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1 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The entire electromagnetic-spectrum is broadly divided into 2 regions, namely
the radio-spectrum with a frequency range of (0 300GHz) and the optical
spectrum with a frequency range of (300GHz to infinity)[1]. Electro-Magnetic
(EM) waves with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz are referred to as
microwaves; they may also be described by their wavelength which ranges
between 100cm to 1mm. Study and research in microwaves has led to several
useful applications in communications, radar and domestic use (e.g. microwave
ovens) etc. Modern communication systems require Radio Frequency (RF) and
microwave signals for the wireless transmission of information[2]. These systems
make use of oscillators, mixers, RF amplifiers and microwave filters to generate
and process the baseband and carrier signals.
Microwave filters are required in all RF-communication techniques[3] and they
are an integral part of a large variety of wireless communication systems,
including cellular phones, satellite communications and radar [4]. They represent
a class of electronic filters, designed to operate on signals in the megahertz and
gigahertz frequency spectrum i.e. microwaves. Microwave filters have many
applications including duplexers, diplexers, combiners, signal selectors etc.
Duplexers are an essential component of most microwave transmission systems,
they are used to protect the receivers channel from the transmitters channel
when using the same antenna for both transmission and reception. Duplexers are
typically formed by a dual band-pass filter setup; with each band-pass filter
section forming a transmit and receive filter section which are coupled to a
common port on the antenna as shown in fig 1.1[5]. Low pass filters are also used

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in communication systems to suppress spurious modes in oscillators and leakages

in mixers[5].

Power Amplifier
TX

TX MICROWAVE

UP CONVERTER

FILTER

ANTENNA
RX MICROWAVE

DOWN

FILTER

CONVERTER

RX
Low Noise Amplifier

TX/RX DUPLEXER

FIGURE 1.1 RF FRONT END OF A CELLULAR BASE STATION [4]

Modern telecommunication and microwave transmission systems are typically
full duplex, which involves bi-directional transmission of messages
simultaneously on two separate channels. Typically, microwave transmission
systems are built using a single antenna for both transmission and reception; the
modulation processes at the transmitter may produce out-of-band intermodulation
signals and harmonics, which may interfere with the received signals[4]. These
products must be filtered to prevent leakage into the receiver and to also satisfy
regulatory requirements. Also, the radio frequency spectrum is limited and has to
be shared between commercial radio broadcasters, television stations, mobile
telecommunication operators etc. Filters are required to select or confine
microwave signals within their assigned spectral limits.
Depending on the requirements and specifications, Radio Frequency (RF) or
microwave filters may be designed as lumped element or distributed element

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circuits[6]. However, the design of filters for frequencies in the microwave range
above 500MHz are practically realized through the use of distributed element
circuits[7]. The distributed element circuits are realized with the use of
transmission line sections such as waveguide, coaxial line, and microstrip line.
The analysis of these circuits are based on the transmission line theory.
Emerging wireless communication technologies, continue to challenge
microwave filter designers with more stringent requirements such as higher
performance, smaller size, lighter weight and reduced cost. These requirements
have made the option of microstrip filters more attractive to designers of
microwave filters. Microstrip lines are low cost, compact in size and easy to
integrate with other components on a single board. With the limited licensed radio
frequency spectrum available and the increasing demand for the transmission of
data with greater speeds, microwave engineers continue to be tasked with the
development of microwave filters with higher frequency selectivity.

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

Various methods have been used in the synthesis of a microstrip filter with
varying results. Generally, the electrical performance of a filter is mainly
described in terms of its insertion loss, return loss and frequency selectivity [8].
Filters are required to have small insertion loss, large return loss for good
impedance matching with interconnecting components and high frequency
selectivity to prevent interference when used in certain applications in a
communication system.
This study seeks to determine the performance of the stepped impedance and the
open circuited stub microstrip filter synthesis methods, in the design of a
microstrip low pass filter at frequencies within the Nigerian Communications
Commission (NCC) licensed Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

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(UMTS) frequency band (1920MHz2150MHz). Results from this study may be

useful in the design of microstrip filter based applications in the UMTS frequency
band.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this report is to present a comparative performance analysis of a
microstrip low pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 2 GHz, synthesized using
the stepped impedance and open circuited stub synthesis methods.
The objectives of this project are:
I.

To derive the optimal design parameters for a 2 GHz microstrip low pass
filter using the stepped impedance and open circuited stub synthesis
methods.

II.

Analyse the performance of both synthesis methods by comparing their

frequency response with the use of the Advanced Design System (ADS)
microwave simulation tool.

III.

Fabricate the microstrip layout on a FR4 PCB layout, capable of carrying

out the low pass filtering function with the selected cut-off frequency.

1.4 METHODOLOGY
Filter designs beyond 900MHz are difficult to realize with discrete components
because the wavelength becomes comparable with the physical filter element
dimensions, resulting in various losses and severely degrading the circuit
performance. Thus in order to design practical filters, the lumped component
filters must be converted into distributed element realizations.

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Figure 1.2 shows a flowchart for the design procedure that will be used in the
realization of the required microstrip filter layout. The design will begin with the
following steps:

I.

Lumped Element Filter Design: The LC-ladder low pass filter prototype
will be used. Butterworth and Chebyshev filter response approximation
was used to determine the order of the filter and the values of the reactive
elements for the obtained LC-ladder structure
Lumped-element

Conversion of

Low-pass filter

Lumped-element

design

design to Microstrip

Optimization of

Fabrication of

Microstrip layout

final microstrip

via EM Simulation

layout on suitable

FIGURE 1.2 FLOWCHART OF MICROSTRIP FILTER

REALIZATION

II.

Conversion of Lumped Element to Microstrip Filter Design: The

obtained inductance-capacitance network is converted into the equivalent
distributed element form by using both the stepped impedance method and
the open circuited stub approach.

III.

Optimization of Microstrip Filter Layout: The Advanced Design

System (ADS) software is used to simulate the performance of the obtained

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microstrip layouts. Using the features in the ADS, the designed layout is
tuned in order to obtain the optimal dimensions.

IV.

Fabrication of Microstrip Layout: The microstrip layout is fabricated by

using the photolithographic process to etching the FR4 Printed Circuit
Board (PCB) to produce the required layout.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT REPORT

This project report consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 contains the Introduction
of the project report, significance of the study, methodology employed and also
enumerates the aim and objectives. Chapter 2 presents the Literature Review,
which contains an overview of electronic filters and their methods of synthesis,
some microwave filter design methods, microwave filter applications and
microstrip transmission lines. Chapter 3 presents the details of the Microstrip low
pass filter design. It includes a detailed presentation of the design procedures used
and calculations. Chapter 4 presents the analysis of the frequency response
obtained by the stepped impedance microstrip low pass filter and the OpenCircuited Stub low pass microstrip filter. A detailed comparison of their
performance is presented. This chapter also provides details about the process
used in fabricating the microstrip filter layouts on a FR4 PCB. Chapter 5 presents
the conclusion and recommendation chapter of this report. A discussion of the
results obtained in chapter 4 is made and recommendations and conclusions
drawn from this study are presented in this chapter.