Hydrology
Hydrology as a Science
Hydrology is the science that treats the waters of the earth, their
occurrence, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical
properties, and their reaction with their environment, including their
relation to living things
The domain of hydrology embraces the full life history of water on the
earth
Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrology as a Profession
A profession is a calling requiring specialized knowledge, which has as
its prime purpose the rendering of a public service
Hydrologic Cycle
Important Processes
Precipitation
Runoff
Infiltration
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Sub-surface flow
Ground water flow
Abstractions
Stream flow
Precipitation
Evaporation
1270 mm (50 in) 1400 mm (55 in)
Evaporation
480 mm (19 in)
Outflow
320 mm (12 in)
Residence Time
Residence time:
Average travel time for water to pass through a subsystem of the hydrologic
cycle
Tr = S/Q
where S is Storage; Q is flow rate
Note: The very short residence time for moisture in the atmosphere is one
reason why weather cannot be forecasted accurately more than a few days
ahead!
Hydrological Systems
Prior to 1970, each process is considered as independent
process
Later on, the systems approach used to deal it in a integrated
manner
Hydrological model studies have been carried out
to know more details about each process and their
interactions
MODELS
Model: Characteristic representation of the prototype
Scale up or scale down models
Purpose is to understand the behavior of individual components and
their interactions with other components in a system, and to select the
components and/or to find the relationship
Types of Models:
Iconic models
Analog models
Physical models
Mathematical models
Physical Models
Based On
Prototype
- Model
Model type
1. Physical Process
Conceptual Models
2. Values
Deterministic
3. Based on Process
4. Geometry (or)
Space
Hydrologic Budget
Empirical Models
Probabilistic
Stationary
Lumped
Stochastic
Fuzzy
Non-stationary
5. Relationship of
Variable
Linear Model
Time Based
Event Based
7. Based on Variable
Used
Single variate
Multivariate
8. Based on generation
Single Site
Multisite
Non-linear Model
(1)
Change in storage = - 9900 m3
Final storage = 20,100 m3
(2)
P R E T (Gi Go) I = S
In general
P R E T G I = S
Where, P= precipitation,
R= runoff,
E= evaporation,
T= transpiration,
I = Infiltration
G= groundwater flux,
S= change in storage
P
R
Gi
Go
I
Hydrologic Cycle
9. Evaporation
2. Sublimation
10. Evapotranspiration
11. Condensation
4. Precipitation
1386 Billion m3
35 Billion m3
24.4 billion m3 is contained in frozen ice caps
and only the remaining 10.6 billion m3 is
fresh/liquid.
Watershed
Time
Range from fraction of an hour to year
Depends upon the purpose of the study and problem involved.
Hourly, daily, weekly, ten-daily, fortnightly, monthly, seasonal and
annual scales are very common.
Source: http://seawa.ca/state-of-the-watershed/what-is-a-watershed/
Hydrologic budget
Meteorology
P R E T (Gi Go) I = S
In general
P R E T G I = S
Where, P= precipitation,
R= runoff,
E= evaporation,
T= transpiration,
I = Infiltration
G= groundwater flux,
S= change in storage
P
R
I
Gi
Weather
Climate
Parameters with
smaller time
(today)
Parameters
averaged over a
period of time
Go
Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time, and
climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively long periods of time
P R ET = 0
-Thermometers
atmospheric pressure
-Barometer
Humidity
-Hygrometer
Wind speed
-Anemometer
Sunshine hours
-Parheliometer
Radiation
-Pyranometer
Evaporation
-Evaporimeter
Precipitation
-Raingauge
Synoptic Automatic
Weather Station
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity (RH) is a term used to describe the amount of water
vapor in a mixture of air and water vapor.
The RH of an air-water mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure
of water vapor (H2O) in the mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of
water at a prescribed temperature.
Wind Speed
An anemometer is a device used for
measuring wind speed, and is a common
weather station instrument.
Sunshine
recorder
Sunshine
recorder
Diagram of a Parheliometer or
Cambell-Stokes recorder
Parheliometer
Radiation
Sunshine recorder
Pyranometers
Precipitation Measurement
(depth to which rainfall water would stand on an area if all the
rain were collected on it)
Raingauge
Cylindrical-vessel assembly kept in the open to collect rain
Nonrecording Gauges
Recording Gauges
Precipitation
Water vapor
Two processes
Ice crystal process
Coalescence process
Forms of Precipitation
(all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere)
Rainfall: in form of water drops of sizes larger
than 0.5 mm, max. 6mm
Light rain trace to 2.5 mm/h
Moderate rain 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/h
Heavy rain - > 7.5 mm/h
P = w dh
where, w = absolute humidity,
h= thickness of column or atmospheric height
W=
w1dh1 + w2dh2
A cold front
Types of Precipitation
Based on mechanism of production/formation, precipitation
is classified as:
Cyclonic precipitation
Types of Precipitation
Convective precipitation
Rise in packet of warm air (lesser density) due to localized
heating, undergoes cooling and results in Precipitation
Orographic precipitation
Moist air masses lifted up to higher altitudes due to presence of
mountains, undergo cooling, condensation and precipitation
Thunder storms
Generally different from other types of precipitation due to its electrical
nature
These storms characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic
effect on the Earth's atmosphere
Local in nature, but very much productive & results in intense rainfall
(significant in local & urban drainage works)
Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a
cumulonimbus
Develops from vertical air movement associated with tense surface heating or
orographic effects
The south-west monsoon (monsoon) is the principal rainy season of India (Over
75% of the annual rainfall)
73
74
Western disturbances cause moderate to heavy rain and/or snow (about 25cm)
in the Himalayas, and Jammu & Kashmir
Low pressure areas in the Bay of Bengal cause 10-12 cm of rainfall in
Tamilnadu/Kerala
Precipitation
The basic source of water in India is rainfall (over most parts of the
country) and snowfall (especially in the northern region)
The average annual rainfall for the country is about 119.4 cm
Out of this, 700 km3 is lost to the atmosphere, 2150 km3 is soaked
into the ground and the balance 1150 km3 becomes the direct
surface runoff to the streams.
Measurement
(depth to which rainfall water would stand on an area if all the
rain were collected on it)
Raingauge
Cylindrical-vessel assembly kept in the open to collect rain
Measurement of Rainfall
Nonrecording Gauges
Recording Gauges
Non-recording Gauge
(Symons Gauge)
Recording Gauges
Nonrecording raingauges gives amount of rainfall only but not
any information about its intensity or its and starting and ending
time.
Recording raingauges provide continuous record of rainfall and
fulfill the mentioned gaps stated above.
There are several recording
raingauges
Tipping-Bucket Type
Weighing Bucket Gauge
Natural Syphon (or Float Type)
Gauge
84
Recording Gauges
Tipping-Bucket Type
This is a 30.5cm size raingauge.
The catch from the funnel falls
into one pair of small buckets.
These buckets are so balanced
that when 0.25mm of rainfall
collects in one bucket, it tips and
brings the other one in position.
The tipping actuates an electrically
driven pen to trace a record on a
clock-work driven chart
Recording Gauges
2. Weighing Bucket Gauge
In this raingauge rainwater from the
funnel empties into a bucket mounted on
a weighing scale.
The weight of the bucket and its contents
are recorded on a clock-work driven chart.
This instrument gives a plot of
accumulated rainfall against elapsed time,
(i.e., the Mass Curve of rainfall).
86
10
Telemetering Raingauges
87
88
Precipitation in mm
Find:
Solution
1. The hourly precipitation as read from the chart will be as follows:
1. Hourly precipitation
2. Daily precipitation
3. Time when the siphon was operated
4. Period of no precipitation
5. Maximum intensity of precipitation
Time
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Cumulative ppt
(mm)
0.25
0.5
2.5
4.9
7.4
8.5
Precipitation (mm)
0.25
0.25
0.5
1.5
1.5
0.9
1.1
1.4
1.1
Time
20
21
22
23
24
Cumulative ppt
(mm)
10
0.5
1.8
2.8
4.2
6.5
7.5
Precipitation
(mm)
1.5
0.5
0.5
0.8
1.4
1.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
11
Raingauge Network
WMO Recommendation
Flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical zones
95
IS : 4987-1968 recommendations
In Plains:
1 station per 520 km2
12
Preparation of Data
Problem
82.6
102.9
180.3
110.3
98.8
136.7
For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate the
optimum number of stations in the catchment
Ans: m=6
Average = 118.6, Std.Dev = 35.04, Cv= 0.295
Optimum number of rain gauge = 8.7 9 stations
where
Pi = ith station precipitation,
Ni = ith station normal precipitation
M = total number of stations
Ref: K.Subramanya
Example
The normal annual rainfall (cm) in four stations is 80.97 (A), 67.59 (B),
76.28(C) and 92.01 (D). The last station (D) was not operated in a particular
year. Find the missing data if annual rainfall in other three stations are 91.11
(A), 72.23 (B), and 79.89(C) respectively.
Ans:
By arithmetic average method:
Contd
Inverse distance method
Computing of weights of the surrounding rain gauges
The distances are computed by establishing a set of axes running
through the missing data station
The distance Di2= (xi-x0)2+(yi-y0)2
The weight of the ith station, Wi = (1/ Di2 )/( 1/ Di2 )
= 81.08 cm
By normal ratio method:
=99.41 cm
13
Example
Year
Station A
Year
other
station
1985
177
143
1986
144
132
1987
178
146
1988
162
147
1989
194
161
1990
168
155
1991
196
152
1992
144
117
1993
160
128
1994
196
193
1995
141
156
1996
158
164
1997
145
155
1998
132
143
1999
95
115
2000
148
135
2001
142
163
2002
140
135
2003
130
143
2004
137
130
2005
130
146
2006
163
161
Cumulative
of A
other stations
2006
163
161
163
161
2005
130
146
293
307
2004
137
130
430
437
2003
130
143
560
580
2002
140
135
700
2001
142
163
842
878
2000
148
135
990
1013
1999
95
115
1085
1128
1998
132
143
1217
1271
1997
145
155
1362
1426
1996
158
164
1520
1590
1995
141
156
1661
1746
1994
196
193
1857
1939
1993
160
128
2017
2067
1992
144
117
2161
2184
1991
196
152
2357
2336
1990
168
155
2525
2491
1989
194
161
2719
2652
1988
162
147
2881
2799
1987
178
146
3059
2945
1986
144
132
3203
3077
1985
177
143
3380
3220
715
Data presentation
Example:
2. Hyetograph
Time (min)
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
Slope of the curve at a particular time give the rainfall intensity at that
time.
Rainfall intensity,
111
110
Data presentation
Point Rainfall
2. Hyetograph
A hyetograph is a plot of intensity of rainfall against the time interval.
The hyetograph is derived from the mass curve and presented as a bar
chart.
Example:
Time
(min)
Cum.
Rainfall
(mm)
Inc.
Rainfall
(mm)
Intensity
(mm/h)
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
0
12
15
31
41
45
47
52
60
62
62
12
3
16
10
4
2
5
8
2
0
48
12
64
40
16
8
20
32
8
0
112
14
Data presentation
Collected data from raingauges need to
be presented in an organised manner.
1. Rainfall mass curve
Precipitation
Data Presentation
2. Hyetograph
A hyetograph is a plot of intensity of
rainfall against the time interval
The hyetograph is derived from the mass
curve and presented as a bar chart
115
Arithmetical-Mean Method
This involves determining the area of influence for each station, rather than
assuming a straight-line variation.
Locate all rainfall stations on a
base map and record the rainfall
amount.
Thiessen Polygons
Thiessen constant = area of each rain gauge influence / total area (1230 ha)
15
Isohyetal method
Isohyetal method
The most basic method of representing the spatial distribution.
Locate all rainfall stations on a base map
and record the rainfall amount.
Draw isohyets (lines of equal rainfall) by
proportioning the distances between
adjacent gauges according to differences
in catch.
Then calculate the mean precipitation for
the area corresponding to each isohyet.
Calculate the fraction of catchment area
under each isohyet, multiply by the mean
precipitation for that area and sum to get
the catchment average.
Precipitation
Types of Curves used Hydrological Analysis
Intensity-Duration-frequency (IDF)
curves
Max. Intensity-duration (ID) curves
Depth-Area Relationships
rainfall
A storm of given duration (over a certain area) never produces uniform
rainfall depth over the entire area.
Storm usually has a centre, where maximum rainfall (P0) is always
larger than the average depth of rainfall P for whole area.
Generally, the difference (P0-P) increases with increase in area and
decreases with increase in the duration.
Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) analysis helps to find the maximum depth
of precipitation for different durations corresponding to different areal
extents
DAD curves are essential to develop design storms, for use in
Duration
1 day
0.0008526
0.6614
2 days
0.0009877
0.6306
3 days
0.001745
0.5961
16
Intensity-Duration-Frequency Relationship
Duration (min)
Example
Empirically it is expressed as
to be formulated for the duration of 1-hour, 2-hour, 6-hour, 12- hour and 24hour and for return periods of 2-year, 5-year, 10-year, 50-year and 100-year.
Table: Max. Rainfall (mm) for different durations.
Year 1H
2H
6H
12H 24H Year
1969 44.5 61.6 104.1 112.3 115.9 1987
1970 37
48.2 62.5 69.6 92.7 1988
1971 41
52.9 81.4 86.9 98.7 1989
1972 30
40
53.9 57.8 65.2 1990
1973 40.5 53.9 55.5 72.4 89.8 1991
1974 52.4 62.4 83.2 93.4 152.5 1992
1975 59.6 94
95.1 95.1 95.3 1994
1976 22.1 42.9 61.6 64.5 71.7 1994
1977 42.2 44.5 47.5 60
61.9 1995
1978 35.5 36.8 52.1 54.2 57.5 1996
1979 59.5 117 132.5 135.6 135.6 1997
1980 48.2 57
82
86.8 89.1 1998
1981 41.7 58.6 64.5 65.1 68.5 1999
1982 37.3 43.8 50.5 76.2 77.2 2000
1983 37
60.4 70.5 72
75.2 2001
1984 60.2 74.1 76.6 121.9 122.4 2003
1986 65.2 73.7 97.9 103.9 104.2
where,
I = intensity (e.g., cm/hr)
D = duration (hours)
K, x, a, n are constants for a given catchment
141
Solution
2H
30.80
24.10
26.45
20.00
26.95
31.20
47.00
21.45
22.25
18.40
58.50
28.50
29.30
21.90
30.20
37.05
36.85
6H
17.35
10.42
13.57
8.98
9.25
13.87
15.85
10.27
7.92
8.68
22.08
13.67
10.75
8.42
11.75
12.77
16.32
12H
9.36
5.80
7.24
4.82
6.03
7.78
7.93
5.38
5.00
4.52
11.30
7.23
5.43
6.35
6.00
10.16
8.66
24H
4.83
3.86
4.11
2.72
3.74
6.35
3.97
2.99
2.58
2.40
5.65
3.71
2.85
3.22
3.13
5.10
4.34
Year
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1994
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2003
1H
47.00
148.80
41.70
40.90
41.10
31.40
23.20
23.20
44.20
57.00
50.00
72.10
59.30
62.30
46.80
53.20
2H
27.95
105.40
23.50
35.95
24.65
28.20
19.35
19.35
31.10
37.40
35.55
47.30
31.45
39.15
35.00
43.25
6H
10.80
62.93
8.62
13.28
10.60
12.67
6.98
6.98
12.00
14.30
24.32
18.65
13.72
14.05
15.98
17.68
12H
5.47
36.07
4.48
6.79
7.77
6.80
3.62
3.62
6.02
7.21
15.19
10.04
7.56
7.03
7.99
8.85
6H
64.8
377.6
51.7
79.7
63.6
76
41.9
41.9
72
85.8
145.9
111.9
82.3
84.3
95.9
106.1
12H
65.6
432.8
53.7
81.5
93.2
81.6
43.4
43.4
72.2
86.5
182.3
120.5
90.7
84.3
95.9
106.2
24H
67.5
448.7
78.1
81.6
147
83.1
50.8
50.8
72.4
90.4
191.3
120.5
90.9
97.2
100.8
106.8
Now, the mean and standard deviation for the data for different durations
is calculated as:
2H
55.9
210.8
47
71.9
49.3
56.4
38.7
38.7
62.2
74.8
71.1
94.6
62.9
78.3
70
86.5
Continued
Year
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1986
1H
47
148.8
41.7
40.9
41.1
31.4
23.2
23.2
44.2
57
50
72.1
59.3
62.3
46.8
53.2
Duration 1H
24H
2.81
18.70
3.25
3.40
6.13
3.46
2.12
2.12
3.02
3.77
7.97
5.02
3.79
4.05
4.20
4.45
Mean
Std. DV
2H
6H
12H 24H
T(years) 2
KT
-0.164
10
50
100
3.137
144
143
17
Continued
The rainfall intensities are calculated using,
Duration
(hour)
1H
2H
6H
12H
24H
2
45.17
30.55
12.89
7.14
3.91
Return period(T)
5
10
50
64.19
76.79 104.51
44.6
53.9
74.36
21.36
26.97 39.31
12.02
15.25 22.36
6.44
8.11
11.79
100
116.23
83.02
44.53
25.37
13.35
Precipitation
Frequency Analysis
IDF curves
Plot the IDF curves using the
above table values
145
Return Period
Recurrence interval (or return period)
Uncertainty of Rainfall
The rainfall at a place is a random process, which involves a lot of
uncertainty
This random rainfall arranged in chronological order constitutes a time
series
Frequency analysis
Frequency is the probability of occurrence of a particular extreme
rainfall in that series
The purpose of frequency analysis is to obtain a relation between the
magnitude of the event and its probability of exceedence.
The probability analysis may be made either by empirical or by
analytical methods.
Analytical Methods
The recurrence interval (or return period) of the rainfall magnitude X is
given as
Contd
The Probability of an event of exceedance probability P occurring 2
times in n successive years
The binomial distribution can be used to find the probability of occurrence of the
event r times in n successive years.
18
Solution:
Example
Q.
Here, P=1/50=0.02
(a) Once in 20 successive years, (i.e., n=20, r=1,)
Empirical Method
Example
Method
California
m/N
Hazen
(m-0.5)/N
Weibull
Chegodayev
Blom
Gringorten
1951
12
1962
9
1952
7.6
1963
10.2
0.043
0.087
0.13
0.174
0.217
0.261
0.304
0.348
0.391
0.435
0.478
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Rainfall
(cm)
9
8.9
8.9
8.5
8.4
8.3
8
7.8
7.6
7.5
6
1956
8
1967
8.4
1957
12.5
1968
10.8
1958
11.2
1969
10.6
1959
8.9
1970
8.3
1960
8.9
1971
9.5
Continued
1955
9.6
1966
6
(m-3/8)/(N+1/4)
T=1/P
(years)
23
11.5
7.67
5.75
4.6
3.83
3.29
2.88
2.56
2.3
2.09
1954
16
1965
7.5
(m-0.44)/(N+0.12)
P=m/(N+1)
1953
14.3
1964
8.5
m/(N+1)
The data (N=22) are arranged in descending order and assigned the ranks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1950
13
1961
7.8
(m-0.3)/(N+0.4)
Rainfall
(cm)
16
14.3
13
12.5
12
11.2
10.8
10.6
10.2
9.6
9.5
Year
Rainfall(cm)
Year
Rainfall(cm)
Continued
Solution:
For a station A, the recorded annual 24 h maximum rainfall are given below
P=m/(N+1)
0.522
0.609
0.652
0.696
0.739
0.783
0.826
0.87
0.913
0.957
T=1/P
(years)
1.92
1.64
1.53
1.44
1.35
1.28
1.21
1.15
1.1
1.05
19
Year
Maximum
intensity
(mm/day)
Year
Maximum
intensity
(mm/day)
Year
Maximum
intensity
(mm/day)
Year
Maximum
intensity
(mm/day)
1976
264.7
1991
399
1977
136.8
1992
215.4
1978
158.9
1993
312.4
1979
170.3
1994
157.2
1980
151.1
1995
180
1981
318.2
1996
171.7
1982
275.6
1997
346.2
1983
253.4
1998
211.5
1984
240.1
1999
134.4
1985
223.6
2000
351.5
1986
194.5
2001
178.2
1987
125.7
2002
186
1988
144.9
2003
192.9
1989
192.1
2004
129.7
1990
150.2
2005
944.2
1976
264.7
1991
399
1977
136.8
1992
215.4
1978
158.9
1993
312.4
1979
170.3
1994
157.2
1980
151.1
1995
180
1981
318.2
1996
171.7
1982
275.6
1997
346.2
1983
253.4
1998
211.5
1984
240.1
1999
134.4
1985
223.6
2000
351.5
Average=
212.6276
1986
194.5
2001
178.2
Std.Dev=
74.22977
1987
125.7
2002
186
1988
144.9
2003
192.9
1989
192.1
2004
129.7
1990
150.2
2005
944.2
237.0133
Std.Dev=
152.1841
PMP=
2519.775
mm/day
PMP=
1326.074
mm/day
20