
0.5!

>. ... - ..

a T

1 1

11J5

1OTJ-TS

IHflile

nan.;!
"jcw-.s
in <_;,s

W W e . W "*U

(. U

- We. w W

W, W W I W

l W

n 'C

1 W

0.050

:n

n .*. *

w W

..www

niii
T

TV

nut

AS:
nut

A:-

fS
" W

- r.n

A3E

W . W T I

niyi

WW

!3

* n*n

w w

;i

0.025

*cc
cue

:a
:a

7 <

WW 1

r. no;

TIC

i n

"AC

"7

ww

W W W 1

in

n r.-it

T.i. C

W w w T

nt

* w

0."'"7

32

.". r. u

in

,1

J *

n mi

. n i

TJC

77
77

; .TI

77
L.ni

W t W T I

,",17

W * W W 1

tl

. W

W I WW; t W H W

T 1

3C

(fl

TU

WW

^2S22r'2ELTS ^r^rt'awr
WIHMWI

Hi

-i : n

We.

1 WW "

is

0."*

. W

J .....

"5

w i f w

- w V

- r

vW

W W f. T

W J T

w tl.

I25S-50

u * f*w

' *w - -

il w ; w

:507a
n n

W i T I

,1 1,".

:n
-w

"7

t 1

W t W C u

* 5

* r> l"

? * ?77

wc:
uc:

0.022
0.029

^n

w . w w u

i AC

77

un i
-hi"

C
1 W

ffl ."'I'm
?

I 11 III

itHlUA Wl W.WIWHW WikWArrMM

Table 5.4

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the KG-10 well.
V o i " !

!<G-!0
'C7S j .or.er
l W l w . u

llw w l w W

J7v"ri!lCl'':
>.ir*iro

amn

Table 5.5

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the KD-01 well.

Table 5.6

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the BRG-3 well.
..mm

"If,!", nerrac
"'il
ire

omn

1>MI !

C71

it U I U A \ f. I

-os/iinne

1
1

70Wnn

fi Jfl- 7 *

73

in

W W w W W
rt /) n i
I J w t 1

W 1 W

-W

w ww

wu

W W W w

W 1 V

- w

1 M

in

1 A 0 7

V * I

w W

77n? *

n M

in

1 - w

V t f 1

Li. W 1

7*5 SX "

w .

- w

fl * * m

u W W I

n -77
W W u I

7 4fl 7

3 n r. _: n

L W w w

www

v * Y 1

mou

V V W T

c.

WWW

1 n

.1 171

IU bO O. Ew :^

1 W i W

710:7

(ins.-n

7a

W 4 W W

w w

'. 'Q

1]

1 w w w

a :i

-. lm W W W

[WWW

W e w w

1 w

77o;n

1 w

W WW V 1

'

*,7 7 0 S 1

f T W 4.

W *. - V W

. w

wit.

WW

n:5

ww

!52"*2
1 w T ij

77

w _

i w w *

770S/

ww

trne.-Q

l . w W -

.:ww

770EE

(7in.(1

WW<* W w

, * 1 w

1 w

22257

rfloe-.n

1 WU w

770c:

- U

-w

1 -. -J T

WW

b W *V

'0

77Q7n

1 W <

L.4. W ( W

H 4 fl1 JJ
1 ^
L, J W W ' w

12. 2227;

t, m> ml

in

17077
Kmm

12,

77377

in
ww <

2237-

W W e> W

1'

7707S

5 0JM

L. 1 W W

* u

WW

S7
w 1

-1. W T

WW

77

7707:

iies_r-

- W I

k. W - 1 J

Wi. W W

^ 1 2 >

W T i

L. 4. W W

W W * W ~ W W i_

"I
>w
(7

7707

t ; emtio fa rn re

'1 W W

ww

17
L. w

17
I

1 W.I W

.1 mo
W e W W

1 : wi
floi

ADC
Hwl

ft ms
J 1 w w w

jw

IE

CMC

4W

CE
W W

an
;7!!C
WW I

ft mo
w w w I

1 ,-/s

-> w

22
22
5i
ni

^ W T w

ww

n m''
4 . w h

an

<cc

W . w .*

G.04e
ft mn

"AC

*Z
w w

ro

W * w w W

w w

0.327
0.C23

71

1 -.; 7

11
L I

0.04

'Af

'0

7 "7 '

,', c

77
U W

IE

ir,

rt
WW

arf 7 7w*/'/m
WiH.

--a

11 w

w t W U W

WW

Jl w 1

uc:

ft ',Ei

m,

* 3 "* * * **

w ww w

KEF

*A :

-1 w w <

?7c;.::

.k w t ,

7702!

mm

in//

:J

W 1 W U l

17

w 1

n :

Le. t 1

77077

% IIIUA

0.2!
0.32

- W

L> W 1

w W w W 1

w p w

1 777

;E

W T
- w

77

L W I

uc:
uc:

rt noe ucz

W . w T .
w . v -r w

16

7777-7S

IE

- W

2'23-2i

m . 1

W W W

n -n

7icn.i;

uW <

W ill u w 1 W w W 1

w w

r, >,,

773E3
kb. * w

* s

. T

lOE/.Ea

i w

17

w w

rt 7 7 3

:r,

, 1 w

3
3

(Rc;.;a

!(
s

ia
- w

22252

'2

n ;n

!77_:s

710S1

W W L> w

'iiana

in

' T

n 17/

- - - v 1

a_

<

n '7

uc:
lie;

y Ih.AII Mil

V.
W(

IE

Table 5.7

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the TMT-3 well.

Table 5.8

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the L5A-22 well.

Table 5.9

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the BL-2 well.

Table 5.10

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the BN-10 well.

Table 5.10

Reflectance values and temperature data

against depth in the BN-10 well.

Table 5.11 Thermal history data from selected wells in the

Muara Enim area.
Crl] Un

Wall

flanr-h

Ana

Cnrrnvfi nm

Tnrac

Tien

u p i . nil

.El |

Js. w w u

I. . H A

nm<.

| u | M U . I Wit

lUIWUl

I I WW

y n n n n

U) (ay)

790CC

QDC-7

in7n

n cn

in

wen

W*.w w w

wiiw) w

tUtu

W .WW

ill

lit*

(_i.wwi witw w Iwt-w J. ww iw rtCi

. .IUU .

Cr'ri-Tcn
Jl U W . . W W

95

117

ton

!!8

1QQ
IUW

-0.24

ww

Iww

w.wl

apt* i

i7ir\

n c7

enc

01

UltW

II iw

J ,w '

It

JUl

We.

tc?
tci
1 M
I
wC
t

1 u*.

Tcn-f^no
i ii w II Ii W m w

0.

ww
WW

C4.WWW

ac

Tnrrt
2

eq
58

WU

jiacc

-fAl ii
u
W W.T*
+

b3

-fl n
We tW

22273 BRG-3 2190 3.33 21.S TAF 111 120 132 -0.11
22975 9RG-3 2241 0.37 22 TAF 114 127 203 -0.13

22924 MHU-2 1450 0.55 14 6UF 32 31 145 -0.05 25

11007 UOII-1 17RD rt C7 1C CMC Oi as <K0 _n n7
bk.ul

nCwj

ii ww

w.wi

22940 MBU-2

1830

noon

CM-ii

L.W4.UW

Wfl

'+

Iw

wwi

w+

0.79 13

TAF

93

tiiQ

n it

ts

ciic

ILTw

W.WI

IW

WW*

124

133

-0. oc

7R

an

too

.n no

IW

WW

. I. w

M.WW

IW

WW

I kU

inor; eu_u tini n Ei in lie 70 an too _n 17

L.W4.WW

3iTlT

IwWT

W.w*

WW

U1I

22550 ICD-1 1553 0.52 15 SUF 30 30 128 -0.02 25

22552 KD-1 1725 0.57 19 TAF 37 100 150 -0.21
23557 KD-! 1302 0.51 35 LAF 39 32 131 -0.!4
22595 PMN-2 1855 0.55 22 TAF 95 20 144 -0.09 25
23598 PMN-2 1900 0.53 23 TAF 98 94 !50 -0.03

W.WI

is
L. V

Table 5.12

Thermal history data from selected wells in the

Pendopo-Limau area.

Spl.Hc Sal]

Depth R M X

Age Forsatian Tgrss. Tjso. Tgrad. Sr2d:Iso Tsurf.

r
nsin

iKi-11

fttfi

ri fi

ti

WWW4.W

WWrt

I I III

W.wk

IW

cue
S
UF

7ft

70

fte

IW

115

toe

WWI

II9

I
IU
u Uw

J.WW

IU

QDC
will

118

189

TAF

37

tnn

ISO

-0.05

LAF

105

110

175

-0.05

LAF

tn
I 1 L.

100

150

0.20

LAF

114

105

153

0.14

23534 TMT-3 1254 3.54 18 TAF 73 SO 144 -0.27 2573

30

144

82

90

144

wk

11S11 !EI_11 117i ft ml tO

b.HL I

LwA

1_4.

ll.IT

11611 IU-11 1770 ft SS 11

L w w im. w

uwrt

i_i.

Itiu

w ww

LM

?95?9 ttk-w ^(\na fl 7a in

l-WWUW

L.WH

We.

bWWU

W.vw

WW

IIRIO i KA-H ilea n ai 11

L WW*. W

WWrt

(.*.

t. I W W

J.UI

Wfc

22521 L5A-22 2224 0.32 23

22539 TMT-3 1488 0.53 20 TAF

1 WW

-ft
flf
W.WI
W.WI

-0

cc

W w W

22500 TMT-3

1513

0.57

22

TAF

83
83

ai
82

147
147

-0.14

1110Q

1133

14

SUF

74

100

150

-Li]

81

90

144

91
ww

aa

142

BL-2

w WW

mot
k W b W I

11101
i We- w W

woe
e. W4_ W W

111O0
UW*. w W

3L-2

1334

0 ci
Vi W W

19

i nt

3L-2

tiin

uw

TAF

"

W * WW

3L-2

tCQi

fl 71

11

i ww-*

Well.

Li.

TAF

W W

3L-2

1CCC
(www

fl 71

24

TAF

1255

0.55 15

SUF

23181 3JH0

Veil.

23182 BN-10 1654 0.52 17 8RF 84 110 175 -0.25

22187 8JMQ 1934 0.55 26 TAF 95 105 163 -0.12
22133 8M-10 2112 0.33 27 TAF 100 115 184 -0.20
22131 3N-I0 2253 0.35 28 TAF 105 IIS 183 -0.12
22132 9H-10 2235 0.32 25 LAF 110 120 192 -0.12
22137 SN-10 2542 0.35 40 LAF 115 118 189 -0.03

dim

WW

tna

ie
i.W

1 w u

173

91

tnc

tea

1 WW

i WW

73

100

150 -0.40

-rt 1fl

25

FEATURE MICRINITH

SIGNIFICANCE
DISPROPORTIONATION
REACTIONS
HIGH CARBON (MICRINITE)
AND HIGH HYDROGEN (OIL
PRODUCTS)

FLUORINITE

IN SOME CASES
NON-MIGRATED OIL

EXSUDATINITE

FORMS AND OCCUPIES

FRACTURES
REPRESENTS PARTIALLY
MIGRATED OIL-LIKE
MATERIAL

OIL CUT AND

HAZE

INDICATES THE PRESENCE OF

FREE OIL

SECONDARY
FLUORESCENCE INDICATES THE PRESENCE OF
BITUMENS

Table 5.13

Summary of petrographic features and their

significance in relation to oil generation and
migration (from Cook and Struckmeyer, 1986).

TABLE

SAMPLE
NO.

6.1

LOCATIONS OF CRUDE OIL AND CUTTING SAMPLES

WELL

SAMPLES
TYPE

FORMATION

DEPTH
(M)

OIL

LAHAT FM.

2265-2267

540

BRG-3

541

BRG-3

OIL TALANG AKAR FM. 2209-2211

542

MBU-2

OIL BATURAJA FM. 1808-1812

543

MBU-2

OIL BATURAJA FM. 1845-1848

5383

BRG-3

CUTTINGS MUARA ENIM FM. 680-690

5384

BRG-3

CUTTINGS MUARA ENIM FM. 900-910

5385

BRG-3

CUTTINGS TALANG AKAR FM. 2106-2110

5386

BRG-3

CUTTINGS TALANG AKAR FM. 2190-2194

eo -o
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CJ

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k.

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a>

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H

3
o """
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Table 6.2A

Peak no.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
W
T
T'
R
R'
x

Peak assignments for triterpanes present in

Figure 6.6.

Compound name

Carbon number

18a(H)-22,29,30-trisnorneohopane(Ts)
17a (H) -22, 29 , 30-trisnorhopane (Tin)
17a(H), 21|3(H)-30-norhopane
17a(H),21a(H)-30-norhopane
18a(H)-+18(3(H)-oleanane
17a (H) , 21(3(H)-hopane
17(3 (H) , 21a17a
(H)(H)
-moretane
22S-14a(H
, 21(3 (H)-diahomohopane

27
27
29
29
30
30
30
31
22R-14a(H ,17a(H) ,21(3 (H)-diabishomohopane
31
22S-17a(H , 21(3 (H) -homohopane
31
22R-17a(H , 21(3 (H)-homohopane
17(3 (H),21a(H)-homomoretane
31
22S-14a(H ,17a(H),21p(H)-diabishomohopane
31
22R-14a(H , 17a (H) , 21(3 (H) -diabishomohopane 32
22S-17a(H , 21(3 (H) -bishomohopane
32
22R-17a(H ,21(3(H)-bisnorhopane
32
22S-14a(H , 17a (H) , 21(3 (H) -diatrishomohopane32
22R-14a(H , 17a (H) ,21(3 (H)-diatrishomohopane 33(?)
22S-17a(H , 21(3 (H)-trishomohopane
33(?)
22R-17a(H , 21(3 (H) -trishomohopane
33
Cis cis trans C30 bicadinane
33
Trans
trans trans C30 bicadinane
C30
bicadinane
Homobic adinane(C 31)
C30 bicadinane
Unknown compound

co to
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cn

CO UO CO
CO CM O

5 1
o

5I

-C

O
tn

T)
ca
<xi

H -

o sCQ
o S

^ -2

81
m

o o CM a
cn co co r^
CM
CO

tO
rr

mOl

m'

to Ol o ?Z
r- rr co c "
CO

o>

CO

rr o

r~

UO

CO

CO

N
- N

n
-

rO)
UO
O
CO

a gi
CO CM
CM
O
N 10
CM CM

r
UO
Ol
N
rr

ID
CM

uo eo r~ CM
oo uo r^ oo
rr o -^ oi

Ol Ol Cl o

co r~ CM

ra
in

cn

o rrQ.
Q.
Ol

CM
rr
UO

CO
rr
UO

r-

CM

CM

CM

Cm

mm
rr
UO

co en.
CD

O m- CM CO
S r r
rr rr
uo to uo

*-

" **

O
rr
UO

CO CO

Sm

8 rr
ai

to
trj

to O J
cn to

OJ

CO o
o

CO CD to CO
CO r^ CO

b
. e
a

uj

S
C

CJ

a.
tx
uo a

r CO

C M tn tn ry
f1-. to r^ m
oi ^r cb csi

CO o
to 5
O co

Ol CO

cb cd

CO

(0

I*

cr

m- Ol Ol CM
V N ci 10

CO

'" rr

CO

cu

5
H

CM

CM CO i
C O mm '
rr

^- to'

UO

CJ

r~' rr r*' rr

to
uo
(O
CO

uo
tO CM
uo rr uo co

eo

Ol
CM
CM

*~

S2

CO

Ol

cn to m
uo
r>* C M cn .en co m~ r-

CO

rr

rr
to

u
o

CO

co

uo

UO

rr co to
o
to to
rr co

- in
O rr
mi O

to

*~
uo m r-* co
o
uo to o
uo r- m- cn

3
O

^ N CO N
rr O CO rr
co rr oi mi

CM
r^ UrrO CM
ci b b

uo cb

3.

uo r^ CM rr
CO CO
~:
.^. rr^
to CO r

o - w n

z. vin uo trin
v

ft fi 3 S

m- CM J- CM
ft CO Ol CM

6 6 3 5

6 6 5 5

6 6 5 5

ct cs ra oo
co ca 2 5

rr c n cn
ro ca 5 2

m m 5 2

rt co ?3

Ol

^-

Ol

cc cr a

Table 6.4

The composition of isoprenoid and bicadinane

hydrocarbons determined by GC analysis. The data
is also presented quantitatively in relation to
the peak of the internal standard
3-methylheneicosane (anteiso C22) giving
quantities in ug/mg(ppt).
OIL N A M E

BMR#

BRG-3/1
BRG-3V2
MBU-2/1
MBU-2/2

540
541
542
543

Pr
Ph
Bicad W Bicad T
Peak Area as read from crtromatogram-

39705
4954
38810 5913
9241
4383
15273
4468

4916
3968
2851
424

Pr
Ph Bicad W . Bicad T
cig/mg(ppt) saturates

BRG-3/1
BRG-3/2
MBU-2/1
MBU-2/2

540
541
542
543

29.55
20.23
8.55
14.56

3.69
3.08
4.05
4.26

3.66
2.07
2.64
0.40

4.94
4.07
4.03
0.45

Pr
Ph
Bicad W
fiayrng(ppt) whole oil

BRG-3/1
BRG-3/2
MBU-2/1
MBU-2/2

540
541
542
543

20.24
12.89
6.09
11-27

2.53
1.96
2.89
3.30

2-51
1.32
1.88
0.31

Bicad R
-

1964
3008
1980
297

6638
7807
4356
467

Bicad FT Pr/Ph Pr/nC17

1.46
1.57
1.83
0.28

Bicad T

3.38
2.59
2.87
0.34

8.01
6.56
2.11
3.42

2.08
2.77
0.70
0.90

Bicad R'

1.00
1.00
1.30
0.22

Bicad W/
Bicad T

0.74
0.51
0.65
051

cr
CM a
CO a
a
Ol -.

uo

r-~
CM

O
UO

r-

CO

CO
CM

co

.O

CM

c
s
c
a
o

a
a
m.
a

CO

uo

co
co

a
o

r--

CO

rf

m.

uo

rr

CM

UO
CM

CO

a
u

" 2

o 2

co ca
u

co o
CM

oo

o
oi

co'
rr

CO
CO

CO
CO
CO

CO
OJ

CM
uo

o
o
CJ

rf
CO

CO

CO
CM

a
o

CO

o
uo

a
CO
CO

O
rr
CO ' -^
O
CO
CM

r>--

O
Ol
CM

CO

CO

uo

Oi
CO

r~

r-

CD

zz

uo'

CD
CM

CO
oi

r-

co

CM

CO

oi

CD

CO
CO

O
CO

o
rr

CM

CM

rr

Cm

8
r^

o
4-

Si

co
o

52
3 i

CO

O
rr
co

CM

oo

oi

CD

CO
Ol

o>

r>
O

CJ

CM

rr
*uo
co O b
55 P
<

CO

uo

UO

.
uo

r~
cri

cn

to

UO

CU 4->
X! OJ
E H 13
Lf)

r-

CO

co

<

CM
UO

to
o

r-

CM

co
co

r^

fl

. xs

CO

o
uo

o
uo

M0

CO
CO
CM

O
F
<
rr

CO
t-

<

o
uo

fl
E-t

to
uo

uo

r-~

CM

rr

CO
CO

CO
CO

r>-

r~
r-

o
uo

co
uo

CM

r-^

to
uo

cu

CM
r^
CO

CO

cr
<

.ca

CD

CU fl
X! 0
E-t W
M0

CO o>
c

rr
2

to
uo

0
H

cr in

r-

CO

CU
H

uo
uo

rr

CO

CO

uo

TJ <
9 =

rr
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uo
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<
CM rr
>
UO
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cu

I P

eo
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CJ U

ra"

-Z

ra

CM

CO

ra

JO

rr
m S

a
a

o
rr
uo

rr
uo

rr
uo

CM
CO

CM

CM

CM

6.6

cr

CD

CO

Z2

o
uo

a
CM

co
uo

rCO

CO

rr
CU

2
<
Z
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CO

CQ

cr
m

LU

2
c

CM

ro

co

CM

CM

o]

6 6 5 5
rx

CC

CD

CD

a.

a.

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2>

tc

to"

r*-*

rr
mi

V
mi

CO
O

co

co

"

TJ

3
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3
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5
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T3 0
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0
fl

rr

co

r^

co

5 8 8 8

OJ H

.81*

Q, 0
M
0) CO
4-) cu
H fl
M rd
4-> C

t"

*-

S8

CO

u>
b

r
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CM

co'

a
CM

CO

m-

CM

m-

io

r-

co

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Si S

8 8 8

::'-

CO
mi
CO
CO

Ol
CO

rTJ
ca

co

Y-

rr

a.

ui

1
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=s
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CO

CM

b
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rJ
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..

Oi

eo

to

a
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rr

,_

ui
rr

c
b
Ui

co

CM

UO
CM

b
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CM
CO

CM

-Q

r* CM 9

E
&

rr
ui
CM

Ui

o 5

T3

j;

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r~ a
CM
C
(j a
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w in
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CO

l^

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CO
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cu
W
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4-1 w
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._
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uj rr ui
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"d X3

fl fl
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cu
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CQ 0 S

m-

r.

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6
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0 T3

CJ

CU
H
fl

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m-

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co

o
to

r~CM
8 rZ fc

CO

CO

Ui

a
a.

uo

r'
rr

E
St

to

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o
i
to

m-

ui

r^

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CM l E
co
e
CJ =
mi. " a

ft

CJ X
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OJ

si "

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3 mi f~
rr
eo

M
0 -d H
X >i-H
EHX! O

us

<M

CM 9

r>

r*

T3 -C
rd
U

co

m-

TJ

Ui

8'

cn
cb
rr

to

ui

._
ui
r~

r
K

CO

rr

10

CO

w "*

Q.

Ol

CM c

&

rr

o
X

CO

CM

Ol

rr

b to
Ol

CM

rr E

* a CO.

Ui

Ui

Ui

co a.
"X
CJ J-

to

CM

ui

rJ

5S i

EH

re

o
pi
Ui
CM

CO
CJ

Ol

CO g. OL
CM O
co X
O

CM

cb
co

ui

CO

rr
m
S

o
rr

Ui

Ul

s
<
1
z
6

ft CO
6
6
cc
Q

rr
co

CM

CM

-j

co
2

a
2

s
6

r
r
CD

CM
CO

CM

CD
2

CM
CM

5
rD
2

TABLE 6.8

THE TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC), ROCK EVAL DATA

AND THE BULK COMPOSITION OF THE SOUTH SUMATRAN
SHALES/COALS EXTRACT.
SAMPLE NO.

PARAMETERS
5383

5384

5385

5386

WELL NO.

BRG-3

BRG-3

BRG-3

BRG-3

DEPTH (m)

680-690

900-910

2106-2110

2190-2194

TOC (%)

4.1

51.2

3.7

26.9

TMAX

421

419

433

446

SI

0.44

7.45

0.86

15.63

S2

4.77

119.50

4.61

62.95

S3

2.64

21.60

2.05

1.85

PI

0.08

0.06

0.16

0.20

HI

117.20

233.40

123.92

234.01

OI

64.86

42.19

55.11

6.88

EXT (g)

15.9

4.0

13.3

4.6

EOM (mg)

42.3

172.8

50.5

90.6

SUB. SAMP (mg)

42.3

53.3

50.5

53.4

SATS. (mg)

3.0

2.2

9.6

7.3

AROM. (mg)

2.2

1.7

6.3

14.0

POLARS (mg)

21.3

22.8

18.2

17.7

RECOVERED(%)

62.6

50.1

67.5

73.0

SATS.

7.1

4.1

19.0

13.7

127.8

7.6

427.4

79.2

(%)

mgHC/g TOC

TABLE 6.9

THE COMPOSITION OF SATURATED HYDROCARBONS OF

SOUTH SUMATRAN SHALES/COALS DETERMINED BY GAS
CHROMATOGRAPHY ANALYSIS.
PEAK AREA

5383

ug/mg(ppt) SATURATES

SAMPLE NO.
5384
5385

5386

5383

SAMPLE NO.
5384 5385 5386

STD

9508

52922

28921

44535

10

10

C15

8884

26102

52310

56751

9.3

C16

16193

50353

76123

77943

C17

20377

56165

83554

C18

20819

53925

C19

19635

C20

10

10

4.9

18.1

12.7

17.0

9.5

26.3

17.5

85047

21.4

10.6

28.9

19.1

79422

81012

21.9

10.2

27.5

18.2

45424

74163

75810

20.7

8.6

25.6

17.0

18721

44586

59798

65728

19.7

8.4

20.7

14.8

C21

18941

61264

50266

66926

19.9

11.6

17.4

15.0

C22

22648

93581

44658

79592

23.8

17.7

15.4

17.9

C23

26137 129605

38186

91170

27.5

24.5

13.2

20.5

C24

25794 135150

31169

89727

27.1

25.5

10.8

20.1

C25

27109 196732

28403

98455

28.5

37.2

9.8

22.1

C26

23992 183559

21046

81651

25.2

34.7

7.3

18.3

C27

23852 122077

19812

73874

25.1

23.1

6.9

16.6

~ C28

18571 105479

14505

67934

19.5

19.9

5.0

15.3

C29

22111 111830

16474

58425

23.3

21.1

5.7

13.1

C30

28539 164898

26571

56599

30.0

31.2

9.2

12.7

C31

21530

86153

15615

45803

22.6

16.3

5.4

10.3

C32

12838

65890

9352

34292

13.5

12.5

3.2

7.7

C33

11851

56659

9813

29113

12.5

10.7

3.4

6.5

C34

5194 38060

3582

20892

5.5

7.2

1.2

4.7

C35

3933 26357

2455

13012

4.1

5.0

0.8

2.9

Table 6.10

South Sumatran coals/shales GC results:

isoprenoids.

SAMPLE NO.

WELL NO.

DEPTH
(m)

5383

BRG-3

680-690

22161

5771

5384

BRG-3

900-910

56820

12166

5385

BRG-3

2106-2110

125180

27403

5386

BRG-3

2190-2194

109549

21077

TABLE 6.11

PRISTANE
PHYTANE
Peak area as read from
chromatogram

SOUTH SUMATRAN COALS/SHALES GC RESULTS:

ISOPRENOIDS ug/mg Saturates

SPL.
NO.

WELL
No.

DEPTH
(m)

PRIST.

5383

BRG-3

680-90

23.3

PHYT. PR/PH
ratio

PR/nC17
ratio

SUM
C15-C35

6.1

3.8

1.1

424.1

5384 BRG-3 900-10 10.7

2.3

4.7

1.0

355.3

5385 BRG-3 2106-10 43.3

9.5

4.6

1.5

271.0

5386 BRG-3 2190-94 24.6

4.7

5.2

1.3

310.2

Table 7.1
H&ie of area

Coal qualities of the Enim Area (after KOG,

1987).

luara Tiga Vest

Banko
flesar

Banjarsari

North
Sooth
Kungkilan South
Suban Jerigi Muara Tiga
Arahan

North Central
Arahan Banko

South
Banko

Bukit
Kendi

35.0

33.4

20.0

10.0

8.9

2.9

Coil in-situ
28.0

26.2

38.7

41.2

25.7

23.4

31.0

6.5

6.0

5.9

6.6

11.7

7.0

7.2

Sulphur (dry), X

0.39

0.45

0.21

0.20

0.34

0.22

0.22

0.75

0.3

0.53

0.17

V.K (daft,

50.0

49.3

53.2

52.5

49.9

49.2

51.1

51.4

50.0

50.6

50.7

Fixed Carbon (daf).X 50.0

50.7

46.8

47.5

50.1

50.8

48.9

48.6

50.0

49.4

49.3

C.V gross, KJ/kg

20.3

21.1

16.1

15.6

19.4

21.8

18.7

17.3

17.5

18.3

23.8

C.V nett, KJ/kg

18.9

19.7

14.6

14.0

18.0

20.4

17.2

16,0

16.01

5.5

2.5

1.6

3.7

6.0

3.4

4.2

6.0

38.2

39.8

25.2

23.1

30.4

13.4

15.9

10.8

11.5

0.22

0.22

Total Moisture,J
Ash (dry), SI

Na,0 in ash, I
2

2.7

Coal as lined
Total Hoisture, X

25.3

25.9

Ash (dry), X

12.4

9.0

Sulphur (dry), X

0.38

0.44

0.21

0.20

0,32

49.9

49.2

53.1

52.3

48.6

49.0

51.0

Fired Carbon (daf], X 50.1

50.8

46.9

47.7

50.4

51.0

49.0

C.V gross, KJ/kg

19,3

20.5

15.8

14.7

18.5

21.0

18.0

C.V nett, KJ/kg

17.9

19.1

14.3

13.2

17.2

19.6

16.5

h'a 0 in ash, X

2.1

3.8

2.0

1.5

2.8

4.1

2.1

(daf), .X

6.4

35.9

7.2

6.24 22.4

- '

Table 7.2

Coal qualities of the Muara Lakitan Area (after

Shell, 1978).
H-2

N-4

PANGADANG
(ION)

BENAKAT

6720

6720

TOTAL MOISTUHB (A.L), X

42

45

VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.P.), J

53

54

0.2

0.2

QUALITY PARAMETER

GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG

ASH (DRY), X
TOTAL SOLPHOR (DRY), X

Table 7.3

ON)

Coal qualities of the Langaran Area (after Shell

1978).
N-2

B-3

N-4

PANGADANG

Oil

BENUANG
(6K)

BENAKAT
(14MJ

6780

6690

6470

TOTAL MOISTURE (A.L), X

40

43

48

VOLATILE HATTER (D.A.F.), X

53

54

57

0.3

0.2

0.3

DUALITY PARAMETER

GROSS CV (D.A.P.), KCAL/KG

ASH (DRY), X
TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X

Table 7.4

Coal qualities of the Sigoyang Benuang Area

(after Shell, 1978).
H-2

H-3

H-4

QUALITY PARAMETER
PANGADANG
PETAI
BENUANG
UPPER LOWER
(7-9M) (9M) (5M) (7-9M)

GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG

6640

6680

6880

BENAKAT
(22-24H)

6530

6450

JELAWATAN
(8M)

LEMATANG
(10-11M)

6530

6380

Coal qualities of the Air Benakat Area

Shell, 1978).

(after

TOTAL MOISTURE (A.R.), X 42 35 35 - 48 ? 53?

VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.F.), X 53 52 50 51 56 57 58
ASH (DRY), X 6 7 7 15 7 8 II
TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X 0.8 0.6 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2

Table 7.5

M-2
QUALITY PARAMETER
PANGADANG
LOWER
UPPER
(10-13M)
(11-13M)

6780

6830

TOTAL MOISTURE (A.R.), X

42

38

VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.P.), X

56

53

0.5

0.6

GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG

ASH (DRY), X
TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X

u
CO
JJ
4-1
rrj
rfl
CO

u
<
X

o
C3 ac

9
U
PM

0J
XJ
4J
4-1
Caa

n
cu OO
H

4->
H
H
id H

H H
(d CD

0X5
U
M
U3

CO
mm.

CD
H

8
EH

o
CO
CO

CO

Table 7.7

Sodium Oxide in Ash from the Muara Enim coals

(after KOG, 1987) .
Sodiui oxide in ash, Na 0 (XI

Area
Seal

C/Cl + C2

B/Bl

A2 Al

Enii

North Arahan

6.9

2.7 3.0

Sooth Arahan

3.7 2.6 2.8 + 2.0

4.2 3.7

Sooth Mnara Tiga

3.8 2.S 3.8 T 2.5

3.3 4 5.4 3.2 4 2.0

Kungkilan

E.4 4.3 4 3.2

7.8 + 2.6

Banjarsari

18.1 13.8

3.1 7.6 + 3.0

Muara Tiga Besar-Iest

4.3 4 1.8 3.3 4 2.S

4.2 5.4 2.6 4 2.2

Muara Tiga Bern-Middle

5.5 + 2.4 5.1 3.4

2.6 t 3.0 1.7 1.5

Muara Tiga Besar-Niddle

7.5 4 7.1 7.2 + 2.6

4.6 f 3.5 5.0 4 4.8

Muara Tiga Besar-Sast

4.7 i 3.3 5.0 2.6

6.3 + 5.1 8.0 T 9.2

Air Lajra-North

2.6 1.2 2.7 t 0.7

3.3 4 1.0 2.5 0.8

Air Laya-South

0.5 4 0.3

0.4 4 0.4 0.5 + 0.4

Bukit Asai, upgraded coals

1.0 t 0.1 0.8 4 0.2

Vest Banko-North

5.3 + 2.1 6.5 r 2.7

5.3 2.6 3.1 + 1.7

Vest Banko-South

4.3 + 2.4 7.5 2.4

6.4 r 4.8 3.0 4 0.9

Central Banko

5.2 4 3.5 8.4 r 5.6

5.8 t 3.3 8.3

1.7 1.0

Suban Jerigi (East l North)

Average for each seai

2.5 + 2.3

6.0

5.4

4.5

4.2

2.1

Jelawatan

1.1 4 9.8

0.7 + 0.4

0.9

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Table 7.9

C o a l q u a l i t i e s o f t h e K a b a u S e a m f r o m the B u k i t
K e n d i A r e a (after S h e l l , 1 9 7 8 ) .

GROSS CV (D.A.F), ICAL/IG

8400-3850

[NHEREHT MOISTURE (A.D), I < 2.5

VOLATILE KATTER (D.A.F), X 27.0-34.5
ASH (DRY), X < 4
TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), 5 0.3-2.3
7I7RIMTE EEFLZC7AHCZ, I 0.3-1.22

Table 8.1

SEAM

The differences in calorific value among the

three main maceral groups for four German coals
determined by Kroger et al., 1957 (after Bustin
et al., 1983).

VOLATILE *

CALORIFIC VALUE

MATTER

cal/g (Btu/lb)

(daf)
Vitrinite

Liptinite Inertinite

36.13

7925(14265)

8680(15625)

7841(14114)

Zollverein

31.97

8109(14597)

8696(15652)

8038(14468)

Anna

28.36

8343(15017)

8619(15514)

8343(15017)

Wilhelm

23.50

8368(15062)

8360(15048)

8216(14788)

* Volatile matter determined on vitrinite only.

TABLE

8.2

COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BETWEEN

LURGI SEMI COKES AND BUKIT ASAM SEMI-ANTHRACITE

COALS (AFTER TOBING, 1980).

THE BUKIT ASAM

THE BUKIT ASAM

CHARACTERISTICS LURGI SEMI COKES SEMI ANTHRACITIC

COALS

MOISTURE (%)

2.1-7.4

1.21 - 11.4

ASH (%) 6.7 - 16.9 0.41

7.09

FIXED CARBON (%) 69.8-80.7 57.98

83.44

VOLATILE MATTER (%) 5.5-12.2 6.56

CALORIFIC VALUE (kcal/kg) 6314 - 7395 6038

SULPHUR (%) - 0.25

- 23.34

8164

- 3.36

Table 9.1

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from MBU-2 samples.

Depth

Form. R max

(m)

DOM

Coal

Sh.Coal

VIL VILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1.

22917

40-45

MEF

0.31

2.

22919

170-75

MEF

0.33 - - - 83 5 12

3.

22920

250-55

MEF

0.37 34 1 65 81 4 15

4.

22923

495-500 MEF

0.39 52 tr 48 84 7 9

5.

22926

705-10

MEF

0.40 92 2 6 56 12 32

6.

22929

975-80

ABF

0.42 83 2 15 - - -

7.

22933

1348-50

GUF

0.47 70 30 tr - - -

8.

22936

1644-46

GUF

0.57 99 tr 1 - - -

9.

22938

1800-02

BRF

0.72 99 tr tr - - -

10. 22940

1878-80

TAF

0.74 - - - 97 1 2

11. 22941

1880-82

TAF

0.73 96 tr 4 97 1 2

12. 22942

1887

TAF

0.87 - - - 97 1 2

13. 22944

1968-760 TAF

62

5 33

87

0.82 99 tr tr - - -

Table 9.2

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from PMN-2 samples.

Depth

DOM

Form. R max

Coal

Sh.Coal

% VIL VILVIL

(m)

(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

87

5 13

80

8 12

79

5 16

81

2 17

0.37

84

3 13

ABF

0.36

85

1 14

1128-30

ABF

0.38

76

2 22

23688

1218-20

ABF

0.39

71

5 24

8.

23690

1488-90

GUF

0.47

73 tr 27

9.

23691

1568-70

GUF

0.47

98 tr

10. 23692

1660-62

BRF

0.48

92 tr

11. 23693

1737-39

TAF

0.50

86

12. 23694

1812-14

TAF

0.56

88

88

13. 23695

1820-22

TAF

0.54

86 tr 14

91

14. 23696

1866-68

LAF

0.54

96

15. 23697

1886-88

LAF

0.57

43 tr 57

16. 23698

1920-22

LAF

0.58

83 tr 17

1.

23676

435-40

MEF

0.30

2.

23678

550-55

MEF

0.36

82

3.

23681

722-24

ABF

0.36

4.

23683

838-40

ABF

5.

23684

916-18

6.

23686

7.

Table 9.3

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from GM-14 samples.

Depth

Form. R v max

DOM

Coal

Sh.Coal

% VIL VILVIL

(m)

(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1.

23271

200--05

MEF

0.34

2.

23273

300--05

MEF

0.38 84 4 12 63 14 23 - - -

3.

23274

330--35

ABF

0.36 80 2 18 ------

4.

23276

566--68

ABF

0.41 80 2 18 ------

5.

23277

758--60

ABF

0.40 84 115 ------

6.

23278

794--96

ABF

0.42 88 2 10 ------

7.

23280

1248--50

TAF

0.51 86 68 -------

8.

23281

1258--60

TAF

0.49 85 3 12

9.

23282

1264--66

TAF

0.53 --- ---81118

10. 23283

1274--76

TAF

0.53 --- ---85 4 11

11. 23284

1280--82

LAF

0.50 45 1 54 87 4 9

83

5 12

Table 9.4

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from KG-10 samples.

Depth

Form. R ma

(m)

DOM

Coal

V I L

(m.m.f)

Sh.Coal

(m.m.f)

(m.m.f)

1.

23560

456-61

MEF

0 .30

2.

23561

544-46

MEF

0 .32

3.

23562

602-04

MEF

0..35

4.

23563

736-40

MEF

0..45

5.

23565

838-40

ABF

0..44

74

5 21

6.

23567

1090-92

ABF

0..46

79

4 17

7.

23568

1248-50

ABF

0..41

65

9 26

8.

23569

1300-02

ABF

0..50

83

116

9.

23570

1430-32

GUF

0..51

94

1 5

10. 23571

1526-28

TAF

0.,44

99 tr

11. 23572

1566-68

TAF

0. 54

95

71 10 19

84

3 17

- - - 8 3
64

2 34

72

4 13

7 21

- - - 7 4

4 1

72

7 22
-

5 21

Table 9.5

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from KD-01 samples.

Depth

Form. R max

(m)

DOM

Coal

Sh.Coal

VIL VILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1.

23536

535--40

MEF

0.32

49

7 44

56

9 35 59 10 31

2.

23537

590--95

MEF

0.37 79 7 14

3.

23539

715--20

MEF

0.41 83 5 12

4.

23545

1165--67

ABF

0.45 73 5 22 ------

5.

23547

1270--72

GUF

0.52 79 15 6 ------

6.

23548

1325--27

GUF

0.51 64 24 12 ------

7.

23550

1558--60

GUF

0.52 61 31 8 ------

8.

23551

1642--44

BRF

0.54 99 tr tr ------

9.

23552

1726--28

TAF

0.57 99 tr tr ------

10. 23553

1746--48

TAF

0.63 81 tr 19 91 1 8 - - -

11. 23557

1802--04

LAF

0.61 99 tr tr ___-_-

Table 9.6

Maceral composition and rank from BRG-3 samples.

No. Spl.No

Depth Form. R max

DOM
Coal
Sh.Coal
V
(m)
% V I L V I L V I L
(m.m.f)
(m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1.

22950

610-20

MEF

0.38

90

2.

22952

720-30

MEF

0.41

60

5 35

3.

22953

800-10

MEF

0.47

90

4.

22954

900-10

MEF

0.47

28

2 70

.5.

22955

1070-74

MEF

0.50

90

89

6.

22957

1206-10

MEF

0.49

95 tr

87

3 10

7.

22958

1252-56

ABF

0.53

94

8.

22960

1402-06

ABF

0.58

96

9.

22962

1548-52

ABF

0.63

98 tr

10. 22963

1654-58

GUF

0.66

90

11. 22964

1706-10

GUF

0.65

92

12. 22965

1710-14

GUF

0.67

96

4 tr

13. 22967

1886-90

GUF

0.67

99

1 tr

14. 22969

2042-46

BRF

0.70

93 tr

15. 22970

2106-10

TAF

0.71

98

2 tr

16. 22971

2150-54

TAF

0.75

99

1 tr

17. 22972

2182-86

TAF

0.81

98

2 tr

18. 22973

2190-94

TAF

0.83

91

97

19. 22974

2222-26

TAF

0.84

99 tr tr

98 tr

20. 22975

2238-42

TAF

0.87

99 tr tr

96 tr

TAF

0.87

98

99

1 tr

21. 22976

2241

92

70 17 13
96

79 10 11
9

22. 22977

2254-58

TAF

0.82

99 tr tr

48

3 49

23. 22978

2266-68

LAF

0.82

83 tr 17

73

7 20

Table 9.7

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from TMT-3 samples.

Depth

(m)

Form. R max
v
% V I L

DOM

Coal

V I L V I L

(m.m. f)

(m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1.

23584

446-48

MEF

2.

23586

492-94

MEF 0.36 96 1 3

3.

23588

698-700

ABF 0.33 50 1 49

4.

23589

798-800

ABF 0.40 82 tr 18

5.

23590

898-900

GUF 0.40 60 tr 40

6.

23591

1000-02

GUF 0.42 98 tr 2

7.

23594

1254-56

TAF 0.56 90 1 9

8.

23595

1296-98

TAF 0.50 98 tr 2

9.

23596

1314-16

10. 23597

0.34

Sh.Coal

95

81

3 16

84 3 13

88

2.10

TAF 0.51 86 3 11

69 10 21

1336-38

TAF 0.51 91 5 4

96 1 3 - - -

11. 23599

1488-90

TAF 0.53 59 tr 41

74 tr 26 - - -

12. 23600

1518-20

TAF 0.57 72 tr 28

92 tr 8 - - -

Table 9.8

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from L5A-22 samples.

Depth

Form. Rvmax

DOM

Coal

Sh.Coal

(m) %VILVILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1.

23614

130-35

MEF

0.36

2.

23615

430-35

MEF

0.38

56

1 43

3.

23616

628-30

ABF

0.38

72

4 24

4.

23617

748-50

ABF

0.39

87

1 12

5.

23618

848-50

ABF

0.41

72

5 23

6.

23619

952-54

GUF

0.49

85 10

7.

23620

1110-12

GUF

0.52

80 18

8.

23621

1274-76

BRF

0.53

89 11 tr

9.

23622

1332-34

TAF

0.53

98

10. 23623

1778-80

TAF

0.66

87 tr 13

83

2 15

11. 23624

1804-06

TAF

0.68

90

97

12. 23625

1816-18

TAF

0.76

49

1 50

81

5 14

13. 23626

1840-42

TAF

0.77

97 tr

75

2 23

14. 23628

2008-10

LAF

0.79

90

85

2 13

15. 23629

2070-72

LAF

0.78

62 10 28

92

16. 23630

2168-70

LAF

0.81

68 tr 32

17. 23631

2224-26

LAF

0.82

22 67 11

18. 23632

2272-74

LAF

0.81

91

9 tr

Table 9.9

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from BL-2 samples.

Depth

Form. R max

DOM

Coal

Sh.Coal

{m) %VILVILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1.

23286

798-800

ABF

0.44

64 16 20

- - - - - -

2. 23287 902-904 GUF 0.48 67 20 13 -----3. 23288 1098-100 GUF 0.51 78 4 18 -----4. 23289 1198-200 GUF 0.53 91 1 8 -----5. 23291 1394-96 TAF 0.53 99 tr 1 -----6. 23293 1430-32 TAF 0.55 99 tr 1 -----7. 23294 1530-32 TAF 0.63 97 21 -----8. 23295 1576-78 TAF 0.65 --- ___9154
9. 23296 1584-86 TAF 0.72 98 1 1 97 1 2 - - 10. 23297 1602-04 TAF 0.68 99 tr 1 96 1 3 - - 11. 23298 1606-08 TAF 0.72 99 tr 1 94 1 5 - - -

Table 9.10

No. Spl.No

Maceral composition and rank from BN-10 samples.

Depth

Form. R v max

DOM

Coal

(m) %VILVILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1.

23166

200--05

MEF

0.32

86

84

2.

23168

260--65

MEF

0.30 80 tr 20 97 2 1

3.

23169

320--25

ABF

0.31 81 6 13 - - -

4.

23170

370--75

ABF

0.33 77 16 7 - - -

5.

23172

500--05

ABF

0.32 73 1 26 - - -

6.

23175

700--05

GUF

0.36 42 15 43 - - -

7.

23177

810--15

GUF

0.38 76 4 20 - - -

8.

23179

1150--55

GUF

0.49 55 4 40 - - -

9.

23181

1355--60

GUF

0.55 80 18 2 - - -

10. 23182

1654--56

BRF

0.63 99 tr tr - - -

11. 23185

1866--68

TAF

0.59 95 1 4 - - -

12. 23186

1910--12

TAF

0.62 99 tr 1 92 2 6

13. 23187

1984--86

TAF

0.66 - - - 89 1 10

14. 23188

2048--50

TAF

0.74 - - - 93 2 5

15. 23189

2112--14

TAF

0.83 96 tr 4 - - -

16. 23190

2180--82

TAF

0.87 - - - 99 tr 1

17. 23191

2268--70

TAF

0.86 99 tr 1 - - -

18. 23193

2396--98

LAF

0.93 98 2 tr 98 2 tr

19. 23195

2452--54

LAF

0.92 98 tr 2 - - -

3 13

Sh.Coal

PLATES
1-61

Plate 1.

oil stain associated with cracks in vitrinite.

Sample no. 23628.

Lahat Formation. R max 0.79%;

field width = 0.41 mm, in reflected white light.

Plate 2. Thin layers of telovitrinite (TV) in claystone.

Sample no. 23628.

Lahat Formation. R max 0.79%;

field width =0.41 mm. in reflected white light.

Plate 3. Abundant pyrite in carbonate rocks. Sample no.

23620. Gumai Formation. R max 0.52%; field
width = 0.27 mm, in reflected white light.

Plate 4.

Yellowish orange fluorescing bitumen (B) showing

desiccation cracks in shale. Sample no. 23694.
Talang Akar Formation. Rvmax 0.54%; field width
= 0.29 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 5.

As Plate 4 but in reflected white light.

Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and some pyrite
minerals (Py) in shale.

PLATE I

PLATE 2

PLATE 3

PLATE 4

PLATE 5

Plate 6.

Yellowish orange fluorescing bitumens (B) and

some exsudatinites (Ex) in shale. Sample no.

23595. Talang Akar Formation. Rvmax 0.50%;
field width =0.15 mm, fluorescence mode.

Plate 7. As Plate 6 but in reflected white light.

Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and some pyrite
minerals in shale.

Plate 8. Bitumen (B) and exsudatinite (Ex), yellow

colour, infilling vitrinite fissures. Sample no.
23594. Talang Akar Formation. Rvmax 0.54%;
field width 0.23 mm, fluorescence mode.

Plate 9. As Plate 8 but in reflected white light. Talang

Akar coal showing telovitrinite (TV) and
detrovitrinite (DV).

Plate 10. Abundant bitumen (B) and exsudatinite (Ex),

yellow to orange, infilling vitrinite fissures
and sclerotinite (SC) cell wall. Bright yellow
fluorescing oil cuts (OC) indicating liquid
hydrocarbon generation. Sample no. 23281.
Talang Akar Formation.
Rvmax 0.49%; field width
0.46 mm, fluorescence mode.
Plate 11. As Plate 10 but in reflected light. Talang Akar
coal containing abundant detrovitrinite (DV),
sclerotinite (SC), and pyrite (Py).

PLATE 6

PLATE 7

PLATE 8

PLATE 9

'W

%~* "*-*D

r^A. .

_^^!^Py

^^fl
* .4m\

'"**&

kferfw, /^#*23

*#"2Bv

BHEIM^^^1' ' 1
*

well

XflMHnOBF"TV

SGrti *>3idJBdB
B||. . _Z, (9 S P > ; .

arw
PLATE 10

PLATE II

^B

ftdB
(fl

-J 1

Plate 12. Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) and oil cut
(OC) infilling vitrinite fissures.
23695.

Talang Akar Formation.

Sample no.

R max 0.50%;

field width 0.46 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 13. As Plate 12 but in reflected white light showing

detrovitrinite (DV) and mineral matter (MM).

Plate 14. Bright yellow fluorescing oil hazes (OH) expelled

from scelerotinite and dark yellow sporinite (S)
in the Talang Akar coal.

Sample no. 23596.

R max 0.51%; field width 0.41 mm, in fluorescence

mode.

Plate 15. As Plate 14 but in reflected white light showing

abundant detrovitrinite (DV), inertodetrinite
(It) and sclerotinite (SC).

Plate 16. Bright yellow fluorescing oil hazes (OH) expelled

from telovirinite cracks in the Talang Akar coal.
Sample no. 23596

Rvmax 0.51%; field width 0.27

mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 17.

As Plate 16 but in reflected white* light mode.

PLATE 13

DV
-Tk ** "- TV

^i

PLATE 15

TV

PLATE 17

18

Greenish yellow to bright yellow fluorescing

fluorinite (FL) in the Muara Enim coal.
no. 23702.

Sample

R ^ a x 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm in

fluorescence mode.

Plate 19 As Plate 18 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 20 Bright orange fluorescing resinite (R) in the

Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23273.

R max 0.38%;
v
field width 0.27 mm in fuorescence mode.

Plate 21 As Plate 20 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 22

Some gelovitrinite, texinite and semifusinite

macerals in the Muara Enim coal.
23562.

Sample no.

Rvmax 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm in

reflected white light mode

Plate 23

Abundant fusinite and semifusinite and some

gelovitrinite macerals in the Muara Enim coal.
Sample no. 23613.

Rymax 0.41; field width 0.41%

in reflected white light mode.

PLATE 18

PLATE 19

PLATE 20
* **
' <*rtV-

j*m

^'flflM
t ^>

LTC,

SF^jtL-flj

-^JT^MH
\

GV I^^Sjj
PLATE 22

PLATE 23

Plate 24

Abundant sclerotinite (SC) associated with

detrovitrinite (DV) maceral in the Muara Enim
coal.

Sample no. 23678.

Rvmax 0.36%; field

width 0.27 mm in reflected white light mode.

Plate 25

Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) associated with

sclerotinite (SC), inertodetrinite (It) macerals.
Well-preserved mycorrhyzomes (RH) is present in
the Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 22927.

Rvmax

0.31%; field width 0.27 mm in reflected white

light mode.

Plate 26 Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) occurs in

the Talang Akar coal.

Sample no. 23694.

Rvmax

0.58%; field width 0.46 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 27 As Plate 26 but in reflected white light mode

showing abundant detrovitrinite, sclerotinite and
well-preserved mycorrhyzomes (RH).

Plate 28 Greenish yellow fluorescing resinite (R) occur in

the Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23608.

R max

0.41%; field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 29

As Plate 28 but in reflected white light mode

showing texinite maceral.

PLATE 24

PLATE 25

PLATE 26

PLATE 27

^mmW ^k

_W

___*
h WFLT.

* M y ____

^< ^ ^ k ^ i>^i

v^

flSSSSfl^SSii'^^HK ^ t>
PLATE 28

PLATE 29

Plate 30

Greenish yellow fluorescing resinite (R) occur in

the Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23705.

Rvmax

0.36%; field width 0.36 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 31

As Plate 30 but in reflected white light mode

showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and pyrite
(PY).

Plate 32 Bright yellow fluorescing cutinite (C) occurs in

the clay/shale of the Air Benakat Formation.
Sample no. 23545.

R max 0.45%; field width 0.27

mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 33 As Plate 32 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 34

Yellow fluorescing sporangium (Sp) occur in the

Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23614.

R max 0.36%;

field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 35

As Plate 34 but in reflected white light mode.

PLATE 30

PLATE 31

PLATE 32

PLATE 33

PLATE 34

PLATE 35

Plate 36

Yellow fluorescing sporangium (Sp) occur in

claystone of the Muara Enim Formation.
no.23614.

Sample

R max 0.36%; field width 0.27 mm in

fluorescence mode.

Plate 37 As Plate 36 but in reflected white light mode

showing some detrovitrinite and sclerotinite.

Plate 38 Yellow fluorescing suberinite (Sub) occur in the

Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23612.

R max 0.41%;

field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 39 As Plate 38 but in reflected white light mode

showing some gelovitrinite.

Plate 40 Bright yellow fluorescing exudatinite(Ex), yellow

suberinite (Sub) and sporinite (Sp) in the Muara
Enim coal.

Sample no. 23678.

R max 0.36%; field

width 0.46 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 41 As Plate 40 but in reflected white light mode

showing abundant detrovitrinite maceral.

PLATE 36

PLATE 37

PLATE 38

PLATE 39

PLATE 40

PLATE 41

Plate 42

Yellow fluorescing bitumen and exudatinite occur

in the Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23538.

R max

0.35%; field width 0.46 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 43 As Plate 42 but in reflected white light mode

showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV).

Plate 44 Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) and

orange fluorescing sporinite (S) in the Muara
Enim Formation.

Sample no. 23539.

Rvmax 0.41%;

field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 45 As Plate 44 but in reflected white light mode

showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and
inertodetrinite (It).

Plate 46 Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) in the

Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23613.

R max 0.41%;

field width 0.41 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 47 As Plate 46 but in reflected white light showing

abundant detrovitrinite.

PLATE 42

PLATE 43

PLATE 44

PLATE 45

PLATE 46

PLATE 47

Plate 48

Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) showing

desiccation cracks in the Muara Enim Formation
Sample no.

23543.

R max 0.52%; field width 0.27

mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 49

As Plate 48 but in reflected white light mode

showing telovitrinite (TV) and detrovitrinite
(DV).

Plate 50

Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) occurs in

the Muara Enim coal. Some desiccation cracks are
present in the sample.

Sample no. 23543.

R max

0.43%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 51

As Plate 50 but in reflected white light mode

showing some detrovitrinite (DV) and
telovitrinite (TV).

Plate 52 Greenish yellow fluorescing fluorinites (Fl)

occur in the Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23704.

R max 0.38%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence

mode.

Plate 53

As Plate 52 but in reflected white light mode

showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV).

PLATE 48

PLATE

50

PLATE 52

PLATE 49

PLATE 51

PLATE 53

Plate 54

Thin layers of telovitrinite associated with

in the Muara Enim coal.

gelovitrinite
no. 23562.

Sample

R max 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm, in

reflected white light mode.

Plate 55

Telovitrinite in the Talang Akar coal.

no. 22940.

Sample

R max 0.79%; field width 0.20 mm in

reflected white light mode.

Plate 56 Orange fluorescing bitumen (B) and bright

fluorescing orange oil hazes (OH) in the Talang
Akar Formation.

Sample no. 23694.

R max 0.54%;

field width 0.29 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 57 As Plate 56 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 58 Orange fluorescing resinite (R) in the Talang

Akar Formation.

Sample no. 23694.

R max 0.54%;

field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 59 As Plate 58 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 60 Orange fluorescing bitumen in the Talang Akar

Formation.

Sample no. 23694.

R max 0.54%; field

width 0.29 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 61

As

Plate 60

but in reflected

white light mode

showing telovitrinite (TV) and detrovitrinite

(DV).

-I '

r**r

2L SSftSR" j& *

-I -.

-v, (flV
- *-

ir*

a
flflBr'

PLATE 54

PLATE

PLATE

56

58

APPENDIX 1.

'/ELL MAKE : KBU-2

t;pr7

nooni

pnoi/iiTTnii

a ...

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r o ^ r n u

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uot ill

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t. . u *

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vS

j:'^r'.l.i.rr.iii/i

SO.

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i.,.

?.;-,

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tr\r\r M'-;i '-'i r-;i. ]

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)

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M W- -. b U U k W l i J U i . 1 ,
:i U U tlUU.il C >3 yCli. 3 W
GWiiii.lUi31.14 1.bC , JVlbkUlilUiVWW , WUliWUil
! Bfniri+imii M tr > . rti r. f fl
L L p U U V , l , l L l U ^ |

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VU

LIU
nl lM' i/iiinriK ni f n/iii .ft
jbliUric
WVIIIAUU
UIVUUH.II|

iiUiJ

iiw-iiD

fiUarc*

Lift 13

y*i

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Tf A llrt*.I

r-^

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/wixurr

-u

;uxiu*T

y ; t .1.1.

tfiuv>k(ili3i

v*if

''b/i

' Hii.,iH.iw

v/uuiiiuu

\-vrj,

nu^ui,)

it

J.

-i.a/

u-i**f

/>!

<* ft rt

uuw

i"|

VoWtUICV/li

ntf.t
ill WW J

r>iiriiri(>iifri
CH.UliUjLUI.1, 1 . |

1lTlr'<ti4r\f'r>tit-r\
g-nrtWl'nif'A
7i* ' ' f!tf *
i- 1 W W U U W Cri lill WW f J j " J l . U l V l - | J****"* '
nmiiirl/ii nnnwrtu *n i fl i t- .""hjl! r!" .
U l U U t U ) ^uuiitUiI L U d l l l L U W I VliwLllL-i* |
rr* 1 ! rt r.i /*i w k i frntl/m ? TPT* SB
I - * 1 u < t WUUlftUU rfit/UUWil) glV.WtiA.i3U
fy I 1 /M (* 1(11 il"' .ifUlip/* f>1i,ri

jCliGw

22920

250-255

Kuara Snia

0.2? 20

*u

j C n u * )

jwttibw

wfvxvw.

ClaystaaOsiltstaEC, doa eoaaon,

r Mr.r iT-rft
.IK

'.';'<

T-T J .

abundant, V>L'I {V=S!f L='5, 1=4!;

sajor to abundant vitrinite; oc
! wrt r *" n i *rt iKiinrt^ri'" L *J W I A W
L a w i viULV-w | nuuuuikUi' - wumuawu
*

.'.-F-.-'rtCTt'nir-t

"T fi I !rtT

" ^

t w A n ,-rrt

iipicsc'r.nicc, ;Ci.i.c mm -.^ji.,

* * * . * rtn

1 A

^ rt i r* i *"

rt

T A

' \ /\ f.f

-> A * * rt n

CGilnGu "iwGrkiiLs.W} jw..u) W M I I U U

.iif? ni'-n
* 1 **M r- irsm?!*
v U W l U J L ^ W , ; W 1 1 U . h,W V i L U U g W )

fluorinite, bright ycilov,

suberinite, yellow ts dull yellow;
sajor to abundant bituaen, ijrecnisc
yellow to yellow; eosacn oil eu:o,
OTlftHW

7C*i0tf t

r>rrt

*' f 1

uyimnuii

y / t i i#w

jli

uiwwS,

;W**WP

?<>09i /ocsnn u c,; 313 25 Claystonc)5iltstone>sar.dstone, doa

eoaacn, 7>L>I (7=52, L=49, I=r ".". . I I
eoai, '/>L'[ (V=S4f L=9, !:); sajor
to aounoanc .ii.tirij.ov., t>u
iner.inite; abundant liptodetrinite,
yellow to orange, abundant sporinite,
eutinite, yellow to dull yellow;
eonaon i i u v m u v . , ut.tjui. ;>"'i

rare suberinite, dull yellow;

abundant bitumens, jrcenish 7"li-wi
r> k n ,-* ft t*
'IWiiUJ'iil b

i i !

HOOK

-**'Q

Muara Snis.

0.40

20

Sandstone)siltste.,e>c!aystone, don
onunrisnr

V\l NT

f y = a?

1=5.

1=2 !

UMUIIUUI1 U )

I / W< 1

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i nrnrlarri n i r a
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ye ilea to orange, ccmrrscn to abundant

sporinite, cutimte, yellow to dull
orange; ccaacn bitusen, greenish
yellow to yellow; ccsson to sparse
n v r ifa
p J I I WW f

22929 975-930 Air Senakat 0.42 20 Sandstcne>siItstcfsOcsrborrate, des

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! nnnrrifi/ifwi ni fn run mrn
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mIrtrnf i tiif" \nrinnrtnf
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nfll lnr.i fn iln i 1 nrt I I AW i nnmrann
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n'minrlAiif fn nnn nifittwnn .1 Afl i f fj
ciuuiiuuiiw u u u u u i a u u u i u u i a w i i ) g i w w u i d i i
tTftl 1 nr.i fn n i n* h f n n i 1 n M nnminnn
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l/U/l

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uuuiiuuuuf i/u/i ( i"ui| u-n | L- u / ,

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'j, w u H U U I I u u w u i . w f i w i i i i i u w f
wuiaisun
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?iipi(titn flnm> Pun i * i f n IfUVr^ti?
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'nlnnnti nit n< AtMininnf tn nnmrtnn
i v i w iw w i u i w w , duuuuiiiiv u u
ww*wn
miknoini tn nut iinrn nunfiiin* nnmmnn
S U u C i lit i. w w t C U wliii w w , u u u ^ ,

wumiiun

ClUUllUClUW
I Inr-Anntninitn
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w n I 1n M
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fn
UU

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rikun/innf nitimnn n* I 1 n M i n n IUAAIA'

U W U U U U U U UlUUHV.il) J l - U U l i d l l

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a 1 0 _ Q fl
uuu

.J

Air Benakat

rt 1 7

1Q

QIWWM,

Sandstoac>claystcr.c, dos abundant to

iu
WUIklHWU) I'U'L ^ l"UT| U IW) L ** I )

abundant detrovitrinite; ccsaon

iacrtodctrinite; eoaaon sporinite and
cutinite, yellow to orange; censer, to
sparse resinite, orange to dark
orange; cesser, liptodetrinite. yellow
. ULigO ,

ar:

Jj.tl.Jl.

rilirifl"!
J

sparse fluorinite, bright yellow;

abundant hituscn, greenish yellow,

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nrarjng

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mil W W . (
\

orange; abundant bitumen, greenish

yellow to yellow; ccsson oil drops,
ye!loss; coair.cn pyrite.
IQ
1112-1120
u uuuu

Air Benakat 0.38 20 Shale)sandstone, dorr comr.crt; V>LM

I-00
T - O l ahunrtanf fn n n m m n n
(V=77C
' , L-ilt , i-u / j S B U I I G S I I U uw uwmmwii
detrovitrinite; sparse to rare
inertinite; cosscn liptodetrinite,
yellow to orange; cor.ir.on to sparse
cutinite, yellow to orange; sparse
rnnrim'ro

anrl " p c i n i f g

O W w l i il I Um

UKU

n r 2 n 3 6 tO

I W W .... W W ,

WlUl.gw

WW

oar,, orange, spsrss . I-WI miww,

bright yellow; abundant bit-sen,

greenish yellow to yellow, cosson
nw r i fa
W ) i I UW I

23583

1218-1220

Air Benakat

0.39

25

Shale, dorr, abundant to cesser,; \')L>I

(y=71, L=24, 1=5); abundant to cosson
rlofrnwirri nita-

<;ri2,rS i n S r t m i t e !

uww.wl.w.

www. ww

it.iww,

rnmmnn

1 i nr nrlofri ni fo

WWI.....W..

i.wwwwww.

>..w.w...ww|

V S l l O W tO

iniww,

/.i iw"

ww

orange; cosson sporinite, yellow to

dull yellow; sparse resinite, dark
i/o 11 A W *

hrlGRt

r^ninmnn kifiimpn

; w i i w n , UWIUMIWII u i u u m u M ]
jSiiwn,
IWIW
UII
wi w w w ,

UI I g n u
; w i i wn,

rnmmnn

fn

enarca

m/fita

WWIIIUIUII

uw

upuiuw

y) i i u w <

r\t\*ftt\ 4 i fl p < J nn n r, - rt - i"i i 7 00 ChaleNnarhnnafo nlnmnnmmnn* W \ [ \ j

22590
1485.420
U li " 2 i
wi4(
wu
u N u i S f w u r u w i i u w w , u w m wwrnuwu,
WW/I
fV-7 0. I - 0 7
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[ l-llj,

L-UI|

i-WIUUUj,

UUUIIUUHU

riof m i / i f r i n i f a e n a r c a fn r 2 T 2
uuwi u n u i n n u w j upui u u uw I U I W

inertinite; ccsston liptodetrinite 2nd

sporinite, yellow tc orange; sparse
mifirtifo
UUWIIIIUW)

nrsnflO'

rara

racinifa

dSTk*

wtuiigw,

I U I W

IWUIIIIUU)

uwilv

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IUIW

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wollnw*

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UW

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enarca

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ui u n j v

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nranno-

rara

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uuir>

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nrannp'

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m/r'to
W ^ I IWW1

23592 1550-1552 Baturaja 0.48 19 Lisestone)snale, dor. sparse; V>LM

{y=92, L=S, I:trace); sparse

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n'arrnwifrinifa* enarca I norr i nifa

U W U I W T ' U I

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nnmmnn fn enarca "iitinifa nranna

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uw

w u u i w w

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uiiu

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wui

iv

wiuiigWf

w u u i w w

uuwi

lintnnarrinifa nranna rn na rt/

I I W W W U W U I I I M U W ,

w i u n g u

uu

ifinnuo

u u i <"*.

a ro

nranno'

u t w

T0SQ7

rocimfo

ri a r i/ n r a n n o *

IWUIIIIUU,

w u i iv

wiungw,

nnmmnn
WWIIIIIIWII

n u r if Q
w/i

loop.icafl
nlav/efnna'narhnnara

n'nm

W I U / W U W I I W f W U I U W H U U W ,

ml w III

enarca

^n

W U U I W W

uw

rara* l\V\T M-C7 \l <0 r:*-ranol'

enarca

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rara

W U U I W W

W W U I W f l U I

i u i w

I H I U W f

inorr-'nifa* enarca ennrinifa nranna

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" n na ri/ nranna

uw

u u i i\ wi u n gw i

W M W I .

HI

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w i u u g w

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3ha!e;sanaswcne ;ca.rw-cna.e>siits-cne,
V>L)I V=83, '.:!7, I=tracs); scarse
dors; sparse cetrcvitrinite; trace
iner.im-e; sparse to rare spcr*n'-a,
3 ran g a _z a 2 rk orange; rare cuuiniss,
orange; rare res.niie, da.-K orange;
sparse tc rare cituaer., yellow.

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jl'-k.iiLuil

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luuuuuui

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uwuuuu.nu

wj-uuiunv.)

i vi{.jil i/uimiuu wuviUiuwi j , M MV >* ,

luUnWUlIU L 1 M WWW W W t L.l 1 UW J J\.^-mmif VW
rt * nrfrt - hnn,H * n r U I ( u r * T\ U . ' ;f h r
wTlllllgW,
UuauWUIlU
W 1. U Ulcl W 11 J
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rr/, 1 1 -IT- -rr*i f .-. ****
J W l l W " ,
Ujli-us.
-,UIi*UU.

22275

566-56.-,

:i^tAir. Benakat

<\ .n

in

UllttiC'SttllUOUUIIW.WWIAH-;

Jll(*lv.

*u j W l

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w - . j f

- ,RRri,f i-. -r\r\r iy-jr- r:!0

uu

uwunuu.iu

u w m ,

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uw

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l U K )
W L Ullijw .
J u U L m i l
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liuui niiuui L w w i. id n ;v,iiwi

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riofrnv/ifrinira* enarca
W W U I W I I U

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W rJ U i m. W

inrnnar
I u UW WW

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niit-inifa nranno* rara

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nnmmnn fn enarca Kifnman hrinhf

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w u u i w w

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wi

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; w i iw n ,

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rlnm fV-flfl T- 1 0 I-01- nnmmnn

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rfaf rnui fri ni fa ahnnrianf rn nnmmnn

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> mi v i i.

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fV-97 I-! I;1)'- f-omwnn rlnn fU-Ofl
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uuui

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nranna* nnmmnn r n enarca
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wuui

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orange,
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l-Cl* ahnnrianf fn nnmmnn rtnm (U-f*'J*
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abundant to cor.scn oil h3zes, bright

yellow.
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MI-GO T-frflra l-TlM' rnmmnn

[v-oa, i-irace, L-WW/, .i

detrovitrinite; rare inertinite;
en.reci fn r_r_ !jny222."i&ItS, dark
W U U I W W

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UW

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rnmmnn

fn

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