1

Maintaining a Balance
1. Most Organisms are active in a limited temperature range.
A. Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical
composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates.
Enzymes are biological catalysts i.e. they are organic compounds and speed up
reactions.
In an enzyme catalyzed reaction the molecules require a lower activation energy in order
to react, providing an alternative and quicker pathway for a chemical reaction.
Without enzymes, metabolism would be too slow to support life.
Most enzymes are proteins.
- Proteins are polypeptide chains folded in a three-dimensional globular shape.
- Proteins are made up of a long chain of amino acids, joined together by peptide
bonds.
Enzymes are highly specific and can distinguish its substrates from closely related
molecules.
- One enzyme catalyses one substrate and only that substrate.
- The binding of enzymes with a specific substrate occurs at the active site of the
enzyme, which is a pocket in the proteins three-dimensional chain.
The Lock and Key Model suggests that the substrate fits exactly into the active site of the
enzyme like a key fits into a lock. It assumes that the enzyme had a rigid and unchanging
shape.
The induced fit model, a more recent modification on the lock-key model, proposes that
the active site slightly changes its shape to accommodate the substrate perfectly. (like a
sock to a foot).
A coenzyme (organic molecule) usually binds to the active site and the cofactor
(inorganic) is either bound to the enzyme or to the coenzyme. These help the enzymes to
act.
Through the enzyme catalysed chemical reaction, the substrate can either be split, or two
substrates can be joined.

B. Identify pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substrate.

All enzymes work best at a certain pH, called their optimum pH.
Most enzymes have an optimum pH of about 7 (neutral), e.g. water.
Some prefer acidic (0 6, low pH) and others prefer alkaline/basic (8 14, high pH)
conditions.
If we measure how fast an enzyme can work in different pHs, we can find its optimum
pH.
pH is a scale related to the presence of hydrogen ions in solution, makes it more acidic.
An enzyme can tolerate only a small range of ion concentrations.
C. Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important
for optimal metabolic efficiency.
Enzymes control all the metabolic processes in the body.
Enzymes work optimally in an environment where their optimum temperature and pH
conditions are met.
Enzymes, and therefore metabolism, can only occur under a relatively narrow range of
conditions.
At temperatures and pH values other than the optimum, the enzymes fail to work as
efficiently as they should or not at all (denatured).
All cells and organisms devote much of their energy to actively maintaining stable internal
conditions so that enzymes can work at their optimum rate.
Many compounds your cells need must be synthesized, usually in a series of steps called
a metabolic pathway. Every enzyme in the pathway contributes to the synthesis and

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performs on its own substrate. Every enzyme, therefore, plays an essential role so if one
is defect then the entire pathway is affected.

D. Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively

stable internal environment.
Homeostasis is the process by which the internal environment is kept within normal limits
regardless, of the external environmental conditions.
This includes conditions, such as temperature, pH, gas levels, water and salt
concentrations.
This allows the enzyme's optimal conditions to be met and the body to work efficiently
and kept as stable as possible.
These coordinating systems of the body (the Nervous and Endocrine system) monitor all
the activities of cells, their requirements and the wastes they produce this is to maintain
health.
E. Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages.
Detecting changes from the stable state
Counteracting changes from the stable state
Receptors detect changes in the stable state. For example, sensory neurons in the skin
pick up a decrease, or increase, in temperature of air surrounding the body.
Sense organs occur when lots of stimulus receptors are grouped together along with
other structures. E.g. Ears and Eyes.
Effectors counteract the change from the stable state with an appropriate response. For
example, shivering to generate heat.
The effector can be either: Muscles, that bring about change by movement or Glands,
that bring about change by secreting chemical substances
The homeostatic control is carried out by the nervous and endocrine systems.
The nervous system has two receptors in the sense organs to detect changes in the
external environment.
A message being carried by the nervous system usually follows the stimulus-response
model.
In humans, homeostasis maintains: body temperature at approx. 37C, pH within a 10 th of
7.4, and sugar concentration of the blood at approx. 0.1%.
F. Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to
environmental changes.
The senses in relation to sensitivity is controlled by the nervous system.
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
- The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord,
This part acts as the CONTROL CENTRE for all of the bodys responses. It
coordinates all the responses. It receives information, interprets it and initiates a
response.
- The PNS consists of the sensory nerves and effector nerves (Cranial and Spinal
nerves). This is a branching system of nerves that connects receptors and effectors.
This system transmits messages from the central nervous system and back. It acts as
a communication channel.
Any change which the nervous system can detect, using special cell receptors, in the
surroundings is called a stimulus.
When a receptor detects its stimulus it sends a message to the brain, the brain then
responds by sending a message to an effector organ.
These messages to and from the brain travel along fibres called nerves, some traveling
straight to the brain, cranial nerves. Most nerves, however, relay their messages through
the spinal nerves.
The hypothalamus, is the control centre for maintaining homeostasis when the Nervous
System or a combination of Nervous and Endocrine systems are involved.

E.g. When the environmental temperature begins to exceed a comfortable level for the
body, temperature sensors in the skin detect the temperature change and a sensory
neuron conducts a nervous impulse to the hypothalamus found in the brain. Nerve
impulses pass this information from the receptors to effector neurons then onto effectors,
such as blood vessels, sweat glands, endocrine glands and muscles.
G. Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared
with the narrow limits for individual species.
Life, in some form, can be found at extremes ranging from - 40C to +120C.
The great majority of living organisms (for e.g. mammals) are found in the - 2C to +40C
range and for each individual species the range is even narrower.
Below 0C, cells risk ice crystals forming in them and above 45C, proteins within cells may
denature.
H. Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic
organisms to changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these
responses assist temperature regulation.

ECTOTHERMS are organisms that have a limited ability to control their body
temperature. Their cellular activities generate little heat. Their body temperatures rise and
fall with ambient temperature changes. Most organisms are ectotherms. Examples are
plants, all invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles
- Behavioural/ Thermoregulatory: Bogong moths migrate from their lowland habitat in
SE Australia (too hot in the summer) to hibernate in the Australian Alps in caves and
crevices. Here in the extreme cold they avoid their bodies freezing by supercooling
their tissues by reducing the temperature of their body fluids below their usual point of
freezing and surviving on their fat stores.
- Physiological: Antarctic ice fish produce antifreeze (glycoproteins) that prevent ice
formation.
- Shelter: The netted dragon stays in sheltered areas to avoid extreme heat. They can
dig burrows or seek shelter in caves or crevices. This reduces the effect of heat on
their body.
- Nocturnal Activity: Brown snakes can change into nocturnal animals when the
temperature becomes very hot. Many desert animals sleep in burrows during the day
and are active at night, to escape the heat.

ENDOTHERMS are organisms whose metabolism generates enough heat to maintain an

internal temperature independent of the ambient temperature. Birds and mammals are
endotherms.
- Behavioural: In hot conditions, the red kangaroo licks the inside of its paws, where
skin is thinner, and blood supply is closer to surface, so that heat can be easily
dumped to the outside. Evaporation from saliva promotes the loss of heat from the
blood.
- Structural: The large ears of the rabbit-eared bandicoot provide a large surface area
to pass excess heat when it is burrowing during the heat of day and when it is active
at dusk.
- Structural: Australian fur seal, as well as other seals, whales and dolphins, has a
layer of blubber fat to insulate its homeostatic temperature.
- Nocturnal Behaviour: Hopping mice, and many other Australian endotherms, are
nocturnal. This is to prevent overheating, and to reduce moisture loss.
Aquatic animals undergo less temperature variation than in terrestrial environments.

I. Identify some responses of plants to temperature change.

Plants can be damaged at temperature extremes when enzyme structures are altered or
membranes change their properties. As many important enzymes that are involved in
photosynthesis and respiration are embedded in plant membranes, extremes of
temperature can be a major problem.
Transpiration helps cool a plant by evaporation. Transpiration doubles for every 10C in
temperature, but many plants will close their stomates when it becomes over 30C.

From High temperatures caused by fires:

Grass trees will flower.
Banksias will open and release its seeds.
Wattles need to be heated in a fire to germinate.
Gene expression can be influenced by temperature.
Primroses are red at 22C and white above 30C.
Vertical hanging leaves and waxy coats to reduce exposure to the midday heat and
increase heat reflectivity.
Australian Eucalypt.
Spring and its warmer temperatures initiate a growing response. Life cycles of plants
follow the seasons.
Colder weather usually leads to dormancy.
Tulips will not flower until it reaches a certain coldness (called Vernalisation).
Drop leaves in winter to reduce heat loss and growth is minimal conserving energy. The
leaves create a padding of warmth for the roots.
Maple and Oak Trees.
Many plants have and antifreeze chemical which prevents ice forming in cells, which
would pierce the cell membranes and organelles, killing the cell.
Plants may die, but leave seeds, bulbs, roots, rhizomes or tubers to survive underground.
These then sprout when favourable conditions return

1. Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a firsthand investigation to test the effect of:
Increased temperature
Rennin (secreted by the walls of the stomach) acts to the milk protein casein causing it to
clump into a semi-solid curd.
Aim: to observe the effects of variation in temperature on the action of rennin.
Equipment: 4 water baths (20,40,60,80 C), Bunsen burner, milk (60mls), rennin junket
tablet, 2 measuring cylinders/small beakers, 8 test tubes, distilled water, stopwatch.
1. Make a rennin solution by dissolving a junket tablet in distilled water.
2. Add the same amount of rennin solution to a number of test tubes of milk.
3. Place test tubes in different water baths at temperature ranges such as 0C, 20C, 40C,
60C and 80C. Make sure each water bath is kept at the temperature it has been
allocated.
4. Time the interval between adding the rennin and curdling of the milk for each
temperature.
5. Note that the variables kept constant in each test tube are the junket solution, the pH
of the solution, the type of milk and the quantity of milk in each test tube.
6. Comment on which temperature is the most effective in curdling the milk. Could a
different temperature be better?
Results: Most effective at 40C, works at 60C but takes much longer.
- Conclusion: the prime temperature for enzyme activity is around 40C (body temperature
is 37C). At 60C activity is low and 20C and 80C there is no activity (denatured at 80C).

Change in pH
The general name for all starch-splitting enzymes is amylase.
Aim: to test the effect of varying the pH, on the ability of salivary amylase to catalyze the
breakdown of starch to maltose.
Equipment: pH buffer solutions, starch solution, amylase, thermometer, test tubes & rack,
large beaker, Bunsen burner, Iodine, pH indicator paper.
Hypothesis: the enzyme will catalyse the reaction within a range of pH conditions.
1. Put 3ml of amylase solution in test tube.
2. Record the pH of amylase solution with indicating paper.
3. Add 1ml of the pH buffer solution.
4. Gently mix the substances, roll through hands.
5. Place in 37C water bath.
6. Add 10 drops of starch solution and 1 drop of iodine in the test tube.
7. Leave in water bath for 15 minutes, check every minute.

8. Record your results.

9. Repeat for each pH and do a control condition.
Conclusion: the enzyme amylase works best at pH 7-10, its optimum pH range.
Change in substrate concentrations on the activity of named enzyme(s)
Catalase is an enzyme found in liver cells. It catalyses the toxic chemical hydrogen
peroxide. Catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide into oxygen, gas and water.
Aim: to investigate the relationship between the concentrations of a substrate and the
activity of an enzyme.
Equipment: liver, hydrogen peroxide, beaker(150ml), distilled water, scalpel, measuring
cylinder(10ml), 5 large test tubes.
1. Cut liver into 1cm3 pieces, place one in each test tube.
2. 100%, 50%, 25% and 0% concentrations of hydrogen peroxide.
3. 5ml of each concentration.
4. Each into a separate test tube, measuring the height of the bubbles.
5. Record and repeat.
Conclusion: the higher the concentration of substrate, the faster the rate of reaction.

2. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use
available evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism.
All homeostatic mechanisms use negative feedback to maintain a set point.
Negative feedback means that whenever a change occurs in a system the change
automatically causes a corrective mechanism to start, which reverses the original change
and brings the system back to normal.
Negative feedback applies to electronic circuits and central heating systems as well as
biological systems.
In a system controlled by negative feedback, the level is never maintained perfectly, but
constantly oscillates about the set point.
An efficient homeostatic system minimises the size of the oscillations.
The nervous system as a model for a negative feedback mechanism.
Deep within the brain lie the hypothalamus and the thalamus.
The thalamus receives impulses from the sensory neurons and directs them to various
parts of the brain where they are interpreted.
The hypothalamus is the control centre for maintaining homeostasis.
The hypothalamus regulates the release of hormones as well as controlling many other
aspects of homeostasis, such as temperature control.
Temperature control responses:
Keeping Warm
Keeping Cool
Shiver to generate heat
Sweating; evaporation loses heat
Hair muscles erect; insulation
Blood vessels dilate; increased blood supply,
more heat lost
Increased appetite
Hair relaxes, less insulation
Blood vessels constrict; less blood flow, less heat loss
Decrease in metabolism
Increase in metabolism
Less exercise
Diagram of the feedback mechanism:

The CNS, the brain and the spinal cord, as well as the PNS are the anatomical divisions
of the nervous system. These can further be divided into the functional divisions of:
Autonomic (automatic) and Somatic (voluntary). The Autonomic nervous system is further
divided into:
The Sympathetic, functions to remove us from danger increased heart rate and
breathing, adrenaline release; and the Parasympathetic, functions to restore normality.
Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by cells of an organism in response to
specific stimuli.

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1. Plants and Animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium.
A. Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian
blood:
Carbon Dioxide
Most carbon dioxide enters the red blood cells, is converted into carbonic acid and then is
combined with water to form bicarbonate ions, 70%.
Some is attached to Haemoglobin molecules in red blood cells, forming carbinaminohaemoglobin, 23%.
A small percentage is transported in plasma as dissolved CO2, 7%.
All of the above then move into the plasma and is then transported.
It is produced as a waste product of respiration in cells.
Transported from the Body cells to the lungs for excretion.
Oxygen
Oxygen attaches itself to Haemoglobin in the red blood cells, becoming a complex called
oxyhaemoglobin.
Oxygen is needed in the body for respiration. It is brought in across the respiratory
surfaces of the lungs and is transported to the body cells for respiration.
Water
Water is the solvent of plasma it makes up 60% of blood volume.
Liquid water is the solvent making up 90% of the plasma.
Salts
These are transported directly dissolved in the plasma.
E.g. sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc.
Salts are carried as dissolved ions in the plasma.
Lipids
Lipids are transported as chylomicrons these are clusters of triglycerides, phospholipids
and cholesterol, wrapped in a coat of protein.
Digested lipids are changed into triglycerides (this happens in the lining of the small
intestine).
These are released into the lymph and eventually pass into the veins.
Nitrogenous Waste
The nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid and creatinine) are dissolved in blood plasma.
Wastes such as ammonia are changed into urea and is also transported dissolved in the
plasma.
Other products of digestion
Other products of digestion, such as sugars, amino acids, glycerol and various vitamins.
Are transported in the plasma as they are mainly water soluble.

B. Explain the adaptive advantage of Haemoglobin.

Haemoglobin is a complex molecule which gives blood its red colour and enable red
blood cells to carry oxygen.
Oxygen is carried in a loose combination called oxyhaemoglobin which increases the
bloods capacity to carry oxygen.
Haemoglobin is a type of molecule that can combine loosely at the respiratory surfaces
and then release the oxygen freely in capillaries.
If oxygen was only carried in blood plasma in solution, then blood would only be able to
carry a small amount of oxygen to cells and would not be able to deliver enough oxygen
to all cells. This is important in the maintenance of living processes.
The presence of haemoglobin increases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood by 100
times. 100 ml of blood actually carries 20 ml of oxygen. Dissolved only ----> 0.2 ml O2 /
100 ml blood.
Haemoglobin ----> 20 ml O2 / 100 ml blood

For most vertebrates, haeme units are combined in groups of four, therefore being able to
carry four oxygen molecules. This increases the rate and efficiency of oxygen intake.
It is an evolutionary advantage to have haemoglobin enclosed in a blood cell or else it
would upset the osmotic balance of blood.
It has been suggested that the development of red blood cells without a nucleus ins an
evolutionary advantage because it leaves more room for haemoglobin in each cell.
Organisms with blood (containing haemoglobin) are able to deliver more oxygen to cells
more efficiently than others with no haemoglobin. The net effect is that these organisms
are more effective operators in a given environment than their competitors. Gives a
considerable survival advantage. Has allowed organisms to grow much larger.
The human body adapts to oxygen deprivation by initially increasing heart rate, breathing
rate, then the number of red blood cells (more haemoglobin), then density of capillaries.

C. Compare the structure of Arteries, Capillaries and Veins in relation to their

function.
Arteries:
- Carry blood away from the heart under high pressure and so must have a structure that
can withstand the pressure.
- They have thick, but elastic walls, made up of three tissue layers:
- 1st Layer: Endothelium as a lining.
- 2nd Layer: smooth muscle to contract the vessel, gives strength and elasticity.
- 3rd Layer: non-elastic connective tissue to allow for expansion.
- Arteries do not pump blood but control the rate of flow into capillaries by constricting and
dilating.
Capillaries:
- Have walls that are only one endothelium cell thick, 5-8 um in diameter, so narrow that
only one red blood cell can pass at a time.
- They surround all tissue cells and therefore provide a very large surface area over which
exchange of materials between blood and body cells can occur.
- They have to allow diffusion of materials through their wall to reach the cells. This
involves movement across and between endothelial spaces, diffusion, and the movement
of vesicles.
- The blood flow into capillaries is restricted and controlled by arterioles and smooth
muscle cells that act as barriers or sphincters.
- Connects the arteries and veins.
Veins:
- carry blood back to the heart.
- They carry the same quantity of blood as the arteries but not at the same high pressures.
- Veins have the same three layers as the arteries: endothelium, smooth muscle and
connective tissue.
- The layers of muscle are not as thick, making them more flexible and distensible.
- The veins also contain valves that prevent the backflow of blood as the blood pressure is
low in the veins and there are no thick muscular walls to keep the blood pulsing along.
D. Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves
around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur.
Pulmonary Circuit (Lungs):
- Blood enters the right atrium of the heart via the vena cava (major vein):
- The blood is deoxygenated, and high in carbon dioxide
- It is low in glucose and other nutrients; it is also high in urea, other nitrogenous wastes
and various poisons.
- As the heart beats, the right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonary artery, to
the lungs:
- Here the blood gains oxygen, and loses its carbon dioxide into the alveoli.
- The blood then enters the left atrium via the pulmonary vein.
- Via the pulmonary system, carbon dioxide is decreased and oxygen levels increased.
Systematic Circuit (Body):
- The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the body through the aorta.
- The blood loses oxygen and gains carbon dioxide in all body cells, as respiration occurs.

9
- Glucose levels also drop.
In the LIVER:
- Levels of glucose are regulated excess glucose is changed to glycogen, or glycogen
stores are changed to glucose (if needed).
- Excess amino acids are changed to ammonia, and then to urea
- Poisons are also reduced, as the liver changes them to less toxic forms
In the INTESTINES:
- Levels of nutrients from digestion increase.
- Glucose, amino acids, ions, lipids and other substances from food enter the blood.
- The increase is through the small intestines reabsorption of food.
In the KIDNEYS:
- Salt and water levels are regulated.
- All urea is removed, toxins are excreted into the urine.
- The changed blood, again highly deoxygenated, then flows back to the pulmonary circuit.
Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart via the inferior and superior vena cava.
E. Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon
dioxide from cells is essential.
Respiration is the breakdown of glucose using oxygen to produce energy. If no oxygen is
present, fermentation occurs.
- Glucose + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water + energy (in the form of ATP). This
equation shows that all living cells that metabolise glucose need oxygen.
In producing usable energy (ATP) from circulating energy (in glucose) living cells also
produce Carbon Dioxide.
- CO2 is of no further use and must be removed ASAP before the build of CO2 creates the
pH to turn acidic.
- The accumulation of CO2 can have damaging effects on body chemistry.
- It is removed by the blood in 3 ways: dissolved as a gas in plasma, attached to
haemoglobin, or as hydrogen carbonate ions in plasma.
For cells to respire efficiently oxygen must be continually supplied and carbon dioxide
removed.
- For CO2; body cells (supply), alveoli (removal).
- For Oxygen; alveoli (supply), body cells and tissues (removal).
The transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs and tissues is a dynamic
system capable of responding to change.
F. Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of
materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue.
Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals, upwards only. Some minerals, the macro
nutrients are needed in large amounts, while the micro nutrients are required less.
Passive transport and it depends on transpiration and the physical properties of water.
The Evaporation-Tension-Cohesion Mechanism: is currently the theory that accounts for
the ascent of xylem sap.
- Water is absorbed by the root hairs because of a water potential between the soil,
and the cells of the root hairs, and root pressure.
- Water vapor held in the mesophyll cells moves out into the air. More water moves out
of the small xylem vessels and into the mesophyll cells to take place of the water lost.
- The removal of water at the leaf sets up a tension in the xylem, this is the
transpirational pull, where water is then drawn up the xylem tubes to replace this loss.
- As water molecules are removed by transpiration in the leaf, the next molecule moves
upwards to take its place, pulling the stream of molecules continuously along.
- The cohesive properties of water molecules keep the water moving up the xylem to
replace the water lost at the leaves.
- The narrowness of the xylem tubes adds the force adhesion/capilliarity, between the
sides of the tubes and water molecules.
Phloem transports sucrose and glucose, produced by photosynthesis tissue, to other
regions of a plant as well as hormones and any other organic material made by the plant.
Active Transport.

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The Pressure Flow Mechanism: is the current theory used to describe and explain the
processes involved in translocation.
- Transported from the leaves to other areas in the plant where they are used or stored.
- Water enters by osmosis due to a high solute concentration in the phloem tube. Water
pressure is now raised at this end of the tube.
- From areas where sugar (glucose) is in abundance (sugar source) to areas where it
is required (sugar sink). Called the source-to-sink mechanism; driven by a gradient
generated osmotically.
- The sugar sink would be the growing points and reproductive structures, in the plant,
including developing fruits and seeds
- The sugar is transported by active transport in the form of sucrose.
- At the sugar source there is a large solute concentration and a high water
concentration. This exerts a high turgor pressure or hydrostatic pressure.
- Therefore at a sugar sink the hydrostatic pressure is low.
- Pressure flow, therefore drives the sugars from the photosynthetic or storage sites to
other parts of the plant for use or storage.
1. Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved
carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
To demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
1. Fill a beaker with 250ml of distilled water and add several drops of universal indicator
until a convenient colour is achieved.
1. use a straw to bubble exhaled breath through the water until a colour change can be
detected.
2. Repeat, also try using a data logger.
Results: CO2 form carbonic acid when dissolved in water, and therefore the indicator
showed a colour change towards acidic spectrum.
Conclusion: dissolving carbon dioxide in water effects the pH of water, making it more
acidic by forming carbonic acid.

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2. Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared

slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and
draw scaled diagrams of each.
Aim: to estimate the size of red and white blood cells through use of a mini-grid slide.
On the mini-grid, each 0.1mm square = 100 um, each 1mm square = 1000 um.
1. Focus the minigrid, under low power and high power magnification, estimating the field
of view in mm and in um.
2. Estimate the number of red blood cells that would fit across the diameter of the H.P.
field of view, giving you an approximate size of the red blood cell.
3. Repeat step 2 with white blood cells.
4. Record your results and repeat at least 10 times for accurate results.
Results:
Field of View
L. P. x 160
H.P. x 640
Mm
1.1
0.25
Um
1100
250

Red Blood Cells: H.P. Field of View (um) / no. Of red blood cells.
[Approx. 6-8 um]
White Blood Cells: H.P. Field of View (um) / no. of white blood cells.
[Approx. 12-20 um]

3. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies

that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in
blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are
used.
A Pulse Oximeter is a device used to measure oxygen saturation in the blood.
A small clip with a sensor is attached to the person's finger, earlobe or toe. A cable
connects the sensor to the pulse oximeter machine. It uses red and infrared light to
measure the colour of the blood.
If blood is oxygenated it is bright red and absorbs/reflects light differently to darker blood,
which is deoxygenated (and has a high CO2 concentration). A reading is giving in a
percentage form.
Pulse oximetry is used to monitor the level of oxygen in a person's blood during heavy
sedation or anesthesia. This device is also used when a person is on a ventilator, artificial
breathing machine, during stress testing, in sleep laboratories, when checking the body's
response to different medications or to monitor a person with asthma or who is having
trouble breathing.
A Blood Gas Analyser (an invasive technique), takes a small sample of blood from the
patient. It is a large instrument.
Commonly used in intensive care units, especially baby care and labor wards.
4. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted
from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products.
Red Blood Cells ~ increase oxygen concentration.
E.g. anaemia; thalassemia; sudden blood loss; person whose bone marrow
cannot make enough red blood cells.
Platelets ~ for blood clotting.
E.g. Cancer of the blood; patients who do not make enough platelets; cancer
of the lymph (leukemia or lymphoma); patients undergoing blood therapy who
do not make enough platelets.
Plasma ~ contains blood clotting factors and immunoglobins.
E.g. Clotting disorders (haemophilia); used to adjust the osmotic pressure of
the blood and pull fluids out of tissues.
Immunoglobins ~ gamma globulin, immune serum and antibodies, that is, the infection
fighting parts of the blood plasma.
E.g. for treating patients with low immune systems (AIDS).
White Blood Cells ~ infection fighting components of the blood.
E.g. treatment for life threatening infections with low white blood cell count.
Note: usually antibiotics are used instead of this.

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Whole Blood ~ When a person looses more than 20% of their blood volume.
E.g. transfusions (injury, surgery).
5. Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress
in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons
why such research is needed.
Artificial blood has two main uses:
- To increase plasma volume E.g. in the case of a severe burns victim.
- To carry oxygen (and carbon dioxide) E.g. sickle cell anaemia.
There are two types of artificial blood available. They are:
- Perfluorochemicals.
- Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers.
It can be produced using synthetic production, chemical isolation or recombinant
biochemical technology.
Advantages of using artificial blood:
- Immediately available.
- Long shelf life.
- Safe from diseases.
- No need to have a matching blood type.
- Useful in emergencies, disasters and war, that is large quantities of artificial blood
needed in a short time frame.
- Countries where there is no blood donor service.
6. Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather
first-hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem
tissue.

Aim: to investigate the microscopic structure of xylem and phloem, and to draw
transverse and longitudinal sections of xylem and phloem tissue.

1. Prepare a transverse section of stained celery and a longitudinal section of stained

celery.
2. Longitudinal section: tease the tissue apart with dissecting needles before adding a
coverslip, using another slide to gently squash the tissue.
3. Transverse section: add a drop of iodine and a coverslip.
4. Observe both specimens under a low power and high power microscope and sketch
the images.

Results:

Companion
Cells
Sieve Plates

Sieve Tubes.

13

14
2. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and waste products of
metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid.
A. Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within
a narrow range for optimal function.
It is a versatile solvent and makes up around 70-90% of living things.
It is a polar substance with cohesive properties so it is able to form true solutions with
ionic substances.
The fact that substances can become solutions is important to the biochemical
functioning of the cell. It:
- Maintains the osmotic pressure of the cell.
- It is a lubrication fluid E.g. mucus.
- Metabolic reactions take place between chemicals in solution and water is the
solvent.
- Water is the main transport medium.
- Water is a major product and reactant in many metabolic reactions.
Cell metabolism is controlled by enzymes. Enzymes are most efficient within a narrow
range of optimal conditions. A change in water concentration could effect movement of
nutrients and wastes in and out of cells, affecting these optimal conditions and therefore
tampering with enzyme activity.
It is critical for proper functioning of these reactions that the amount and concentration of
water in the cell be kept constant. Most cells die, from dehydration or bursting, when the
water content is changed significantly.
Helps maintain body heat at a stable level by
- Having a high specific heat capacity.
- High heat of vaporisation to cool the body.
Cushions and protects cells and tissues.
Isotonic: Concentration of solutes outside the cell is the same as inside the cell. No
overall movement of water.
Hypertonic: Concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside. Water tends to
move out of the cell.
Hypotonic: Concentration of solutes is greater inside the cell than out. Water tends to
move inside the cell.

B. Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic

activity.
When animals metabolise proteins they produce nitrogenous substance as waste, this
substance being ammonia.
If left to accumulate the ammonia can cause a change of cellular pH and therefore affect
metabolism, interfere with membrane transport functions or denature enzymes. Ammonia
is highly alkaline with a pH of 11.7.
Ammonia must be excreted immediately with lots of water or converted to less toxic
compounds. Can be in the form of Urea, uric acid or pure ammonia in fish.
Also the removal and regulation of Carbon Dioxide (CO2), as well as water and other
salts.
C. Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals.
The Kidney is the organ responsible for the removal of nitrogenous wastes and it is the
major organ responsible for maintaining homeostasis of both fish and mammals.
The Kidney also:
- Forms and excretes urine.
- Regulates water and salt concentration of the blood and is a major contribution to
water balance of the body.
- Removing or maintaining certain ions in the blood
- Important role in osmoregulation- in fish and other aquatic organisms.
Osmoregulation is the maintenance of a constant osmotic concentration (salt and water
levels) in internal fluid in spite of different or varying osmotic pressure in the external
environment.
Ammonotelic: Aquatic organisms have no problems with lack of water and therefore
ammonia can be excreted by diffusion of blood through the gill membranes.

15
In marine fish, the external environment has a higher concentration of salt than the
cellular fluids. The kidneys excrete small quantities of isotonic urine. This helps
conserve water and excrete the excess salt they gain from their hyperosmotic
environment.
- In freshwater fish, the cell fluids of the fish are usually higher in salt concentration
than the water, meaning that its cells gain water by osmosis. The kidneys work
continuously to excrete copious quantities of dilute urine, which also has a very low
salt concentration. This helps to remove excess water gained from the hypo-osmotic
environment.
Ureotelic: Mammals, amphibians, and some cartilaginous fish must convert ammonia to
urea for excretion.
Uricotelic: Birds, Reptiles and insects excrete uric acid (which is less soluble in water) as
a paste.
-

D. Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in

removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes.
Diffusion and Osmosis are forms of passive transport. It is slow and only useful across
distances such as one cell to the next, or the cell to extracellular fluids.
It depends on the random movement of molecules and would be too slow over long
distances or in situations where blood is flowing quickly and substances are being
removed from it.
It also cannot selectively reabsorb the useful nutrients.
Osmosis only deals with the movement of water and thus would only allow water to move
out of the body, not the nitrogenous wastes.
Diffusion DOES occur in the kidney when small molecules are being filtered out of the
glomerulus into the bowmans capsule, but it is assisted by blood pressure.
The kidney functions by excreting all the blood substances in the nephron outside the
body and then selectively (actively) reabsorbing useful materials, which diffusion is no
where near capable of performing this task.
E. Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to
processes occurring in the mammalian kidney.
Active transport is the movement of substances through a cell membrane requiring the
expenditure of cellular energy, usually because the substance is moving against the
concentration gradient.
Passive transport does not require the expenditure of energy as the materials follow the
natural concentration gradient E.g. diffusion and osmosis.
Examples in the mammalian kidney:
- Active Transport: Depending on their concentration, the ions in the blood can be
transported to cells in the nephron tubule and then secreted by the cells into the
tubule. Some poisons and certain drugs are eliminated from the body in this manner.
- Passive Transport: Once filtration has occurred in Bowman's capsule, water returns
via the interstitial fluid from the tubule to the capillary in the process of osmosis. This
occurs along the length of the tubule.
F. Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian
nephron regulate body fluid composition.
A kidney is made up of around a million nephrons. It is within the nephrons that the
processes of filtration, reabsorption and secretion occur.
The nephron is a regulatory unit; it absorbs or secretes substances in order to maintain
homeostasis.
STRUCTURE: It is a long twisted tubule made up of sections:
Bowmans capsule, connected to the
Proximal tubule, leading to the
Loop of Henle, which connects to the
Distal tubule, which all joins to the
Collecting duct, which leads to the bladder.

16

PROXIMAL TUBULE:
- Bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed into
the capillaries into the blood from the
nephron, hydrogen ions are secreted
out. This maintains the pH of the
blood.
- Drugs, such as aspirin, penicillin and
poisons are secreted out of the blood.
- Regulation of salts also occurs here.
Sodium ions are actively reabsorbed
and chlorine ions follow passively.
Potassium ions are also reabsorbed.

THE LOOP OF HENLE:

- It has a descending limb and an
ascending limb
- In the descending limb, it is
permeable to water, not salt.
Water passes out of the nephron and
into the capillaries by osmosis.
- In the ascending limb, the walls are permeable to salt, but not water.
Ascending limb is thin-walled at the bottom, and thick-walled at the top.
Salt passively passes out into the capillaries at the bottom, thin-walled section, but is
actively passed out in the top, thick-walled section.

THE DISTAL TUBULE:

- Selective reabsorption of sodium ions and potassium ions occurs here again, to
regulate the pH of the blood, and the concentration of salts.

THE COLLECTING DUCT:

- This is the end of the nephron, and connects to the ureters.
- The walls are permeable to water only, and water is transported out accordingly to the
needs of the body.
- The final filtrate is called urine.

Three processes occur in the nephrons (kidneys):

FILTRATION:
- Within the Bowmans capsule is the glomerulus, a dense clump of capillaries.
- The blood pressure here is so high that all small molecules from the blood are forced
into the Bowmans capsule, and form a fluid called the glomerular filtrate.
- The small molecules such as water, urea, ions, glucose, amino acids and vitamins
are able to move into the glomerulus, as well as the wastes such as Urea and
Poisons. Blood cells and proteins are too large to be removed.
- This filtering process is non-selective and therefore many valuable components of the
blood that the body needs must be recovered by reabsorption.

REABSORPTION:
- The substances the body can reuse are reabsorbed into the capillaries surrounding
the nephron. Eg, vitamins and hormones. This is active transport and requires energy.
Some other substances passively re-enter the blood. Eg, water by osmosis and salts
by diffusion.
- This occurs in the proximal and distal tubules and in the loop of Henle.

SECRETION:
- This is the process where the body actively transports substances from the blood into
the nephron.
- Some toxins, such as urea, tend to diffuse back into the blood, so it must be secreted
back into the nephron.

17
It is also done to regulate salt and water levels again, or to remove additional toxins.
This is active transport.
G. Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic
hormone), in the regulation of water and salt levels in blood.
ALDOSTERONE:
Is a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal glands and functions to regulate the transfer
of sodium and potassium ions in the kidney.
Because blood pressure is essential to glomerula filtration, when blood pressure falls so
does glomerula filtration.
When pressure sensitive receptors, in the different arteriole cells, detect a fall in sodium
levels they secrete Renin.
Renin stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce and secrete aldosterone.
Acts on the loop of Henle and the distal tubules of the nephron to actively absorb more
sodium ions. The water passively follows the ions so blood pressure rises.
Potassium ions are affected the opposite way by aldosterone.
-

ADH/VASOPRESSIN:
- It is a anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) produced by neurosecretory cells in the
hypothalamus of the brain, controls water reabsorption in the nephron.
- Neurosecretory cells are activated when osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect a
rise in blood solutes (a drop in blood water concentration).
- Vasopressin is released into the blood stream via the prosterior pituatry gland.
- This increases the permeability of the collecting ducts to water, allowing more water
to be absorbed from the urine into the blood.
A negative feedback system occurs here via the hypothalamus.
- The osmoreceptors also generate a sensation of thirst in the body when they detect a
rise in blood solutes. Increased drinking also acts as a feedback mechanism which
leads to lower secretion of ADH.
H. Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological
functions in response to variations in the environment and discuss its
importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt
concentrations.
Enantiostasis is an operation which is crucial to allow estuarine organisms such as
mangroves, fish, diving birds, and mammals to maintain stability in their internal
environment so that metabolism and other processes can proceed efficiently.
An estuary is a partially enclosed area in which the freshwater of a river or stream meet
and mixes with sea water. Therefore, the salinity levels are always dramatically changing.
Organisms that must tolerate wide fluctuations of salinity are said to be euryhaline.
One strategy to withstand such changes in salt concentration is to allow the body's
osmotic pressure to vary with that of the environment. Organisms that do this, and
therefore do not maintain homeostasis, are said to be osmoconformers. Most marine
invertebrates are osmoconformers.
However, as the salt concentration of body fluids in an osmoconformer changes, various
body functions are affected, such as the activity of enzymes. For normal functioning to be
maintained, another body function must be changed in a way that compensates for the
change in enzyme activity.
For E.g. When a change in salt concentration in the body fluid, which reduces the
efficiency of an enzyme, is compensated for by a change in pH, which increases the
efficiency of the same enzyme.
In contrast, marine mammals and most fish are osmoregulators, maintaining homeostasis
regardless of the osmotic pressure of the environment. Estuarine fish maintain a solute
concentration in their cells that is similar to the external salt concentration in the water.
They do this by moving small organic molecules in and out of their tissues.
Mangroves maintain the salt concentration of their cells by three methods: exclusion
able to exclude salt while allowing water to enter; Secretion accumulate salt in glands in
leaves and release the salt onto the leaf surface; Accumulation accumulate salt in older
tissues and leaves which are eventually discarded.

18
I.

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in

minimising water loss.
If stomates are open, there will be a loss of water by transpiration and evaporation. Plants
in arid areas have to balance the need for CO2 with the need to conserve water.
Xerophytes are plants that are adapted to dry conditions with low ground water levels.
Mesophytes are plants that live in areas where water is in adequate supply.
Examples of Adaptations:
Eucalypts
- Leaves Hang Vertically.
- Reduces sun exposure.
- Waxy Cuticles.
- Reduces water loss through
transpiration.
Spinnifex
- Extensive root system.
- Can tap into the underground water
Grass
table.
- Long and Thin Leaves.
- Reduces SA
- Leaf curling.
- Traps a humid layer of air.
Oleander
- Deep root system below the - High Root : Shoot ratio.
water table.
- Deeper, reliable water source.
Pigface
- Leaves are thick and
- Water is stored in the succulent leaves.
succulent.
Hakeas
- Stomates located in grooves - Layer of humid air is concentrated above
(sunken stomates).
the stomate.
Banksia
- Hairy and Shiny leaves.
- Reduces air movement, reflects radiation
- Sunken Stomates.
from the sun.
- Increased humidity over stomates.
1. Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney
by dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions
involved in the excretion of waste products.

The kidney is made up of three sections, the pelvis, the medulla and the cortex
The cortex contains the glomeruli and it is involved in the filtration of blood. It is very dark
red due to the capillaries.
The medulla contains the nephron tubules, as can be observed by the striped
appearance of the medulla. This section is involved in the reabsorption and secretion of
substances.
The pelvis is where all the collecting ducts connect to.
The collecting ducts reabsorb water
The renal artery, renal vein and ureters are all connected to the pelvis.

19

2. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to

compare the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney.
Loss of kidney function results in retention of urea and acids in the blood, water and salt
imbalance and altered blood pressure.
A Patient will only survive 2 weeks if this is left untreated.
Dialysis is the removal of small molecules by diffusion across a membrane to a site of
lower concentration.
- The blood of a patient passes through a system of tubes separated from the dialysis
fluid (which has similar concentrations of substances as blood) by a semi-permeable
membrane.
- Through filtration only wastes are allowed to pass through, not blood cells or proteins.
- Some processes that take place in the kidney do not occur in dialysis such as
reabsorption.
- Two healthy kidneys filter the blood volume about once every half-hour.
- Blood must travel through the dialysis machine a number of times for sufficient waste
to be removed.
- This usually takes 4-6 hours and needs to be conducted 3 times a week.
- The blood with the removed waste is returned to the body and the rest of the dialysis
fluid is discarded.
3. Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement
therapy in people who cannot secrete aldosterone.
Hypoaldosteronism is a condition where people fail to secrete aldosterone.
Without aldosterone, the body would not be able to reabsorb salt (specifically sodium
ions) and this would cause severe dehydration, and excessive potassium.
Addison's disease is the name of a disease with these symptoms which include high urine
output with a resulting low blood volume.
Eventually, as blood pressure falls, this can result in heart failure.
A replacement hormone, fludrocortisone (Florinef), is used to treat this condition but a
careful monitoring must be maintained to avoid fluid retention and high blood pressure.
Corticosteroids replacement therapy at physiological doses is the treatment.
Aldosterone replacement therapy is used when aldosterone is deficient.
4. Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the
differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and
freshwater fish.
Mammals:
- Much more variable than aquatic; must respond to variable water loss and water gain.
- Water conservation is of prime concern and these animals cannot afford to excrete
large quantities of water in the removal of metabolic waste.
- Usually excrete urine that is more concentrated than body fluids although the
concentration can vary.
- Hot weather then the water loss is high = more concentrated.
- Cold weather then the water loss is low = more dilute.
Marine Fish:
- Hypertonic to their environment.
- Concentration of gradient results in loss of water and an intake of salt.
- Minimal urine produced.
- Continually drinks water.
Freshwater Fish:
- Hypotonic to their environment therefore,
- Concentration gradient results is a loss of salts and an uptake of water.
- Secretes copious amounts of very dilute urine.
5. Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation
of water and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous
wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals.

20

Ammonia is the direct result of amino acid breakdown and is a waste product of all
organisms.
Ammonia is very water soluble, but VERY toxic, and must be removed quickly, or
changed to a less toxic form.
The removal of ammonia would require large volumes of water, and this is not possible for
animals or insects that seek to conserve water
It is important for terrestrial animals and insects to conserve water as they live on an
extremely dry continent where water availability is unpredictable.
Mammals change ammonia into UREA and release it as urine. (E.G. Kangaroos,
wallabies, hopping mice, koalas, etc.)
Australian animals E.g. the Kangaroo, the Euro, the Wallaroo and the Bilby release very
concentrated urine, and are able to tolerate high levels of urea in their bodies.
Many small desert mammals , E.g. the Kangaroo Rat, the Spinnifex hopping mouse, and
the Bilby, produce water during metabolism ,then excrete a very concentrated urine and
dry faeces.

Birds, Reptiles and Insects change ammonia into URIC ACID, a whitish paste which uses
hardly any water.
- This is lighter than using urea, and helps in flight.
- It is less toxic than ammonia or urea, so can be safely stored in or on the body for
extended periods of time.
- It is thousands of times less soluble than ammonia or urea and has low toxicity, which
means that little water is expended to remove it.
- This is a great advantage for survival.

Some insects excrete ammonia as a vapour across the body surface rather than as a
solution of urine, an adaptation for conserving water.
More commonly, Insects produce URIC acid, which is a dry urate waste requiring no
water to remove and with low toxicity so that it can be kept in the body for long periods of
time. E.g. Grasshoppers.

21

6. Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation
in saline environments.
Halophytes are plants that can tolerate high salt levels. Commonly found in areas such as
estuaries.
Grey Mangroves:
- Salt Exclusion - has a root epidermis that actively exclude salt so the xylem water
concentrations are relatively desalinated.
- Salt Secretors - has salt secreting glands on the underside of the leaves. Salt
crystallises on the leaves and is washed or blown away. There is a high salt
concentration in the xylem.
- Salt Accumulators salt is accumulated on the bark or leaves until the leaves fall off.
There is a low salt concentration in the xylem.
Saltbushes such as the Sarcocornia quinqueflora:
- Salt Accumulation: This plant stores its excess salt in swollen leaf bases, which drop
off, ridding the plant of salt.
The salt marsh plant Sporobolus Virginicus:
- Has salt glands on its leaves.
Another form of salt stress can occur in salt laden air such as in coastal environments.
- Norfolk Island pine, have a mesh of cuticle over their stomates, which prevents small
water droplets from entering the leaf.
7. Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in
plants that assist in the conservation of water.
As Australia is a dry continent, many of our plants have evolved to withstand periods of
drought.
Some plant species to look for are eucalyptus, casuarinas, paper barks, cacti and other
succulents, spinifex and mulga.
Here are a few adaptations to look for:
- The location and the number of stomates.
- The arrangement, shape and size of the leaves.
- Phyllodes or cladodes rather than leaves.
- Presence of a thick waxy cuticle.
- Hairy leaves.
- Leaves reduced to spines.
- Leaves rolled inwards/ curled.
- The reflective nature of the leaf surface.