Power Factor Improvement

Power Factor
The power factor of a circuit implies that how
efficiently power is being consumed or utilized in
the circuit.
The greater the power factor of a circuit, greater is
the ability of the circuit to utilize apparent power.
Thus if the power factor is 0.5, it means that 50% of
the power is being utilized.
However, it is desired that power factor of a circuit
to be as close to unity as possible.
The cosine of the angle between voltage and current
in an ac circuit is also known as power factor (cos
).
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Power Factor
The Power factor of an alternating circuit is defined as
ratio of active power to the apparent power.
Mathematically,

Where
kW = Active Power delivered OR absorbed by the
circuit
kVA = Apparent Power of the circuit
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Power Factor
The ratio of resistance to the impedance is also known
as power factor.
Alternatively,
Power Factor = R / Z
Where
R = Resistance of the circuit.
Z = Impedence of the circuit.
Fig 1 shows an R-L series circuit connected with a power source
of voltage V.

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Concept of Active Power and Reactive

Power

Figure 1 A sinusoidal voltage source switched on to RL network.

Concept of Active Power and Reactive

Power

In an ac circuit, there is generally a phase difference

between voltage and current.
In an inductive circuit, the current lags behind the
applied voltage and the power factor of the circuit is
referred to as lagging.
In a capacitive circuit the current leads the applied
voltage and-therefore, the power factor of the circuit
is said to be leading.
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Concept of Active Power and Reactive

Power

Figure 2 Power Triangle for inductive load.

Consider an inductive circuit, shown in Fig.1, in which a current
I drawn from the supply mains is lagging behind the supply
voltage V by an angle , known as phase angle, the phasor
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.
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Concept of Active Power and Reactive

Power
The current I can be resolved into two
components, one in phase with the voltage
phasor and the other perpendicular to it.
The component in phase with the voltage
phasor, I cos is called the inphase or active
component of current, and the one
perpendicular to the voltage phasor, I sin is
called the out of phase or wattless or reactive
component of current, shown in Fig.3
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Concept of Active Power and Reactive

Power

Figure 3 Phasor Diagram for an inductive network.

Concept of Active Power and Reactive

Power
Active Power

If all these components are multiplied by voltage V,

the product of voltage V and in-phase component of
current I cos i.e. VI cos will represent the active
power of the circuit in watts or kW.
It is also known as true or real power of the circuit.
Active power is defined as the power consumed in
the resistance of the circuit and is denoted by P.
P = VI cos
Active power is used to produce torque in motors
and supply heat, mechanical power and light etc.
It is consumed in the circuit and cannot be
recovered.
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Concept of Active Power and Reactive

Power
Reactive Power
The product of voltage V and the component of current
perpendicular to applied voltage, I sin i.e. V I sin
will represent the reactive power in VARs or kVARs.
Reactive power is defined as the power developed
across the inductance of the circuit to set up ac
magnetic field in the circuit.
Q = VI sin
Note that power consumed in inductor and capacitor is
zero because all the power received from the source in
one-quarter cycle is returned to the source in the next
one-quarter cycle.
This circulating power does no useful work in the
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circuit.

Concept of Active Power and Reactive Power

Apparent Power
The product of voltage V and current I i.e. V I will represent
the apparent power in volt-amperes or kVA denoted by S.
S = P jQ
Active power should be as large as possible because it is this
component, which does useful work in the circuit. This is
possible only reactive component of power is small which
results ultimately in high power factor i.e.
when = 0
sin = 0 but cos = 1
when = 90
sin = 1
but cos = 0
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Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

If load P is to be supplied at terminal voltage V and at power factor
cos by a 1-phase system then load current is given by

13

Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

Thus, P and V being constant, the load current I is
inversely proportional to power factor, cos i.e. lower
the power factor, higher the current and vice-versa.

The higher current due to poor power factor affects the

system and results in following disadvantages.

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Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

High Line Losses

i.e. Line Losses are inversely proportional to square of

cos
So, if cos = 0.5, line losses will be (1/0.5)X(1/0.5) =
4 times as compared to situation when cos = 1.
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Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

High Voltage Drop

Thus, voltage drop is inversely proportional so if cos

= 0.5, line losses will be 4 times as compared to
situation when cos = 1

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Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

High kVA Rating of the Generators and Transformers
Let P = 1000 kW
V = 400 V
cos = 0.5 lagging

= 1000 / 0.5 = 2000 kVA

If the power factor is improved to unity,
Size of the plant to supply this power = kVA = kW / cos
= 1000 / 1.0 = 1000 kVA
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Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

High kVA Rating of the Generators and Transformers

Thus by improving the power factor, the kVA

demand of the system becomes less, therefore,
small generators and transformers are
required to deliver same load at high power
factor.

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Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

Small Cross-section Area of the Conductor
For the same power to be transmitted but at low
power factor, the transmission line or distributor or
cable has to carry more current.
The size of the conductor will have to be increased if
current density in the line is to be kept constant.
Thus more conductor material is required for
transmission lines, distributors and cables to deliver
the same load but at low power factor.
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Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

Small Cross-section Area of the Conductor
Thus we see that the low power factor leads to a high
capital cost for the alternators, switchgears,
transformers, transmission lines, distributors and
cables etc.
Keeping in view the various drawbacks associated
with the low power factor, the power suppliers insist
on a power factor of 0.8 or above for industrial
establishments.
The power tariffs are devised to penalize the
consumers with low lagging power factor and to
encourage them to install power factor correction
devices or equipment.
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Causes of Low Power Factor

a) All induction motors and transformers operate at
lagging power
factor.
The power factor of induction motors and transformers
is very poor when lightly loaded (especially in night
hours), so energy consumed is very small.
In this case, there will be loss to supply company.
For example an induction motor has a
reasonable
higher power of 0.85 at full load, 0.8 at 75% of fullload, 0.7 at half-full load, 0.5 at 25% of full-load and as
low as 0.1 on no-load.
b) Arc lamps and electric discharge lamps operate at
low lagging power factor.
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Causes of Low Power Factor

c)
The power factor, at which motors operate, falls
due to
improper maintenance and repairs of
motors. In repaired
motors, less wire is sometimes
used than originally wound motors, therefore, in
such motors leakage of magnetic flux
increases
and power factor of the motor decreases.
d) Industrial heating furnaces such as arc and
induction furnaces operate on very lagging power
factor.
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Causes of Low Power Factor

The average power factors of some of the common appliances are given below:
Type of load

Power factor

Type of load

Power factor

Incandescent lamps
Fluorescent lamps
Neon lamps used for
advertisements
Arc lamps used in
cinemas Fans .
Induction motors
Fractional kW motors

0.98 - 1.0
0.6 - 0.8
0.4 - 0.5

Induction heaters
Resistance furnaces
Arc furnaces

0.85
0.6 - 0.9
0.85

0.3 - 0.7

Induction furnaces

0.6

0.5 - 0.85
0.4 - 0.75

Arc welders
Resistance welders

0.3 - 0.4
0.4 - 0.75

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Some Basic Definitions

Capacitor element: an invisible part of a capacitor
consisting of electrodes separated by a dielectric material.
Capacitor unit: an assembly of one or more capacitor
element in a single container with terminals brought out.
Capacitor segment: a single-phase group of capacitor
units with protection and control system.
Capacitor module: a three-phase group of capacitor
segments.
Capacitor bank: a total assembly of capacitor modules
electrically connected to each other.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

The low power factor is due to the inductive nature of
the load i.e. a device that draws lagging reactive
power.
If a device drawing leading reactive power is
connected in parallel with the inductive load, then the
lagging reactive power of the load will be partly
neutralized, resulting in improvement of the power
factor of the system.

25

Methods of Power Factor Improvement

Therefore, when such a device is connected across

the load, which takes leading reactive power such as
static capacitors, synchronous machines or
synchronous condensers, the leading reactive
component of current drawn by power factor
correcting device neutralizes the lagging reactive
component of current drawn by the load partly or
completely.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

Power factor of the system will approach unity when
lagging reactive component of load current is
completely neutralized by the leading reactive
component of current drawn by power factor correcting
device.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

Figure 4: Power Factor Improvement.

Mainly there are three methods to improve the power

factor an inductive load,
(i) By use of Static Capacitor
(ii) By use of Synchronous Motors
(iii) By use of Phase Advancers
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29

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31

Power Factor Correction Capacitor

Application On Induction Motor
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Intelligent Static Phase Advancers

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

1-

By Using Static Capacitor

Power factor can be improved by connecting the

capacitors in parallel with the load operating at lagging
power factor such as induction motors, fluorescent tubes
etc.
Advantages
(a) Small losses
(b) High efficiency (approximately 99.6%).
(c) Low initial cost
(d) Low maintenance due to absence of rotating parts.
(e) Easy installation being lighter in weight.
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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

1By Using Static Capacitor
Disadvantages
Short service life
Getting damaged on overvoltage
Uneconomical repair
In case of 3-phase loads capacitors can be connected
either in star or delta, as shown in Fig. 5. These
capacitors remain connected permanently across the
equipment and are across the supply mains,
whenever the equipment is switched on.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

1-

By Using Static Capacitor

Figure 5: Connection of Capacitor Bank.

(a) Y- connected capacitors. (b) - connected capacitors.
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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

1-

By Using Static Capacitor

Power factor can also be improved by connecting static

capacitors in series with the line, as shown in Fig. 6.
Capacitors connected in series with the line neutralize the
line reactance.
The capacitors, when connected in series with the line, are
called the series capacitors, and when connected in
parallel with the equipment, are called the shunt
capacitors, which will be discussed, in the coming section.
Shunt capacitors are used in factories, plants and also on
transmission lines.
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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

1-

By Using Static Capacitor

Figure:6 Series Capacitors.

Series capacitors are used on long transmission lines

as they provide automatic compensation with the
variations in load.
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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

2-

By Using Synchronous Machines

Synchronous machines are excited by DC and

controlling the field excitation may control the power
factor.
An over-excited synchronous motor running on no
load is called the synchronous condenser or
synchronous phase advancer and behaves like a
capacitor, the capacitive reactance of which depends
upon the motor excitation.
Power factor can be improved by using synchronous
condensers like shunt capacitors connected across the
supply.
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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

2-

By Using Synchronous Machines

Figure 7: Power Factor Improvement Using Synchronous Machines

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

2-

By Using Synchronous Machines

In phasor diagram Fig. 7 phasor IL represents the

current drawn by the industrial load, lagging behind the
applied voltage V by a large angle L and phasor IM
represents the current drawn by the synchronous
condenser leading the applied voltage V by the angle
m,
The resultant current I is the phasor sum of IL and IM
and now angle of lag is much smaller than L, Thus
overall power factor is improved from cosL to cos by
the use of the synchronous condenser.
In this way the power factor can be made unity even.
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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

2-

By Using Synchronous Machines

The advantages of synchronous condensers over static

capacitors as a power factor correction devices are as
under.
a)
A finer control can be obtained by variation of
field excitation.
Inherent characteristic of synchronous condensers of
stabilizing variations in the line voltage and thereby
automatically aid in
regulation.
b)
Improvement in the system stability and reduction
of the effect of
sudden changes in load owing to
inertia of synchronous condenser.
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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

2-

By Using Synchronous Machines

c)
By use of synchronous condensers at intermediate
stations, the voltage of the line can be kept constant at
various points along its length, thereby, increasing the
current carrying capacity of the line and improvement
of power factor.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

2-

By Using Synchronous Machines

The disadvantages of synchronous condensers over

static capacitors as power factor correcting devices
are as under
a)
The cost is higher than that of static
capacitors of the same rating.
b)
Comparatively higher maintenance and
operating costs.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

2-

By Using Synchronous Machines

d)
Noise is produced in operation.
e)
Auxiliary equipment is required for starting
synchronous condensers.
f)
Possibility of synchronous condensers falling out
of synchronism causing in interruption of supply.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

3-

By Use of Phase Advancers

The power factor of an induction motor falls mainly
due to its exciting current drawn from the ac supply
mains, because exciting current lags behind the voltage
by / 2.
It may be improved by equipping the set with an ac
exciter or phase advancer, which supplies this exciting
current to the rotor circuit at slip frequency.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

3-

By Use of Phase Advancers

Such an exciter may be mounted on the same shaft as

the main motor or may be suitably driven from it.
Use of phase advancer is not generally economical in
connection with motors below 150 kW output but
above this size, phase advancers are frequently
employed.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

3-

By Use of Phase Advancers

There are two main advantages of phase advancers.

a)

Lagging kVAR drawn by the motor is

considerably reduced due to supply
of
exciting
ampere-turns at slip frequency.

b)

The phase advancers can be conveniently

employed where the use
of synchronous motor is
inadmissible.
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