Contents

Foreign volunteers

1.1

Reasons for volunteering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Mixed nationality units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Units by nationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.1

American . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.2

Belgian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.3

British . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.4

Chinese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.5

Croatian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.6

Filipino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.7

French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.8

German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.9

Greek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.10 Irish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.11 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.12 Italian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.13 Nepalese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.14 Moroccan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.15 Polish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.16 Portuguese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.17 Rhodesian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.18 Russian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.19 Scottish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.20 South African . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.21 Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.22 Swedish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.23 Swiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1st Canadian Regiment

2.1

Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ii

CONTENTS
2.2.1

Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.2

Trois-Rivires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.3

New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.4

Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.5

Garrison duty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Disbandment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1st Infantry Brigade (South Africa)

3.1

World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.1

Mobilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.2

North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

3.1.3

Western Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

3.1.4

Demobilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

3.2

World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

3.3

Order of battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.3.1

World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.3.2

World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

Battle honours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.4.1

World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.6

Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.7.1

Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.7.2

Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.4

1st Regiment Greek Light Infantry

16

4.1

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

4.2

Service history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

4.3

Uniforms and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

4.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

2nd Canadian Regiment

19

5.1

Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

5.2

Montreal and retreat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.3

New Jersey campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.4

Philadelphia campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.4.1

Battle of Brandywine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.4.2

Battle of Germantown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

CONTENTS
5.4.3

Winter quarters 17771778 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

Activities on the northern front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.5.1

New York and Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.5.2

Cos Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.5.3

Winter 17791780 Jockey Hollow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.5.4

New York 1780 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.5.5

Reorganized as Canadian Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

Siege of Yorktown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

5.6.1

Guard detail at Lancaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

5.7

Disbanded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

5.8

Troop strength and casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

5.9

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

5.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

5.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

5.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

32 Battalion (South Africa)

27

6.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

6.1.1

Military refugees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

6.1.2

Formation of Bravo Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

6.1.3

Redeployed as the SADF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

6.1.4

Namibian Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

6.1.5

The Phola Park Incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

6.1.6

Disbanded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

6.1.7

Equatorial Guinea coup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

6.2

Decorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

6.3

In ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

6.4

Roll of Honour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

6.5

Leadership

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

6.6

Insignia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

6.6.1

Dress Insignia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

6.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

6.8

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

6.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

6.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

7 Independent Company (Rhodesia)

32

7.1

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

7.2

Formation and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

7.3

Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

7.3.1

First bush trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

7.3.2

Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

5.5

5.6

iii

History

iv

CONTENTS
7.3.3

Second bush trip; dissolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

7.4

Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

7.5

Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

Arab Liberation Army

38

8.1

Disposition and control of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

8.2

Syria's reasons for developing the ALA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

8.3

The 1948 War

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

8.3.1

Entry to Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

8.3.2

The last stages of the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

8.4

The Unit of the Minorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

8.5

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

8.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

8.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

8.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

Arab Nationalist Guard

42

9.1

Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

9.2

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

9.3

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

10 Armenian battalions

43

11 Aviazione Legionaria

44

11.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

11.1.1 Bombing operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

11.2 Aircraft and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

11.2.1 Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

11.3 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

11.3.1 Aces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

11.3.2 Commanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

11.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

11.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

11.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

12 Battaglione Azad Hindoustan

47

12.1 Uniform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

12.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

12.3 Disbandment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

12.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

13 Belgian Legion

49

CONTENTS

13.1 French Revolutionary Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

13.2 Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

13.3 French Revolution of 1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

13.4 Mexico Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

13.4.1 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

13.4.2 In action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

13.4.3 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

13.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

13.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

13.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

13.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

14 Blue Division

52

14.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

14.2 Deployment and action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

14.2.1 Germany: training and organization of the Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

14.2.2 Russian front (AugustOctober 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

14.2.3 Volkhov (October 1941 August 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

14.2.4 Leningrad (August 1942 October 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

14.3 Disbandment and the Legin Azul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

14.4 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.4.1 Order of battle (July 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.4.2 Order of battle (September 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.5 Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

14.6.1 Cross of Saint Sophia of Novgorod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

14.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

14.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

14.9 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

14.10Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

14.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

15 Blue Legion

57

15.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

15.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

15.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

16 Boer foreign volunteers

58

16.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

16.2 Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

16.3 Second Anglo-Boer War

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

16.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

vi

CONTENTS

17 Brazilian Expeditionary Force

60

17.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

17.2 The Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

17.3 Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

17.4 The campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

17.4.1 Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

17.4.2 Arrival in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

17.4.3 Combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

17.5 The Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

17.5.1 1st Fighter Squadron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

17.5.2 Liaison & Observer Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

17.6 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

17.7 Nickname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

17.8 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

17.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

17.10Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

17.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

17.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

18 British Free Corps

69

18.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

18.2 Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

18.3 Recruiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

18.4 Commanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

18.5 Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

18.6 Preparation for active service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

18.7 Courts martial of those involved and execution of John Amery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

18.8 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18.8.1 Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18.8.2 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18.8.3 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18.9 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18.11.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18.11.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

18.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

19 Bulgarian Legion

74

19.1 First Bulgarian Legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

19.2 Second Bulgarian Legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

19.3 Historical experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

CONTENTS
19.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20 Chinese in the Russian Revolution and in the Russian Civil War

vii
75
76

20.1 Background: Chinese speakers in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

20.2 Dungans in the 1916 Revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

20.3 Chinese detachments in service of Soviet state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

20.3.1 Chinese in the Red Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

20.3.2 Chinese in the Cheka and military guard units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

20.4 Chinese participation in the Allied intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

20.5 Notable persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

20.6 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

20.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

20.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

21 Condor Legion

80

21.1 History of military aid to Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

21.1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

21.2 Operational record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

21.2.1 Vizcaya campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

21.2.2 Guernica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

21.2.3 Further campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

21.2.4 Maritime operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

21.2.5 Abwehr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

21.3 Military advantages gained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

21.3.1 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

21.3.2 Other units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

21.3.3 Technical advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

21.3.4 Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

21.4 Reaction to German involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

21.4.1 Treatment in Nazi Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

21.4.2 Since reunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

21.5 Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

21.6 Notable participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

21.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

21.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

21.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

21.9.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

21.9.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

21.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

21.10.1 Militaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

21.10.2 Essays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

21.10.3 Related sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

viii

CONTENTS

22 Corpo Truppe Volontarie

90

22.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

22.2 Commanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

22.3 Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

22.3.1 1936 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

22.3.2 1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

22.3.3 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

22.3.4 1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

22.4 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

22.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

22.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

22.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

22.8 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

22.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

23 The Crippled Eagles

94

23.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

23.2 Members killed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

23.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

23.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

23.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

24 Dodecanese Regiment

96

24.1 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

24.2 Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

24.3 Battle against the Germans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

24.3.1 The withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

24.3.2 Surrender and disbandment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

24.4 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

24.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

24.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

25 Eagle Squadrons

100

25.1 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

25.2 Formation and evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
25.3 Individual pilots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
25.4 Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
25.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
25.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
25.6.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
25.6.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
25.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

CONTENTS

ix

26 Flying Regiment 19, Finnish Air Force

105

26.1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

26.2 Victories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
26.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
26.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
27 Flying Tigers

107

27.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

27.1.1 Original American Volunteer Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
27.1.2 Chennault ghter doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
27.1.3 Curtiss P-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
27.2 Combat history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
27.2.1 Defense of Rangoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
27.2.2 Retreat into China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
27.3 Assessment of the AVG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
27.4 Members of the AVG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
27.4.1 Aces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
27.5 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
27.5.1 Transition to the USAAF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
27.5.2 Tributes and memorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
27.5.3 Flying Tigers wrecks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
27.5.4 Recognition by the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
27.5.5 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
27.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
27.6.1 About China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
27.6.2 About American volunteers

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

27.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

27.7.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
27.7.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
27.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
28 Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War

119

28.1 Union enlistment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

28.2 Confederate enlistment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
28.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
28.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
28.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
28.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
29 Mexican Expeditionary Air Force

121

29.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

29.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

CONTENTS

30 Greek Volunteer Guard

123

30.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

30.2 Presence at Srebrenica in July 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
30.3 Unholy Allianceand The Greek Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
30.4 Public inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
30.5 Volunteer response to allegations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
30.6 Lawsuit against Takis Michas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
30.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
30.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
31 Hungarian volunteers in the Winter War

126

31.1 Hungarian-Finnish Relationship before and after World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

31.2 Hungarian support to Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
31.3 Hungarian Volunteer Detached Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
31.3.1 The volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
31.3.2 Going to Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
31.3.3 In Finland

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

31.3.4 Going back to Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

31.4 Other Hungarian volunteers in the Winter War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
31.5 Memory of the Hungarian volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
31.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
31.7 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

32 International Brigades

129

32.1 Formation and recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

32.2 Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
32.2.1 First engagements: Siege of Madrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
32.2.2 Battle of Jarama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
32.2.3 Battle of Guadalajara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
32.3 Casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
32.4 Disbandment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
32.5 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
32.5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
32.5.2 Non-Spanish battalions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
32.5.3 Brigadiers by country of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
32.6 Status after the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
32.6.1 East Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
32.6.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
32.6.3 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
32.6.4 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
32.6.5 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
32.7 Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

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32.7.1 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

32.7.2 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
32.8 Monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
32.9 Symbolism and heraldry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
32.10Notable associated people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
32.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
32.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
32.13Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
32.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
33 International Brigades order of battle

139

33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

33.1.1 Early International units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
33.1.2 Brigade structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
33.1.3 Battalion structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
33.1.4 Political commissars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
33.1.5 International brigade depots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
33.2 XI International Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
33.2.1 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
33.2.2 Brigade sta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
33.2.3 Division Klber(XI and XII Brigade 20 Nov.36 - 4 Feb 37 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
33.3 XII International Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
33.3.1 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.4 XIII International Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.4.1 1st formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.4.2 2nd formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.4.3 3rd formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.4.4 4th formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.4.5 Brigade sta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.5 XIV International Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.5.1 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.6 XV International Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
33.7 Other International Brigades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
33.7.1 86th Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
33.7.2 CXXIX / 129th Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
33.7.3 CL / 150th Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
33.7.4 Ad hoc units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
33.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
33.9 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

33.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

34 Irish commandos

144

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34.1 Irish Transvaal Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
34.2 Second commando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
34.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
34.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
34.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
34.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

35 Irish military diaspora

146

35.1 Austria and Austria-Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

35.2 Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
35.2.1 'Irish' named units of the British Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
35.2.2 'Irish' named 1922 disbanded units of the British Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
35.3 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
35.3.1 'Irish' named units of the Canadian Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
35.4 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
35.4.1 'Irish' named units of the French Army

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

35.5 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

35.6 Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
35.6.1 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
35.6.2 People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
35.6.3 'Irish' named units in Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
35.7 Papal States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
35.8 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
35.9 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
35.10South Africa

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

35.10.1 Disbanded 'Irish' named units in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

35.10.2 'Irish' named units in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
35.11Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
35.11.1 'Irish' named units in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
35.12United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
35.12.1 Confederate States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
35.12.2 'Irish' named units in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
35.13See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
35.14Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
36 Islamic Legion

155

36.1 Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

36.2 The Legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
36.3 Afterwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
36.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
36.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
36.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

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37 Italian Volunteer Legion

157

37.1 Prior events: Italian immigration to South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

37.2 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
37.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
37.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
37.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
38 Military history of Jewish Americans

159

38.1 Participation by war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

38.1.1 French and Indian War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
38.1.2 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
38.1.3 Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
38.1.4 World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
38.1.5 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
38.1.6 Korean and Vietnam Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
38.2 Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
38.2.1 Jewish scientists and the Hydrogen bomb and SDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
38.3 Jews and the US Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
38.3.1 Commodore Uriah P. Levy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
38.3.2 Admiral Hyman G. Rickover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
38.3.3 Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
38.4 Secretaries of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
38.4.1 James R. Schlesinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
38.4.2 Harold Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
38.4.3 William Cohen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
38.5 Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
38.5.1 Intelligence work serving America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
38.6 Chaplaincy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
38.6.1 Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
38.6.2 JWB Jewish Chaplains Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
38.6.3 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
38.6.4 Post World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
38.6.5 Naval Academy Jewish Chapel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
38.7 Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
38.8 National Museum of American Jewish Military history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
38.9 Misconceptions of Jewish service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
38.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
38.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
38.12Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
38.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
39 Lafayette Flying Corps

176

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39.1 Casualties and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
39.2 Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
39.3 Member list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
39.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
39.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
39.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

40 List of members of the British Free Corps

182

40.1 List of members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

40.2 Other current or former British subjects who served in the German Armed Forces in the Second
World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
40.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
40.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
41 Lodge-Philbin Act
41.1 Notable foreigners

186
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

41.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

41.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
41.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
42 Mahal (Israel)

187

42.1 Origins, numbers, and Aliyah Bet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

42.2 Israeli Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
42.3 After the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
42.4 Non-Israeli service with modern IDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
42.5 Notable Mahals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
42.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
42.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
42.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
43 Matteotti Battalion

190

43.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

43.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
44 Mickiewicz Legion

191

44.1 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

44.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
45 List of militaries that recruit foreigners
45.1 Contents

193

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

45.2 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
45.3 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
45.4 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
45.5 D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

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45.6 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
45.7 I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
45.8 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
45.9 M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
45.10N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
45.11R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
45.12S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
45.13U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
45.14V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
45.15References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
46 No. 164 Squadron RAF

197

46.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

46.2 Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
46.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
46.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
46.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
46.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
47 Non-British personnel in the RAF during the Battle of Britain

199

47.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

47.2 Contribution by country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
47.2.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
47.2.2 Barbados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
47.2.3 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
47.2.4 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
47.2.5 Czechoslovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
47.2.6 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
47.2.7 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
47.2.8 Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
47.2.9 Newfoundland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
47.2.10 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
47.2.11 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
47.2.12 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
47.2.13 Southern Rhodesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
47.2.14 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
47.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
47.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
47.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
47.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
47.5.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
47.5.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

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47.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
47.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

48 Ohrana

208

48.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

48.2 Bulgarian occupation and policy in Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
48.3 The Thessaloniki Bulgarian club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
48.4 The Kastorian Italo-Bulgarian Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
48.5 The Edessa and Florina Ohrana detachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
48.6 Ohrana activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
48.7 Ohrana and Mihailov's plans for Macedonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
48.8 Re-organization and clashes with ELAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
48.9 The dissolution of Ohrana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
48.10Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
48.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
48.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
48.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
49 People's Volunteer Army

214

49.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

49.2 Strengths and weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
49.2.1 Clothing

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

49.2.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

49.3 Actions during the Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
49.3.1 First Phase Campaign (October 25 November 5, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
49.3.2 Second Phase Campaign (November 25 December 24, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
49.3.3 Third Phase Campaign (December 31, 1950 January 8, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
49.3.4 Fourth Phase Campaign (January 30 April 21, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
49.3.5 Fifth Phase Campaign (April 22 June 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
49.3.6 Stalemate (June 10, 1951 July 27, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
49.4 Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
49.5 Discipline and political control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
49.6 Prisoners-of-war (POWs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
49.6.1 American POWs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
49.6.2 Chinese POWs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
49.7 Aftermath of the Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
49.8 Early Chinese involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
49.9 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
49.9.1 People's Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
49.9.2 Republic of China

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

49.10Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
49.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

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49.12Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
49.13References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

49.13.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

49.13.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
49.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
50 Polish 7th Air Escadrille

226

50.1 Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

50.2 Squadron statistics

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

50.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

50.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
50.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
51 Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain

229

51.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

51.2 Polish Volunteer Air Force Squadrons Coat of Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
51.3 Polish volunteer wings in Allied Air forces, 1940-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
51.3.1 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
51.3.2 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
51.4 Stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
51.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
51.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
51.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
51.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
52 Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam

236

52.1 Regiment de Meuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

52.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.3 Record of Constance Parsons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.4 Grave of Caroline Isabella Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.5 Years of neglect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.6 Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.7 His Majesty's Cemetery, Ganjam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.8 Lord Harris's House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
53 Regiment de Meuron

239

53.1 Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

53.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
53.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
54 Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia

241

xviii

CONTENTS

54.1 Darnytsia Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

54.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
54.1.2 February Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
54.1.3 Darnytsia manifesto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
54.1.4 Arrival in Iai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
54.1.5 During and after Mreti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
54.1.6 October Revolution and Romanian truce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
54.2 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
54.2.1 Diaspora units and the cut-o troops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
54.2.2 HoriaRegiment and Romanian Legion of Siberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
54.2.3 Late echoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
54.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
54.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
54.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
55 Saint Patrick's Battalion

251

55.1 Historical perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

55.2 Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
55.3 Service as a military unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
55.3.1 Formation and early engagements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
55.3.2 Buena Vista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
55.3.3 Re-organization and nal battles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
55.4 Aftermath of Churubusco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.4.1 Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.4.2 Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.4.3 Executions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.5 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
55.5.1 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
55.5.2 Films and ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
55.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
55.7 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
55.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
55.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
55.9.1 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
55.9.2 Secondary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
55.9.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
55.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
56 Serbs and Montenegrins in the Greek War of Independence

262

56.1 Background: Greeks and Serbs in the early 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
56.2 Serbs in the Greek Revolution

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

56.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

CONTENTS

xix

56.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

57 Soviet Volunteer Group

265

57.1 Creation and withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

57.2 Monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
57.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
57.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
57.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
57.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
58 Spanish Legion

267

58.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

58.1.1 Predecessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
58.1.2 The Title of Spanish Legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
58.1.3 Early campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
58.2 Modern legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
58.2.1 Present role and deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
58.2.2 Units constituting modern Spanish Legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
58.2.3 Special Forces of the Spanish Legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
58.3 Ranks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
58.4 Basic training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
58.5 Uniforms and equipment of the legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
58.5.1 Uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
58.5.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
58.6 Esprit de corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
58.6.1 Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
58.7 Anthems and marches of the legion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
58.7.1 Slow march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
58.7.2 Regimental quick marches and ocial anthem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
58.8 Some notable Legionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
58.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
58.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
58.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
59 Swedish Volunteer Corps (Winter War)

274

59.1 Commanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

59.2 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
59.3 Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
59.4 Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
59.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
59.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
59.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

xx

CONTENTS

60 Volunteer Regiment of Buda

276

60.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

60.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
60.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
60.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
60.4.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
60.4.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
60.4.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Chapter 1

Foreign volunteers
This article is about foreign volunteers who are serving 1.1 Reasons for volunteering
in forces of a country other than their own, but who
are not primarily motivated by personal nancial gain. Three main reasons for volunteering can be identied:
For soldiers recruited in colonies, see Colonial troops.
For soldiers in foreign armies who are motivated by per Ideology - the volunteer believes in a cause and volsonal nancial gain, see Mercenaries. For foreign solunteers to ght for it.
diers temporarily serving in another country's military,
see Exchange ocer.
Adventure - the volunteer joins a foreign army to see
The armed forces of many nations have, at one time or
action.
Long-term personal or family benet - the volunteer
serves in order to qualify for non-nancial benets,
such as forgiveness of sins, citizenship or to acquire
an education.
This is a simplistic analysis and, in many cases, a volunteer will be inuenced by two or more of these reasons.
It follows, therefore, that a unit of foreign volunteers may
contain soldiers with dierent, or dierent combinations
of, motivations.

1.2 Mixed nationality units

62nd (Royal American) Regiment of Foot. Composed of 'foreign Protestants'.
French Foreign Legion

Prince Abdelkader El Djezairi, wearing the sash of the Legion

d'Honneur presented to him by the French Government.
The exiled Muslim Algerian, along with his 1000 volunteers protected most of the diplomats, and thousands of Christians during
the 1860 DruzeMaronite conict. He was awarded the highest
medals by the European Governments.

Hohenlohe Regiment of France during the Bourbon

Restoration.
International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War
Islamic Legion

another, used foreign volunteers who are motivated by

political, ideological or other considerations to join a foreign army. These may be formed into units of a given nationality or may be formed into mixed nationality foreign
units. Sometimes foreign volunteers were or are incorporated into ordinary units. The practice has a long history,
dating back at least as far as the Roman Empire, which
recruited non-citizens into Auxiliary units on the promise
of them receiving Roman citizenship for themselves and
their descendents at the end of their service* [1]

King's African Ries

Mahal - non-Israeli volunteers who fought for Israel
in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. There is to this day a
Mahal program in the Israeli army.
The SS (particularly the Waen-SS) made extensive
use of foreigners during World War II. For more
information, see: Europische Freiwillige, Foreign
volunteers and conscripts in the Waen-SS.
1

CHAPTER 1. FOREIGN VOLUNTEERS

Tercio de Extranjeros, or Tercio, or Spanish Legion
who enlisted in the British Army and became the
- prior to 1987 and in the 2000s, after the abandonrst Americans to ght the Nazis* [2]
ment of conscription, the Spanish Army is again accepting foreigners from select nationalities. The Legion today accepts male and female native Spanish 1.3.2 Belgian
speakers, mostly from Central American and South
Units from modern-day Belgium (then the Austrian
American states. Recruits are required to have a
Netherlands or United Kingdom of the Netherlands)
valid Spanish residence permit.
served in the French armies of both the French Rev Rhodesian Light Infantry (initially all-Rhodesian,
olutionary and Napoleonic Wars
this unit became theForeign Legionof the Rhodesian Army)
The Belgian Legion during the Franco-Mexican
War of 1864-6
The United States Military has a long tradition of
foreign volunteers taking up arms for the United
The 6 Fvrier Battalion, part of the International
States. Foreign born ocers, such as the Marquis de
Brigades during the Spanish Civil War was made
Lafayette, Tadeusz Kociuszko, and Friedrich Wilup of French and Belgians. Their citizenship rights
helm von Steuben provided vital contributions to the
were revoked as a result of their decision to serve in
cause of independence. During the nineteenth cena foreign army.
tury the US Army made extensive use of foreign
soldiers, particularly Irish and German. German
Two Belgian units fought in the Waen SS during
Jewish troops were common during World War II.
the Second World War
Presently, many members of the US Marine Corps
are of Latin American and not US nationality. However, many if not most non-American troops in the 1.3.3 British
United States armed forces are usually seeking the
During the Peninsular War, many Britons joined
expedited United States citizenship that comes with
Spanish regular and irregular forces* [3]
completion of a term of service, and can be seen as
aspiring Americans rather than outright foreigners.
The Auxiliary Legion of the First Carlist War

1.3 Units by nationality

The British Legions in the South American Wars of

Independence during the 19th century.

1.3.1

The British Free Corps of the Waen SS in World

War II

American

During both world wars, American volunteers served on

the allied side before the USA joined the war.

2,500 British fought in the Spanish civil war on the

side of the republicans.* [4]

The Lafayette Escadrille in the French Air Force,

World War I

In the Paraguay Revolution of 1922, British pilots

fought in the Escuela de Aviacin Militar.

The 7th Air Escadrille (also known as the Kociuszko Squadron) in the Polish Air Force, PolishSoviet War

Many Britons fought during the American Civil War

for both the United States and Confederate States.
67 British soldiers in the Union Army received the
Medal of Honor.

The Lincoln Brigade on the Republican side of the

Spanish Civil War
The Eagle Squadrons in the Royal Air Force, World
War II
The Flying Tigers in the Chinese Air Force, World
War II

Dozens of British volunteers joined Croatian units

and fought in the Yugoslav Wars between 1991
and 1995, most of them on the King Tomislav
Brigade.* [5]

Before the US entered the war, many Americans 1.3.4 Chinese

joined the Canadian Forces, especially the RCAF,
The Chinese People's Volunteer Army that fought
and served in ordinary Canadian units.
in the Korean War was nominally composed of vol Rachel Cox in Into the Dust and Fire records the hisunteers sent by the People's Republic of China even
tory of ve Ivy Leaguers (Chuck Bolte, Jack Bristhough it was in fact composed of regular troops of
ter, Bill Durkee, Heyward Cutting, and Robert Cox)
the People's Liberation Army.

1.3. UNITS BY NATIONALITY

1.3.6 Filipino
About ve thousand Filipinos served in a militia
called the Makapili, which was under Japanese command. The unit was formed on 10 November 1944
and was issued around two thousand ries by the
Japanese. Its headquarters was located at the Christ
the King compound in Quezon City. The organization was active in the Manila area, and in the nearby
provinces of Rizal, Laguna, Bulacan, and Nueva
Ecija. This militia made its last stand at Marikina
in 1945.
Flag of the 369th Reinforced Infantry Regiment that was involved
in the Battle of Stalingrad.

1.3.5

Croatian

1.3.7 French
French Foreign Legion accepts foreigners

The 1st Croatian Provisional Infantry Regiment,

fought on Napoleon's side in the Napoleonic Wars

9,000 French fought in the International Brigades

during the Spanish Civil War in the side of the Republicans.

The 2nd Croatian Provisional Infantry Regiment,

fought on Napoleon's side in the Napoleonic Wars

Some French emigres who ed to Britain fought in

the British Army of the Napoleonic Wars

The 3rd Croatian Provisional Infantry Regiment,

fought on Napoleon's side in the Napoleonic Wars
The 4th Croatian Provisional Infantry Regiment,
fought on Napoleon's side in the Napoleonic Wars
The 13th Waen Mountain Division of the SS
Handschar, fought in World War II on the Axis' side
The 23rd Waen Mountain Division of the SS
Kama, fought in World War II on the Axis' side

Charlemagne Regiment of the SS fought for Germany in the Second World War
Chasseurs Britanniques of the Napoleonic Wars
Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism a
collaborationist force of French who fought Soviet
partisans for Nazi Germany
From 1991 to 1994, during the Croatian War of
Independence and the Bosnian War, a number of
French volunteers fought along the Croats in the
King Tomislav Brigade.* [5]

The 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment

as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War
1.3.8
II
The 369th (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of
German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The 373rd (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of
German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The 392nd (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of
German Wehrmacht, fought in World War I
The Croatian Air Force Legion, as part of German
Luftwae fought in World War II on the Axis' side
The Croatian Naval Legion, as part of the German
Kriegsmarine, fought in World War II on the Black
Sea
The 1st Yugoslav Volunteer Brigade, fought in
World War II under Red Army command. Later became part of the Yugoslav Army.

German

King's German Legion in the Napoleonic Wars

In the Spanish Civil War, the Condor Legion fought
for the Nationalists, while the Thaelmann Battalion
fought for the Republicans.
During the American Civil War Germany was the
place of birth for thousands of Union soldiers. Several German speaking regiments existed such as the
9th Ohio Infantry, or the 74th Pennsylvania Infantry.
From 1991 to 1994, during the Croatian War of
Independence and the Bosnian War, a number of
former Bundeswehr and East-German army members fought along the Croats in the King Tomislav
Brigade.* [6] The brigade's executive ocer at the
time of the outbreak of the Bosnian Croat War was
former Bundeswehr ocer Jrgen Schmidt, who
died while leading his troops against Bosnian Muslim forces near Gornji Vakuf, in January 1993.* [7]

CHAPTER 1. FOREIGN VOLUNTEERS

In another action, a German-volunteer patrol, led 1.3.13 Nepalese
by former Bundeswehr member Michael Homeister,
Gurkhas in the British Army.
ambushed and killed two Serbs manning an obser*
vation post. [6]
Gorkhas in the Indian Army.
Gurkha Contingent in the Singapore Police Force

1.3.9

Greek

Gurkha Reserve Unit - a similar type force in Brunei

The Greek Volunteer Guard, fought in the Bosnian

War on the side of the Army of Republika Srpska. 1.3.14

1.3.10

Irish

See Also Irish Military Diaspora

The Irish Brigade in the French Army from 1690
and through the eighteenth century.
The Irish Legion fought for Imperial France during
the Napoleonic Wars
An Irish Legion was part of the British Legions ghting in the South American Wars of Independence
St. Patrick's Battalion in the Mexican Army during
the Mexican-American War.
The Irish Brigade which served on the Union side in
the American Civil War in the 1860s

Fuerzas Regulares Indgenas in the 1934 Asturian

uprising and the Spanish Civil War.

1.3.15 Polish
Brigades in the Spanish Civil War.
Polish Lancers and other Polish forces in the Army
of Napoleon.
Polish Volunteers in many wars and revolutions
of the 19th century, including Spring of Nations,
Crimean War (on Turkish side) and The Paris Commune.
The Blue Army, fought on the French side in WW1.

1.3.16 Portuguese
Legio Viriato in the Spanish Civil War.

Irish commandos in the Boer Army during the Boer

War
1.3.17
Connolly Column, fought for the Spanish republic
in the Spanish civil war
The Irish Brigade which fought for the Nationalist
rebels in the Spanish Civil War

1.3.11

Israel

Moroccan

Rhodesian

The Rhodesian Army accepted foreign volunteers,

almost all of whom were required to speak English, as they were integrated into regular units (usually the Rhodesian Light Infantry) alongside locally
based soldiers. The exception was 7 Independent
Company, a short-lived unit made up entirely of
French-speaking personnel, led by francophone ofcers, which existed between 1977 and 1978.

Mahal The Israeli Defense Force oers a program

for non-Israelis between the age of 18-24 to serve in 1.3.18 Russian
the IDF.
The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation have
since 2010 or so begun to recruit CIS volunteers. See Armed Forces of the Russian Federa1.3.12 Italian
tion#Personnel.
The Redshirts of Giuseppe Garibaldi fought in
Southern Italy and Uruguay.
1.3.19
Corpo Truppe Volontarie in the Spanish Civil War.
Division Garibaldi fought under Josip Broz Tito's
command as a part of NOVJ in Dalmatia and
Bosnia, during the Second World War * [8]

Scottish

Scots have a long history of service in the armies of

Kings of France since at least the ninth century. The
Scottish Guard was formally created by the French
King Charles VII in 1422, and existed until the end
of the Bourbon Restoration period in 1830.

1.5. REFERENCES

1.3.20

South African

South African 32 Battalion

1.3.21

Spanish

The Blue Division of World War II ghting with

Germany against the USSR.
The Blue Legion was formed late in the Second
World War out of Blue Division soldiers who refused to leave after Franco required all Spaniards to
leave Axis forces.

1.5 References
[1] Webster, Graham (1979). The Roman Imperial Army
(Second ed.). London: A & C Black. p. 144. ISBN
0-7136-1909-0.
[2] Webcast Author Interview Rachel Cox Into the Fire 2012
ISBN 9780451234759
[3] Graciela Iglesias Rogers, British Liberators in the Age
of Napoleon: Volunteering under the Spanish Flag
in the Peninsular War (Bloomsbury Academic, London
and New York, 2013) ISBN 978-1-4411-3565-0
[4] Richard Baxell, Unlikely Warriors: The British in the
Spanish Civil War and the Struggle Against Fascism
(Aurum Press, London, 2012)

The 9th Armoured Company of the Free French

Forces.

[5] Arielli, Nir. In Search of Meaning: ForeignVolunteers

in the Croatian Armed Forces, 199195. Academia.edu.

The Spanish Legion accepts foreign recruits.

[6] Krott, Rob (2008). Save the Last Bullet for Yourself: A
Soldier of Fortune in the Balkans and Somalia. Casemate.
pp. 16869. ISBN 1935149717.

1.3.22

Swedish

[7] Krott (2008, p. 148)

[8]Garibaldi Division. Vojska.net. Retrieved 2013-09-17.

Swedish Voluntary Air Force ghting for the Finnish

side in the Winter War
Swedish Volunteer Corps ghting for the Finnish
side in the Winter War

1.3.23

Swiss

Swiss Guard

1.4 See also

List of militaries that recruit foreigners
Europische Freiwillige of the Second World War
Foreign legions
Mercenary
Military volunteer
Mujahideen
Spanish Civil War and Foreign Involvement
Foreign support in the Winter War
White Tights, alleged Baltic female snipers in
Chechnya

Chapter 2

1st Canadian Regiment

2.2 Service

The 1st Canadian Regiment, an Extra Continental regiment, was raised by James Livingston to support Colonial eorts in the American Revolutionary War during
the invasion of Quebec. Livingston recruited men from
Chambly, Quebec as early as September 1775,* [1] but
a formal regimental designation was made by Richard
Montgomery on November 20, 1775, with recognition
by the Second Continental Congress following on January
8, 1776. The regiment, which never approached its authorized size of 1,000 men, saw action primarily in the
Canadian theater and New York, and was disbanded on
January 1, 1781 at King's Ferry, New York.

2.2.1 Quebec
Main article: Battle of Quebec (1775)
When Montgomery's army arrived outside Quebec, the
1st Canadian consisted of two to three hundred Canadiens.* [6] On December 31, 1775, the regiment was
charged with making a diversion at Quebec City's Saint
Jean gate, to draw British attention away from the primary
attacks, which were led by Benedict Arnold and Richard
Montgomery, and were directed at the city's Lower Town.
The diversions did not work, and the battle ended disastrously for the Americans, with Montgomery killed,
Arnold wounded, and about 400 men taken prisoner.

2.1 Formation

The remnants of the army, then under Arnold's command, besieged the city until May 1776, when British reinforcements began arriving, forcing the Americans into
In September 1775, colonial forces under the command a panicked retreat. The retreat ended at Sorel on May 20,
of Philip Schuyler and Richard Montgomery crossed into where they were met by reinforcements, and eventually
Quebec with the aim of driving British military forces put under the command of General John Sullivan.
from Montreal and Quebec City. Guy Carleton, the
British governor and military commander, had fortied
Fort Saint-Jean as the primary defense of Montreal. The 2.2.2 Trois-Rivires
colonial forces, preparing to besiege the fort, sought local
support. James Livingston, a grain merchant living near Main article: Battle of Trois-Rivires
Chambly, about 10 miles (16 km) from Saint-Jean, raised
a local militia, which in October assisted in the siege
and capture of Fort Chambly, and the capture of sup- On the night of June 7, 1776, Livingston's regiment was
plies intended for the besieged moving on the Richelieu part of a force of about 2,000 under Brigadier General
William Thompson that returned from Sorel to TroisRiver.* [2]
Rivires to drive o what they believed to be 300 to 600
Following the fall of Montreal, Livingston was authorized British troops from Quebec. When they arrived near
by Montgomery on November 20 to raise a regiment to Trois-Rivires, they instead found the vanguard of the
assist in the coming assault on Quebec City. In eight days British counteroensive, numbering several thousand.
he raised approximately 200 men.* [3] The regiment re- After a brief skirmish, the Americans forces were broceived formal recognition from the Second Continental ken, and made a disorganized retreat back to Sorel.
Congress on January 8, 1776.* [4]
Following this battle, the regiment retreated with the rest
The regiment at rst consisted of a mix of Canadiens, of the army to Fort Ticonderoga. While the regiment had
Acadiens, and Anglophones.
never been particularly large (Livingston never had more
Two of Livingston's brothers served in the regiment. than a few hundred men under arms at any one time), the
Richard Livingston was a lieutenant colonel, and Abra- retreat from Quebec left the regiment much reduced in
ham served as a captain.* [5]
size, since anyone leaving the province was unlikely to be
6

2.3. DISBANDMENT
able to return.

2.3 Disbandment

The regiment was disbanded as part of a major reorganization on January 1, 1781 at King's Ferry, New York.
Members that remained in service were assigned to the
Following the army's return to Ticonderoga, the regiment 2nd Canadian Regiment.* [9]
was assigned garrison duty in upstate New York, primarily the Mohawk and Schoharie valleys, so that it could
be reorganized.* [7]* [8] During this time, Livingston was
2.4 See also
known to be recruiting in New York City.* [5] Following
Burgoyne's invasion from Quebec in 1777, the regiment
2nd Canadian Regiment
was moved to the upper Hudson River valley. In August
1777, the regiment was assigned to Benedict Arnold on
Moses Hazen
his expedition in relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix. It
then saw service in both Battles of Saratoga.

2.2.3

New York

2.5 Notes
[1] Kingsford, William (1892). The History of Canada, vol.
5. Roswell & Hutchinson. p. 440. A footnote references
letters sent by Livingston on September 16 and 18 from
Point Olivier.
[2] Livingston, pp. 235237
[3] Smith, p. 86
[4] Livingston, p. 238
[5] Magazine of American History, p. 72
[6] Institute of Canada Annual Report, p. 44
This map shows movements and battle sites of Canadian regiments in the Revolutionary War

[7] Gardiner, p. 178

[8] Wright, p. 60
[9] Wright, p. 157

2.2.4

Rhode Island

The regiment saw action in the Battle of Rhode Island in

1778.

2.2.5

Garrison duty

For the remainder of the war, the regiment had garrison

duty in New York. Most notably, Colonel Livingston was
in command of Verplanck's Point on the Hudson River in
September 1780, and played a crucial role in the unmasking of Benedict Arnold's treachery. While on guard duty,
his troops red on the British sloop of war Vulture, forcing
that vessel to retreat southwards. This ship had brought
Major John Andr to meet with General Arnold, who was
then in command at West Point. Since the ship was driven
o, Andr was forced to attempt travel by land to New
York, when he was captured not far from the British lines
near Tarrytown with incriminating papers in his possession. Andr was hanged as a spy, and Arnold, his plot
discovered, managed to escape to the British lines.

2.6 References
Livingston, Edwin Brockholst (1910). The Livingstons of Livingston Manor: Being the History of
that Branch of the Scottish House of Callendar which
Settled in the English Province of New York During the Reign of Charles the Second. Knickerbocker
press.
Smith, Justin H (1907). Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony, vol 2. New York: G.P. Putnam's
Sons. OCLC 259236.
Institut canadien de Qubec (1874). Annuaire de
l'Institut canadien de Qubec, Volumes 15, 1874
1878. L'Institut. OCLC 36213509.
Abbatt [ed], William (1889). The Magazine of
American History with Notes and Queries, Volume
21 (JanuaryJune 1889). A.S. Barnes. OCLC
1590082.

CHAPTER 2. 1ST CANADIAN REGIMENT

Gardiner, Asa Bird (1905). The Order of the Cincinnati in France. Rhode Island State Society of
Cincinnati. OCLC 5104049.
Wright, Jr, Robert K (1983). The Continental Army.
United States Army.

Chapter 3

1st Infantry Brigade (South Africa)

The South African 1st Infantry Brigade was an 3.1.1
infantry brigade of the army of the Union of South Africa
during World Wars I and II. During World War I, the
Brigade served as a British formation in Egypt and on
the Western Front, most famously the Battle of Delville
Wood. It was reactivated at the start of the Second World
War as a South African formation and served in East
Africa and the Western Desert; the Brigade disbanded on
1 January 1943.

Mobilisation

3.1 World War I

When the First World War broke out in 1914, the South
African government chose to join the war on the side of
the Allies. General Louis Botha, the then prime minister,
faced widespread Afrikaner opposition to ghting alongside Great Britain so soon after the Second Boer War and
had to put down a revolt by some of the more militant
Cap badge of 1st SA Infantry Brigade, 1914
elements before he could mobilise and deploy troops as
an expeditionary force (some 67,000 troops) to invade
The brigade was commanded by Brigadier General H.T.
German South-West Africa (now Namibia).
(Tim) Lukin and consisted of four regiments* [2] reThe South African Union Defence Act of 1914 prohib- cruited from existing military units as well as amongst
ited the deployment of South African troops beyond the civilians. Regiments were raised in the four provinces of
borders of the South Africa and its immediate neigh- South Africa:
bouring territories. To send troops to Europe to sup The 1st South African Infantry Regiment was comport the Commonwealth in World War I, Generals Botha
manded by Lt Col F.S. Dawson with the regiment
and Smuts created the South African Overseas Expebeing raised from the Cape Province and known
ditionary Force. However, because of the limitations
as The Cape Regiment.A Company (Western
of the Defence Act, they issued a General Order (OrProvince) was made up from men mostly from the
der 672 of 1915) which stated that "The South African
Duke of Edinburgh's Ries. B. Company was reOverseas Expeditionary Force will [sic] be Imperial and
cruited from the Eastern Province and C Company
have the status of regular British Troops.Statuswas
was from Kimberley, with many of the men being
meant to imply administrative purposes, as Britain was
ex Kimberley Regiment. D Company was recruited
paying for the maintenance of the force in the eld for
from Cape Town.* [3]
the sake of local political sensitivities. Regrettably, this
Administrative Order later meant that the South African
The 2nd South African Infantry Regiment was comunits which served as part of the Overseas Expeditionary
manded by Lt Col W.E.C. Tanner, this Regiment
Force were not, as South African units, entitled to retain
was raised from Natal and Orange Free State. Many
Regimental Colours awarded to them for battles fought
volunteers were from the Kararian Ries.* [4]
as Britishunits.* [1] The 1st Infantry Brigade Group
The 3rd South African Infantry Regiment. Comwas the rst unit to be formed as a constituent part of the
mander: Lt Col E.F. Thackeray and raised from
South African Overseas Expeditionary Force.
9

10

CHAPTER 3. 1ST INFANTRY BRIGADE (SOUTH AFRICA)

Transvaal and Rhodesia. The regiment was generally known asThe Transvaal Regiment.B Company were mostly from the Witwatersrand Ries
while C Company were men from the Rand Light
Infantry.* [4]

The 4th SA Infantry Infantry Regiment was led by

Lt Col F.A. Jones, DSO and became known as
the South African Scottish.It was raised from
the Cape Town Highlanders Regiment and the area
of Cape Town (A Company) while members of
1st Bn Transvaal Scottish Regiment made up most
of B Company. C Company came from 2nd Bn
Transvaal Scottish Regiment and recruits encouraged by the Caledonian Societies of Natal and Orange Free State made up D Company.* [4]
An abandoned German trench in Delville Wood near Longueval,
Somme, France.

The Brigade, numbering 160 ocers and 5 648 other

ranks, embarked for England from Cape Town and were
The losses of 1 July 1916 were considerable and only
quartered at Bordon in Hampshire, where, for the next
countered partially by the successes achieved the same
two months, they underwent training.* [2]
day in Gen Rawlinson's XIII Corps sector, and this was
to dramatically inuence the South African Brigade in
the coming oensive. General Haig realised that he had
3.1.2 North Africa
to capitalise on the successes achieved on the right of
During December 1915 it was decided to send the South the British line and he urged General Rawlinson to exAfrican brigade to Egypt, where the Senussi tribe led ploit this by securing Mametz Wood and the Contalmaiby Gaafer Pasha, was threatening to overrun the coun- son area to prepare for an attack on the German sectry. On 23 January 1916 the 2nd South African In- ond line on the Longueval-Bazentin le Petit ridge. This
fantry Regiment rst saw action at Halaxin. Brig Gen attack would extend on the right to Longueval Village
Lukin's column of the Western Frontier Force com- and Delville Wood. First, however, Bernafay Wood
prised; 1st and 3rd South African Infantry Regiments, and Trones Wood, which were situated to the south of
The Dorsetshire Yeomanry, the 1st/6th Royal Scots, a Longueval Village and Delville Wood, would have to be
*
squadron of The Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry and captured. [2]
the Nottinghamshire Battery of the Royal Horse Artillery.* [2] They marched along the coast and engaged Longueval
the enemy at the Battle of Agagia on 26 February 1916.
With the aid of the Dorsetshire Yeomanry's cavalry the The plan called for the 9th (Scottish) Division (which
Senussi were routed and Gaafer Pasha and his sta cap- included the 1st South African Infantry Brigade) to be
tured.* [5] After successfully bringing this brief campaign brought forward from reserve to the new line extendto a close, Brig Gen Lukin and his brigade were trans- ing from Montauban to the south of Trones Wood. Afferred to France.
ter coming forward, the division was told to prepare for
the second stage of the battle, an assault on Longueval
scheduled for 7 July. In advancing to the start-line, the
3.1.3 Western Front
2nd South African Infantry Regiment (at that time, the
reserve battalion), relieved two battalions of the 27th
The Somme Oensive
Brigade in Bernafay Wood and incurred over 200 casu*
The Somme oensive opened on 1 July 1916 and was alties in the process. [2]
initially intended as a diversionary battle to draw Ger- General Rawlinson decided on a night advance and dawn
man forces away from the French front at Verdun which attack to take the village. The attacking force would conwas under severe pressure.* [6] Allied Command hoped sist of the 26th and 27th Brigades of the 9th Division,
that the preliminary barrage would destroy the German which would assault the village of Longueval at dawn on
trenches, exterminating the defenders and enabling the 14 July with the South African brigade remaining in reAllied infantry to occupy the German lines with minimal serve. As arranged, at dawn they stormed the German poopposition. This initial bombardment failed to neutralise sitions and fought their way into Longueval, where hard
the German infantryand British suered in excess of 54 hand-to-hand ghting ensued. By 0805, the intensity of
000 casualties in the rst day's ghting, of whom over 19 the ghting compelled Maj Gen W.T. Furse, (Comman000 were killed.* [2]
der of 9th Division), to order the 1st South African In-

3.1. WORLD WAR I

fantry Regiment to advance from reserve in support of the
27th Brigade and by 1230, he instructed the remaining
three South African regiments to take and hold Delville
Wood as soon as the entire town of Longueval was in Allied hands.* [7]

11
2nd and 3rd Regiments in the lead, followed by the 4th
Regiment which was in support . The North West corner
of the town and the wood was clearly strongly held by
the Germans, but the positions in the rest of the wood
were unclear, with the South Africans being uncertain as
to who were friendly forces and who were enemy. Led
by a guide from the 5th Camerons, the three regiments
advanced from the junction of Montauban and Bazentin
Roads through a portion of the south end of Longueval
and across the elds to Buchanan Street trench. Tanner
established his headquarters at Buchanan Street and sent
the 3rd Regiment to the far side of the wood. Tanner's
2nd Regiment followed the 3rd Regiment but branched
o to the north. C Company, 2nd Regiment manned the
southern perimeter close to Longueval.* [7] (See Map).

At 1300, 12th Royal Scots had pushed through the northern half of Longueval Village but were forced back by a
machine gun in the north west corner of Delville Wood.
This part of the wood was to remain strongly held and
defended by the Germans. Due to delays in preparing the
regiments on the start line, as well as problems related
to co-ordinating the artillery support, the South African
attack was delayed to 06h00 the following morning, particularly as Longueval village had not yet been totally captured and holding the town was considered essential to the
capture of Delville Wood.* [2]
Shelling was extremely heavy with severe losses. Medical
orderlies were being called for everywhere, on all fronts
the supply of stretchers soon ran out. In addition, on the
Delville Wood
eastern perimeter there was confusion as to whether the
men moving about outside the wood were French or German. The destruction of a Lewis Gun from this area soon
conrmed that the forces were German. By 1000 casualties were mounting, particularly amongst Vickers and
Lewis gun sections and calls for artillery support were
coming in from all three regiments. By noon, ammunition stocks were running seriously low, and by 1600
the Germans mounted a strong counter attacks on the left
ank (2nd Regiment) but were repelled. As dusk fell,
the South Africans manning the perimeters entrenched
themselves, despite continuous enemy shelling and sniping.* [2]
The morning of 16 July, Brig Gen Lukin was ordered
to support an attack by 11th Royal Scots (part of 27th
Brigade) on the orchard situated in the northern sector of
Longueval, between North Street and Flers Road. The
11th Royal Scots would attack along North Street, whilst
B and C Companies of the 1st South African Infantry
Regiment would attack northwards in the wood parallel to
the Royal Scots.* [2] The combined attack was launched
at l000 and was met by machine gun and rie re. Both
assaults failed and survivors scrambled back to their positions, to face a day of shelling and sniping (Refer Map).
Later the morning, Brig Gen Lukin visited Lt Col F.S.
Dawson (OC of 1st South African Infantry Regiment) in
Longueval and Dawson stressed to the brigade commander that the men were exhausted. Lukin replied that there
could be no relief for several days. German artillery continued to pound the South Africans in the wood for the
remainder of the day and well into the night.* [2]
Map of the Battle of the Somme, depicting Delville Wood

South Africans enter the Wood The start of what was

to become a legend of South African perseverance, loss
and tragedy started at 0600 on 15 July 1916. The three
remaining regiments of the South African brigade who
were under the command of Lt Col William Tanner of
the 2nd Regiment, advanced towards the wood with the

'Friendly-re' incidents During the night of 16/17

July the north-west corner of Delville Wood was subjected to an Allied artillery barrage to support a combined
attack by the 27th Brigade and 1st South African Infantry
Regiment to be initiated by dawn. Once again the attack met with erce resistance and it too failed. Brig Gen
Lukin again visited the battalion commanders in Longue-

12

CHAPTER 3. 1ST INFANTRY BRIGADE (SOUTH AFRICA)

val during the day and on his return to brigade headquarters he telephoned Maj Gen Furse and pointed out that
his troops were exhausted. Furse replied that the wood
was to be held at all costs. By mid morning, medical orderlies could no longer cope with all of the wounded.* [2]
The Germans were becoming more active in the north
western sector of Delville Wood and at 1400 German batteries from Ginchy began bombarding the wood followed
by an attack from the north-west, reaching Princes Street,
but they were halted and then driven back by a counterattack. That night the British artillery red on the Germans who were east of Delville Wood with many shells
falling short, amongst the South Africans. This was again
followed by German artillery commencing their barrage
on the wood. Many of the 186 German guns involved had
been hurriedly transported from Verdun and explosions
illuminated the forest in ashes, making sleep virtually
impossible.* [2]
Fighting continued throughout the day and that night, the
Germans withdrew from the north-west corner of Delville
Wood and northern Longueval to enable their artillery to
bombard the entire Wood and village. This withdrawal
allowed the 1st South African Regiment to push northwards and to link up with the 76th Brigade (3rd Division),
which was similarly advancing on Longueval. The junction did not last long; at 08h00 on 18 July the German
artillery commenced ring on Delville Wood again, but
this time from three sides and the bombardment endured
for seven-and-a-half hours. At times the incidence of explosions was seven per second. On that day, in an area
less than one square mile, 20 000 shells fell.* [8]
Thackeray replaces Tanner At 1450 Lukin advised
Tanner, who had been wounded, that he was to assign
command of the forces in the Wood to Colonel Thackeray
of the 3rd Regiment.* [9] He was instructed to bring forward all scratch reinforcements he could nd and to take
over command of the South African troops in the Wood,
which he did entering the wood with 150 men, all of
whom were battle-weary as the result of three days ghting. All Companies were by now calling for reinforcements or requesting authority to withdraw from the area
being pounded by artillery. The reply was that "...Delville
Wood is to be held at all costs.Casualties were further
increasing by the hour in all sectors and in the early afternoon, A and C Companies of the 3rd Regiment were
overrun by the Germans, who approached from the rear;
through the devastated wood. Mud blown up by the intense barrage had caused most weapons to stop working,
cleaning equipment had all been consumed and the troops
had now been without food for over 72 hours and more
importantly they were now without water too.* [2]

coming more and more frequent, simply due to the lack

of troops to cover the long perimeter line.* [2]
Loss of the 3rd Regiment The Germans commenced
their advance at 0600 on 19 July. Colonel Konemann
led a German force comprising elements of the 153rd Infantry Reserve Regiment and two companies of the 52nd
Infantry Reserve Regiment from the north into Delville
Wood, attacking B Company of the 3rd South African
Regiment. The 2nd Regiment had been decimated the
previous day and had left a large gap on the left ank of
the 3rd Regiment and this was where the German penetration was made. With so few men left, the German
assault could not be countered and the remaining members of the 3rd Regiment were taken prisoner.* [10]
The Wood was by now, void of any vegetation and German machine guns and snipers were taking their toll those
left within the 2nd Regiment. Continued calls for reinforcements were met with words of encouragement,
rather than with fresh troops as ghting on all remaining fronts prevented any troop movement and had already
consumed all available reserves. At dawn on 20 July,
Colonel Thackeray despatched a message to Lukin, urgently requesting supplies, water and ammunition. Despite their perilous situation, the South African survivors
continued to ght.* [11]
Unknown to Thackeray, The Royal Welsh Fusiliers
(Headquarters, Machine Gunners and signallers) were
trying to advance to relieve the South Africans, but were
continually driven back and were unable to reach them.
By 1300 Thackeray sent a signal to Lukin stating that
"....Urgent. My men are on their last legs. I cannot keep
some of them awake. They drop with their ries in hand
asleep in spite of heavy shelling. We are expecting an attack. Even that cannot keep some of them from dropping
down. Food and water has not reached us for two days
though we have managed on rations of those killed ...but
must have water.* [12]

Relief Eorts by the Brigade Major John MitchellBaker eventually managed to secure additional troops to
try to relieve the remaining South Africans. At 1615
Brigadier-General H.W. Higginson of the 53rd Brigade
reported that The Suolk [Suolk Regiment] and 6 R
Berks [6th Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment] had
been ordered to relieve them.* [13] When the Suolks
and Berks reached them, Thackeray and his remaining
two ocers, Lt Edward Phillips and 2 Lt Garnet Green,
had all been wounded. He and Phillips led the 120 survivors of the 3rd Regiment out of the Wood. Green
brought up the rear and was the last South African to leave
*
Another German attack at 1700 was rebued but by now, the wood. [12]
companies were reduced to so few men, that they could no On reaching safety, Thackeray reported "...I am glad to
longer be considered as viable ghting units. The South report that the troops under my command (the 3rd RegiAfricans still held an uncertain perimeter but German in- ment) carried out your instructions to hold Delville Wood
cursions through their line into the wood were now be- at all costs and that not a single detachment of this regi-

3.2. WORLD WAR II

13

ment retired from their position, either on the perimeter but were awarded honours for service in Russia, including
of the Wood or from the support trenches.* [2]
Lt-Col H.H. Jenkins, the erstwhile commander of the 1st
*
Historians today agree that the losses incurred by the South African Infantry Regiment [17] as well as the new
African Infantry Regiment,
South African Infantry Brigade holding Delville Wood commander of the 4th South
*
Lt-Col
D.M.
McCloud,
[18]
with the men either joining
had no strategic purpose, as did that of the entire
General
Ironside's
sta,
or
aliating
themselves directly
Somme oensive, of which Delville Wood formed a
with
White
Russian
forces.
Two
Victoria
Cross holders
*
small part. [2]
also joined this voluntary force.* [19]
Casualties

3.2 World War II

The most costly action that the South African forces on

the Western Front fought was the Battle of Delville Wood
in 1916 of the 3,153 men from the brigade who entered Brigades were reformed in the Active Citizen Force
the wood, only 780 were present at the roll call after their (ACF) for the rst time since the First World War in
1926.* [20] In 1934 a 1st Brigade of the ACF of the
relief.* [13]
UDF was listed as comprising 1 Royal Natal Carbineers,
2 RNC, the Umvoti and Natal Mounted Ries, and the
Durban Light Infantry.* [21] Brigade commanders were
3.1.4 Demobilisation
nominated by 1934 as well, and Colonel H. Mayne VD
became commander of the 1st Brigade. In 1940, the
The end in France
Union Defence Forces formed a new series of divisions
By the time the South Africans crossed the River Selle for service in World War II. The 1st Brigade was earat Le Cateau, it was evident that the war was drawing to marked for service with the 1st South African Division.
a close. The SA Brigade was withdrawn from the line The brigade assembled in Pretoria under the command of
at 0130 on 20 October 1918 and marched via Reumont Colonel John Daniel in early May 1940. He was replaced
to Serain.* [2] The brigade remained at Serain until 1 a few weeks later by Brigadier Dan Pienaar. On formaNovember 1918.* [14]
tion the brigade included three infantry battalions, the 1st
Battalion Transvaal Scottish Regiment, the 1st Battalion,
Duke of Edinburgh's Own Ries and the 1st Battalion of
the Royal Natal Carbineers. Soon after its formation, the
In December 1917, the Don Cossacks had risen in re- brigade received transport for equipping one motorised
volt against the Communist Government in Russia. With battalion, and this was assigned to the 1st Transvaal Scotlight skirmishes at rst, in the areas of Odessa, Kiev, Orel, tish.
Voronezh, Isartzin and even reaching to Astrakhan at the The Brigade assembled at Sonderwater, located east of
mouth of the Volga, the uprising grew in size and ge- Cullinan, and took part in a pre-departure parade atographic distribution. In August 1918, a small British- tended by General J.C. Smuts, the prime minister and deFrench-American force under command of Major Gen- fence minister, on 13 July 1940.* [22] The date also celeeral Sir Edmund Ironside had arrived at Archangelsk, brated the Delville Wood Day, as the anniversary of a batwith the stated purpose of retrieving war material loaned tle on the Western Front in July 1916 when the 1st South
to the previous Tsarist Regime. They were also tasked African Brigade had advanced into the Delville Wood.
with to moving south to link up with the 42,000 strong The next day the Brigade entrained for Durban, and on
Czech Legion enveloped in Russia, assisting them to re- 16 July embarked by ship for Mombasa, Kenya where it
turn home. It was hoped that the presence of this Al- commenced training not far from Nairobi in the Kenyan
lied force, as well as the Czech force moving back to- Highlands.* [22] On 6 September 1940, the 1st Transvaal
wards Germany, would rstly invigorate the White Rus- Scottish was transferred to the 2nd East African Brigade
sian counter-revolution to oust the Communists and sec- under British command, and took part in the rst acondly, to encourage the Czechs to take up arms against tion involving South African ground troops in the Second
Germany with the aim of re-opening a second front World War near Liboi when a column was attacked by a
against Germany. By this time, a number of South force of Banda and Italian Colonial infantry.* [23]
African ocers were already ghting on the side of the
White Russians against the Communists.* [15] With the Although nominally part of the 1st South African Disigning of the Armistice marking the end of the war on vision, the brigade was deployed under 11th and 12th
11 November 1918, thousands of South Africans were African Divisions. It fought in the campaign in Italian
released from their duties in Western Europe,* [16] many Somaliland, and in the conquest of Ethiopia in 1941.
of whom preferred to volunteer for services in support of From East Africa, the brigade reassigned to 1st South
the White Russians, rather than returning home. Many African Division was transferred to Egypt. It fought
South Africans not only joined the White Russian forces, in the North Africa campaign from July 1941 until afVolunteers to support the White Russians

14

CHAPTER 3. 1ST INFANTRY BRIGADE (SOUTH AFRICA)

ter the Battle of El Alamein in October/November 1942.

The brigade returned to South Africa in January 1943,
and was converted into the 1st South African Armoured
Brigade, to serve as a training formation for the rest of
the war.

3.5 See also

1st South African Infantry Division
Delville Wood
Battle of the Somme

3.3 Order of battle

3.3.1

3.6 Citations

World War I

Brigade commanded
Lukin* [2]

by

Brigadier-General

H.T.

[2] S Afr MHJ Vol 7 No 2

1st South African Infantry Regiment: Lt-Col F.S.

Dawson* [24]
2nd South African Infantry Regiment:
W.E.C. Tanner* [24]

Lt-Col

3rd South African Infantry Regiment: Lt-Col E.F.

Thackerey* [24]
4th South African Infantry Regiment: Lt-Col F.A.
Jones DSO* [24]

3.3.2

[1] Digby p.416

World War II

[3] Digby p. 18
[4] Digby p. 19
[5] Digby p.66
[6] Hart p.36
[7] Hart p.284
[8] Hart p.287
[9] Hart p.288
[10] Hart p.289

Order of Battle as at 17 October 1942.* [25] Brigade commanded by Brigadier E.P. Hartshorn
1st Duke of Edinburgh's Own Ries SA Infantry
Corps (Lieutenant Colonel S.B. Gwillam)
1st Royal Natal Carabineers SA Infantry Corps
(Lieutenant Colonel Len Hay, M.C.)
1st Transvaal Scottish SA Infantry Corps
One Sqn 3rd SA Armoured Car Regt SA Tank
Corps
3rd and 4th Anti-Tank Batteries SA Artillery Corps
1st Light Anti-Aircraft Battery SA Artillery Corps
1st Field Company SA Engineering Corps
11th and 15th Field Batteries of 4th Field Regt SA
Artillery Corps
7th, 19th and 20th Field Batteries of 7th Field Regt
SA Artillery Corps

[11] Digby p.134

[12] Digby p.136
[13] Hart p.291
[14] Digby p. 377
[15] Digby p. 366
[16] Digby p. 368
[17] Digby p.371
[18] Digby p.372
[19] Digby p. 376
[20] http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/SouthAfrica/EAfrica/
EAfrica-A1.html
[21] Defence Dept. Annual Report, 30 June 1934, p.3, via
http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/SouthAfrica/EAfrica/
EAfrica-A2.html
[22] D.D. Form 293

3.4 Battle honours

3.4.1

World War I

[23] Orpen Vol VIII

[24] Digby p.400
[25] Orpen Vol III Appendix 4

Honours shown in bold are emblazoned on the regimental

[26] Digby Appendix D
colours of the four regiments:* [26]

3.7. REFERENCES

3.7 References
3.7.1

Websites

National Archives of South Africa (NASA)". Online index of archived data (Use Database SAB:
Public Records of Central Government since 1910
). Archived from the original on 25 July 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
The South African Military History Society. The
South Africans at Delville Wood. pp. Military History Journal (S Afr MHJ) Vol 7 No 2. Archived
from the original on 25 July 2009. Retrieved 200907-23.

3.7.2

Books

Digby, Peter. K. (1993). Pyramids and Poppies:

The 1st SA Infantry Brigade in Libya, France and
Flanders: 19151919. Rivonia: Ashanti. ISBN 1874800-53-7.
Hart, Peter (2006). The Somme. London: Cassell
Military Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-304-36735-1.
Hartshorn, E.P. Brigadier (1960). Avenge Tobruk.
Cape Town: Purnell & Sons.
Malcolm, Horace Thomas. Form D.D. 293. Record
of Service.
Orpen, N. (1968). East African and Abyssinian
Campaigns. South African Forces World War II:
Volume I. Cape Town: Purnell.
Orpen, N. (1971). War in the Desert. South African
Forces World War II: Volume III. Cape Town: Purnell.
Orpen, N. (1982). Salute the Sappers. South African
Forces World War II: Volume VIII Part 2. Cape
Town: Purnell.
Uys, Ian (1983). Delville Wood. Rensburg: Uys
Publishers.
Uys, Ian (1973). For Valour: The History of South
Africa's Victoria Cross Heroes. Johannesburg: Ian S.
Uys.

15

Chapter 4

1st Regiment Greek Light Infantry

The 1st Regiment Greek Light Infantry (181012) was
a light infantry regiment, founded as a local establishment in British service consisting mostly of Greek and
Albanian enlisted men and Greek and British ocers that
served during the Napoleonic Wars. Later it became a
regular British Army regiment as the 1st Greek Light
Infantry (The Duke of York's) (181216). It had no
ocial association with the modern state of Greece or the
Filiki Eteria or any Greek War of Independence groups;
however, several future leaders of the War of Independence fought in its ranks, as did a number of rank-and-le
klephts and armatoloi.

pense, and unpaid. They were drawn from the population

of the islands and from mainland Greece and Albania,
from men with varying levels of experience. A decision
was taken to form an elite, paid unit from among the experienced troops, and to give them additional training.* [2]

4.2 Service history

4.1 Background
The British Army during the Napoleonic Wars was small
(~40,000 troops) at the outset compared to those of other
European countries like France and Prussia. The country initiated conscription for the rst time, imitating its
French foe. The British Army also used foreign volunteers, such as French Royalists, Germans, Greeks and
Corsicans to supplement its forces. In 1813 one fth of
the army, 52,000 men, were such volunteers. The British
Army in 1813 contained over 250,000 men.* [1]
Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire, which ruled the majority of Greek-speaking areas at the time, participated in on-again, o-again alliances with France under
Napoleon. Many Greeks eeing Ottoman persecution or
local disputes on the mainland ended up in the Ionian Islands, which were beyond the reach of Ottoman authorities. When Britain became the enemy of the Ottoman
Empire, it provided, if not an actual chance to ght for
national liberation, at least a possibility of harming a foreign power that was increasingly viewed as hostile to the
Modern Greek Enlightenment and under stress due to the
rise of nationalism in the empire.
When Britain took over the Ionian Islands, it initially
relied on small numbers of British and British-foreign
troops along with the local volunteer militias, the largest
of which was on Zakynthos (Zante), numbering some
2,000 men, with another approximately 2,000 dispersed
over the other islands. These were armed at their own ex-

Richard Church as a major in the regimental uniform, 1813

The regiment was raised in the Ionian Islands in March

1810 by then-Captain Richard Church who already had
experience managing foreign troops from his previous appointment in the Royal Corsican Rangers. At the outset,
its authorized strength was one battalion of 800 men, its
actual strength was 548 ocers and men when it took
part in its rst action, the successful capture of Lefkada
(then called Santa Maura due to still-lingering Venetian
inuence) from the French, but suered high casualties.

16

4.3. UNIFORMS AND EQUIPMENT

17

Later, it was moved to Zante which served as its base and

reached its full authorized strength.* [2] In 1811, Church
was promoted Major, and Brigadier General Robert Oswald, late of the 35th Foot as colonel for the Greek Light
Infantry Corps, which at that time consisted of only the
nominal battalion-sized 1st Regiment.* [3] Recruitment
began for the second regiment, in order to build up to the
corps-level strength, after which Oswald was promoted
brigadier for the corps.
The regiment was put on British establishment in 1812,
becoming an ocial regiment of the British Army, and
increased to an authorized strength of 1,129 men of all
ranks. It was sent to suppress an insurrection in Montenegro in June of that year, but baulked at being sent to
Sicily in 1813. On 22 May 1813 the unit was reviewed
and found to be in avery indierent state, with no eld
ocer present and company ocers at a loss to discipline the men"; Church was badly wounded in the arm in
the attack on Lefkada and did not return to the regiment
after recuperating. Instead, he was promoted Lieutenant
Colonel went on to become colonel commandant the 2nd
Greek Light Infantry, and his second-in-command went
with him. At least one replacement major was cashiered
for an unspecied oence, and another transferred out. Depiction of two soldiers of the sister regiment in 1812. The
uniforms of the 1st would have been similar, except with yellow
This led to the gazetting of Lt. Col. Henry Cuyler of
instead of green facings, and lower laced shoes instead of boots
the 85th Foot as colonel commandant of the regiment on
February 2, 1813.* [4] A 250-man detachment took part
in the British expeditions against Republic of Genoa and
La Spezia in the spring of 1814. The regiment disbanded
in 1816.* [2]
The day-to-day language of the regiment was Greek;
however, in order to avoid confusion when the regiment
or elements of the regiment were brigaded with other
British units, English was used for all drill commands.
This was generally the practice in all foreign units recruited by the British at the time. Elements of the regiment were often brigaded with other units, for instance,
the assaults on Santa Maura, Genoa and La Spezzia also
included elements of the Calabrian Free Corps.* [2]

4.3 Uniforms and equipment

The men of the regiment were reported as wearing Albanian dressin 1810; their orders stated clothing and
accoutrements were to be made in the Albanian fashion.
Enlisted men wore red jackets with yellow cus, facings,
and trim; for the ocers, these were gold and white, over
a white shirt, foustanella, breeches and stockings.* [2]
Headwear was usually a red cap (resembling a fez or small
beret, like the fario of the Greek Evzones). In some
contemporary prints, the ocers and men are depicted Theodoros Kolokotronis' regimental helmet (the cross is a later
wearing llets (kefalodesmoi) instead of caps.* [2] O- personal addition)
cers wore a crested red dragoon-style helmet, as depixted
in the drawing of Richard Church and of later drawings of Greek War of Independence (after 1821) leader

18

CHAPTER 4. 1ST REGIMENT GREEK LIGHT INFANTRY

Theodoros Kolokotronis who continued to wear the helmet.

Footwear consisted of what are described as tied sandalsand in illustrations resemble the moccasin-like
tsarouhia of the Evzones, only they lack pompoms and
have extra lacing to keep them secure. Ocers are
depicted as wearing taller, higher-heeled three-quarter
shoes or short boots. The troops refused to carry British
knapsacks, only haversacks.* [2]
The men were armed initially with kariolia (Greek: ), klepht-style sawed-o muskets, but gradually came to prefer British-issue muskets and by 1813
this is what they carried. They wore sword bayonets on
waist belts instead of shoulder or cross-belts (this was also
common among British light infantry and rie units) and
also wore a yataghan-style short sabre or large knife * [2]
(common among the Greek klephts and armatoloi, but
also similar to the hanger issued to British infantry until about ve decades before, and similar in purpose, if
not form, to the fascine knife worn by some specialist
units like light infantry and artillery as a back-up weapon).
Ocers carried longer sabre-style weapons, just as their
light infantry counterparts in Western European armies
did. The men were supposed to be issued pistols, but it
wasthought prudentnot to issue them for unspecied
reasons, although ocers carried. At least one contemporary print by Charles Hamilton Smith shows enlisted
men of the sister regiment wearing pistols, but another
by Goddard depicts an ocer of the 1st with a brace of
pistols and enlisted men without.
Ocers and men are depicted in some illustrations carrying Baker ries, but there is no ocial record of these
being issued in large numbers, although small numbers
were sent to both Corsica and the Ionian Islands. The
usual weapon is supposed to be the British 1790 India
pattern musket.* [2]
Kolokotronis sported a brace of engraved pistols and an
ornate cavalry-style cuirass, which are now on display
at the National Historical Museum, Athens. Richard
Church was depicted wearing a similar helmet-andcuirass outt plus metal greaves and knee protectors with
gilt lion's heads along with a braided version of the uniform of the unit's sister regiment, in a painting now
housed in the Royal Gallery.* [2] Both of these romanticized outts imitating Ancient Greek styles were probably intended for ceremony and were not worn in their
entirety in combat, although Kolokotronis did sometimes
wear the helmet when he fought, even after the regiment
disbanded. As ocers, they both would have had the
privilege of wearing pistols, and in Kolokotronis' career
as a klepht, the carrying of more than one pistol would not
have been uncommon, nor was it unknown among British
ocers.

4.4 See also

Category:1st Regiment Greek Light Infantry ocers

4.5 References
[1] Chandler, David; Beckett, Ian; (2003) The Oxford History
of the British Army, UK: Oxford University Press, ISBN
0-19-280311-5
[2] Chartrand, Ren and Patrice Courcelle, Osprey Men-atArms 335: migr & Foreign Troops in British Service (2)
1803-15. (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2000). ISBN 185532-859-3
[3] Royal military panorama or Ocer's companion, Promotions, War Oce July, 1811, p. 379
[4] Royal military panorama or Ocer's companion, Promotions, War Oce, February 2, 1813"p. 75

Chapter 5

2nd Canadian Regiment

The 2nd Canadian Regiment, also known as Congress'
Own or Hazen's Regiment, was authorized on January
20, 1776, as an Extra Continental regiment and raised in
the province of Quebec for service with the Continental
Army under the command of Colonel Moses Hazen.
All or part of the regiment saw action at Staten Island,
Brandywine, Germantown and the Siege of Yorktown.
Most of its non-combat time was spent in and around
New York City as part of the forces monitoring the British
forces occupying that city. The regiment was disbanded
on November 15, 1783 at West Point, New York.
The regiment was one of a small number of Continental Army regiments that was the direct responsibility of
the Continental Congress (most regiments were funded
and supplied by a specic state). Commanded by Colonel
(later Brigadier General) Moses Hazen for its entire existence, the regiment was originally made up of volunteers
and refugees from Quebec who supported the rebel cause
during the disastrous Invasion of Canada. Hazen and his
sta were later authorized by Congress to recruit in other
areas to supplement their ranks.

5.1 Origins

Movement of the COR Regiment

Late in 1775, Colonel James Livingston raised and com-

manded a regiment of Canadians which fought at St.

Jean, Quebec, in support of General Montgomery's 1775
invasion of Quebec. Livingston's 300 Canadians, along
with about 50 Americans, were instrumental in the fall of
Fort Chambly during that engagement. Livingston's regiment, which was not formalized by Montgomery until
November 1775, also participated in the action at Quebec. On January 3, 1776, Congress commissioned him
Colonel, and his organization became known as the Canadian Regiment.* [1]
Moses Hazen had served as a lieutenant in the 44th Regiment during the French and Indian War and was receiving a half-pay pension for his British service. In 1775,
while he was living on this plus the income from his estate in St. Jean, Quebec, the colonial army invaded. The
Americans plundered Hazen's estate plundered and damaged his property damaged by the during the siege of the
fort. Nevertheless, Hazen was arrested by the British on
suspicion of spying for the Americans. He was held a
prisoner for 54 days, until he was nally released by General Montgomery after the fall of Montreal in November. Hazen then joined the American cause, and took
part in the battle of Quebec. Following the American
failure to take the city, Hazen and Edward Antill, an
American expatriate, traveled to Philadelphia to report
on the battle. Congress partially compensated Hazen by
establishing the 2nd Canadian Regiment. He accepted
the command, thus forfeiting his British half-pay.* [2]* [3]
Antill was made lieutenant colonel of the regiment. Although John Duggan, one of Livingston's captains, had
been promised a regiment by Benedict Arnold, Hazen and
Antill reached Philadelphia before Duggan, and Hazen
smeared his name in his eort to get command of the
regiment.* [4]
On January 20, 1776, Congress authorized the 2nd Canadian Regiment with an allowed maximum strength of
1,000. It would consist of four battalions (5 companies
each), the only over-sized regiment in the Continental
Army.* [4] It was assigned to the Army's Canadian Department, and was organized by Hazen on February 10,
1776 at Montreal, to be recruited from the Richelieu and
St. Lawrence Valleys.* [5] Over the next two months,
Hazen and Antill recruited in those areas, until early
April, when the recruiting funds dried up, raising about

19

20

CHAPTER 5. 2ND CANADIAN REGIMENT

250 men.* [6]

During much of the war, the 2nd Canadian Regiment was
known as Congress's Own Regiment, and Livingston's
command continued to be known as the Canadian Regiment. Greatly depleted by its ve years of service, Livingston's regiment was disbanded in the reorganization of
the Continental Army on January 1, 1781. Its Canadian
elements were assigned to Hazen's command, which was
then redesignated as the Canadian Regiment.* [5]

5.2 Montreal and retreat

The regiment was rst assigned to garrison duty in and
around Montreal, which was under Major General David
Wooster's command. In March 1776, Wooster went to
Quebec City to assume command of the army there;
Hazen was temporarily placed in command of the forces
at Montreal until Benedict Arnold arrived from Quebec
in April.* [7] Arnold then assigned the regiment to guard
duty at Fort Chambly, where it remained until the American retreat in June 1776.* [8]
On July 2, the Canadian Department was disbanded,
and regiment was reassigned to the Northern Department.* [5]* [9] The regiment was at Fort Ticonderoga in
July 1776, Albany in September, and then Fishkill, New
York for winter quarters.* [10] By the time the regiment reached Albany, its strength had dropped to about
100.* [11] On November 12, the regiment was assigned
to the Highlands Department. It was reorganized on January 1, 1777 to consist of four battalions (20 companies),
and Hazen was given permission to recruit at large
that is, he was allowed to recruit from any states, not just
Quebec. These recruitment eorts met with mixed success, as most states had been assigned quotas for troop recruitment to ll their line companies, and thus preferred
to have men enter those commands rather than Hazen's.
On January 8, the regiment was assigned to the Main
Army.* [5]* [9]

giving an account of an attempt by Gen.

Sullivane on the Enemy on Staten Island last
Thursday. One party under Colo. Ogden
of 500, surprised the Enemy, killed a few,
made 100 prisoners & returned. Sullivane
commanded Deborres Brigade, he killed 5
& made 30 prisoners. Gen. Smallwood had
no Luck. He was discovered & the Enemy
escaped. So far Success. About 9 o'Clock the
two Brigades joined, & began to cross at the
old blazing Starr. Before all our Men got over,
the Enemy came up & attacked 150 of our
Men. Our People behaved bravely, drove the
Enemy several Times, but were overpowered.
We had but a few killed. We lost 130 privates
prisoners. Colo. Antill, Major Woodson,
Major Stewart, Major Tillard, Capt. Carlisle,
& Duee a Surgeons Mate are taken. Capt.
Hoven, Lieut. Campbell, Lt. Anderson &
Ensign Lee were not mentioned in the agg
& are suered to be killed. Several Field &
Commd. ocers fell into our Hands. The
above is the substance of the Letter.
Samuel Chase to Thomas Johnson, August
25, 1777* [15]

5.4 Philadelphia campaign

5.4.1 Battle of Brandywine
Main article: Battle of Brandywine

Sullivan's division then marched south to join Washington's army in the defense of Philadelphia. On September
11, 1777, a battalion of 200 of Hazen's men was sent a
mile north of Jones's Ford to cover Wistar's Ford, and a
second battalion of 200 men was posted at Bungton's
Ford about a mile north of Wistar's Ford, situated just
below the forks of the Brandywine Creek.* [16] Hazen's
troops spotted British troops in a anking maneuver and
5.3 New Jersey campaign
crossing the Brandywine River. They sent a report of this
movement to George Washington, who initially did not
The regiment was at Princeton, New Jersey as early as believe this intelligence despite its corroboration by LieuMay 19, 1777, where it was assigned on May 22 to the tenant Colonel James Ross.* [17]* [18] The regiment lost
2nd Maryland Brigade of the Main Army.* [12] In early 4 ocers and 73 men in the battle.* [19]
August the regiment, brigaded as part of General John
Sullivan's Division, was encamped at Hanover, New Jersey. Several of the regiment's companies participated in 5.4.2 Battle of Germantown
the Battle of Staten Island on August 22, 1777. Its losses
included 8 ocers and 40 men, with the captured includ- Main article: Battle of Germantown
ing Antill and Captain James Herron.* [13] Antill would
not be exchanged until November 10, 1780.* [14]
Still under Sullivan's command, the regiment participated
25 August 1777 This Moment, while
writing, Colo. Hazen showed Me a Letter,

in the Battle of Germantown on October 4, 1777.* [20]

The British were encamped at Germantown northwest
of Philadelphia. On the evening of October 3 General

5.5. ACTIVITIES ON THE NORTHERN FRONT

21
British in Philadelphia.* [26]

5.5 Activities on the northern front

5.5.1 New York and Connecticut
On January 24, 1778, Washington ordered Hazen's
regiment to Albany, New York, transferring it from
the 2nd Maryland Brigade to the Northern Department.* [5]* [9]* [27] The objective was a planned invasion
of Quebec. Hazen was assigned to the deputy quartermaster's post for the expedition, which was anticipated to
involve 2,500 men. The eort was troubled by supply and
manpower diculties, suspended in February, and then
A period map showing the locations of the battles at Brandywine called o by Congress in March.* [28] The regiment was
and Germantown.
then reassigned to the Highlands Department on April
4 and ordered to West Point.* [5]* [9]* [29] The regiment
was relieved July 22 from the Highlands Department and
Washington ordered his troops, encamped at Skippack
assigned to the New Hampshire Brigade, an element of
Creek on the north side of the Schuylkill River, to march
the Main Army.* [5]* [9] In July 1778 the regiment was
17 miles (27 km) as part of a planned surprise atsent to White Plains to help guard New York City.* [29]
tack on the British at daybreak. The Americans would
then descend upon Germantown from the north in four
columns, under the commands of Generals Sullivan,
Greene, Armstrong and Smallwood, along four main
roads leading into Germantown. The main eort of the
advance was to be General Sullivan leading the column on
the right and General Nathanael Greene on the left. Sullivan's column, with the Continental troops of his own
division and others, was to advance down Germantown
Road against Howe's center.* [21]
The regiment was part of the platoon of the advance
party that rst entered Germantown before the battle became general. Unbeknownst to Washington, the columns
of Greene and Smallwood got lost. Washington himself accompanied Sullivan's force and, at 5 am, ordered
him to launch the assault. The leading element of Sullivan's column, General Thomas Conway's brigade, attacked the British 2d Light Infantry battalion, which had
been reinforced by the British 40th Regiment of Foot
under command of Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Musgrave.* [22] The regiment formed part of Sullivan's early
attack on the British; its losses were 3 ocers and 19
men.* [20]* [23]

5.4.3

Winter quarters 17771778

A ag purported to be that of the regiment.

At White Plains, Hazen proposed a new potential invasion route to Quebec. This route went from Newbury
in the New Hampshire Grants (present-day Vermont),
where Hazen owned property, to Saint Francis, Quebec.
On July 12, Hazen departed Newbury to scout the route.
By July 25, he had returned to White Plains; the eort
was abandoned for the time being because the manpower
was needed in the New York area.* [29]
That summer, low manpower in Hazen's regiment caused
Washington to consider disbanding it; the regiment's size
had dropped to 522, and Washington was concerned over
an excessively large number of ocers (33) in the regiment. Hazen successfully argued for retention of the regiment, and noted that the large number of ocers was
needed because companies from the regiment were often
detached to other units for service.* [30] During the autumn a large shipment of clothing and shoes arrived from
France. After a lottery was held in October, Hazen's regiment were issued the uniform of brown coats faced with
red.* [31]

On December 21, 1777, the regiment and a detachment

of the Maryland Line under the command of General
William Smallwood (the 2nd Maryland Brigade) arrived
at Wilmington, Delaware, to protect the city from the
British.* [24] They encamped at the present-day Brandywine Park in Wilmington.* [25] The highlight of this time
included Smallwood's capture of the British armed brigantine Symmetry on December 30. This ship was laden
with supplies, including winter clothing, en route to the In November, the regiment was ordered to Connecticut

22

CHAPTER 5. 2ND CANADIAN REGIMENT

where it encamped at Redding for winter quarters. (Today, this is the site of Putnam Memorial State Park, where
more than 100 piles of stone in the area of the park known
as theEncampment Siteare believed to mark the locations of the huts that sheltered troops from this and other
regiments.) A weekly return for the brigade dated December 26, 1778, states that 162 men in the regiment
were unt for duty for want of shoes.* [31]* [32]

5.5.2

Cos Country

In March 1779 the regiment was reassigned to the Northern Department,* [5]* [9] and marched to Springeld,
Massachusetts. From Springeld they marched to
Charlestown, New Hampshire and picked up clothing and
supplies. They arrived in what was called the Cos Country of northern New Hampshire in May, and were tasked
to build a road now known as the Bayley-Hazen Military
Road from the Connecticut River to St. Jean, Quebec.
Hazen had been secretly ordered to the area by Washington in April. Along with a large portion of Colonel
Timothy Bedel's Regiment and Major Benjamin Whitcomb's New Hampshire rangers, they began to extend the
road, a portion of which had been constructed in 1776
under the direction of Colonel Jacob Bayley.* [33]

commissioner of issues. His regiment were poorly supplied the whole summer at Cos, supplies of beef arrived
spoiled, and Hazen had to send his men into the elds to
help with the harvest so they could eat. Courts-martial
were later held.* [37]

5.5.3 Winter 17791780 Jockey Hollow

In October 1779 the regiment was ordered to Peekskill,
New York,* [37] and on November 25 it was assigned to
Hand's Brigade in the Main Army.* [5]* [9] They spent
the winter at Morristown, New Jersey, where they experienced severe shortages of food. The site, known as
Jockey Hollow, is in the Morristown National Historical Park.* [12]* [38]

On January 14, 1780, the regiment participated in a

"commando" raid of Staten Island planned in secrecy by
General Washington and led by Lord Stirling. The object
of the raid was a surprise attack on the enemy at the Watering Place Redoubts and to secure provisions. Preparations for the raid called for British attention to be focused
on Irvine's detachment in the vicinity of Elizabethtown,
while the 2nd Canadian marched to Connecticut Farms
(present-day Union). Meanwhile, Steward's detachment
would advance onto Staten Island, and Stirling's forces
Hazen's objective was to extend a road in a northwest di- would then push to Richmond, in the center of Staten Isrection following the general path of an old Cohssiac In- land, where they would surprise enemy troops.* [39]
dian trail from Lower Cos to St. Johns, Quebec. The
road cut through the heavily forested Upper Connecticut Lord Stirling had intelligence that the enemy had a
Valley in an area of the New Hampshire Grants that was force of about 1,000 men, with the main body in huts
then known as Upper Cos, but is today known as Ver- near the Watering Place Redoubts. These were three
British circular redoubts, double-abatised, with about 200
mont's Northeast Kingdom.* [33]
men each, located at present-day Fort Hill Circle in St.
The village of Peacham became the base of operations George, just north of Tompkinsville.* [40] Around midfor the military road project. The road actually started night on January 14, loaded with cannon and 1,5003,000
at the town of Wells River on the Connecticut River just troops, American forces crossed over the frozen ice of the
north of Newbury. Blockhouses were built at Peacham, Kill Van Kull waterway from Elizabethtown Point on 500
Cabot, Walden and Greensboro. Hazen made requisition sleds. It was a starry night, and Loyalist spies had warned
upon the selectmen of the river towns to provide teams the British of the American approach. As a result, the
for the movement of his stores. Wells were dug at various Americans found the British on the posts and alert. With
points, swamps were bridged with logs and the road made the element of surprise gone, and conditions extremely
passable for teams.* [34] Hazen encamped for some time cold, the raid was aborted. American troops suered mion the present site of Lowell village, and he called the nor frostbite injuries but brought back 17 prisoners, as
place the camp at the end of the road, although the well as some horses and camp supplies.* [12]* [41]
road's actual terminus was some miles further on.* [35]
The road crossed the Vermont Piedmontrolling hills
and valleys with isolated mountains. On June 22 it was
reported that Hazen with half his men were within 40
miles (64 km) of St. John's. The regiment was recalled
to the New York area in August; as a result, the road was
never completed. A total of 54 miles (87 km) of road was
built; the location where it ended is now known as Hazens
Notch.* [5]* [9]* [36]

5.5.4 New York 1780

In the spring of 1780, the regiment was subjected to a

thorough inspection by Baron von Steuben, and was found
to be well taken care of.* [42] Von Steuben made
recommendations as a result of his inspections (which
covered much of the Continental Army) that resulted in
of the 1st and 2nd Canadian regiments in
In the fall, Hazen leveled charges of corruption and mis- the merging
*
[42]
1781.
management against Isaac Tichenor, the deputy commissioner of purchases at Cos, General Bayley, the deputy The regiment spent the summer of 1780 at King's Ferry,
quartermaster-general, and Matthew Lyons, the deputy New York.* [43] Regimental orderly books show that it

5.6. SIEGE OF YORKTOWN

was at Morristown, Bryant's Tavern, Ramapo and Preakness between April 23 and July 26.* [44] On August 1 the
regiment was reassigned from Hand's Brigade to the New
Hampshire Brigade of the Main Army. This brigade was
to be under the command of Enoch Poor, but its command was ultimately given to Hazen, although Hazen was
not promoted to brigadier general.* [43]

23
nia (in the present-day Bronx). The Americans burned
the enemy's barracks, captured 52 prisoners, and took
large supplies of ammunition and forage. Hazen's men
were assigned to cover their retreat. About 1,000 British
troops pursued Hull's men beyond a point where Hazen
and his men were concealed. A skirmish took place, with
British losing about 35 men.* [47]

On August 23, von Steuben arrested Hazen for halting

his brigade on a march without permission. The army
was on the march from Tappan to the Liberty Pole, a
pre-war landmark located near Englewood, when Hazen
halted the march for his troops to drink water. Hazen
was acquitted of the charges,* [43] and promptly countercharged von Steuben with conduct unbecoming an ocer
over the incident; von Steuben apologized.* [45]

On June 1, the regiment was sent from the West Point

Fishkill area to Albany and the Mohawk River valley to
guard against an expected British attack. For this action
it was reassigned from the Highlands Department to the
Northern Department.* [5]* [9] The regiment arrived at
Albany on June 5, and spent most of the month patrolling
in the Mohawk River valley against an attack that never
came. When the perceived threat subsided, the regiment
*
Following the capture of British spy John Andr and the was immediately ordered to return to West Point. [48]
defection of Benedict Arnold to the British in Septem- On June 29, Hazen *was nally given a brevet promotion
ber 1780, one hundred of Hazen's soldiers, under com- to brigadier general. [49]
mand of Lieutenant William Torrey, were detailed to be
present at Andr's hanging on October 2, at Tappan, New
York.* [45]
5.6 Siege of Yorktown
In the fall of 1780 the regiment was headquartered at
Nelson's Point in Garrison, New York, directly across
the Hudson River from West Point, before entering winter quarters at Fishkill, New York in November. During
this time eleven ocers of the regiment, led by Major
James Reid, complained to General Washington (without rst consulting Hazen) over the lack of advancement
opportunities in the regiment, which were due in part
to its unusual position as being the direct responsibility of Congress, rather than under a state's supervision.
Reid also made complaints against Hazen, which were
heard and dismissed in a November 1780 court martial. Hazen had Reid arrested and conned to quarters
afterwards; a long court martial (running from December 1780 to February 1781) resulted in Reid's conviction
on two counts and a public reprimand by General Washington.* [46]

Main article: Siege of Yorktown

On August 10, 1781, the Canadian Regiment was reassigned from the Northern Department to the Main
Army.* [5]* [9] On August 19, Washington used the regiment to feint preparations for an attack on New York. It
crossed the Hudson River at Dobbs Ferry and was ordered
to march, together with New Jersey troops, to posts on the
heights between Springeld and Chatham, in which position the detachment would cover a French battery that
had been set up at Chathamto veil our real movements
and create apprehensions for Staten Island.* [50] Meanwhile, the main body of the American Army was starting
their southward movement toward Yorktown.* [48]* [51]
The regiment withdrew, and held near Kakiat for three
days from August 2225.* [52]

Regimental orderly books show that during these periods

The regiment then went down the Hudson River and
the regiment had operations at Orangetown, Steeprapie
joined the army on the way to Yorktown.* [53] At midand West Point between September 16 and November 19,
night on September 2, 270 of the regiment and other units
and at West Point from October 5 to March 5, 1781.* [44]
arrived at Christiana Bridge over the Delaware. The units
unloaded the boats and transported supplies for the Continental Army to Elk Landing during the three days be5.5.5 Reorganized as Canadian Regiment fore the boat carriages arrived.* [54]* [55] On September
24, Hazen was given command of the second brigade of
On January 1, 1781, in accordance with von Steuben's Marquis de Lafayette's Light Division, to which the Canarecommendations, the 1st Canadian Regiment was dis- dian Regiment (now under the command of Lieutenant
banded. The Canadian members were reassigned to the Colonel Antill) was assigned.* [5]* [9] After cantonment
2nd Regiment, which was then designated as the Cana- at Williamsburg, the regiment arrived at Yorktown on
dian Regiment. Most foreign volunteers were also as- September 28.* [54]
signed to the regiment.* [42]
The regiment participated in the siege, and was heavHazen and part of the regiment participated in a raid on
January 22 led by Lieutenant Colonel William Hull. Hull
raided a position held by a Loyalist corps under Lieutenant Colonel Oliver De Lancey Sr. that was at Morrisa-

ily involved in the October 14 attacks on the British redoubts.* [53]* [56] According to Lafayette's own account
the Americans did not re a gun, but used only the bayonet. The brigades of light infantry under Generals Peter

24

CHAPTER 5. 2ND CANADIAN REGIMENT

Muhlenberg and Hazenadvanced with perfect discipline Champlain.* [64]

and wonderful steadiness. The battalion of Colonel Vose
deployed on the left. The remainder of the division and
the rear-guard successively took their positions, under the 5.8 Troop
re of the enemy, without replying, in perfect order and
silence.* [57]
Strength

5.6.1

Guard detail at Lancaster

strength and casualties

The regiment's authorized strength was 1,000 men.* [4]

The regiment was reassigned from Hazen's Brigade to the Casualties

Middle Department on December 6, 1781.* [5]* [9] On
this date, a portion of the regiment went to Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, where they guarded prisoners taken at 5.9 See also
Yorktown.* [5]* [9]* [58] They were on this detail for 10
months with prisoners under guard at Lancaster, York
Clement Gosselin
and Reading.* [53]* [58] The most notable prisoner under
Hazen's watch during this time was 20-year-old Captain
Charles Asgill. On May 3, 1782, upon orders by Washington, he was selected to hang in retaliation for the brutal 5.10 Notes
summary execution of American Captain Joshua Huddy
by the British. In November 1782 his life was spared after [1] The Canadians That Fought At Yorktown. National
Park Service. Archived from the original on January 16,
heartrending correspondence by his family and interven*
*
2007.
tion by the Queen of France. [59] [60]
In June 1782 Hazen again had James Reid arrested on
charges including disobedience and conduct unbecoming
an ocer. The court martial, held in December, resulted
in a mistrial, with Hazen alleging bias on the part of the
presiding judge advocate. After additional hearings, Reid
was ultimately acquitted of the charges.* [61] In November 1782, the regiment was moved to Pompton, New Jersey for winter quarters. Its duties during this time included the interdiction of trade between the countryside
and the British in New York City.* [62]

[2] Moses Hazen to George Washington, February 12,

1780. Memorial of Colonel Moses Hazen. Archived from
the original on 24 September 2008. Retrieved October
27, 2008.
[3] Everest, p. 35
[4] Everest, p. 36
[5] 2d Canadian Regiment. National Park Service.
Archived from the original on 19 November 2008. Retrieved October 23, 2008.
[6] Everest, pp. 3839

5.7 Disbanded

[7] Everest, p. 38
[8] Everest, p. 42

In June 1783, with the peace nearly nalized, much of

the regiment was furloughed.* [63] At the same time it [9] Robert K., Wright Jr. (1983).The Continental Army.
was transferred to the Highland Department. Pursuant
United States Army Center of Military History. Archived
from the original on 4 November 2010. Retrieved Octoto a Resolution of Congress of May 26, 1783, 300 solber 21, 2010.
diers were discharged on June 9. However, members
of the regiment refused to depart, whether on furlough
[10] Everest, p. 175
or discharge, until they received their pay. Members
of the regiment that remained were ordered to march [11] Linn, p. 103
to Washington's cantonment near New Windsor.* [2] The
regiment was reorganized into two companies on June 30 [12] Halsey, Edmund D (1889). The Continental Army in
Morris County in the Winter 177980. Archived from
and was completely disbanded on November 15, 1783, at
the original on October 10, 2007. Retrieved October 23,
*
*
West Point, New York. [5] [9]
2008.

Because the Canadians in the regiment were unable to

return to their homes, many of them settled in camps near [13] Everest, p. 52
Albany and Fishkill, where they subsisted on handouts [14] Schuyler, John (1887). Institution of the Society of the
from Congress. General Hazen appealed to Congress to
Cincinnati: formed by the ocers of the American Army
give them land grants, but this eort failed. The state
of the Revolution, 1783, with extracts, from the proceedof New York eventually granted Hazen and a number of
ings of its general meetings and from the transactions of
the New York State Society. Society by D. Taylor. p. 154.
his men land in the northern part of the state near Lake

5.10. NOTES

[15] Chase, Samuel (1777). Letter to Thomas Johnson, August 25, 1777. Letters of Delegates to Congress, Volume 7: May 1, 1777 September 18, 1777. Library of
Congress. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
[16] Lengel, Edward G. (2005). General George Washington:
a military life. Random House. p. 230. ISBN 978-14000-6081-8.
[17] Ashmead, Henry Graham (1984). History of Delaware
County, Pennsylvania. L. H. Everts & Co. Archived from
the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved November
6, 2007.

25

[40] St. George, Staten Island, NY: Neighborhood History

. New York Public Library. Retrieved October 26, 2008.
[41] Everest, p. 77
[42] Everest, p. 79
[43] Everest, p. 80
[44] Robertson, John K. Orderly Books of Canadian Regiments in Continental Service. Retrieved October 24,
2008.
[45] Everest, p. 81
[46] Everest, pp. 8387

[18] Everest, pp. 5354

[19] Everest, p. 54

[47] Everest, p. 90
[48] Everest, p. 93

[20] Everest, p. 55

[49] Everest, p. 91

[21] McGuire, p. 50

[50] Donovan, Mary Sudman (2009). George Washington at

Head Quarters, Dobbs Ferry": July 4 to August 19, 1781.
iUniverse. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-4401-5141-5.

[22] Elson, Henry William (1904). History of the United States

of America. The MacMillan Company. pp. 280283.
Retrieved October 27, 2008.
[23] McGuire, p. 69
[24] Everest, p. 58
[25] Delaware State Marker. Archived from the original
on December 15, 2006. Retrieved November 6, 2007.
[26] Laurens, Henry (1778). Letter to Jonathan Trumbull,
Sr., January 5, 1778. Letters of Delegates to Congress:
Volume September 8, 19, 1777 January 31, 1778. Retrieved October 27, 2008.

[51] Part XIV Washington's Intentions and Plans. The Virginia Campaign and the Blockade and Siege of Yorktown
1781. United States Army Center of Military History.
Archived from the original on 14 December 2007. Retrieved November 6, 2007.
[52] Methodology. The Washington Rochambeau Revolutionary Route in the State of New York, 17811782.
Hudson River Valley Institute. Archived from the original
on September 28, 2007. Retrieved October 23, 2008.
[53] The Military Career of Capt. Anthony Selin By Steve
Collward. Archived from the original on 4 November
2007. Retrieved November 6, 2007.

[27] Marshall, John (1846). The Life of George Washington,

Vol. 2 (of 5). Crissy and Markley.

[54] Everest, p. 94

[28] Everest, pp. 5758

[55] History of the W3R (17801783) and Modern Tour

Routes along the W3R. Archived from the original on
June 10, 2007. Retrieved November 6, 2007.

[29] Everest, p. 60
[30] Everest, p. 61
[31] Everest, p. 64
[32] Putnam State Park. State of Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved November
6, 2007.
[33] Everest, p. 70
[34] Everest, pp. 7073

[56] Everest, p. 95
[57] Balch, Thomas Willing (1891). The French in America:
during the war of independence of the United States, 1777
1783. Porter & Coates. p. 202.
[58] Everest, p. 97
[59] Winsor, Justin (1887). Narrative and Critical History of
America, vol 6 part 2. Houghton, Miin and company. p.
744.

[35] Hammond, Isaac Weare (1889). Transcripts from ancient documents in the English archives in London. P. B.
Cogswell. p. 345.

[60] Washington, George (1782). Letter to Brigadier General Moses Hazen, May 3, 1782. Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library. Retrieved October 26,
2008.

[36] Everest, p. 74

[61] Everest, pp. 103104

[37] Everest, p. 75
[38] Everest, p. 76
[39] Thatcher, James (1862). Military journal of the American
revolution. Hurlbut, Williams & Company. p. 188.

[62] Everest, p. 101

[63] Everest, p. 112
[64] Everest, Allan. Biography of Moses Hazen. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Retrieved October
27, 2010.

26

5.11 References
Everest, Allan Seymour (1977). Moses Hazen and
the Canadian Refugees in the American Revolution. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-81560129-6.
Linn, John Blair (ed); Egle, William H (1895).
Pennsylvania in the War of the Revolution, Battalions
and Line, 17751783, volume 2. State of Pennsylvania. OCLC 9287105. This work includes a list of
the regiment's ocers and enlistees from Pennsylvania.
McGuire, Thomas (2007). The Philadelphia Campaign: Germantown and the Roads to Valley Forge.
Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 9780-8117-0178-5.

5.12 External links

2nd Canadian Regiment military actions
Brandywine Battleeld Tour
Putnam State Park
Morristown National Historical Park
Yorktown Battleeld
Bibliography of Continental Army (Canada)
The movements of Hazen's Regiment August 18
26, 1781
'FOR MARS AND HEARTH': The 1st and 2nd
Canadian Regiments of Washingtons Army

CHAPTER 5. 2ND CANADIAN REGIMENT

Chapter 6

32 Battalion (South Africa)

This article is about a South African military unit. For
other uses, see 32 Battalion (disambiguation).
The Terrible Onesredirects here. For the novel in the
Nick Carter-Killmaster series, see The Terrible Ones
(novel).
32 Battalion (sometimes nicknamed Bualo Battalion
or Portuguese: Os Terrveis for The Terrible Ones)
was a light infantry battalion of the South African
Army founded in 1975, composed of black and white
commissioned and enlisted personnel. It was disbanded
on 26 March 1993.* [1]* :280

6.1 History
6.1.1

Military refugees

After the victory of the Movimento Popular de Libertao de Angola (MPLA) in the Angolan War of Indepen- 32 Battalion uniforms. Members of the unit often impersonated
dence in 1975, many troops of its main rival, the Frente Angolan security forces.
Nacional de Libertao de Angola (National Liberation
Front of Angola, FNLA), found refuge in the then South
African-controlled South West Africa.* [2]

6.1.2

Formation of Bravo Group

From these troops, Colonel Jan Breytenbach together

with Commandant Sybie van der Spuy formed a unit that
was initially known as Bravo Group but later renamed
32 Battalion. Initially, Bravo Group consisted of two infantry companies, a mortar platoon, an anti-tank section
and a machine gun platoon, but 32 Battalion was nally
expanded to seven infantry companies, a recce wing, and
a support company consisting of 81 mm mortar, anti-tank
and machine gun sections.
27

28

6.1.3

CHAPTER 6. 32 BATTALION (SOUTH AFRICA)

Redeployed as the SADF

Unlike other South African Defence Forces (SADF)

units, 32 Battalion was mainly deployed in southern
Angola, acting as a buer between the SADF's regular
forces and its socialist enemies. The unit was also used
to assist the anti-communist movement of the National
Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA).
Although it was mainly used as a counter-insurgency force
it was eventually also used as a semi-conventional force,
especially during the later phases of the war particularly
at the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.

The guys who did so much dying and

ghting for this country were just sort of
disbanded on the spur of the moment. It just
isn't right. I think it is terrible. I think they
were betrayed, quite honestly.* [7]
Colonel Jan Breytenbach

Many members of the unit later helped to found or joined

private military companies such as Executive Outcomes
and Sandline International, which ironically fought on the
side of the Angolan government against UNITA.

The battalion consisted of around 600 riemen and NCOs

(non-commissioned ocers) (mostly Angolan nationals
associated with the former FNLA) and mainly South
African ocers, although commissioned military personnel from countries such as Australia, Rhodesia, Portugal
and the United States were active with the battalion, especially in its early stages. As time progressed a number
of SNCOs (senior non-commissioned ocers sergeants
and above), distinguished themselves and were commissioned.* [3]

6.1.4

Namibian Independence

After Namibian independence in 1989, the unit was withdrawn to South Africa where it was used in a counterinsurgency role and later also in the South African
townships. At the end of its era in Namibia, the unit had
developed into a conventional battle group. Apart from
the infantry companies and the recce company, the bat- SADF 32 Battalion commemorative medallion
talion was strengthened by a battery of 120 mm mortars,
a squadron of Ratel ZT-3 and 90 mm tank destroyers and
a troop of 20 mm anti-aircraft guns mounted on Buel 6.1.7 Equatorial Guinea coup
infantry vehicles. Although the main bulk of the battalion was based at Bualo on the banks of the Okavango
Some of the participants in the alleged 2004 EquatoRiver, the HQ was in Rundu, 200 km to the east.
rial Guinea coup d'tat attempt were former members
of 32 Battalion.* [8]* [9] Because they were arrested in
Zimbabwe, it is not clear whether any of those arrested
6.1.5 The Phola Park Incident
had full knowledge of their nal destination or the alleged
coup d'tat.* [10]
On 8 April 1992 members of 32 Battalion were involved
in an incident in Phola Park, Gauteng where members
of the public were shot and killed.* [4] The incident drew
6.2 Decorations
widespread criticism, specically from the African National Congress (ANC)* [5] and prompted the Minister
of Defence to request an investigation by the Goldstone The battalion was one of the most decorated units during
the South African Border War, with a total of 13 Honoris
Commission.
Crux medals for bravery awarded to its members, second
only to the South African Special Forces Brigade, whose
members were awarded 46 Honoris Crux medals during
6.1.6 Disbanded
the same period.
As one of the results of the negotiations between the
List of 32 Battalion recipients of the
National Party and the ANC, the unit was disbanded in Honoris Crux* [1]* :8588
March 1993 and its members were retired to the town of Main article: Honoris Crux (1975)
Pomfret, South Africa.* [6]

6.4. ROLL OF HONOUR

29

Lieutenant Connie van Wyk

1980: Braz,S.D., Sgt * [11]* :1713* [lower-alpha 1]

Sergeant Danny Roxo

1978: Britz,R.N., 2Lt * [11]* :162

Warrant Ocer 2 Willy Ward

1987: Cassela,D., Rfn * [11]* :200* [lower-alpha 1]

Major Eddie Viljoen

1985: Chihamba,J.C., Rfn * [11]* :206* [lower-alpha

1]

Lance Corporal Feliciano Costa

Corporal Eduardo Joo

1980: Chipa ,A.F., Rfn * [11]* :36617

Second Lieutenant Petrus Nel

1985: Chipoya,Z., Rfn * [11]* :208* [lower-alpha 1]

Corporal Victor Dracula

1980: Coetzee,M.C., Cpl * [11]* :1722* [lower-alpha

1]

Rieman Bernardo Domingos

Major Hannes Nortmann

1979: Coetzee,S.W., 2Lt * [11]* :237* [lower-alpha

1]

Sergeant Rihan Rupping

1982: Conroy,J., Sgt * [11]* :248

Captain Petrus van Zyl Operation Modular

1983: Da Silva,G.P., Rfn * [11]* :274* [lower-alpha

1]

Lieutenant Tobias de Vos Operation Modular

1984: Da Silva,L.A., Rfn * [11]* :275

6.3 In ction

1982: Dala,F., Rfn * [11]* :276

In the lm Blood Diamond, Leonardo DiCaprio's

Rhodesian characterDanny Archerwas a former member of 32 Battalion.

6.4 Roll of Honour

1980: Alberto,R., Rfn* [11]* :1763* [lower-alpha 1]

1987: Dala,G., Rfn * [11]* :277* [lower-alpha 1]

1984: Dala,J., Rfn * [11]* :278* [lower-alpha 1]
1985: De Almeida,A., Rfn * [11]* :289* [lower-alpha
1]
1987: De Klerk,M.M., L-Cpl * [11]* :310* [loweralpha 1]

1980: Albino,B., Rfn * [11]* :1767* [lower-alpha 1]

1979: De Vos,W.A., 2Lt * [11]* :332* [lower-alpha

1]

1980: Almeido,P., Rfn * [11]* :1764

1982: Denge,D.D., Rfn * [11]* :345* [lower-alpha 1]

1987: Alves,J.R., 2Lt * [11]* :10* [lower-alpha 1]

1983: Du Randt,G.H., Sgt * [11]* :388* [lower-alpha

1]

1980: Angelo,S., Rfn * [11]* :1765* [lower-alpha 1]

1984: Antonio,D., Rfn * [11]* :15

1985: Dumbe,L., L-Cpl * [11]* :404* [lower-alpha 1]

1987: Antonio,G., Rfn * [11]* :16* [lower-alpha 1]

1980: Engelbrecht,E.C., Cpl * [11]* :1724* [loweralpha 1]

1985: Antonio,P., Rfn * [11]* :18* [lower-alpha 1]

1984: Antonio,D., Rfn * [11]* :36058
1983: Augusto,J., Rfn * [11]* :30
1980: Augusto,M., Rfn [11] :1766 [lower-alpha
1]
*

1984: Aurelio,A., Cpl [11] :31 [lower-alpha 1]

*

1980: Erasmus,A., Capt * [11]* :1698* [lower-alpha

1]
1980: Falkus,A.J., L-Cpl * [11]* :1735* [lower-alpha
1]
1985: Fernando,J., Rfn * [11]* :450* [lower-alpha 1]

1982: Bambi,M., Rfn [11] :41 [lower-alpha 1]

1980: Francisco,J., Cpl * [11]* :1726* [lower-alpha

1]

1982: Baptist,J., Rfn * [11]* :32

1991: Geldenhuys,H.M., Maj * [11]* :491

1987: Batisda,A.N.D., Cpl * [11]* :56* [lower-alpha

1]

1980: Gericke,B.Z., Sgt * [11]* :1714* [lower-alpha

1]

30

CHAPTER 6. 32 BATTALION (SOUTH AFRICA)

1980: Grobler,D.H., Cpl * [11]* :1727* [lower-alpha

1]

1978: Opperman,A.L., 2Lt * [11]* :1097* [loweralpha 1]

1985: Jamba,J.E., Rfn * [11]* :629* [lower-alpha 1]

1980: Patrick,T.S., 2Lt * [11]* :1708* [lower-alpha

1]

1987: Joao,E., L-Cpl * [11]* :642* [lower-alpha 1]

1984: Paulo,C., Cpl * [11]* :36643

1982: Joao,Y., Cpl [11] :643 [lower-alpha 1]

1977: Pedro,R., Rfn * [11]* :36620

1985: Joaquim,M., Rfn * [11]* :644* [lower-alpha 1]

1986: Pedro,V.R., Cpl * [11]* :1125

1981: Jose,A., Wrn * [11]* :1892

1985: Sachilombo,J.A., L-Cpl * [11]* :1246* [loweralpha 1]

1982: Jose,M., Cpl * [11]* :659* [lower-alpha 1]

1980: Sophia,E., L-Cpl * [11]* :1744

1985: Kahete,P.K., Rfn [11] :669 [lower-alpha 1]

*

1982: Stewart,P.T., Cpl * [11]* :1346* [lower-alpha

1]

1985: Kalonga,K., Rfn [11] :486 [lower-alpha 1]

*

1987: Kapepura,E.N., Rfn * [11]* :673* [lower-alpha

1]

1988: Stoop,S.P., Gnr * [11]* :1357

1987: Kapinga,P., Rfn * [11]* :674* [lower-alpha 1]

1987: Tchipango,W., L-Cpl * [11]* :1400* [loweralpha 1]

1976: Swart,C.J., 2Lt * [11]* :1380* [lower-alpha 1]

1983: Kasera,E., Rfn * [11]* :677* [lower-alpha 1]

1978: Theron,C.J., Sgt * [11]* :1410* [lower-alpha 1]

1983: Kativa,J.D., Rfn [11] :679

*

1987: Tolosi,K., Rfn * [11]* :1430* [lower-alpha 1]

1977: Keulder,G., 2Lt * [11]* :688* [lower-alpha 1]

1985: Van der Vyver,J.A., Maj * [11]* :1566

1988: Kibanguka ,N., Sgt * [11]* :36618

1980: Van Der Walt,P., 2Lt * [11]* :1710* [loweralpha 1]

1985: Kinguelele,M.A., L-Cpl * [11]* :703* [loweralpha 1]

1975: Van Der Walt,P.J., Rfn * [11]* :1459

1980: Van Wyk,M., Cpl * [11]* :1732* [lower-alpha
1]

1987: Kuyler,M.J., Tpr * [11]* :762* [lower-alpha 1]

1981: Lahner,D.F., 2Lt * [11]* :2088

1979: Victor,D.J., Rfn * [11]* :1598* [lower-alpha 1]

1985: Light,D.G., Lt [11] :815 [lower-alpha 1]

*

1980: Yenga,M., Rfn * [11]* :1857* [lower-alpha 1]

1984: Malongo,I., Rfn * [11]* :877* [lower-alpha 1]

1987: Mananza,J.R., L-Cpl
alpha 1]

[11]* :878* [lower-

1983: Mande,A., Cpl * [11]* :879* [lower-alpha 1]

1982: Manuel,A.P., Rfn * [11]* :884
1977: Maquinda,J.M., Rfn * [11]* :36619

6.5 Leadership
*

[12]

6.6 Insignia

1987: McCallum,A.D., Capt * [11]* :934* [lower- 6.6.1

alpha 1]
1987: Meyer,J.R., Tpr * [11]* :956* [lower-alpha 1]

Dress Insignia

6.7 See also

1985: Muema,M., Rfn * [11]* :1004* [lower-alpha 1]

32 Battalion (Book) (by Piet Nortje, 2004)

1980: Muller,C. de J., Lt * [11]* :1702* [lower-alpha

1]

South African Special Forces Brigade (Recces)

1983: Nambi,J., Rfn [11] :1026 [lower-alpha 1]

Operation Savannah

1988: Ndinu,A., Rfn [11] :1032 [lower-alpha 1]

2004 Equatorial Guinea coup d'tat attempt

1982: Nel,P.J.S., 2Lt * [11]* :1046* [lower-alpha 1]

Executive Outcomes

List of operations of the South African Border War

6.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

6.8 Notes
[1] This person is marked on the Fort Klapperkop Memorial
wall with an * as having died during operations or in combat.

6.9 References
[1] Nortje, Piet (2003). 32 Battalion. Zebra Press. ISBN
978-1-86872-914-2.
[2] De Lancey, Blaine (November 1992). "meanwhile, in
South Africa, the bloody capitalist-apartheid regime remains". Syracuse University. Archived from the original on February 1, 2008. Retrieved 2015-12-10.
[3] International Defence and Aid Fund, January 1982
[4] An interm report on the conduct of members of 32 Battalion at Phola Park on 8 April 1992 (PDF). Goldstone
Commission of Inquiry Regarding the prevention of Public Violence and Intimidation. Human Rights Institute of
South Africa. 1992-06-10. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
[5] Statement on Battalion 32's rampage through Phola
Park. Department of Information and Publicity. 199204-10. Archived from the original on July 8, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
[6] South Africa - Pomfret. Retrieved 2007-01-03.
[7] Bualo Soldiers. Carte Blanche. 2003-11-16. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
[8] Terblanche, Christelle; Peter Fabricus (2004-03-14).
Koevoet, 32 battalion and the coup plot.... Independent Online. Retrieved 2008-10-25.
[9] Timberg, Craig (2004-09-25). African Coup Plot
Leaves Kin Bereft. Washington Post Foreign Service.
Retrieved 2008-12-01.
[10] Once Upon a Coup, PBS Documentary, August
2009,
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/
once-upon-a-coup/full-episode/?p=5496
[11] Dovey, John. SA Roll of Honour: 32 (Bualo) Battalion. justdone.co.za. Just Done Productions Publishing.
Retrieved 7 February 2015.
[12] TRC Final Report. SABC. Retrieved 10 March 2015.

6.10 External links

Ocial Website of the 32Bn VA
The Terrible Ones
South African Special Forces League
SA Roll of Honour Database
To the Bush and Back by Nico van der Walt

31

Chapter 7

7 Independent Company (Rhodesia)

7 Independent Company (7 Indep Coy; French: 7me
Compagnie indpendante) was a short-lived company of
francophone volunteers in the Rhodesian Army during
the Rhodesian Bush War. Numbering about 200 men
at its peak, it was unique in the history of the Rhodesian Army as an exclusively expatriate unit. It existed
between November 1977 and May 1978 as a company
in the 1st Battalion, the Rhodesia Regiment, and served
two counter-insurgency tours on Operation Hurricane in
north-eastern Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe).

1978. Forces led by one of its members, Bob Denard,

later that month executed a coup d'tat in the Comoros
with French, Rhodesian and South African governmental
support.

7.1 Background
Main article: Rhodesian Bush War
Following a dispute with the British government re-

During the Bush War, the Rhodesian Army augmented

its ranks with foreign volunteers, who were accepted into
regular regiments with the same pay and conditions of
service as locals. Most foreign recruits enlisted in the
Rhodesian Light Infantry (RLI), which launched an overseas recruitment programme in 1974, but required successful applicants to speak good English. The Army attempted to alleviate the strain on its troops during late
1977 by recruiting French-speakers as well, and formed a
designated company in the Rhodesia Regiment for them.
The regiment already had six independent companies, so
the francophone unit became 7 Independent Company.
The company's men, a mixture of former French paratroopers, ex-Foreign Legionnaires and young adventurers, had trouble from the start integrating with the Rhodesian forces, and became unsettled by the respective ranks
they were given in the Rhodesian Army. In an attempt to
raise their morale and create a strong esprit de corps, the
Army issued them beret insignias backed with the French
tricolour and allowed them to raise the ag of France
alongside that of Rhodesia each morning. Apparently under the impression that they had signed up as highly paid
mercenaries, many of the French troopers returned home
after their rst bush trip, unhappy to have received no
more money than a regular Rhodesian soldier.
On operations their performance was generally below par,
but the Frenchmen were involved in some successful actions during February and early March 1978. Their oppressive treatment of the black villagers they encountered
made them very unpopular in the operational area. The
Rhodesians quickly deemed the experiment a failure and
following a series of disasters for the company during the
latter part of its second tour, including two friendly re
incidents and several fatalities, it was disbanded in May

The Rhodesian Security Forces dened seven operational areas

across the country during the 1970s, starting with Operation Hurricane in December 1972.* [2]* [3]

garding terms for the granting of full independence, the

predominantly white minority government of the selfgoverning colony of Rhodesia (or Southern Rhodesia),
led by Ian Smith, unilaterally declared independence
on 11 November 1965. Britain and the United Nations refused to recognise this and each imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia.* [4] Meanwhile, the country's two most prominent communist-backed black nationalist groups, the Zimbabwe African National Union
and the Zimbabwe African People's Union, mobilised
their respective guerrilla armies, the Zimbabwe African
National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe
People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), for what they

32

7.2. FORMATION AND TRAINING

33

called the Second Chimurenga", with the goal of over- Recruitment was carried out by a former French parathrowing the government and introducing black majority trooper, Roger Bruni, operating from an apartment on
rule.* [5]* [6]
Rue Bachaumont in central Paris.* [17] Advertisements,
The Rhodesian Bush War was the result, beginning in placed in newspapers such as France Soir, oereda job
earnest on 21 December 1972 when ZANLA attacked with a future abroad ... minimum* age 22, former nonAltena and Whistleeld Farms near Centenary in the commissioned ocers preferred. [18] The body of men
country's north-east.* [6] The Rhodesian Security Forces eventually assembled varied widely in terms of age, backexlaunched Operation Hurricane in response and fought ground and experience, but was based largely around
paratroopers and former Foreign Legionnaires.* [19] The
back strongly, reducing the number of guerrillas active
*
within the country to under 300 by December 1974.* [7] average age was about 25. [20] French-speaking veterans
of an assortment of African and Middle Eastern conicts
In the period OctoberNovember 1974, they killed more
nationalist ghters than in the previous two years com- spanning the previous two decades successfully applied,
but past service did not prove a necessity; some of the
bined.* [8] However, a South African-brokered ceasere, which the security forces respected and the insur- men accepted had no military experience. *Most of them
spoke English only at a basic level if at all. [16]
gents ignored,* [9] helped the nationalists to win back
*
ground. [9] By 1977 there were 2,500 guerrillas operating in Rhodesia, with several times that number in training abroad.* [10]
The Rhodesian Army, though mostly made up of local
men, also included some foreign volunteers, who were
integrated into regular units under the same salary and
conditions of service.* [11] Almost all of the foreigners
served in the Rhodesian Light Infantry (RLI), a heliborne
commando battalion with a glamorous international reputation.* [12] The RLI initiated a major overseas recruitment drive in 1974, targeting potential volunteers from
Europe, Oceania and the Americas,* [13] and requiring
successful applicants to speak good English. This campaign was bearing considerable fruit by May 1976, when
the RLI's largest ever intake included more foreign volunteers than any before, and the enlisting of men from
overseas into the RLI would increase yet further.* [14] The unit was allowed to y the French tricolour (pictured) at its
By 197778 there were around 1,500 foreigners in the camp alongside the ag of Rhodesia.
Rhodesian forces.* [15] However, the Rhodesian Army
remained stretched and low on manpower.* [16]
Once signed up, each man was instructed to travel to
Switzerland, where appropriate visas were swiftly procured from the South African Embassy. In early November 1977, the French recruits ew from Zurich to Jo7.2 Formation and training
hannesburg on a South African Airways liner, then
to Salisbury by Air Rhodesia.* [20] Already in RhodeThe idea for a francophone unit came from a French sia waiting for the men were their leaders: Major
national, Franois Cramer, who had business interests Roland de l'Assomption, an ex-ocer of the French
and connections in Rhodesia. He proposed it to Major- Army's crack 11th Shock Parachute Regiment, and a forof the Gabonese President Omar Bongo's
General Sandy MacLean, then the Rhodesian Army's mer ocer
*
*
[17]
[21] and Major Mario La Viola, once a
guard;
second-in-command, while they were visiting France tonon-commissioned
ocer in the Foreign Legion's 2nd
gether. MacLean relayed the idea to the General Sta in
*
[20]* [21] Beneath them were the
Parachute
Regiment.
Salisbury, which decided in late 1977 to form aFrench
battalion" to alleviate the strain on its regular units. A Antillean Captain Toumi, who became the rst black ofRhodesian Army as the unit's secondRhodesian ocer of French extraction, Cyril Bernard, cer in the regular
*
in-command,
[20]
and ColonelBob Denard, an inwarned his superiors strongly against the scheme, but
famous
French
soldier
of fortune nicknamed le chien de
was ultimately himself sent to France to start the project.
*
[22]
guerre"the
dog
of
war.
On the way he stopped in Zurich, Switzerland, where
MacLean gave him nal approval for the operation and
a budget of US$30,000. They resolved to recruit mainly
in Paris and Lyon. Bernard then entered France and renewed old connections from the French military academy
at Saint-Cyr.* [15]

According to an anonymous veteran of the unit, it

mostly comprised recently discharged servicemen from
the French forces who were having trouble adapting to
civilian life. They didn't know how to do anything
else, only how to jump with a parachute and obey or-

34

CHAPTER 7. 7 INDEPENDENT COMPANY (RHODESIA)

ders,he explained,and they liked that kind of thing.

*
[20] Others, he said, were members of the political far
right who had joined up to kill commies and blacks
,* [20] and some were criminals hoping to escape the attention of the French police.* [20] Each signed on for two
years.* [23] The French-speaking unit was placed in the
Rhodesia Regiment (RR) as anindependent company.
The RR already had six of these (made up of Rhodesians),
so the Frenchmen became 7 Independent Company.* [15]

jarred strongly with that of their Rhodesian commanders,

who had high standards regarding presentation and dress
which many of the Frenchmen had little inclination to
meet.* [26]

7.3 Service
7.3.1 First bush trip

The Rhodesian Army sought to forge a strong esprit

de corps among the new recruits, and to this end extended them several sentimental allowances: for example,
morale amongst the Frenchmen rose when they were informed that the Rhodesian insignia on their berets would
be backed with the French tricolour.* [16] In a similar
vein, their request for permission to raise the ag of
France alongside that of Rhodesia outside their headquarters each morning was approved.* [24] French-speaking
men already in the army were attached to the unit to act
as interpreters and assist with coordination and tactical
instruction.* [23] Some of these were Mauritians, who by
virtue of their upbringing spoke both English and French
at a native-like level.* [25] The company itself, which
numbered about 200 men, was assigned headquarters
near Salisbury at Cranborne Barracks, the home of the
Rhodesian Light Infantry. It was organised in the same
manner as a standard Rhodesian independent company,
7 Independent Company was posted to north-eastern Rhodesia
the only exception being its exclusively francophone perrst to Rusambo, then to Marymount.
*
sonnel. [15]
You may be engaged in the Rhodesian Army today, but The francophone company was rst deployed out of its
you are Frenchmen, and in a war against international barracks in late November 1977, when it was sent to
Bindura, about 88 kilometres (55 mi) north-east from
communism. You are here for France.
Salisbury, for a few days in the bush on Operation

Hurricane, the Army's operational area which covered

Rhodesia's north-east against guerrilla activity. After

this passed without major incident, the Frenchmen were
Major La Viola addresses the French company, November despatched to Rusambo, a camp in the Chimanda Tribal
1977* [20]
Trust Lands, near Rushinga, about 250 kilometres (160
Spirits were high during the unit's brief training period mi) north-east from the capital and less than 20 kilomeMost
as the men enjoyed playing sports, observing the coun- tres (12 mi) from the border with Mozambique.
*
insurgents
in
this
area
belonged
to
ZANLA.
[16]
try scenery and experiencing the night-life of the nearby
capital.* [26] They were not adequately trained, receiving only a basic medical examination, a few days' tness
training and a cursory explanation of proper conduct in
the bush. They expressed surprise when instructed to
paint stripes of camouage green on their weapons and
combat boots in the Rhodesian fashion, having never before heard of such a practice.* [25]

A company of men from the Territorial Force was already

stationed at Rusambo, advised by a team of intelligence
ocers. Sticksof four men (three FN FAL riemen
and an MAG gunner) would be sent out into the bush
from Rusambo for periods of up to two weeks, equipped
with a radio to communicate with the base. Their task
while in action was to seek out guerrillas by means of
patrolling, ambushing and operating observation and listening posts. Once a group of insurgents was spotted, the
stick leader would report their positions; Rusambo would
then alert the Army and request a Fireforce. If Fireforce
were available, it would arrive and engage the cadres; if
not, the stick in the eld would have to handle the situation itself.* [16]

The rst dent to morale came after about a week when the
volunteers were rst issued ranks in the Rhodesian Army.
In the eyes of some of the French-speaking soldiers, the
ranks assigned appeared to have been chosen almost at
random by their superiors, and did not reect their actual respective levels of training, ability and experience.
Some men who considered themselves to have been overlooked began to have problems with discipline.* [16]* [20] At rst, men from 7 Independent Company were sent out
The brazen attitude of most of the company's soldiers in sticks mixed with the Territorials, but problems soon

7.3. SERVICE
arose regarding proper regimen and the language barrier.
When the Frenchmen were then sent out alone, their Land
Rovers prominently ying the French ag, the issue of
language was resolved, but that of indiscipline remained.
Though discretion was paramount if they were to observe
enemy movements covertly and eectively, the men of
7 Independent Company were found to have diculty
maintaining this and sometimes made careless mistakes
which risked revealing their presence.* [16] Moreover,
when investigations were made of local kraals, marked
tension soon arose between the Frenchmen and the local black population; the soldiers' ignorance of English
or Shona made it very dicult for discussions to take
place and, according to other Rhodesian units who came
into contact with them, the French soldiers took out their
frustration on the villagers, often using excessive force
in their attempted interrogations. Nyamahoboko Police
Station received a report of a 7 Independent Company
man raping a young tribeswoman in a dense thicket, but
did not act on it.* [27] According to one history of the
Rhodesia Regiment, it was indicated that the Frenchmen had received instruction that all black people were
to be regarded as terrorists.* [15]
The Rhodesian Army quickly deemed the French experiment a failure.* [15] It reassigned 7 Independent Company in late November to Marymount Mission, a small
settlement to the east of Rusambo where there was a minor police station. The number of patrols they would
embark on was reduced. Two of the company's vehicles were ambushed by cadres between Marymount and
Rusambo on 6 January 1978, resulting in two men being
injured, one fatally so. A week later another truck was
surprised on the same bush road, resulting in one death
and three serious casualties. The company was brought
back from the bush four days later for rest and recuperation (R&R) in Salisbury.* [16]

7.3.2

Strike

During their 15-day rest periods the company's men congregated around the Belgian-owned Elizabeth Hotel, in
the centre of the city at the corner of Causeway and
Manica Road.* [28] Many of them became seriously disaected when they rst received their salary from the
Rhodesian Army. Having apparently been misled about
wages of up to R$1,000 per month (7,000) by the
French recruiters, they were surprised to nd that their
basic monthly pay was actually R$245 (1,800), the
same as a regular Rhodesian soldier. Moreover, some
were upset that they had been paid in Rhodesian dollars, which because of the country's international isolation could not easily be exchanged for foreign currencies.* [18] Although it was not as much as they had been
expecting, one disenchanted veteran of the unit afterwards admitted that the tax-exempt R$245 wage, which
came with a $10 special-unit supplement, was still more
than enough money for them to live comfortably in Salis-

35
bury during their time o.* [28]
The pay dispute split the unit. About two thirds went
on strike, saying they would not return to action unless the Army upped their wages and paid them in foreign currency.* [16] Meanwhile, some of the more contented Frenchmen made steps to remain permanently,
buying cars and having their wives join them in Salisbury.* [28] The Army detained the strike's ringleaders for
insubordination. With neither side willing to budge
the Army refused to give the strikers extra pay or special
treatment, saying this would contravene Rhodesia's policy not to engage mercenariesthe disaected men were
repatriated to France at their own request. The Rhodesian
Army considered disbanding the unit altogether, but persevered when Major de l'Assomption convinced his superiors that his remaining men were still loyal and eager
to continue serving.* [16]

7.3.3 Second bush trip; dissolution

Starting on 11 February 1978, 7 Independent Company
spent half a week at Mount Darwin, where there was a
major Army base. The company acquitted themselves
well during this time, but one of their number was badly
injured in a motor accident. They returned to Rusambo,
where the camp was now manned by the British South
Africa Police (BSAP), Criminal Investigation Department and Special Branch, guarded by a group of Coloured
and Indian-Rhodesian soldiers. On 26 February, the
Frenchmen spotted a group of seven cadres indoctrinating tribespeople at a local kraal, and called up Fireforce.
The RLI men who arrived killed four of the seven, including one carrying detailed documents. The next day
7 Independent Company observed 11 guerrillas entering
another kraal, but this time the Fireforce took too long to
arrive. The French company took part in a large contact
on 1 March, ghting alongside an RLI Fireforce against
28 cadres; 18 insurgents were killed in this contact without loss for the Rhodesian Army.* [26]
Soon after this, two sticks from 7 Independent Company
were despatched to Marymount, led by a deputy intelligence ocer who began sending them out on more regular night patrols. The following months were a disaster for the locally based Rhodesian forces; rst one stick
red on another, causing an injury, then a BSAP Land
Rover hit a mine, killing two members of the French
company. A further Frenchman died in an ambush by insurgents before another friendly re incident on 19 April
1978 resulted in a fatality. On several occasions during
this bush trip the area was frozen"; regular army units
were conned to their camps while the Selous Scouts operated against the guerrillas. With morale amongst the
Frenchmen plummeting, bringing their unit close to collapse, its ocers at Rusambo frantically worked to keep
it together. The company did not last much longer once
back in Salisbury for R&R. Soon after three of its troopers were placed in detention at Llewellin Barracks, the

36

CHAPTER 7. 7 INDEPENDENT COMPANY (RHODESIA)

unit was formally dissolved in May 1978. The only personnel retained by the Army were the interpreters, who
were returned to their former units.* [26]

[4] Wood 2008, pp. 18

7.4 Legacy

[6] Binda 2008, pp. 133136

[5]Chimurenga war communiqu No. 8. Period from 30

Jan to 20 March 1974. Lusaka: Zimbabwe African National Union. 27 March 1974.

[7] Binda 2008, p. 166

[8] Martin & Johnson 1981, p. 161
[9] Cilliers 1984, pp. 2224
[10] Thompson 1991, p. 158
[11] Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2008, p. 52
[12] Abbott & Botham 1986, p. 17
[13] Binda 2008, p. 481
[14] Binda 2008, pp. 186188
Rhodesia (green) and the Comoros (red)

Supported by the French, Rhodesian and South African

governments and with Rhodesian logistical assistance,* [29]* [30] forces led by Denard took part in a
coup d'tat in the Comoros later in May, toppling Ali
Soilih (who Denard had himself put into power three
years earlier).* [22]* [31] The Comoros subsequently
became a key location for Rhodesiansanction-busting
operations, providing a convenient end-user certicate
for clandestine shipments of weapons and equipment
bound for Rhodesia in spite of the UN embargo.* [29]
South Africa, also under a UN arms boycott because of
apartheid, received war materiel through the Comoros in
a similar fashion.* [30]
Some 7 Independent Company men became civilians in
Rhodesia, which was reconstituted as Zimbabwe in 1980.
Two of them, Gervais Henri Alfred Boutanquoi and Simon Marc Chemouil (both former Foreign Legionnaires),
were executed in April 1983, despite a late plea from
French authorities for clemency,* [32] having been found
guilty of robbing and murdering Richard Kraft, a Karoi
caf owner.* [27] Witness Mangwende, the Zimbabwean
Minister of Foreign Aairs, issued a statement clarifying
that the execution was for the murder and unrelated to
their earlier service as mercenaries during the time of
the Smith regime.* [27]

[15] Baxter, Bomford & van Tonder 2014, p. 340

[16] Montfort September 1987
[17] Malley 1984, p. lxxii
[18] Backmann 1978, p. 65
[19] Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2008, pp. 5354
[20] Backmann 1978, p. 66
[21] Baxter, Bomford & van Tonder 2014, p. 560
[22] Le Figaro 2007, BBC 2007
[23] Ellert 1989, p. 130
[24] Venter 1979, p. 42
[25] Backmann 1978, p. 67
[26] Montfort October 1987
[27] Ellert 1989, p. 169
[28] Backmann 1978, p. 82
[29] Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2008, pp. 120121
[30] Bguin & Renou 2007
[31] Andrew et al. 2008, pp. 3031

7.5 Notes and references

[32] Straits Times 1983

References

Newspaper and journal articles

[1] Baxter, Bomford & van Tonder 2014, p. 479

[2] Abbott & Botham 1986, p. 7
[3] Cilliers 1984, p. 29

Backmann, Ren (3 July 1978). La Confession

d'un 'Chien de Guerre'" [The confession of a 'Dog
of War']. Le Nouvel Observateur (in French) (Paris):
6470, 8082.

7.5. NOTES AND REFERENCES

Bguin, Franois; Renou, Xavier (15 October
2007). "'Bob Denard a toujours agi pour le compte
de l'Etat franais'" ['Bob Denard always acted on behalf of the French State']. Le Monde (in French)
(Paris: La Vie-Le Monde). Retrieved 24 January
2012.
Montfort, Robert (September 1987). Micheletti,
Eric, ed. La Septime Compagnie indpendante:
les volontaires franais en Rhodsie[The Seventh
Independent Company: the French volunteers in
Rhodesia]. RAIDS (in French) (Paris: Histoire et
Collections) (16): 1620.
Montfort, Robert (October 1987). Micheletti, Eric,
ed. La Septime Compagnie indpendante: les
volontaires franais en Rhodsie (II)" [The Seventh
Independent Company: the French volunteers in
Rhodesia (part II)]. RAIDS (in French) (Paris: Histoire et Collections) (17): 2831.
Venter, A J (June 1979). Rhodesia's Tragic Terrorist War: The End is Near. Soldier of Fortune
(Bounder, Colorado: Omega Group): 3843.
Frenchmen hanged. The Straits Times (Kuala
Lumpur). 29 April 1983. p. 48. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
L'ancien mercenaire Bob Denard est mort[Former mercenary Bob Denard dies]. Le Figaro (in
French) (Paris). 14 October 2007. Retrieved 22
January 2012.
Obituary: Bob Denard. London: BBC. 14 October 2007. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
Bibliography
Abbott, Peter; Botham, Philip (June 1986). Modern
African Wars: Rhodesia, 196580. Oxford: Osprey
Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85045-728-5.
Andrew, David; Blond, Becca; Parkinson, Tom;
Anderson, Aaron (2008). Madagascar & Comoros
(Sixth ed.). Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 9781-74104-608-3.
Baxter, Peter; Bomford, Hugh; van Tonder, Gerry
(2014). Rhodesia Regiment, 18991981. Johannesburg: 30 South Publishers. ISBN 9781920143893.
Binda, Alexandre (May 2008). The Saints: The
Rhodesian Light Infantry. Johannesburg: 30 South
Publishers. ISBN 978-1-920143-07-7.
Cilliers, Jakkie (December 1984).
CounterInsurgency in Rhodesia. London, Sydney & Dover,
New Hampshire: Croom Helm. ISBN 978-0-70993412-7.

37
Ellert, H (1989). The Rhodesian front war: counterinsurgency and guerrilla war in Rhodesia, 1962
1980. Gweru: Mambo Press. ISBN 978-0-86922436-6.
Malley, Simon, ed. (1984). Afrique-Asie, Issues
311322 (in French). Paris: Socit d'ditions
Afrique, Asie, Amrique Latine. ISBN 978-14251-4807-2.
Martin, David; Johnson, Phyllis (July 1981). The
Struggle for Zimbabwe (First ed.). London: Faber
and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-11066-7.
Moorcraft, Paul L; McLaughlin, Peter (April 2008)
[1982]. The Rhodesian War: A Military History.
Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books. ISBN 978-184415-694-8.
Thompson, Leroy (October 1991). Dirty Wars: Elite
Forces vs the Guerrillas (First ed.). Newton Abbot:
David & Charles. ISBN 978-0-7153-9441-0.
Wood, J R T (April 2008). A matter of weeks rather
than months: The Impasse between Harold Wilson
and Ian Smith: Sanctions, Aborted Settlements and
War 19651969. Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4251-4807-2.

Chapter 8

Arab Liberation Army

The Arab Liberation Army (Arabic:
Jaysh al-Inqadh al-Arabi), also translated as Arab Salvation Army, was an army of volunteers from Arab countries led by Fawzi al-Qawuqji. It fought on the Arab side
in the 1948 Palestine war and was set up by the Arab
League as a counter to the Arab High Committee's Holy
War Army, though in fact the League and Arab governments prevented thousands from joining either force.* [1]
At the meeting in Damascus on 5 February 1948
to organize Palestinian Field Commands, Northern
Palestine was allocated to Qawuqji's forces, although the
West Bank was de facto already under the control of
Transjordan.* [2]
The target gure for recruitment was 10,000, but by midMarch 1948 the number of volunteers to have joined the
Army reached around 6,000 and did not increase much
beyond this gure. The actual number deployed might
have been as low as 3,500, according to General Safwat.
Its ranks included mainly Syrians, Lebanese, Palestinians
and a few hundreds of Iraqis, Transjordanians, Bosniaks,
Muslim Brothers from Egypt and Circassians. There
were also a few German, Turkish and British deserters.

8.1 Disposition and control of

forces

8.2 Syria's reasons for developing

the ALA
This section is sourced from Joshua Landis,
Syria and the 1948 War in Palestine.
Syrias reasons for building the Army of Liberation were
several. Syria's President Shukri al-Quwatli knew that the
Syrian Army was undependable and useless as an instrument of war; therefore, it was much safer for Syria to
inuence the situation in Palestine by building up a force
that was to be paid for and armed by all the Arab League
countries. Egypt was to pay for 42% of the costs, Syria
and Lebanon 23%, Saudi Arabia 20%, and Iraq the remaining 15%. Just as important as the nancial reasons
for building an Arab League force was the need to protect the Syrian army itself. By sending the volunteer army
into battle, Quwatli hope to spare Syria from exposing its
own troops to defeat, which could leave the country exposed to attack from Abdullah and possibly Jewish forces.
If the volunteer army were defeated, the loss and embarrassment would be borne by the Arab League in general
and the Palestinians in particular, not by Syria alone.
Another advantage to an irregular army was that it could
be sent into Palestine well before the British ocially
withdrew from their mandate on 15 May 1948. None of
the Arab states were willing to declare war openly on the
British. Thus, Syria would not ocially be opening hostilities against the British troops, who still bore responsibility for security in Palestine. Furthermore, if the Arab
countries failed to commit their armies to ght in Palestine a possibility which seemed likely as Egypt agreed
to participate only four days before the war began on 15
May 1948 the Syrian government would still be active. It would retain leverage in Palestine and be able
to tell the Syrian public that it had done more than the
other Arab countries to help the Palestinians. Most importantly, however, the ALA was to be used as an instrument to nip Abdullah's Greater Syria plan in the bud and
to keep him from expanding his state over half of Palestine.

The Arab League Military Committee, with headquarters in Damascus, was responsible for the movements and
servicing of the Army. The Committee consisted of General Ismail Safwat (Iraq, Commander-in-Chief), General
Taha al-Hashimi (Iraq), Colonel Shuqayri (Lebanon),
Colonel Muhammed al-Hindi (Syria) and Colonel Abd
al-Qadir al-Jundi (Transjordan). All of the countries represented related to King Abdullah's long-held plans to
re-form Greater Syria. This Greater Syria Plan (Mashru
Suriya al-Kubra) had been supported by the British Em- The evolution of President Quwatli's military objectives
pire throughout the thirties and forties.* [3]
in Palestine is recorded in the diaries of Taha al-Hashimi.
38

8.2. SYRIA'S REASONS FOR DEVELOPING THE ALA

Hashimi was an Iraqi pan-Arab nationalist and long-time
intimate of Quwatli, whom the Syrian president wanted
to head the Liberation Army rather than General Safwat,
Egypts candidate. Hashimi was ultimately appointed
Inspector General of the ALA and placed in charge of
recruitment and training of the troops at the Qatana headquarters. His oce was in the Syrian Ministry of Defense
and he met daily with Syrias political and military leaders. Hashimi records that in October 1947, shortly after
the UN Special Committee on Palestine recommended
partition as a solution and after Syria had failed to win
either Saudi Arabia or Egypt over to the idea of an antiHashemite military alliance, Quwatli explained:
The Greater Syria plan will start from the
Arab part of Palestine. Because of this I have
ordered the Syrian army to move to the Syrian
Palestinian border. The force which has taken
up position there is 2,500 men. Also Lebanon
will send 1000 men to its border. As soon
as the forces of Iraq and Jordan enter Palestine, we will enter and take al-Nasira and the
North.[fn]

39
ing the situation, with the help of the Arab governments. This is because I doubt in the unity
of the Arab armies and their ability to ght together....
If the Arab armies, not least of all the Syrian army, are hit with an overwhelming surprise attack by the Jewish Haganah, it would
lead to such a loss of reputation that the Arab
governments would never be able to recover.
The best thing is to leave the work to the
Palestinians and to supply them with the help
of the Arab governments. Ensuring an eective leadership in Palestine is of paramount importance and needs to be done with the greatest of haste. If the movement is destined to
failure, God forbid, then it will be the people
of Palestine who fail and not the Arab governments and their armies. So long as the position
of the Kings and Amirs is one of caution and
plots, this is the only sound policy.[fn]

As Mardam makes clear, he knew the Syrian army could

not withstand an attack by the Haganah; he knew his Arab
allies were undependable; and he did not want to risk the
Quwatlis strategy in Palestine was designed from the loss of reputationthat would inevitably ensue. That is
outset to prevent Abdullah's possible advance north to why he and Quwatli were determined to limit their own
Damascus. In the best case, Quwatli hoped to acquire involvement in Palestine to the ALA.
some of northern Palestine for Syria. A second reason When Hashimi spoke to the President a few days later
for Quwatli's hesitation to commit Syrian military troops about Mardam's plan, President Quwatli reiterated Marwas that he had failed in his early eorts to reform the dam's concern that the government could not withstand
army and questioned the loyalty and eectiveness of its the Syrian army's defeat in Palestine. As he had explained
leadership. Although the head of the military, General to Hashimi before, the real problem is with reforming
Abdullah Atfeh, swore to the Minister of Defense in May the Syrian army and solving the problem of its leader1947, that the Syrian army was the best of all the Arab ship."[59] Because of these concerns, he said, it is imarmies, the best army in the Middle East,the brigade perative that we restrict our eorts to the popular movecommanders scoed at this ridiculous assessment and ca- ment in Palestine. We must strengthen it and organize
bled the President to warn, that the army is not worth its aairs as quickly as possible. The trouble is that the
a red cent."[fn] Quwatli was fully aware of the problems Mufti [Hajj Amin al-Husayni] will not permit Fawzi alin his military. The real problem is to reform the Syr- Qawuqji to take the leadership in Palestine."[fn]
ian army and to solve the problem of its leadership,he
The next several weeks of intense negotiations between
conded to Taha al-Hashimi in September 1947.[fn]
Quwatli, the Mufti, Qawuqji and other Arab leaders over
Until the army could be strengthened, he hoped to keep it the question of who would direct the popular resistance in
out of the ghting. In its stead he built the Arab Libera- Palestine were a complete failure; agreement was impostion Army.It is imperative that we restrict our eorts to sible. The Mufti refused to hand control over to Qawuqji.
the popular movement in Palestine,Quwatli concluded. He claimed that Qawuqji would sellhimself to the
We must strengthen it and organize its aairs as quickly English, and added that,if Qawuqji accepted partition,
as possible."[fn] Prime Minister Jamil Mardam Bey gave [I] will kill him with [my] own hands."[fn] The Mufti ina lengthier explanation for why the Syrian army could not sisted that Palestine did not need the volunteer army and
be sent into Palestine in November 1947, and why a vol- that all money should be given directly to him.[fn] King
unteer army was needed.
Abdullah, in an eort to dismiss the Mufti, claimed he
could save Palestine on his own. Why don't the Arab
Because [the Arab governments are undecountries send their armies directly to [me]?" he inquired.
pendable], I have decided... on the necessity of
Meanwhile, Abdullah was arming his own supporters in
strengthening Palestine with arms and men and
Palestine who rejected both the Mufti and Qawuqji.[fn]
organizing their aairs and appointing a leader
As for King Faruq of Egypt, he wanted nothing to do with
to take charge of their matters. The popular
any of them. He said, The Arabs ought to get rid of all
movement in Palestine is responsible for savthree of them: the Mufti, Abdullah, and Qawuqji."[fn]

40

CHAPTER 8. ARAB LIBERATION ARMY

The question of who would take command of the Arab soldiers each. A nal "Jabal al-Arab" battalion manned
and Palestinian military campaign and what their objec- by 500 Druze soldiers and commanded by Shakib Wahab
tives would be was never resolved.
settled in Shfar'am.

8.3 The 1948 War

See also Israel War of Independence

8.3.1

Entry to Palestine

On January 8, 1948, the borders of British-held Palestine

were breached by a battalion of the ALA - the Second Yarmuk Battalionwhich was 330-soldiers strong
and was commanded by Adib Shishakli. Entering from
Syria, the battalion set its headquarters near Tarshiha in
the Galilee. On January 20, 1948, this battalion attacked
Kibbutz Yehiam and failed. The British High Commissioner Alan Cunningham asked his government to pressurize Syria to stop the invasion of the mandate territory
by the ALA by threatening that the British Army would
take action. On January 20, 1948, a second ALA Battalion, a 630-soldier-strong First Yarmuk battalion, led by
the Syrian ocer Mohammed Safa, entered Palestine.
It crossed the Damia Bridge over the Jordan River in a
long convoy. An attempt by the British police to prevent their entry failed because of the intervention of the
Arab Legion, and so the invasion was not stopped by the
British in spite of protests from the Jewish Agency. Fawzi
al-Qawuqji joined this regiment, which was parked near
Tubas. On February 15, 1948 the battalion attacked Kibbutz Tirat Zvi but failed to overtake it. The Hittin Battalion, led by the Iraqi Madlul Abbas, crossed the Jordan River on the Damia bridge on 29 January 1948 and
dispersed in the mountains of Samaria. The two battalions that had come from Transjordan split into smaller
units and deployed throughout Samaria. Their task was to
maintain order in the area and allow Abdullah I of Jordan
to annex the area to his kingdom. Attempts by the Arab
Higher Committee to sow discord between the units of
the ALA were unsuccessful. Paradoxically, Samaria remained one of the quieter areas in Palestine during this
period thanks to the ALA. The move was made in coordination with Ernest Bevin who approved of Abdullah
s plan to deploy the ALA through Samaria without the
knowledge of the High Commissioner, provided it does
not provoke intervention by the UN Security Council or
accrue criticism from other Arab countries against the
United Kingdom. According to Levenberg, this disposition of forces, away from the main warfare areas and
close to the Syrian border, where it could create a buer
between Syria and Transjordanian forces, indicates their
real objectives and missions* [4]

The Druze forces took part in the battle of Ramat

Yohanan. Following the erce battle that inicted
many casualties on both sides, the battalion commanders reached an agreement with the Haganah to withdraw.
Some members of the battalion, led by Ismail Qabalan,
later ed from Syria and volunteered to the IDF to form
the basis of its Druze forces.
On 5 March 1948 Qawuqji returned to Palestine and set
his headquarters in the Jaba village between Nablus and
Jenin. He also set up a radio station broadcasting propaganda in Hebrew, Arabic and English. On April 4, 1948
the ALA forces attacked Kibbutz Mishmar Haemek in
order to take it and join forces with the Arabs of Haifa.
The campaign lasted for ten days and ended in defeat for
the ALA. In Parallel, the battalion led be Sishakli was defeated in the battle for Safed during Operation Yiftach.
In addition to these battles, ALA units fought in other areas, such as the battle of Jerusalem and the road leading
to it, the Sharon, and urban ghting in mixed-population
cities such as Jaa. In some places these forces showed
rm opposition to Jewish militias, such as at the battle of
Nabi Samuel and Tel Arish. Regardless, on May 27, 1948
Qawuqji led his northern forces back to Syria to regroup.

8.3.2 The last stages of the war

In June 1948 the ALA returned to the Galilee and took
part in retaking Malkiya, on June 5. During theten days
battlesALA forces based in Tarshiha attacked Jewish
forces in Sejera but had to retreat when Nazareth was occupied by the IDF. During the second truce the ALA remained active taking, for example, several outposts near
Moshav Manof. In October 1948 the ALA succeeded
in taking the post of Sheikh Abed near Manara and a
counterattack by the Carmeli Brigade failed. In response,
the IDF initiated Operation Hiram to rout the ALA from
its strongholds in the Galilee. The operation began as
the ALAs headquarters at Tarshiha's was attacked and
captured by IDF forces, including the newly established
Israeli Air Force. Kaukji, though, managed to escape
with most of his army. Although the ALA suered hundreds of casualties it left Palestine to Lebanon largely intact. The ALA never returned to Palestine and was dismantled in the following months.

8.4 The Unit of the Minorities

In the early summer of 1948 some Druze ghters, mainly

from Syria, along with Palestinian Druze from the vilQawuqji returned to Syria to organize further forces and lages of Daliyat al-Karmil and Isya on Mount Carmel,
in March 1948 re-entered Palestine from Syria with the defected from the Arab Liberation Army to the Israel DeAl Hussein,andAl Qadsiabattalions, numbeing 360 fense Forces. These formed the core of the IDF's only

8.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

41
Parsons, Laila (2001). The Druze and the birth of
Israel. In Eugene L. Rogan and Avi Shalim (Eds.).
The War for Palestine (pp. 6078). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79476-5
Sayigh, Yezid (2000). Armed Struggle and the
Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 19491993. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-829643-6

8.8 External links

Media related to Arab Liberation Army at Wikimedia Commons

An Otter armored car captured by the Haganah from the ALA

(Arab Liberation Army- Kaukji's army) in 1948.

Arabic-speaking unit, the Unit of the Minorities.* [5]

8.5 Notes
[1] Sayigh (2000), p. 14
[2] Levinberg (1993), p. 198
[3] Aruri (1972), p. 23
[4] Levinberg (1993), p. 200
[5] Parsons (2001), p. 63

8.6 See also

Palestine Liberation Army

8.7 References
Aruri, Naseer Hasan (1972). Jordan: A Study in Political Development (19231965). Springer. ISBN
90-247-1217-3
Landis, Joshua, (2001). Syria in the 1948 Palestine War: Fighting King Abdullahs Greater Syria
Plan,in Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim, (Eds.),
Rewriting the Palestine War: 1948 and the History
of the Arab-Israeli Conict,pp. 178205. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52179476-5
Levenberg, Haim (1993). Military Preparations of
the Arab Community in Palestine: 19451948. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-3439-5

Chapter 9

Arab Nationalist Guard

The Arab Nationalist Guard (Arabic:
)is a secular volunteer militia force operating in
Syria. The group espouses an Arab nationalist ideology,
gathering away from any sectarian, ethnic, or religious
extremism. The Arab Nationalist Guard's membership
includes nationalists from a variety of Arab countries, including Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine, Tunisia, Syria
and Yemen.* [1]* [2] Some of their militiamen had fought
previously in the Libyan Civil War and the Iraq War.* [1]

9.1 Ideology
The groups ideology,* [3] falls in line with pan-Arab
ideals, as well as with anti-Zionism and anti-colonialism.
The Arab Nationalist Guard has its own manifesto, where
it is stated that the units names are inspired from Arab
or North African politicians and martyrs who have led
secularist and Arab nationalist movements or were killed
by Islamists.

9.2 See also

List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War

9.3 References
[1] Rana Harbi (5 May 2014). Arab nationalists take up
arms in the battle for Syria. Al-Akhbar. Retrieved 6
May 2014.
[2] Jawad Al-Tamimi (1 January 2014). The Arab Nationalist Guard: A Pro-Assad Militia. Aymennjawad.org.
Retrieved 24 February 2014.
[3] Moses, Brown. The Arab Nationalist Guard: A ProAssad Militia. Brown Moses Blog. Retrieved 24 July
2014.

42

Chapter 10

Armenian battalions
Armenian battalions refer to military units formed by
Armenian volunteer conscripts, mostly ghting against
the Ottoman forces:
1912-13, Balkan Wars, an auxiliary battle group in
Bulgarian Army. (Andranik Ozanian#Balkan Wars)
1914-17, World War I, Armenian volunteer units
was employed in Russian Imperial Army
1914-17, World War I, Armenian volunteer units
was employed in Egyptian Expeditionary Force of
British Army.
1916-20, World War I, French Armenian Legion was
employed in French Army. It was established by
French-Armenian Agreement (1916) as a detachment unit. The unit was active in Adana (Turkey)
and Arara (Palestine).
1940-45, World War II, Armenian Legion.
Armenian volunteer units detachment under Russian
Caucasus Army
Armenian battalion one of the detachments under
Dunsterforce
Armenian volunteers under Egyptian Expeditionary
Force
French Armenian Legion within French Army

43

Chapter 11

Aviazione Legionaria
The Legionary Air Force (Italian: Aviazione Legionaria, Spanish: Aviacin Legionaria) was an expeditionary
corps from the Italian Royal Air Force. It was set up in
1936 and sent to provide logistical and tactical support
to the rebel faction after the pro-Fascist military coup
which marked the onset of the Spanish Civil War. This air
force would ght the conict against the Spanish Republic alongside its Nazi German equivalent, the Condor Legion, and the Italian ground troops of the Corpo Truppe
Volontarie. They served from August 1936 to the end of
the conict in March 1939. Their main base of operations
was Majorca in the Balearic Islands.* [1]

11.1 History
At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936,
the rebel armies in Spanish North Africa led by Francisco
Franco had about 30,000 troops and Moroccan nationals under his command, along with some artillery units.
In order to transfer his troops and material to mainland
Spain, on 24 July 1936, Franco turned to the Italian
consul in Tangiers and then directly to major Luccardi,
the military attache in the Italian consulate. Through
them Franco tried to convince Benito Mussolini to send
twelve transport aircraft, twelve reconnaissance planes,
ten ghter aircraft, 3000 aerial bombs, antiaircraft machine guns and at least forty ve transport ships. At rst
Mussolini was reluctant to send them, despite his sympathy for Franco, but his son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano put
pressure on him and he changed his mind on July 25.
Ciano had in the meantime spoken with two representatives of the Spanish monarchy about thirty ghter planes
and other equipment sent by the French government that
would arrive on August 2.
On July 27 Mussolini ordered the under-secretary for
the Regia Aeronautica, general Giuseppe Valle, to send
12 three-engined Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 bombers with
crews and the relevant specialists. These would form the
rst unit, initially known at rst as Aviacin del Tercio* [2]
and set out at dawn on 30 July from Cagliari-Elmas on
Sardinia, where they had picked up three ocials from
the Scuola di Navigazione di Altura at Orbetello, the
'gerarca' Ettore Muti and the tenente-colonnello Ruggero

Bonomi. The aircraft crews and the specialists were all

volunteers from 7th, 10th and 13th Stormo and were provided with civilian clothes and fake documents. All the
Italian symbols on the planes had been blotted out to prevent an international incident with pro-Republican European governments. Fake documents stated that the planes
were being sold to the Spanish journalist Luis Bolin.
Not all of the Fascist Italian planes sent to the rebel faction reached Morocco - the plane commanded by Angelini crashed in the Mediterranean, that under Mattalia
crashed near Sada (in a French-controlled part of Morocco), and that commanded by Lo Forte had to make
an emergency landing near Berkane (also in French Morocco) and was seized by the local authorities. The nine
survivors of the Moroccan crashes were provided with nationalist papers and transferred to the airport at Tetuan,
from which they helped over the following days to escort
the transport ships Araujo, Ciudad de Alicante and Ciudad de Ceuta, which together carried 4,000 men, 4 artillery batteries, 2 million cartridges and 12 tons of other
munitions to mainland Spain.
Encouraged by this rst operation's success, Mussolini
began to send a more steady stream of munitions, personnel and supplies under the name of Aviacin Legionaria,
Aviazione Legionaria.

11.1.1 Bombing operations

See also: Bombing of Barcelona, Bombing of Alicante,
and Bombing of Granollers
Besides military targets, the Aviazione Legionaria carried out a great number strategic bombings of cities in
the Spanish Republican rear-guard intended to terrify the
civilian population into surrender. The most signicant
are the 1936 Bombing of Madrid ordered by General
Franco, in which the city's residential areas were subject
to aerial bombardments with the exception of the upper class Salamanca district which was assumed to contain many Nationalist supporters. Three Italian bombers
attacked the Renteria bridge in the outskirts of Guernika
some before* [3] the Bombing of Guernica done on April
26 1937 by the Condor Legion, followed by bombed

44

11.3. PERSONNEL

45

Almeria.* [4]

Savoia-Marchetti SM.81, bomber (84)* [8]

But it would be in 1938 when the Italian planes did most

of their large-scale bombing operations over the cities of
Barcelona, Alicante, Granollers and Valencia, as well as
the Bombing of Xtiva in 1939, with a total of 728 raids
over Spanish Mediterranean cities launching a total of
16.558 bombs mostly over civilian targets and inicting
many, mostly civilian, casualties.* [4]

Breda Ba.65, ground attack aircraft (23)* [9]

On 12 May 1939 the last Italian aircrew embarked for

Italy on the ship Duilio at Cadiz. By the end of the conict the Aviazione Legionaria had had a total of 135,265
hours' ying time on 5,318 operations, dropping 11,524
tons of bombs and destroying 943 enemy air units and
224 ships. 171 Italian personnel had been killed and 192
wounded, with 74 ghters, 8 bombers, 2 ground-attack
planes and 2 reconnaissance aircraft shot down or destroyed. The ratio of results to men and machines lost
was positive, but also conrmed the Regia Aeronautica's
commanders in their mistaken belief that biplanes and triplanes were still valid in modern combat. In fact the age
of air warfare dominated by these aircraft was waning and
it was becoming evident that radio needed to be mounted
on all aircraft and that bomb-aiming now had to be done
with special instruments rather than by sight* [5] These
errors of judgement would prove decisive when Italy entered the Second World War in 1940.

Seaplanes, several types (20)* [10] - Three SM.55

bomber and three M.41 ghter in August 1936, ten
single-engined CANT Z.501 seaplanes were sent to
assist Franco's naval units in April 1937, along with
four heavy three-engined CANT Z.506 seaplanes in
July 1938.* [11]
Transport aircraft, several types (53 approximately)
Troop carrier aircraft, several types, (10 approximately)
Training and reconnaissance aircraft - 25 of the
single-engined biplane IMAM Ro.41, 36 IMAM
Ro.37s, 16 Caproni Ca.310s, 10 Caproni A.P.1s, 6
Breda Ba.28s and a few Fiat C.R.20B
The 276 of these aircraft which survived at the end of the
war were all transferred to the newly established Spanish
Nationalist Air Force.

11.2.1 Markings

The unit's recognition symbols were roundels placed on

both sides of the wings and on the tail-rudder. The wing
symbol was a completely black circle, later personalised
11.2 Aircraft and units
with white symbols ranging from a simple cross to designs referring to the commanders of the Condor Legion
12 Fiat CR.32 biplanes arrived in Melilla in transport and the Aviacin Nacional. The tail symbol was a simple
ships on 14 August 1936 (405 would have been sent to black cross on a white eld, which remained the n ash
Franco by the end of the operation) and by the end of Au- of the later Ejrcito del Aire.
gust the Cucarachasquadron was formed at Caceres
with aircraft of that type. Initial dispatches of aircraft
were followed by more numerous ones - in March 1939 11.3 Personnel
eleven of the new monoplane Fiat G.50 ghter were sent,
to be based at the base at Ascalona, though in the end they
In addition to the aircraft, Italy provided a number of
never saw action.
well-trained men, sending more than 6,000 in total (5,699
Various bombers were sent 55 three-engined S.M.81 airmen and 312 civilians). These men replaced Spaniards
Pipistrello, 99 of the three-engined Savoia-Marchetti who had been killed.
SM.79 Sparvieroand 16 of the Fiat BR.20 Cicogna. The units were made part of the 21st Stormo da
Bombardamento Pesante and from the 251st and 252nd 11.3.1 Aces
Squadriglia Pipistrelli delle Baleari. TheCicognewent
to 230th Squadriglia da bombardamento veloce in sum- Source: Axishistory.com (12 July 2008)
mer 1937, before being moved to the 231st in 1938.
Altogether a total of 764 airplanes were sent:
Fiat CR.32, ghter (376 aircraft)* [6]
Fiat G.50, ghter (12)
Fiat BR.20, bomber (13)
Savoia-Marchetti
(100)* [7]

SM.79,

torpedo-bomber

11.3.2 Commanders
In its two and a half years in Spain the legion had four
commanders (nal ranks noted):
1. Generale di Brigata Aerea Ruggero Bonomi, until
December 1936
2. Generale di Divisione Aerea Vincenzo Velardi

46

CHAPTER 11. AVIAZIONE LEGIONARIA

3. Generale di Squadra Aerea Mario Bernasconi

(Italian) Commanding ocers

4. Generale di Divisione Aerea Adriano Monti.

(Italian) Photo gallery

11.4 See also

Spanish Republican Air Force
Spanish Civil War
Spanish Air Force
Condor Legion

11.5 Notes
[1] Air War in the Spanish Civil War 1936-39
[2] Enciclopedia Ilustrada de la Aviacin: Vol.3, pag. 682,
Edit. Delta, Barcelona. 1982 ISBN 84-85822-38-2
[3] Guerra di Spagna e Aviazione Italiana. Ucio Storico
Stato Maggiore Aeronautica. p. 210.
[4] Heiberg, Morte (2004). Emperadores del Mediterrneo:
Franco, Mussolini y la guerra civil espaola. Barcelona:
Crtica. ISBN 8484324702; p. 133
[5] (Italian) Gianni Rocca, I Disperati - La tragedia
dell'Aeronautica Italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale,
ISBN 88-04-44940-3
[6] Ferdinando Pedriali op. cit.allegati
[7] THOMAS, Hugh. The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books.
2006. London. p.938
[8] Pedriali Ferdinando op, cit. Allegati
[9] Pedriali Ferdinando op. cit. Allegati
[10] Pedriali Ferdinando op. cit. allegati
[11] Pedriali Ferdinando op. cit. , allegati

11.6 Bibliography
(Italian) Ferdinando Pedriali, Guerra di Spagna
e Aviazione Italiana (1992, 2nd edition, Ucio
Storico dello Stato maggiore Aeronautica).

11.7 External links

(Italian) Breve storia dell'Aviazione Legionaria italiana in Spagna by Carlo Rosselli
(Italian) La guerra civile spagnola - L'Aviazione Legionaria in http://www.finn.it/regia/index.htm Gli
aerei della Regia Aeronautica].

Chapter 12

Battaglione Azad Hindoustan

Battaglione Azad Hindoustan (in Italian: Battaglione In- an open yellow parachute embroidered in rayon thread on
dia libera -Free India Battalion) was a foreign legion the left upper arm.* [3]
unit formed in Fascist Italy under the Raggruppamento
Centri Militari in July 1942. The unit, raised initially as
Centro I, was headed by Mohammad Iqbal Shedai* [1] a
12.2 Structure
long term Indian resident of Rome and was formed of
Indian ex-prisoners-of-war from India.* [2]
According to the order of battle of the Italian RaggrupRaised along with units dedicated to Tunisia (Centro T) pamento Centri Militari in May 1942, the unit had the
and the Arabs (Centro A), it was tasked to intelligence following under its control: comando (headquarters)
gathering and sabotage operations behind enemy lines. A commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Massimo Invrea; Cenpart of Centro I was renamed Battaglione Azad Hindous- tro T consisting of Italians from Tunisia; Centro A contan in August 1942 when the Raggruppamento Centri Mil- sisting of Italians from Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Araitari itself was redesignated as Raggruppamento Frecce bia; plus Arabs and Sudanese ex-prisoners-of-war and
Rosse (Red Arrows group).* [3] By the time of its lastly; Centro I consisting of Italians from India and Perdisbandment in November 1942, Battaglione Azad Hin- sia and Indian ex-prisoners-of-war. In all, the Raggrupdoustan came to be between three hundred and fty* [1] pamento Centri Militari collected together approximately
and four hundred strong.* [2]
1,200 Italians, 400 Indians and 200 Arabs. In August
Units of the Raggruppamento Frecce Rosse were intended 1942 the Raggruppamento was renamed Raggruppamento
to inltrate on the ground, from submarines and by Frecce Rosse (Red Arrows group) a name chosen by
parachute. Accordingly, a further unit was raised within the commanding ocer in memory of his service with the
the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan to form the plotone Italian Divisione Frecce Nere (Black Arrows Division)
( Corps of Volunparacadutisti (parachute platoon). The chosen troops of the Italian Corpo Truppe Volontarie
were sent for paratroop combat training to the parachute teer Troops) in the Spanish Civil War. The three Centri
Militari received new designations at the same time.
school at Tarquinia.* [3]
According to the order of battle of the Italian Raggruppamento Frecce Rosse in August 1942, the following units
comprised the force structure: comando (headquarters
12.1 Uniform
), Battaglione d'Assalto Tunisia (Tunisia Assault Battalion), which was formerly Centro T; Gruppo ItaloThe soldiers of the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan wore Arabo (Italo-Arab Group), formerly Centro A; and
standard Italian military uniforms. However unlike the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan (Free Indian Battalion),
troops of the German-raised Legion Freies Indien, who formerly Centro I.
had peaked eld caps all the troops of the Battaglione The Battaglione Azad Hindoustan was created out of CenAzad Hindoustan wore a turban of the colour of the Ital- tro I using both the ex-Indian Army personnel (the Indian
ian Sahariana tunic. Additionally, the troops wore on Army was under British operational command) and Italtheir tunics collar patches with three vertical stripes in ians previously resident in India and Persia (Iran).* [4]
the saron, white and green (reecting the colours of
the Indian National Congress that was at the time the The order of battle of the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan in
*
focus of the nationalist movement). Italians serving in August 1942 was: [3]
the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan were distinguished by
stars on the collar patches that was not worn by the In Compagnia fucilieri (motorized rie company)
dian troops. The Tarquinia detachment sent for parachute
Compagnia mitraglieri (motorized machine gun
training wore their own collar patches above paratroopcompany)
pattern patches, as well as the paratroop badge depicting
47

48
Plotone paracadutisti (parachute platoon)
Overseas Italian platoon

12.3 Disbandment
Despite their investment in training the Indians in inltration combat, the Italians considered the Indian troops
of Battaglione Azad Hindoustan to be of doubtful loyalty
and this view was conrmed when the Indians mutinied
on learning of the Axis defeat at El Alamein in November
1942. Following this the battalion was disbanded and the
Indians returned to their prisoner-of-war camps.* [5]

12.4 See also

Indian National Army
Indian Legion
Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind

12.5 References
[1] Borra R. Subhas Chandra Bose, the Indian National Army,
and the war of India's liberation. J Hist Rev.Winter, 1982;
vol. 03 no. 4: p. 407.
[2] Lundari. I Paracadutisti Italiani 1937-45. p. 90
[3] Lundari. I Paracadutisti Italiani 1937-45. p. 99
[4] Indian Volunteers in the German Wehrmacht". Feldgrau.com. Retrieved 2012-02-07.
[5] Indian Volunteers in the German Wehrmacht in WWII
. Retrieved 6 April 2016.

CHAPTER 12. BATTAGLIONE AZAD HINDOUSTAN

Chapter 13

Belgian Legion

Belgian Legion in Mexico

Several military units have been known as the Belgian

Legion. The term Belgian Legioncan refer to Belgian volunteers who served in the French Revolutionary
Wars, Napoleonic Wars, Revolutions of 1848 and, more
commonly, the Mexico Expedition of 1867.

13.1 French Revolutionary Era

The rst Belgian and Ligeois legions were formed in
1792 from volunteers who had come to serve the First
French Republic from the Austrian Netherlands and the
Prince-Bishopric of Lige respectively. It was in one of
these units that General Louis Joseph Lahure undertook
his rst military service.

13.2 Restoration
Temporarily regaining control of the Southern Netherlands, on 2 March 1814, Austria formed several military units from regional recruitment. This volunteer force
was known as the Lgion belge (Belgian Legion) and initially was intended to strengthen the Austrian position
in their former provinces in the event of a counterattack
from France. With the full occupation of the Southern
Netherlands by Austria, Prussia and the United Provinces
(Holland), a provisional government was established un- Grenadier in Mexico, 1866
der the Duke of Beaufort and local levies continued to
be recruited separately by each of the three allies. The
largest of these was the Belgian Legion which, under the command of the Belgian born Austrian General Count
49

50

CHAPTER 13. BELGIAN LEGION

overthrow the monarchy and establish a Belgian republic. Commanded by Blervacq, Fosses and Charles Graux
and escorted by students of the cole Polytechnique, a
troop of 1100 to 1200 unarmed men in three corps departed Paris on 25 March. Passing via Douai then Seclin
(27 March), they were resupplied by the commissioner of
the Nord department, Charles Delescluze, and by general
Ngrier.
However, France's Minister for War Cavaignac, alerted
by a recent incident provoked by Belgian workers who
had returned to the frontier at Quivrain by train, demanded that Ngrier give no assistance to any violation
of the Belgian frontier. Ngrier obeyed by ordering the
Polytechniciens to turn back and closing the gates of Lille.
On the evening of 28 March, however, the Legion broke
camp and seized the arms and ammunition gathered by
Delescluze before crossing the frontier between Neuvilleen-Ferrain and Mouscron. They then confronted Belgian troops under general Fleury-Duray in Risquons-Tout
(then a hamlet in the commune of Rekkem, but now
part of Mouscron) and were defeated, with 7 killed,
26 wounded and 60 captured, a skirmish known as the
Risquons-Tout incident. Some of the captured democrats
were imprisoned in the Citadel of Huy and 17 of them
condemned to death and executed at Antwerp.* [2]

13.4 Mexico Expedition

Sous-lieutenant in Mexico, 1865-7

von Murray, was now intended to keep local order.* [1]

Administrated by the Baron Poederl, secretary general
for armaments, this Legion was made up of 4 line infantry
regiments (from Brabant, Flanders, Hainaut and Namur),
a light infantry regiment, two cavalry regiments and an
artillery regiment.
This unit merged into the army of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands on 1 September 1814, when that nation annexed the territory that would later form Belgium.

Costumes of ocers and soldiers of the Belgian regiment: bodyguards of the Empress Charlotte.

During the Mexico Expedition 1,500 Belgian volunteers

were formed into a Belgian Legion to ght in the army of
Emperor Maximilian, whose wife, Princess Charlotte of
In March 1848, during the French Revolution of 1848, Belgium, was Leopold I of Belgium's daughter.
Belgian workers living in Paris formed an Association
des dmocrates belges(94, rue de Mnilmontant), led by
Blervacq a wine merchant and an old ocer called Fos- 13.4.1 Composition
ses. This gave rise to a new Belgian Legion. Informally
supported by Ledru-Rollin, Caussidire and other mem- Ocially The Belgian Expeditionary Corpsthis Lebers of the French government dreaming of a Republican gion comprised an infantry regiment of two battalions uprising in the Southern Netherlands and a subsequent the Empress Battalionof grenadiers and the King
French annexation of that area, this Legion's aim was to of the Belgian's Battalionof voltigeurs. The ocers

13.3 French Revolution of 1848

13.5. SEE ALSO

51

13.4.3 Aftermath
A small group of elderly survivors of the Belgian Legion
escorted the con of Charlotte after her death at the Castle of Bouchout in 1927.* [6]

13.5 See also

Belgian Expeditionary Corps in Russia
Free Belgian Forces

Fanion of the Belgian Legion.

and non-commissioned ocers were mainly drawn from

the regular Belgian Army as were some of the other
ranks.* [3] The Belgians formed part of a much larger
Imperial Mexican Corps of Austrian and Belgian Volunteers, though they served separately from the Austrian contingent which was brigaded with Mexican Imperial troops.* [4]

13.4.2

In action

Belgian United Nations Command - the Belgian

volunteer battalion that served in the Korean War
(1950-1953)

13.6 References
[1] Ronald Pawly, pages 4-6 Wellington's Belgian Allies
1815, ISBN 1-84176-158-3
[2] Louis-Antoine Garnier-Pags, Histoire de la Rvolution de
1848, 2e d., t. 4, vol. II, Paris, Pagnerre, 1866, chap. 6,
XVI-XXV, pp. 263-273.
[3] Paul Legrain, page 124 Les Soldats de Leopold Ier et
Leopold II, D 1986/0197/03
[4] Rene Chartrand, page 35The Mexican Adventure 186167ISBN 1-85532-430-X
[5] Rene Chartrand, pages 36-37 The Mexican Adventure
1861-67, ISBN 1-85532-430-X
[6] Gene Smith, page 292Maximillan and Carlota, ISBN
0-688-00173-4

13.7 Further reading

Defense of the Belgian battalion, commanded by Major Tydgadt,

in the Battle of Tacmbaro.

The rst detachment of the Belgian Legion, numbering

604 men, embarked for Mexico on 16 October 1864.
Three further contingents were sent over the next three
months, bringing the total force up to about 1,500. The
Legion's rst encounter with the Mexican Republican
forces was at the Battle of Tacmbaro on 11 April 1866,
where a Belgian detachment of 300 men was forced to
surrender after losing up to a third of its strength. The
remainder of the Belgian Legion performed well in subsequent clashes but on 12 December 1866 the force was
disbanded and 754 of the contingent returned to Belgium
where they dispersed.* [5]

Duchesne, Albert (1967). L'expdition des volontaires belges au Mexique, 1864-1867 (in French).
Brussels: Muse royal de l'Arme et d'histoire militaire. p. 803.

13.8 External links

Austrian and Belgian Volunteers Serving in Mexico
at United States Combined Arms Research Library

Chapter 14

Blue Division
For other uses, see Blue Division (disambiguation).

General Agustn Muoz Grandes was assigned to lead

the volunteers. Because the soldiers could not use ocial Spanish army uniforms, they adopted a symbolic uniThe Blue Division (Spanish: Divisin Azul, German:
Blaue Division, ocially designated as Divisin Es- form comprising the red berets of the Carlists, the khaki
paola de Voluntarios by the Spanish Army and 250. trousers of the Spanish Legion, and the blue shirts of the
Infanterie-Division in the German Army) was a unit of Falangistshence the nickname Blue Division. This
Spanish volunteers that served in the German Army on uniform was used only while on leave in Spain; in the
eld, soldiers wore the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer)
the Eastern Front of the Second World War.* [1]
eld grey uniform with a shield on the upper right sleeve
bearing the word Espaa and the Spanish national
colours.

14.1 Origins
14.2 Deployment and action

Although Spanish dictator Francisco Franco did not ocially bring Spain into World War II on the side of Nazi
Germany, he permitted volunteers to join the German 14.2.1
Army (Wehrmacht) on the condition they would only
ght against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front, and
not against the Western Allies or any Western European
occupied populations. In this manner, he could keep
Spain at peace with the Western Allies, while repaying German support during the Spanish Civil War and
providing an outlet for the strong anti-Communist sentiments of many Spanish nationalists. Spanish foreign
minister Ramn Serrano Ser suggested raising a volunteer corps, and at the commencement of Operation Barbarossa, Franco sent an ocial oer of help to Berlin.

Germany: training and organization of the Division

Hitler approved the use of Spanish volunteers on June

24, 1941. Volunteers ocked to recruiting oces in all
the metropolitan areas of Spain. Cadets from the ocer training school in Zaragoza volunteered in particularly large numbers. Initially, the Spanish government
was prepared to send about 4,000 men, but soon realized
that there were more than enough volunteers to ll an entire division: 18,104 men in all, with 2,612 ocers and
Travel by train between Spain and Germany in the rst expedi15,492 soldiers.
tions in 1941
Fifty percent of ocers and NCOs were professional soldiers, including many veterans of the Spanish Civil War. On July 13, 1941, the rst train left Madrid for
Many others were members of the Falange (the Spanish Grafenwhr, Bavaria for a further ve weeks of training.
Fascist party). Others felt pressure to join because of past There they became the Heer's 250th Infantry Division,
ties with the Republic orlike Luis Garca Berlanga, who and were initially divided into four infantry regiments, as
later became a well-known cinema directorto help their in a standard Spanish division. To aid their integration
relatives in Franco's prisons. The division also included a into the German supply system, they soon adopted the
number of Portuguese volunteers.
standard Heer model of three regiments. One of the orig52

14.3. DISBANDMENT AND THE LEGIN AZUL

53

inal regiments was dispersed amongst the others, which

were then named after three of the Spanish cities that volunteers largely originated fromMadrid, Valencia and
Seville. Each regiment had three battalions (of four companies each) and two weapons companies, supported by
an artillery regiment of four battalions (of three batteries each). There were enough men left over to create an
assault battalion, mainly sub-machine gun armed. Later,
due to casualties, this was disbanded. Aviator volunteers
formed a Blue Squadron (Escuadrillas Azules) which, using Bf 109s and FW 190s, was credited with 156 Soviet
aircraft kills.

near Pushkin, Kolpino and Krasny Bor in the Izhora River

area.

The division was transported by train to Suwaki, Poland

(August 28), from where it had to continue by foot on
a 900 km march. It was scheduled to travel through
Grodno (Belarus), Lida (Belarus), Vilnius (Lithuania),
Molodechno (Belarus), Minsk (Belarus), Orsha (Belarus)
to Smolensk, and from there to the Moscow front. While
marching towards the Smolensk front on September 26,
the Spanish volunteers were rerouted from Vitebsk and
reassigned to Army Group North (the force closing on
Leningrad), becoming part of the German 16th Army.

Spanish and German military awards, and were the only

division to be awarded a medal of their own, commissioned by Hitler.

After the collapse of the German southern front following the Battle of Stalingrad, more German troops were
deployed southwards. By this time, General Emilio Esteban Infantes had taken command.

The Blue Division faced a major Soviet attempt to break

the siege of Leningrad in February 1943, when the 55th
Army of the Soviet forces, reinvigorated after the victory
at Stalingrad, attacked the Spanish positions at the Battle
of Krasny Bor, near the main Moscow-Leningrad road.
Despite heavy casualties, the Spaniards were able to hold
their ground against a Russian force seven times larger
14.2.2 Russian front (AugustOctober and supported by tanks. The assault was contained and
the siege of Leningrad was maintained for a further year.
1941)
The division remained on the Leningrad front where it
On 31 July, after taking the standard personal oath to continued to suer heavy casualties due to weather and
Hitler, under whose authority they were to be ghting,* [2] to enemy action.* [4] When Franco dispatched more rethe Blue Division was formally incorporated into the inforcements, this time it included conscripts as well as
Wehrmacht as the 250th Division.* [3] It was initially as- volunteers.
signed to Army Group Center, the force advancing to- Through rotation, as many as 45,482 Spanish soldiers
wards Moscow.
served on the Eastern Front. They were awarded both

14.3 Disbandment and the Legin

Azul

Eventually, the Allies and conservative Spaniards (including many ocials of the Roman Catholic Church) began to press Franco for the withdrawal of troops from the
14.2.3 Volkhov (October 1941 August Eastern Front quasi-alliance with Germany. Franco initi1942)
ated negotiations in the spring of 1943 and gave an order
of withdrawal on October 10.
The Blue Division was rst deployed on the Volkhov
Some Spanish soldiers refused to return. While some beRiver front, with its headquarters in Grigorovo, on the
lieved that Franco gave his unocial blessing as long as
outskirts of Novgorod. It was in charge of a 50 km sectheir number was below 1,500, on November 3, 1943
tion of the front north and south of Novgorod, along the
the Spanish government ordered all troops to return to
banks of the Volkhov River and Lake Ilmen. AccordSpain. In the end, the total ofnon returnerswas close
ing to the museum curator in the Spasa Preobrazheniya
to 3,000 men, mostly Falangists. Spaniards also joined
church on Ilyin Street, the division used the high cupola
other German units, mainly the Waen-SS, and fresh volas a machine-gun nest. As a result, much of the building
unteers slipped across the Spanish border near Lourdes in
was seriously damaged, including many of the medieval
occupied France. The new pro-German units were colicons by Theophanes the Greek.
lectively called the Legin Azul ("Blue Legion").

14.2.4

Spaniards initially remained part of the 121st Infantry Di-

Leningrad (August 1942 October vision, but even this meagre force was ordered to return
home in March 1944,* [5] and was transported back to
1943)

Spain on March 21. The rest of the volunteers were abMain articles: Siege of Leningrad and Battle of Krasny sorbed into German units.
Bor
Platoons of Spaniards served in the 3rd Gebirgs Division
and the 357th Infantry Division. One unit was sent to
In August 1942, it was transferred north to the southeast- Latvia. Two companies joined the Brandenburger Regern ank of the Leningrad siege, just south of the Neva iment and German 121st Division in ghting against the

54

CHAPTER 14. BLUE DIVISION

Yugoslav Partisans.
The 101st Company (Spanische-Freiwilligen Kompanie
der SS 101,Spanish Volunteer Company of the SS Number 101) of 140 men, made up of four rie platoons
and one sta platoon, was attached to 28th SS Volunteer
Grenadier Division Wallonien and fought in Pomerania
and Brandenburg as Soviet troops advanced into eastern
Germany. Later, as part of 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland and under command of
Hauptsturmfhrer der SS Miguel Ezquerra, the Company
fought the last days of the war against Soviet troops in the
Battle in Berlin.

14.4.2 Order of battle (September 1943)

262nd, 263rd, and 269th Grenadier Regiments
250th Artillery Regiment of four battalions (1 thru
4)
250th Panzerjger Battalion
250th Reconnaissance Battalion
250th Pioneer Battalion
250th Signals Battalion

Supply Troops
The casualties of the Blue Division and its successors included 4,954 men killed and 8,700 wounded. Another
372 members of the Blue Division, the Blue Legion, or
volunteers of the Spanische-Freiwilligen Kompanie der SS 14.5 Awards
101 were taken prisoner by the victorious Red Army; 286
of these men were kept in captivity until April 2, 1954,
Soldiers and ocers of the Blue Division were awarded:
when they returned to Spain aboard the ship Semiramis,
*
supplied by the International Red Cross. [6]
3 Knight Crosses (Oak Leaves).* [7]

14.4 Organization

3 German Crosses in Gold.* [7]

138 Iron Crosses First Class.
2,359 Iron Crosses Second Class.
2,216 War Merit Crosses with Swords.

14.6 Legacy
Hitler referred to the division as equal to the best German ones. During his table talks, he also said:

Organization of the 250th Infantry Division as of August 1941

14.4.1

Order of battle (July 1941)

262nd, 263rd, and 269th Infantry Regiments

250th Artillery Regiment of four battalions (1 thru
4)
250th Panzerjger Battalion
250th Reconnaissance Battalion
250th Feldersatz (replacement) Battalion
250th Pioneer Battalion
250th Signals Battalion
Supply Troops

To troops, the Spaniards are a crew of ragamuns. They regard a rie as an instrument
that should not be cleaned under any pretext.
Their sentries exist only in principle. They
don't take up their posts, or, if they do take
them up, they do so in their sleep. When the
Russians arrive, the natives have to wake them
up. But the Spaniards have never yielded an
inch of ground. One can't imagine more fearless fellows. They scarcely take cover. They
out death. I know, in any case, that our men
are always glad to have Spaniards as neighbours
in their sector.* [8]
Later when Hitler considered an invasion of Spain to
remove Franco and replace him with Agustn Muoz
Grandes he decided against it, saying The Spaniards
are the only tough Latins. I would have a guerrilla war in
my rear.* [9]
Many of the generals who perpetrated the attempted coup
d'tat against the Spanish government on February 23,
1981, had served in the Blue Division during World War

14.8. REFERENCES

55
Spain in World War II

14.8 References
[1] Carlos Caballero Jurado, Ramiro Bujeiro (2009). Blue
Division Soldier 1941-45: Spanish Volunteer on the Eastern Front. Osprey Publishing. p. 34. ISBN 1-84603-4124.
[2] Arnold Krammer. Spanish Volunteers against Bolshevism: The Blue Division. Russian Review, Vol. 32, No. 4
(Oct., 1973), pp. 388402
[3] David Wingeate Pike. Franco and the Axis Stigma. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Jul., 1982),
pp. 369407
[4] Gavrilov, B.I., Tragedy and Feat of the 2nd Shock Army,
defunct site paper
[5] Wendel, Marcus.Tactical Headquarters Bjelovar (Croatia)".
[6] Candil, Anthony J. Post: Division Azul Histories and
Memoirs. WAIS - World Association for International
Studies. Retrieved 3 June 2014.
[7] 28. Jger-Division.
Vault of the Blue Division, in La Almudena cemetery, Madrid.

II. Amongst them were generals Alfonso Armada and

Jaime Milans del Bosch. Other Blue Division veterans,
including Director of the Guardia Civil Jos Luis Aramburu Topete and Jos Gabeiras, remained loyal to the legal democratic government under the young King Juan
Carlos I.

14.6.1

Cross of Saint Sophia of Novgorod

During the German occupation of Velikiy Novgorod, the

city's kremlin suered heavy battle damage. However,
the Orthodox Cathedral of Saint Sophia itself survived.
The large cross on the main dome (which has a metal bird
attached to it, perhaps symbolic of the Holy Spirit in the
form of a dove) had fallen during shelling of the city while
it housed the headquarters of the Divisin Azul during
World War II. The cross was carried back to Spain, rst
to Burgos and afterwards to the Spanish Army Engineers
Academy in Hoyo de Manzanares near Madrid.* [10] It
remained in the Madrid Military Engineering Academy
Museum until 16 November 2004, when it was handed
back to the Russian Orthodox Church by its discoverers,
the Spanish historians Miguel-ngel and Fernando Garrido Polonio.

14.7 See also

Battle of Krasny Bor

[8] Norman Cameron and R.H. Stevens (translators). Hitler's

Table Talk 19411944: His Private Conversations.
Enigma Books. New York, 2000. p. 179.
[9] History Journal of the History Society (Chinese University
of Hong Kong. United College. History Society)
(24).
1976 https://books.google.com/books?id=
_dg7AQAAIAAJ&q=%22The+Spaniards+are+the+
only+tough+Latins%22&dq=%22The+Spaniards+
are+the+only+tough+Latins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=
MrKTU4evFdW0sQSrs4Bw&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAA.
Retrieved 8 June 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[10] Bono devuelve a Rusia la cruz que se llev la Divisin
Azul- Foro por la Memoria.

14.9 Sources
Gustavo Morales & Luis Togores, La Divisin
Azul: las fotografas de una historia. La Esfera
de los Libros, Madrid, 2009, second edition.

14.10 Books
Gerald R. Kleinfeld and Lewis A. Tambs. Hitler's
Spanish Legion: The Blue Division in Russia. Southern Illinois University Press (1979), 434 pages,
ISBN 0-8093-0865-7.
Xavier Moreno Juli. La Divisin Azul: Sangre espaola en Rusia, 19411945. Barcelona: Crtica
(2005).

56
Wayne H. Bowen. Spaniards and Nazi Germany:
Collaboration in the New Order. University of Missouri Press (2005), 250 pages, ISBN 0-8262-13006.
Rusia no es cuestin de un da.... Juan Eugenio
Blanco. Publicaciones Espaolas. Madrid, 1954

14.11 External links

The 250. Infanterie-Division by Jason Pipes
The 250. Infanterie-Division on the Axis History
Factbook
Spanish Blue Division Awards

CHAPTER 14. BLUE DIVISION

Chapter 15

Blue Legion
The Blue Legion (Spanish: Legin Azul, German: Blaue
Division, ocially called the Legin Espaola de Voluntarios) was a volunteer legion created from 2,133
Falangist volunteers who remained behind at the Eastern
Front after most of the Spanish Blue Division was repatriated in March 1944 because Francisco Franco had started
negotiations with the western Allies. It ocially consisted of two battalions. It was later estimated that the legion grew to over 18,000 Spaniards (44,000 in rotation).
It was repatriated to Spain by November 1944 due to increased pressure from the allies,* [1] but again, many of
them (around 3,000) remained to ght on the side of Nazi
Germany until the German surrender in May 1945.

15.3 External links

They operated several squadrons in the Luftwae, known

as the Escuadrilla_Azul (Blue Squadrons).* [2]
The 101st company Spanische-Freiwilligen Kompanie der
SS 101 of 140 men, composed of four rie platoons and
one sta platoon, was attached to 28th SS Volunteer
Grenadier Division Wallonien and fought in Pomerania
and Brandenburg province. Later, as part of 11th SS
Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland and under
command of Hauptsturmfhrer der SS Miguel Ezquerra,
it fought during the last days of the war against Soviet
troops in the Battle of Berlin.* [3]
The troops bore the word ESPAA and a red/yellow/red
horizontally striped shield worn on the upper right arm,
and a helmet decal.

15.1 See also

Blue Division
Spanish Legion

15.2 References
[1] Payne, Stanley. Spain and World War II. p. 81.
[2] Joseph, Frank (2012). The Axis Air Forces: Flying in Support of the German Luftwae. p. 54.
[3] Julio, Rodriguez-Purtolas (2008). Historia de la literatura fascista espaola. p. 712.

57

Spanische Legion (Blue Legion) on the Axis History

Factbook

Chapter 16

Boer foreign volunteers

Boer foreign volunteers were participants who volun- join a commando, and before he received his equipment,
teered their military services to the Boers in the Second he was obliged to take an oath of allegiance to the RepubBoer War.
lic. A translation of it reads:
I hereby make an oath of solemn allegiance to
the people of the South African Republic, and
I declare my willingness to assist, with all my
power, the burghers of this Republic in the war
in which they are engaged. I further promise to
obey the orders of those placed in authority according to law, and that I will work for nothing
but the prosperity, the welfare, and the independence of the land and people of this Republic,
so truly help me, God Almighty.

16.1 Origin
Although there was a lot of sympathy for the Boer cause
outside of the British Empire, there was little overt government support as few countries were willing to upset the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. As a result,
no other government actively supported the Boer cause.
There were, however, individuals from several countries
who volunteered and formed Foreign Volunteer Units.
These volunteers primarily came from Europe, particularly the Netherlands, Germany and Sweden-Norway.
Other countries such as France, Italy, Ireland (then wholly
part of the United Kingdom), and restive areas of the
Russian Empire, including Poland and Georgia, also
formed smaller volunteer corps. Finns fought in the Scandinavian corps.

16.3 Second Anglo-Boer War

16.2 Recruitment
The inux of foreigners into the country began simultaneously with the war, and it continued thereafter at the rate
of about four hundred men a month. These volunteers
would have come for a number of reasons, not necessarily because of any sympathy with the Boer cause, including soldiers-of-fortune, professional soldiers and adventurers. Some of the more famous volunteers were:
Ernest Douwes Dekker, Camillo Ricchiardi, Niko the
Boer (Niko Bagrationi), Yevgeny Avgustus, Witold Rylski, Alexander Guchkov, Leo Pokrowsky, Major Baron
von Reitzenstein, Viscount Villebois-Mareuil and the
men of the two Irish commandos, the Irish Transvaal
Brigade of John MacBride and John Blake, and the
Second Irish Brigade of Arthur Alfred Lynch.
None of the foreigners who served in the Boer army
received any compensation. They were supplied with
horses, equipment, and food from the Boer Government,
but no wages. Before a foreign volunteer was allowed to

Part of the Scandinavian Memorial at Magersfontein, South

Africa, in honour of the some 1400 Scandinavian volunteers who
fought on the side of the Boers

Table of foreign volunteers in the Second Anglo-Boer

War* [1]
In the early stages of the war the majority of the foreign
volunteers were obliged to join a Boer commando. Later
they formed their own foreign legions with a high degree of independence, including the: Scandinavian Corps
(Skandinaviens Korps), Italian Volunteer Legion, two
Irish Brigades, German Corps (Deutsches Korps), Dutch

58

16.4. REFERENCES
Corps, Legion of France, American Scouts and Russian
Scouts.
However the free rein given to the foreign legions was
eventually curtailed after Villebois-Mareuil and his small
band of Frenchmen met with disaster at Boshof, and
thereafter all the foreigners were placed under the direct
command of General De la Rey.
The Italian Volunteer Legion of Camillo Ricchiardi* [4]
carried out the capture of an armoured train near
Chieveley, Natal. Among the passengers who were taken
prisoner was the young journalist Winston Churchill,
whose life Ricchiardi spared by pretending not to see him
dumping his pistol and dum-dum ammunition which had
been declared unlawful on pain of death.* [5]
While the vast majority of people involved from British
Empire countries fought with the British Army, a few
Australians fought on the Boer side.* [6] The most famous of these was Colonel Arthur Lynch,* [7] formerly
of Ballarat,* [8] who raised the Second Irish Brigade.* [9]
Lynch, charged with treason was sentenced to death, by
the British, for his service with the Boers. After mass
petitioning and intervention by King Edward VII, he was
released a year later and pardoned in 1907.

16.4 References
[1] Hillegas, Howard C. (1900). Chapter IX - Foreigners
in the War. With the Boer Forces. London: Methuen &
Co. p. 257.
[2] Speech by the South African ambassador in The Hague on
the 31st of May 1938, during the Dutch Remembrance of
the Dead-Day of the Second Boer War. In the Netherlands, there was a special Remembrance Day between
1910 and 1939. This Remembrance Day was held on the
31st of May and was in honour of the Boer/Afrikaner and
Dutch dead of the Second Boer War.
[3] Avgustus, Yevgeny (2016). A Russian Fighting for the
Boer Cause. Johannesburg: South African Military History Society. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-620-70253-9.
[4] Page of the South African Military History Society on the
Italian participation in the Anglo-Boer War
[5] Short biography of Riccardi with details of Churchill's
capture (in Italian and English)
[6] Boer War
[7] Craig Wilcox, (2002) Australia's Boer War, pp. 263266.
(a critical expos of Lynch's activities)
[8] R.L. Wallace, Australians at the Boer War (1976) pp.
381383, (a summary of Lynch's exploits in the Boer
War)
[9] Lynch is a character in a Boer War novel, Antony O'Brien,
Bye-Bye Dolly Gray (2006).

59

Chapter 17

Brazilian Expeditionary Force

The Brazilian Expeditionary Force or BEF
(Portuguese: Fora Expedicionria Brasileira; FEB)
consisted of about 25,700 men and women arranged by
the army and air force to ght alongside the Allied forces
in the Mediterranean Theatre of World War II. This
air-land force consisted of (replacements included): a
complete Infantry Division, a Liaison ight, and a Fighter
squadron.* [1]
It fought in Italy from September 1944 to May 1945,
while the Brazilian Navy as well as the Air Force also
acted in the Battle of the Atlantic from the middle of 1942
until the end of the war. During almost eight months of its
campaign, ghting at Gothic Line and in the 1945 nal offensive, the BEF managed to take 20,573 Axis prisoners,
consisting of two generals, 892 ocers, and 19,679 other
ranks. Brazil was the only independent South American
country to send ground troops to ght overseas, losing
948 men killed in action across all three services during
the WWII.* [2]* [3]

shipping as soldiers traveled across the Atlantic to Africa

and Europe, and minimized the inuence of the Axis in
South America.* [4]
At the beginning of 1942, Brazil permitted the US to set
up air bases on their territory in return for the oer by
the US to encourage the formation of an iron industry
- Companhia Siderrgica Nacional, in Brazil. The US
bases were located in the states of Bahia, Pernambuco
and Rio Grande do Norte, where the city of Natal hosted
part of the US Navy's VP-52. In addition, US Task Force
3 established itself in Brazil. This included a squadron
equipped to attack submarines and merchant vessels attempting to trade with Japan.
Although Brazil remained neutral, this increasing cooperation with the Allies led the Brazilian government to
announce at the Pan American States Conference in Rio,
on 28 January 1942, its decision to sever diplomatic relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy.
As a result, from the end of January to July 1942, German
U-boats sank 13 Brazilian merchant vessels. In August
1942, U-507 alone sank ve Brazilian vessels in two days,
causing more than 600 deaths:* [5]

17.1 Overview
Brazil's participation alongside the Allied powers in
World War II was by no means a foregone conclusion,
even though Brazil (along with Italy, Japan and Romania) had supported the Triple Entente in World War I.
Then Brazilian participation (19171918) was primarily
naval, although it did send a military missionto the
Western Front. The Brazilian Navy and Air Force played
a role in the Battle of the Atlantic after mid-1942. Brazil
also contributed an infantry division that entered combat
on the Italian Front in 1944.
As in 1914, Brazil in 1939 maintained a position of neutrality, initially trading with both the Allies and the Axis
powers. As the war progressed, trade with the Axis countries became almost impossible and the US began forceful diplomatic and economic eorts to bring Brazil onto
the Allied side. These eorts led to the creation of the
Joint Brazil-US Defense Commission, which was chaired
by James Garesche Ord and worked to strengthen military ties between the two countries during the war. It was
designed to reduce the likelihood of Axis attacks on US

60

On August 15, the Baependy, traveling

from Salvador to Recife, was torpedoed
at 19:12. Its 215 passengers and 55 crew
members were lost.
At 21:03, U-507 torpedoed the
Araraquara, also traveling from Salvador
towards the north of the country. Of the
142 people on board, 131 died.
Seven hours after the second attack, U507 attacked the Anbal Benvolo. All
83 passengers died; of a crew of 71, four
survived.
On August 17, close to the city of Vitria,
the Itagiba was hit at 10:45, with a death
toll of 36.
Another Brazilian ship, the Arar, traveling from Salvador to Santos, stopped to
help the crippled Itagiba, but ended up as
the fth Brazilian victim of the German
submarine, with a death toll of 20.

17.3. COMMAND

61

dent.* [13] During a drill, an anti-aircraft gunner accidentally red 20mm shells into depth charges stored at the
rear of the ship. The resulting explosion sank the Bahia in
three minutes, resulting in the loss of 294 crew. Less than
half of them survived to be rescued four days later.* [14]
Berlin Radio pronouncements led to increasing nervous- Of the three Brazilian military ships lost during the war,
ness among the Brazilian population, so unlike 1917, in only the freighter-troopship Vital de Oliveira was due to
1942 it seemed that the Brazilian government did not the action of an enemy* submarine, being sunk by the U861 on July 20, 1944. [15]
want war. In some cities like Rio de Janeiro, the people
started to protest against such a situation which included
some harassment of German communities.* [6] The passive position of the Vargas government proved untenable 17.3 Command
in the face of public opinion. Ultimately, the government
found itself with no alternative but to declare war on Germany and Italy on August 22, 1942.
In all, 21 German and 2 Italian submarines caused the
sinking of 36 Brazilian merchant ships involving 1,691
drownings and 1,079 other casualties. The sinkings were
the main reason that led the Brazilian government to declare war against the Axis.

The decision regarding its creation came after the Potenji

River Conference, a meeting between President Franklin
D. Roosevelt and Getulio Vargas, which was held in
Natal, Rio Grande do Norte on board a destroyer of the
U.S. Navy. This Conference took place in 28 and 29 January 1943 right after President Roosevelt took part on the
Casablanca Conference in Morocco.

17.2 The Navy

The participation of the Brazilian Navy in WWII was not
directly connected to the BEF and the Italian Campaign,
having been largely engaged in the Atlantic campaign. As
a result of the Axis attacks, Brazil suered nearly 1,600
dead, including almost 500 civilians and more than 1,000
of Brazil's 7,000 sailors involved in the conict. The naval
losses included 470 sailors of the merchant marine and
570 sailors of the Navy, a total of 36 ships sunk by the
Germans, and more than 350 dead in three accidental
sinkings.* [7]

General Mascarenhas de Morais (center), Brazilian army ocer

and commander of the BEF.

The Brazilian 1st Division of the BEF was subordinate to

the Allied 15th Army Group under Field Marshal Harold
Alexander (later succeeded by General Mark Clark), via
the US Fifth Army of Lieutenant General Mark Clark
(later succeeded by Lieutenant General Lucian Truscott)
and the US IV Corps of Major General Willis D. CritThe main task of the Brazilian Navy was, together with tenberger. The entry for the Gothic Line order of battle
the Allies, to ensure the safety of ships sailing between provides the layout for the Allied and German armies in
the Central and South Atlantic to Gibraltar. Alone or Italy.
in coordination with Allied forces, it conducted 614
The BEF headquarters functioned as an administrative
convoys that protected 3,164 merchant and transport headquarters and link to the Brazilian high command untroop ships;* [8] In the battle against German submarines,
der the secretary of war, General Eurico Gaspar Dutra
Brazilian frigates and submarines used mines and depth in Rio de Janeiro. General Mascarenhas de Morais (later
charges. According to German documents, the Brazilian marshal) was the commander of the BEF, with General
Navy attacked German submarines a total of 66 times.
Zenbio da Costa as chief of the 6th Regimental Combat
Along the Brazilian coast, a total of twelve Axis submarines (one Italian and eleven German) were proven
to be destroyed: Archimede, U-128, U-161, U-164, U199, U-507, U-513, U-590, U-591, U-598, U-604 and
U-662.* [9]* [10]* [11]
Among the warships lost by the Brazilian navy, were
the minelayer BZ Camaqua, which capsized during a
storm while escorting a convoy in July 1944, and the light
cruiser BZ Bahia,.* [12] Despite conspiracy theories regarding its loss in the middle of the South Atlantic in
July 1945, its sinking is ocially attributed to an acci-

Team (RCT) of Caapava (the rst BEF RCT to land in

Italy), and General Cordeiro de Farias as commander of
artillery.
The BEF was (theoretically) organized as a standard US
infantry division of that time, complete in all aspects,
down to its logistical tail (including postal and banking
services), although some of these, like its health services, were found to be decient and had to be complemented, and in many cases controlled or managed by
Americans.* [16]* [17]
Its combat units were, besides the aforementioned 6th

62

CHAPTER 17. BRAZILIAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE

RCT, the 1st RCT based on Rio de Janeiro, and the

11th from So Joo del Rey. Each RCT had about
5,000 men (corresponding in size to today brigades), divided in three then calledbattalions(today regiments),
consisting of four companies each, including supporting
units for combat, and other army branches, like artillery,
engineering, and cavalry.* [18] The Brazilian Air Force
Fighter squadron was itself under the Mediterranean Allied Tactical Air Force.* [19]

the end the Brazilian government gathered a force of

one Army Division with 25,000 men (replacements included), compared with an initial declared goal of a whole
Army Corps of 100,000, to join the Allies in the Italian
Campaign.* [24]

17.4.2 Arrival in Italy

17.4 The campaign

17.4.1

Preparations

Soon after Brazil declared war, it began a popular

mobilize for an expeditionary force to ght in Europe.* [20]* [21] At that time, Brazil was a country with
a traditionally isolationist foreign policy, a population
which was largely rural and illiterate, an economy focused on the export of commodities, and lacking an
infrastructure in industry, health and education systems
that could serve as material and human support to the war
eort that a conict of that dimension required. In addition, an action plan that could circumvent this situation
(like the Calogeras Plan of the previous World War) was
out of the question, since many Brazilian military ocers did not see with good will some unavoidable internal
consequences resulting in an Nazi-Fascist defeat in Europe, such as increased demands for democratic changes
by the population. After all, Brazil was living under a
military regime, that had been openly authoritarian from
1937, and that had irted with Nazi-fascist regimes until
1941. Brazil was thus precluded from pursuing a line of
autonomous action in the conict, and found it dicult to
take even a modest role in it.
Faced with the government's passivity and unwillingness,
even a plutocrat of the mass media at that time, Assis
Chateaubriand, came to negotiate with US ocials stationed in Brazil, for the creation of an expeditionary army
division, composed of volunteers from all of Latin America, which would be nanced by him, led by a Brazilian
general, and trained by American ocials. This initiative was curtailed by the Brazilian government in early
1943.* [22]
In addition to the above-mentioned reasons, political distrust between the Brazilian and American authorities,
as well as divergences regarding the Brazilian Expeditionary Force, as about its size (between Brazilian aspirations and the American convenience in manage it
abroad), on whether it should be properly trained and
armed Before boarding, or Already behind the lines at
Mediterranean;* [23] caused that almost two years has
elapsed between the Ocial entrance of Brazil in war
and the sending of its rst troops to the European Theater of Operations (compared with almost one year between the USA's entrance and the Operation Torch). In

Brazilian soldiers greet Italian civilians in the city of Massarosa,

September 1944.

On July 2, 1944, the rst ve thousand BEF soldiers, the

6th RCT, left Brazil for Europe aboard the USNS General Mann, and arrived in Italy on July 16. They disembarked in Naples, where they waited to join the US
Task Force 45. They had landed without weapons, and
since there was no arrangement for barracks, the troops
remained on the docks. This caused controversy in the
Brazilian media.* [25] In late July, two more transports
with Brazilian troops reached Italy, with three more following in September and November 1944, and February
1945. One notable unit deployed was Brazil's Mountain
Infantry Battalion.
The BEF dedicated its rst weeks in Italy to acquiring
the proper equipment to ght on Italian terrain, and to
training under American command.* [26] in as much as
the preparation in Brazil, despite the 2 years' interval
since the declaration of war, had proved almost worthless. Among the veterans of that campaign, there was a
consensus that only combat could adequately prepare the
soldier, regardless of the quality of training received earlier.* [27]* [28] In August, the troops moved to Tarquinia,
350 km north of Naples, where Clark's army was based.
In November, the BEF joined General Crittenberger's US
IV Corps.
The Brazilians joined what was a multinational hodgepodge of forces. The American forces included the segregated African-American 92nd Infantry Division and the
Japanese-American 442nd Infantry Regiment. British
Empire forces included New Zealanders, Canadians,
Indians, Gurkhas, Black Africans, Jews and Arabs from
the British Mandate in Palestine, South Africans and
Rhodesians, units of exiles Poles, Greeks, Czechs, Slo-

17.4. THE CAMPAIGN

63

vakians, as well as anti-fascist Italians, all serving under mation. The Germans were misled into thinking that the
British command. French forces included Senegalese, BEF's raid over Montese, using M8 armoured cars and
Moroccans and Algerians.* [29]* [30]* [31]
Sherman Tanks, could be the real main Allied objective
The Germans made much of the political aspect of the in that sector, which led them to shell the Brazilians with
presence of the Brazilian force in Italy. They targeted 1,800 artillery rounds from the total of 2,800 used against
propaganda specically at the Brazilians.* [32] In addition all four Allied divisions in* that sector during the days
to leaets, the Germans provided an hour-long daily radio of the battle for Montese, [38] when they tried unsucbroadcast (in Portuguese) from Berlin Radio calledHora cessfully to take Montese back from the Brazilians. After that, the breaking of the Germans' lines to the North
AuriVerde(GoldenGreen Hour).
by forces of IV Corps became unavoidable.* [39] On the
right, the Polish Division, from the British 8th Army, and
the US 34th Infantry Division, from Fifth Army, entered
17.4.3 Combat
Bologna on 21 April.
The BEF achieved battleeld successes at Massarosa,
Camaiore, Mount Prano, Monte Acuto, San Quirico,
Gallicano, Barga, Monte Castello, La Serra, Castelnuovo
di Vergato, Soprassasso, Montese, Paravento, Zocca,
Marano sul Panaro, Collecchio and Fornovo di Taro.* [33]

On 25 April the Italian resistance movement started a

general partisan insurrection at the same time as Brazilian troops arrived at Parma and the Americans at Modena
and Genoa. The British 8th Army advanced towards
Venice and Trieste.

The rst missions the Brazilians undertook in close connection with the US 370th RCT, were reconnaissance operations to the end of August. Brazilian troops helped
to partially ll the gap left by divisions of the US VI
Corps and French Expeditionary Corps that left Italy for
Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France. On
September 16, the 6th RCT took Massarosa. Two days
later it also took Camaiore and other small towns on the
way north. By then, the BEF had already conquered
Monte Prano, and taken control of the Serchio valley
without any major casualties. After having suered its
rst reverses around Barga city, and after the arrival of
the 1st RCT at the end of October, the BEF was directed
to the base of the Northern Apennines, on the border
between Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna regions, where it
would spend the next months facing the harsh winter and
the resistance of the Gothic Line.* [34] Allied forces were
unable to break through the mountains over the winter
and an oensive by German and Italian divisions to the
left of the BEF sector, against the US 92nd Infantry Division, required the assistance of the 8th Indian Infantry
Division before it was repulsed.

At the battle of Collecchio, Brazilian forces were preparing to face erce resistance at the Taro river region
from the retreating German-Italian forces in the region of
Genoa/La Spezia that had been set free by troops of the
92nd US Division. These Axis troops were surrounded
near Fornovo and after some ghting surrendered. On
April 28, the Brazilians captured more than 13,000 men,
including the entire 148th Infantry Division, elements
of the 90th Panzergrenadier and the Italian 1st 'Italia'
Bersaglieri Division.

Between the end of February and the beginning of March

1945, in preparation for the Spring oensive, the Brazilian Division and the US 10th Mountain Division were
able to capture important positions on the Northern Apennines (noteworthy in the Brazilian sector, for Monte
Castello and Castelnuovo), which deprived the Germans
of key artillery positions in the mountains, whose eective re had since the fall of 1944 blocked the Allied path
to Bologna.* [35]* [36]* [37]
In the US Fifth Army's sector, the nal oensive on the
Italian Front began on April 14, after a bombardment of
2,000 artillery pieces; an attack carried out by the troops
of US IV Corps led by the Brazilian Division took Montese. After the rst day of the Allied oensive, the Germans, without much eort, had stopped the main attack
of IV Corps led by the US 10th Mountain Division, causing signicant casualties among the troops of that for-

German General Otto Fretter-Pico, Commander of the 148th Infantary Division, and Italian General Mario Carloni surrender
to Brazilian troops on April 28, 1945.

This took the German Command by surprise as it had

planned for these troops to join forces with the GermanItalian Army of Liguria to counterattack against the Fifth
Army. Fifth Army had advanced, as is inevitable in these
situations, in a fast but diuse and disarranged way uncoordinated with air support, and had left some gaps on its
left ank and to the rear. The Axis forces had left many
bridges intact along the Po River to facilitate a counterattack. German Army Command was already negotiating a truce in Caserta, and hoped that a counterattack
would improve the conditions for surrender. The events
in Fornovo disrupted the German plan, as much by the
disarray of their troops as by the delay it caused.* [40]

64

CHAPTER 17. BRAZILIAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE

This, added to the news of Adolf Hitler's death and the 22, the 1* oGAVCA traveled to the US to convert to the
taken of Berlin by the Red Army, left the German Com- Republic P-47D Thunderbolt.
mand in Italy with no option but to accept the demand for
the unconditional surrender of its troops.
In their nal advance, the Brazilians reached Turin and
then on 2 May they joined up with French troops at the
border in Susa. That same day brought the announcement
of the end of hostilities in Italy.

17.5 The Air Force

17.5.1

1st Fighter Squadron

Badge of Brazilian Fighter Squadron

On September 19, 1944 the 1* oGAVCA left for Italy,

arriving at Livorno on October 6. Since the Group arrived at the front with the Minimum Limit Number of
pilots for an Air Group, and there was no prediction of
replacements arrival in a forthcoming future, it was at1* oGAVCA P-47s carried the Senta a Pua!" emblem as nose tached as a Squadron at the 350th Fighter Group of the
art along with the Brazilian Air Force stars
USAAF, which in turn was part of the 62nd Fighter Wing
of the 12th Air Force, into the XXII Tactical Air ComThe 1* oGAVCA (1st Fighter Group/1 Grupo de Aviao mand.* [42]* [43]
de Caa) was formed on December 18, 1943. Its com- The Brazilian pilots initially ew from 31 October 1944,
manding Ocer was Ten.-Cel.-Av. (Aviation Lieutenant as individual elements of ights attached to 350th FG
Colonel) Nero Moura. The group had 350 men, includ- squadrons, at rst in aliation ights and progresing 48 pilots. The group was divided into four ights: sively taking part in more dangerous missions. Less
Red (A), Yellow (B), Blue (C), and Green (
than two weeks later, on November 11, the Brazilian
D). The CO of the group and some ocers were not Squadron started its own operations ying from its base
attached to any specic ight. Unlike the BEF's Army
at Tarquinia, using its tactical callsign Jambock. Brazilian
component, the 1* oGAVCA had personnel who were ex- Air Force stars replaced the white US star in the roundel
perienced Brazilian Air Force (Portuguese: Fora Area
on the FAB Thunderbolts. The 1* oGAVCA started its
Brasileira, or FAB) pilots. One of them was Alberto M. ghting career as a ghter-bomber unit, its missions being
Torres, who commanded the PBY-5A Catalina that had
armed reconnaissance and interdiction, in support of the
sunk U-199 (which had been operating o the Brazilian US Fifth Army, to which the FEB was attached. On April
coast).* [41]
16, 1945, the US Fifth Army started its oensive along
Among the 48 pilots of the Brazilian Unit who carried
out war missions, there was a total of 22 losses; ve of
the pilots were killed by anti-aircraft re, eight had their
planes shot down and bailed out over enemy territory, six
had to give up ying operations on medical orders, after
suering nervous breakdowns, and three died in ying
accidents.
The group trained for combat in Panama, where 2* o Ten.Av. (Aviation Second Lieutenant) Dante Isidoro Gastaldoni was killed in a training accident. On May 11, 1944,
the group was declared operational and became active
in the air defense of the Panama Canal Zone. On June

the Po Valley. By then, the strength of theGrouphad

fallen to the standard size of an air squadron: 23 pilots,
since some having been killed, others shot down and captured, while others had been relieved from their duties on
medical grounds due to wounds or fatigue combat.* [44]
On 22 April 1945, the three remaining ights took
o at 5-minute intervals, starting at 8:30 AM, to destroy bridges, barges, and motorized vehicles in the San
Benedetto region. At 10:00 AM, a ight took o for an
armed reconnaissance mission south of Mantua. They
destroyed more than 80 tanks, trucks, and vehicles. By
the end of the day, the Brazilian Squadron had own

17.7. NICKNAME

65

44 individual missions and destroyed hundreds of vehicles and barges. On this day Brazilians ew the most
sorties of the war; consequently, Brazil commemorates
April 22 as 'Brazilian Fighter Arm' Day. The 1st Brazilian Fighter Squadron accomplished 445 missions, with
a total of 2,546 ights and 5,465 hours of ight on active service. It destroyed 1,304 motor-vehicles, 13 railway waggons, 8 armoured cars, 25 railway and highway
bridges and 31 fuel tanks and munition depots.
In all, the 1* oGAVCA ew a total of 445 missions, 2,550
individual sorties, and 5,465 combat ight hours, from
November 11, 1944 to May 6, 1945. The XXII Tactical
Air Command acknowledged the eciency of the Brazilian Squadron by noting that although it ew only 5% of
the total of missions carried out by all squadrons under Monument to the dead of World War II in Rio de Janeiro
its control, it accomplished a much higher percentage of
the total destruction wrought:
The bodies of the soldiers buried in the BEF cemetery in
Pistoia were later transferred to a mausoleum in Rio de
85% of the ammunition depots
Janeiro. Marshal Mascarenhas de Moraes had proposed
and promoted the construction of the mausoleum and it
36% of the fuel depots
was inaugurated on July 24, 1960. It covers an area of
6,850 square meters.
28% of the bridges (19% damaged)
15% of motor vehicles (13% damaged)
10% of horse-drawn vehicles (10% damaged)* [45]
Total of operations of the First Brazilian Fighter
Squadron in the Italy Campaign:

17.5.2

Liaison & Observer Flight

Unlike the ghter squadron, which although has participated in several actions in support of the Brazilian
army division, was not subject to its command; the 1st
E.L.O. (Acronym in Portuguese for 1st Liaison & Observer Flight) was directly under the command of the
Brazilian division.* [46]
Formed in late July 1944, it was consisted of reservist ofcers - Air Force pilots and Army artillery observers, who
ew in double aboard Pipers L4-H. This air unit accompanied the Brazilian division throughout its Italian campaign.* [47]

17.6 Aftermath
While the Brazilian division still worked in the postwar occupation of the provinces of Piacenza, Lodi and
Alessandria, in early June 1945 the Brazilian Secretary
of War ordered the BEF's units should stay subordinate
to the commander of the rst military region, based
in the city of then capital Rio de Janeiro, which ultimately meant the dissolution of the Expeditionary Division, which was sent back to Brazil along the second half
of 1945.* [48]

Whereas 80% of all German military casualties in the

WWII took place on the Eastern Front,* [49] which
dwarfs by far even the colossal Anglo-American War effort against the Nazi war machine,* [50] this doesn't diminish the modest Brazilian participation, and in this context Brazil's participation in WWII was more extensive
than its participation in the previous World War. Despite
the Brazilian main military contribution had occurred in
the South Atlantic campaign, the sending of a ground
force overseas had a bigger political and social visibility.
Anyway, the Brazilian division was just one of about 30
Allied military formations (20 divisions and 10 brigades)
on the Italian Front at that time, and although the division played an important part in the sectors in which it
operated, none of these sectors were the main one on that
Front (which was, after the German retreat to the north of
Rome, the East of the country near to the Adriatic Sea,
under the responsibility of the British 8th Army). Besides, the Italian Front had become secondary for both
sides after D-Day and the invasion of Southern France.

17.7 Nickname
Due to the Brazilian dictatorship's unwillingness to get
more deeply involved in the Allied war eort, by early
1943 a popular saying was: It's more likely for a snake
to smoke a pipe, than for the BEF to go the front and
ght.(Mais fcil uma cobra fumar um cachimbo, do
que FEB embarcar para o combate.).* [51] Before the
BEF entered combat, the expressiona cobra vai fumar
(the snake will smoke) was often used in Brazil in a
context similar to "when pigs y". As a result, the soldiers
of the BEF called themselves Cobras Fumantes (literally,

66

CHAPTER 17. BRAZILIAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE

Brazil at War American propaganda lm about the
Brazilian contribution
Battle of Monte Castello
Battle of Collecchio
Brazil during World War I
Elza Medeiros a Brazilian major, she was the
highest-ranking female ocer in the BEF
Max Wol A Brazilian War Hero

Brazilian President Dilma Rousse with veterans of the BEF

(known as pracinhas) during a ceremony to commemorate the
70th anniversary of the end of WWII, May 8, 2015.

Smoking Snakes) and wore a divisional shoulder patch that

showed a snake smoking a pipe. It was also common for
Brazilian soldiers to write on their mortars, The Snake
is smoking ...(A cobra est fumando...). After the
war the meaning was reversed, signifying that something
will denitively happen and in a furious and aggressive
way. With that second meaning the use of the expression a cobra vai fumarhas been retained in Brazilian
Portuguese until the present, although few of the younger
generations realize the origin of the expression.

17.8 Gallery
A company of III Battalion of 11th Regiment of the
Brazilian Expeditionary Force in Italy
Monument to the Brazilian soldiers of World War
II, lvares Cabral avenue, in Belo Horizonte
Play media
American propaganda lm Brazil at War (1943),
praising Brazil for joining the Allies, and attempting
to show similarities between Brazil and the United
States
Monument to the Brazilian combatants in Cascavel
The Expeditionary Museum, located in Curitiba,
has exhibition on the Brazilian soldiers in the Italian Campaign.
Monument to the Expeditionary Force in Farroupilha Park, Porto Alegre

17.9 See also

Atlantic naval campaign (World War II)

O Lapa Azul - a Brazilian documentary (2007)

about the III battalion of the 11 Infantry Regiment
in the BEF during WWII

17.10 Bibliography
Barone, Joo. 1942: O Brasil e sua guerra quase
desconhecida (1942: Brazil and its almost forgotten
war) (in Portuguese), Rio de Janeiro, 2013. ISBN
8520933947
Baumgardner, Randy W. 10th Mountain Division.
Turner Publishing Company, ISBN 978-1-56311430-4
Bohmler, Rudolf (1964). Monte Cassino: a German
View. Cassell. ASIN B000MMKAYM.
Brooks, Thomas R. The War North of Rome (June
1944 May 1945). Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN
978-0-306-81256-9.
Buyers, John. Histria dos 350th ghter group da
Fora Area Americana (in Portuguese). UFALUniversidade Federal de Alagoas, 2004. ISBN 97885-7177-322-6.
Castro, Celso with Vitor Izecksohn and Hendrik
Kraay. Nova Histria Militar Brasileira. Chapters
13 & 14 (in Portuguese). FGV-Fundao Getlio
Vargas, 2004. ISBN 85-225-0496-2.
Clark, Mark Wayne. Calculated Risk New York:
Enigma Books, 1950, republished 2007. ISBN 9781-929631-59-9.
Crittenberger, Willis D. The nal campaign across
Italy; year of edition (English) 1952. ISBN
857011219X of 1997 reprint (Portuguese)
Edwards, Paul M. Between the Lines of World
War II: Twenty-One Remarkable People and Events
McFarland & Co. Inc. Publishers 2010 ISBN
9780786446674. Chapter 9 The Smoking Cobras.

17.11. NOTES

67

Giannasi, Andrea. Il Brasile in guerra; La partecipazione della Fora Expedicionaria Brasileira alla
Campagna d'Italia (19441945)" (Italian) Prospettiva editrice (Civitavecchia-Roma) 2004. ISBN 887418-284-8

Silva, Hlio. 1942 Guerra no Continente (in Portuguese). Civilizao Brasileira, 1972.

Heden, Karl E. Sunken Ships, World War II Branden

Books, 2006. ISBN 0828321183

The 350th Fighter Group in the Mediterranean Campaign, 2 November 1942 to 2 May 1945 Atglen,
Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing, 2004. ISBN 07643-0220-5.

Maximiano, Cesar Campiani. Barbudos, Sujos

& Fatigados; Soldados Brasileiros na II Guerra
Mundial (Bearded, Dirty & Tired; Brazilian soldiers in World War II) (in Portuguese); Grua Livros,
2010. ISBN 85-61578-13-0.
Maximiano, Cesar. with Bonalume, Ricardo N. &
Bujeiro, Ramiro. Brazilian Expeditionary Force in
World War II. Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2011. ISBN
9781849084833 (Print version).
Moraes, Mascarenhas de., The Brazilian Expeditionary Force, By Its Commander US Government
Printing Oce, 1966. ASIN B000PIBXCG.
Morais, Fernando. Chat, o Rei do Brasil ('Chat,
The King of Brazil') (in Portuguese). Cia das Letras,
1994. ISBN 85-7164-396-2.
Morison, Samuel Eliot History of United States
Naval Operations in World War II: The Battle of the
Atlantic; September 1939-May 1943Little Brown,
1947. ISBN 0252069633
Lochery, Neill. Brazil: The Fortunes of War, War II
and the Making of Modern Brazil Basic Books, 2014
ISBN 9780465039982
Neto, Ricardo Bonalume. A nossa Segunda Guerra:
os brasileiros em combate, 1942-1945 (Portuguese)
Expresso e Cultura, 1995. ISBN 9788520801918
Ready, J. Lee. Forgotten Allies: The European
Theatre, Volume I. McFarland & Company, 1985.
ISBN 978-0-89950-129-1.
Ready, J. Lee. Forgotten Allies: The Military Contribution of the Colonies, Exiled Governments and
Lesser Powers to the Allied Victory in World War II.
McFarland & Company, 1985. ISBN 978-0-89950117-8.
Rohwer, Jrgen. Axis submarine successes of World
War Two: German, Italian, and Japanese submarine
successes, 1939-1945 Greenhill Books, 1999. ISBN
1853673404

Silva, Hlio. 1944 o Brasil na Guerra (in Portuguese). Civilizao Brasileira, 1974.

Votaw, Homer C. (195051), The Brazilian Navy in

World War II Published by U.S. Government Printing Oce, 1950 on Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of US Congress, Volume 96, Part
8. Senate. And by Military Review, Volume XXX,
Number X, in 1951.

17.11 Notes
[1] Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume, Ricardo N. & Bujeiro,
2011.
[2] Frank D. MacCann 'Estudios Interdisciplinarios de
America Latina y el Caribe', vol. 6, No. 2, 1995.
[3] Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume, Ricardo N. & Bujeiro,
2011.
[4] Stetson Conn, Byron Fairchild, Oce of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, The Framework
of Hemisphere Defense, 1960, page 319
[5] VEJA Edio Especial O Brasil na Guerra
[6] Hlio Silva, 1942 Guerra no Continente
[7] Relao de navios brasileiros afundados
[8] Votaw: 1950, page 10579. 1951, page 93.
[9] Heden, 2006. Pages: 58 (6, Wed.), 59 (13, Wed.), 64
(15, Thu.), 66 (17, Mon.), 70 (9, Fri.), 72-73 (19, Mon),
74 (30, Fri. and 31, Sat.); Chapters 6 (German Submarine
Losses) & 7 (Italian Submarine Losses).
[10] Several, James L. Page 17, section 1.16.5 Brazil.
[11] Barone, 2013. Chapter 2 (nal).
[12] Allied War Losses. u-boat.net. Retrieved 20 May
2015.

Several authors; Depoimento de Ociais da Reserva [13] Bonalume, 1995. Page 216.
sobre a F.E.B. (Testimony of Reserve Ocers on
Brazilian Expeditionary Division), (Portuguese) [14] BZ Bahia (C 12)". u-boat.net. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
Editora Cobraci, 1949
Several, James Lewis. World War II: Battle of the
Atlantic Kreactiva Editorial,

[15] Rohwer, 1999. p.183.

[16] Several authors, 1949. Pages 294; 394; 41415.

68

[17] Due to the strong sexism in Brazilian society at that time,

the participation of women in the BEF was not viewed
favorably by the authorities, being discouraged ocially
and unocially, even behind the lines in logistics services,
in key sectors such as military nursing. In this area there
was a boycott attempt, not only by male Brazilian military doctors, but also by women who were in a position of
inuence in national politics; See Moser, 2009, Page 141.
[18] Concerning the Cavalry, it is important to highlight that
this Army branch (whether in the form of larger formations, such as Army Divisions Or smaller as in the case
of BEF, small supporting units attached to Infantry Divisions), in all armies during that conict was not restricted
to its heavy mechanized use, as with armored cars and
tanks. Not only, but especially in mountainous terrain, as
was mostly the Italian front, the use of animals, such as
the mule (among others) and smaller vehicles like military
bicycles and motorcycles, were critical to the mobility of
troops. More on this topic can be seen, on: Nafziger 2000,
and Worley 2006 (Page 85).

CHAPTER 17. BRAZILIAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE

[35] Baumgardner, 1998. Pages 26 to 32.

[36] Bohmler, 1964. End of Chapter IX
[37] Clark, 1950/2007, p.608
[38] Dennison de Oliveira, Os soldados alemes de Vargas
Portuguese [ Germans against Hitler; The German soldiers of Vargas] 1st Chapter, Jurua print. 2008 ISBN
85-362-2076-7
[39] Willis D. CrittenbergerThe nal campaign across Italy";
1952 ISBN 85-7011-219-X
[40] Ibidem. Bohmler, 1964.
[41] Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011. P. 35-36.
[42] Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011.
[43] Buyers, 2004. P.98-99.
[44] Buyers, 2004. P.391

[19] Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011. Page 36

[45] Ibidem Buyers, 2004.

[20] Fernando Morais; Chat, rei do Brasil(Chat, the

'king' of Brazil) (Portuguese) Cia das Letras, 1994 ISBN
8571643962

[46] Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011. P.12, 17 & 35.

[21] Silva, Hlio, 1944 o Brasil na Guerra

[48] Moraes, 1966. Last Chapter

[22] Ibidem Morais 1994, pp. 431 to 434

[49] Article at The New York Times Feb. 21, 2004.

[23] Lochery, 2014. Parts 4 and 5; Chapters 12-16.

[50] Article at Der Spiegel, July 31, 2013.

[24]The United States NewsU.S. News Publishing Corporation, 1944. Volume 16, Issues 1426 Page 52

[51] (Portuguese) BEF's participation in World War II.

Brazilian Army Retrieved July 31, 2007

[47] Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011.

[25] Command Magazine issue 51, page 34

[26] Frank Marcio de Oliveira Attach Extraordinaire:
Vernon A. Walters in BrazilNational Defense Intelligence College 2009 ISBN 9781932946222 page 10, 2nd
paragraph
[27] Maximiano, 2010. Chapter 5, pg 222 to 1st paragraph of
page 223
[28] About the same subject, see also: Dave Grossman. "On
Killing" & On Combat, as well as Ishmael Beah "A Long
Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier" from his enlistmenton page 105 to his formal ending of combat detoxication, page 181
[29] Corrigan, Gordon The Second World WarThomas
Dunne Books, 2011 ISBN 9780312577094 Page 523
[30] Ready, J.Lee, Forgotten Allies: The European theatre
McFarland, 1985 ISBN 089950129X Pages 15253, 438.
[31] O'Reilly, Charles T. Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of
Liberation, 19431945Lexington Books 2001 ISBN
0739101951 Page 118, 3rd
[32] Propaganda leaets of World War 2: Italian theater of operations/Po Valley Campaign
[33] Edwards, 2010. Page 89.
[34] R.Brooks, The War North of Rome, p.220 to 224

17.12 External links

Brazil and World War II: The Forgotten Ally:
What did you do in the war, Z Carioca?" An article about the formation and the contribution of the
Brazil on Allied war eort.
Portal da FEB Website (Portuguese) with histories,
biographies, photos, videos, testimonials from veterans.
Senta Pua!" (Portuguese) Ocial Blog of the 'FAB'
(Brazilian Air Force) (Portuguese) about the participation of its 1st Fighter Group in World War II.

Chapter 18

British Free Corps

The British Free Corps (German: Britisches Freikorps)
was a unit of the Waen SS during World War II consisting of British and Dominion prisoners of war who
had been recruited by the Nazis. The unit was originally
known as the Legion of St. George.* [2] Research by
British journalist/historian Adrian Weale has identied
54 men* [1]* [3] who belonged to this unit at one time or
another, some for only a few days. At no time did it reach
more than 27 men in strength.* [1]

1944 (Hitler's 55th birthday).* [9] On 11 October 1944

the Corps was moved to the Waen-SS Pioneer school in
Dresden, to start military training for service on the Eastern Front.* [10] On 24 February 1945 they travelled from
Dresden to Berlin, where they stayed in a requisitioned
school on the Schnhauser Allee.* [11] On 8 March 1945
they were moved tothe village of Niemeck, a few miles
to the north-west of Berlin.* [12]

18.3 Recruiting

18.1 Origin
The idea for the British Free Corps came from John
Amery, a British fascist, son of the serving British
Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery. John Amery
travelled to Berlin in October 1942 and proposed to the
Germans the formation of a British volunteer force to
help ght the Bolsheviks. The British volunteer force
was to be modelled after the Lgion des volontaires
franais contre le bolchvisme (Legion of French Volunteers against Bolshevism), a French volunteer force ghting with the German Wehrmacht.
Apart from touting the idea of a British volunteer force,
Amery also actively tried to recruit Britons. He made a
series of pro-German propaganda radio broadcasts, appealing to his fellow countrymen to join the war on communism.

18.2 Timeline
The rst recruits to the Corps came from a group of
POWs at a 'holiday camp' set up by the Germans in
Genshagen, a suburb of Berlin, in August 1943.* [4]
In November 1943 they were moved to a requisitioned
caf in the Pankow district of Berlin.* [5] Recruits also
came from an interrogation camp at Luckenwalde in late
1943.* [6] The Corps became a military unit on 1 January 1944 under the name The British Free Corps
*
[7] In the rst week of February 1944, the BFC moved
to the St Michaeli Kloster in Hildesheim, a small town
near Hannover.* [8] Uniforms were issued on 20 April

Two early recruits to the BFC:SS-Mann Kenneth Berry and SSSturmmann Alfred Minchin, with German ocers, April 1944

Recruiting for the Free Corps was done in German POW

camps. In 1944, leaets were distributed to the POWs,
and the unit was mentioned in Camp, the ocial POW

69

70

CHAPTER 18. BRITISH FREE CORPS

newspaper published in Berlin. The unit was promoted

as a thoroughly volunteer unit, conceived and created by
British subjects from all parts of the Empire who have
taken up arms and pledged their lives in the common European struggle against Soviet Russia. The attempted
recruitment of POWs was done amid German fear of the
Soviets; the Germans were victims of their own propagandaand thought that their enemies were as worried about the Soviets as they were. In one Dutch camp,
the POWs were lavished with cigarettes, fruit, and other
items while listening to Nazi propaganda ocers who described the good that the Germans were doing in Europe.
At that time the ocers asked the men to join in ghting
the real enemy, the Soviets.* [13]

18.4 Commanders
The BFC did not have a 'commander' per se as it was the
intention of the SS to appoint a British commander when
a suitable British ocer came forward. However three
German Waen-SS ocers acted as the Verbindungsofzier (liaison ocer) between the SS-Hauptamt Amtsgruppe D/3 which was responsible for the unit and the
British volunteers, and in practice they acted as the unit
commander for disciplinary purposes at least. These
were:
SS-Hauptsturmfhrer Hans Werner
September 1943 November 1944* [14]

Roepke:

SS-Obersturmfhrer Dr Walter Khlich: November

1944 April 45* [15]
SS-Hauptsturmfhrer Dr Alexander Dolezalek:
April 1945* [16]
A number of sources mention the involvement of
Brigadier Leonard Parrington, a British Army ocer
captured by the Germans in Greece in 1941.* [17] This
was based on a misunderstanding by some of the British
volunteers after Parrington in the summer of 1943 had
visited the POW 'holiday camp' at Genshagen, in the
southern suburbs of Berlin, as representative of the Senior British POW, Major General Victor Fortune. Parrington had told the assembled prisoners that he 'knew
the purpose of the camp'* [18] and the BFC volunteers
who were there took this to mean that he approved of the
unit. In reality, Parrington had accepted Genshagen at
face value as a rest centre for POWs.

John Wilson these menlater became known among the

renegades as theBig Six, although this was a notional
elite whose membership shifted periodically as members
fell into, and out of, favour.* [20]

18.6 Preparation for active service

In March of 1945, a BFC detachment was deployed
with the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division
Nordland under Brigadefhrer Joachim Ziegler, which
was composed largely of Scandinavian volunteers and
attached to the III (Germanic) SS Panzer Corps under Obergruppenfhrer Felix Steiner. They were rst
sent from Stettin to the division's headquarters at
Angermnde. From there they were sent to join the
divisional armoured reconnaissance battalion (11. SSPanzer-Aufklrunsabteilung) located in Grssow [on the
island of Usedom]. The battalion commander was Sturmbannfhrer Rudolf Saalbach ... [The BFC were allocated]
to the 3rd Company, under the command of the Swedish
Obersturmfhrer Hans-Gsta Pehrson.* [21] The BFC
contingent was commanded by SS-Scharfhrer (squad
leader) Douglas Mardon, who used the alias Hodge.
Richard W. Landwehr Jr. states The Britons were sent
to a company in the detachment that was situated in the
small village of Schoenburg near the west bank of the
Oder River* [22] On March 22, as the company was entrenching, it was partially overrun by an advance element
of the Red Army which had blundered into its position
by accident. Although taken by surprise, the SS troopers, including the BFC volunteers, quickly regained their
wits and launched a vigorous counterattack, driving o
the Soviets. On 16 April 1945 the Corps was moved to
Templin, where they were to join the transport company
of Steiners HQ sta (Kraftfahrstael StabSteiner).* [23]
When the Nordland Division left for Berlin, 'the transport
company followed Steiners Headquarters to Neustrelitz
and the BFC went with it.'* [24] On 29 April Steiner decided 'to break contact with the Russians and order his
forces to head west into Anglo-American captivity.'* [25]
On 2 May Thomas Haller Cooper and Fred Croft, the
last two members of the Corps, surrendered to the 121st
Infantry Regiment (United States) in Schwerin, and were
placed in the loose custody of the GHQ Liaison Regiment
(known as Phantom).* [26]

18.5 Members

18.7 Courts martial of those involved and execution of John

Amery

Leading members of the Corps included Thomas Haller

Cooper (although he was actually 'an Unterscharfhrer
in the Waen-SS proper'* [19]), Roy Courlander, Edwin
Barnard Martin, Frank McLardy, Alfred Minchin and

Newspapers of the period give details of the court-martial

of several Commonwealth soldiers involved in the corps.
One Canadian captive, Private Edwin Barnard Martin,
said he joined the corps to wreck it. He designed

18.9. GALLERY

71

the ag and banner used by the corps,* [27] and admitted

Guy Walters. The Traitor. Random House, 2011.
to being one of the original six or seven members of the
ISBN 1446436160, 9781446436165
Corps during his trial. He was given a travel warrant and
a railway pass which allowed him to move around Germany without a guard.* [28] He was found guilty of two 18.8.3 Television
charges of aiding the enemy while a prisoner of war.* [29]
The British Free Corps was a subject for the "The
Another New Zealand soldier, Roy Courlander, claimed
Hide", the nal episode of series 6 of the British
at his court-martial that he joined the corps for similar
TV series Foyle's War, in which a British POW who
reasons, to gather intelligence on the Germans, to foster
had joined the BFC was tried for treason in Great
a revolution behind the German lines, or to sabotage the
Britain once he returned home, after surviving the
unit if the revolution failed.* [30]
re bombing of Dresden.* [32]
As for John Amery, he was sentenced to death in November 1945 for high treason and hanged.* [31]

18.9 Gallery

18.8 In popular culture

SS-Mann Kenneth Berry and SS-Sturmmann Alfred

Minchin, with German ocers, April 1944

18.8.1

SS-Rottenfhrer William Brittain, February 1945

Film

The lm Joy Division (2006) portrays a member of

the BFC, Sergeant Harry Stone, among the German troops and refugees eeing the Red Army advance into Germany. In the lm it is the aggressive
Stone who appears to be the only convinced Nazi
remaining among the Hitler Youth with whom he
is grouped. He is seen attempting to recruit British
POWs before the column is attacked by Soviet aircraft.

18.8.2

Literature

Several novels on the subject have been published.

Colin D. Evans. The Auslander Brigade. London:
The Book Guild, 1985. ISBN 978-0-86332-060-6
Jack Higgins.
The Eagle Has Landed.
A
BFC ocer named Harvey Preston, who is patterned on Douglas Berneville-Claye, is attached to
the Fallschirmjger unit which attempts to kidnap
Winston Churchill. A convinced Nazi and petty
criminal, Preston is viewed with disgust by all members of the German unit.
Peter MacAlan. The Judas Battalion. London: W.H. Allen, 1983 ISBN 0491031203,
9780491031202. A British soldier and former
member of the British Union of Fascists is sent by
British Intelligence to go join the BFC so he can discredit it. Mixes ctional with real-life characters.

SS-Oberscharfhrer Thomas Haller Cooper (British

mugshot, 1945)
SS-Unterscharfhrer Roy Courlander, 1944
SS-Unterscharfhrer Frank McLardy, 1944
SS-Mann Eric Reginald Pleasants, 1944

18.10 See also

Blue Division
European non-Germans in the German armed forces
during World War II
Friesack Camp, attempt to raise anIrish Brigade
Indian Legion
Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism
List of members of the British Free Corps
Russian Liberation Army
Waen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts
Fusilier James Brady
John Codd

18.11 References

Eric Meyer. SS Englander: The Amazing True Story 18.11.1 Bibliography

of Hitler's British Nazis. London: SwordWorks,
Ailsby, Christopher J. (2004). Hitler's Renegades:
2010. ISBN 1-9065-1244-2 - a novel.
Foreign Nationals in the Service of the Third Reich.
Tony Walker. Snides. Llumina Press, 2004. ISBN
Dulles, Virginia: Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-574881595261222, 9781595261229.
838-6.

72

CHAPTER 18. BRITISH FREE CORPS

Nigel Cawthorne. The Story of the SS - 'The Brits

who fought for Hitler'. Arcturus Publishing, 2012.
ISBN 1848589476, 9781848589476

Adrian Weale. Renegades: Hitler's Englishmen.

London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1994. ISBN 07126-6764-4

David Faber. Speaking for England. London:

Pocket Books, 2007. ISBN 1-4165-2596-3

Adrian Weale. Patriot Traitors: Roger Casement,

John Amery and the Real Meaning of Treason. London: Viking, 2001. ISBN 0-6708-8498-7

Marko Jelusi: Das British Free Corpsin der

SS-Schule Haus Germanienin Hildesheim.In:
H. Kemmerer (Hrsg.), St. Michaelis zu Hildesheim. 18.11.2 Citations
Geschichte und Geschichten aus 1000 Jahren, Issue
15 of Verentlichungen der Hildesheimer Volk- [1] Weale, Adrian (1994).British Free Corps in SS-Waen
Myth and Historic Reality. australiarussia.com. Reshochschule zur Stadtgeschichte Hildesheims 15
trieved 18 May 2016.
(Hildesheim 2010) 197-206. ISBN 978-3-80678736-8 (Online in academia.edu)
[2] Soldier Refused Civil Court Trial. Edmonton Journal.
Aug 30, 1945. p. 2.

Richard Landwehr. Britisches Freikorps. Lulu,

2008. ISBN 0-5570-3362-4 - 'The story of the
British volunteers of the Waen-SS has long been
treated with scorn and derision by the establishment
media ... This publication at least will try and change
that perception.'

[3] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades - Appendix

5 British Members of the British Free Corps and their
Aliases(Kindle Locations 3757-3758). Random House.
Kindle Edition.

David Littlejohn. Foreign Legions of the Third Reich, Volume 2. PP 130. , 1987.
ISBN 091213822X, 9780912138220

[5] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2002). Random House. Kindle Edition.

S.P. Mackenzie. Colditz Myth C. PP 302 . Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0191532231,
9780191532238
Marquis de Slade The Yeomen of Valhalla (Behind
the Siegfried Line) Mannheim : [distributed privately], 1970. - details the formation and activities of the British Free Corps and its membership,
though the author chose to apply pseudonyms to
those mentioned the book.
Sean Murphy. Letting the Side Down: British
Traitors of the Second World War, Chapter 5. London: The History Press Ltd, 2005. ISBN 0-75094176-6

[4] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 1948). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[6] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2083). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[7] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2172-2173). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[8] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2264). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[9] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2331). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[10] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2529-2530, 2793). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[11] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2979-2980). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[12] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Loca-

tion 3007). Random House. Kindle Edition.

Eric Pleasants and Eddie Chapman. I Killed to Live
: the Story of Eric Pleasants, as Told to Eddie Chap[13] Kinmond, William (Sep 8, 1945). Nazi' 'British Free
man. London: Cassell & Company, 1957.

Eric Pleasants, Ian Sayer and Douglas Botting.

Hitler's Bastard: Through Hell and Back in Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia, Random House, 2012.
Ronald Seth. Jackals of the Reich. The Story of the
British Free Corps. (New English Library, 1972).
This book was eectively a re-writing by the British
spy writer Ronald Seth of The Yeomen of Valhalla
(Behind the Siegfried Line). Seth also chose to use
the same pseudonyms. Neither of these books included references or a bibliography and, as a result,
some subsequent writers have taken the pseudonyms
to be real names.

Corps' One Of Their Bigger Flops. The Toronto Daily

Star. p. 18.

[14] Weale, Renegades, p. 114

[15] Weale, Renegades, p. 149
[16] Weale, Renegades, p. 160
[17] See, for example, Waen-SS: Hitler's Elite Guard at War
by George H Stein, Cornell University Press, 1966, p. 190
[18] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 1961). Random House. Kindle Edition
[19] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2297). Random House. Kindle Edition

18.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

[20] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2209-2211). Random House. Kindle Edition
[21] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 3028-3032). Random House. Kindle Edition)
[22] Britisches Freikorps: British Volunteers of the Waen-SS
19431945, ISBN 978-1475059243), (p. 83).
[23] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 3077-3078). Random House. Kindle Edition
[24] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 3132). Random House. Kindle Edition
[25] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 3140-3141). Random House. Kindle Edition
[26] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 3162-70). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[27] Says he Gave Nazi Salute but Tried to Break Corps
. Toronto Daily Star (Toronto). Sep 5, 1945. p. 4. Retrieved January 9, 2013.
[28] Martin Denies Aid to Germans. Montreal Gazette
(Montreal). Sep 5, 1945. Retrieved January 9, 2013.
[29] Sees Guilty Verdict in Martin Case. The Windsor Daily
Star. Sep 6, 1945. Retrieved January 9, 2013.
[30] Wrote Broadcast Talks for Germans. The Glasgow
Herald (Glasgow). October 6, 1945. p. 6. Retrieved
January 9, 2013.
[31] Renegade Amery To Die: Trial Lasted 8 Minutes. The
Toronto Daily Star. Nov 28, 1945. p. 1.
[32] Anthony Horowitz (9 Apr 2010). The Return of Foyle's
War". The Telegraph.

18.12 External links

BBC News - -'My father the war traitor'
The Daily Mail - The face of Hitler's British SS:
Chilling pictures of the traitors who joined the
Fuhrer's most evil unit - with a Union Flag on their
sleeve
The Daily Telegraph - SS veterans in Britain hold
secret reunions
Digger History - Unocial history of the Australian
& New Zealand Armed Services - "British Free
Corps in the Waen SS Aussies ghting for Hitler"
Archived version of Guy Walters' site - history of
the BFC, complete with pictures
Libcom.org - 'martinh'. "Cooper, Thomas Heller Britain's Own War Criminal"
The Scotsman - The legion of traitors
Archived version of sturmpnzr's aol page

73

Chapter 19

Bulgarian Legion
brazhenski and other gures that later came into national
prominence.
The support of the Legion was taken care of by the Serbian government.* [2] The members had to go through
some military training so as to be able to participate in the
future uprising and in the expected conict between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire.* [3] According to Trotsky,
when the Turkish forces entered Belgrade, the Bulgarian
legion distinguished itself in the ghting.* [4] However the
conict ended swiftly and the subsequent Constantinople
Conference decided that not all Ottoman troops should
withdraw from Serbia.* [4] Due to pressure from the Ottoman Empire the Serbian authorities requested the LeParticipants in the Second Bulgarian Legion (18671868). Vasil gion to be disbanded* [5] As a result, on 21 September
Levski is the third from the left on the rst row
1862 the participants were expelled from Belgrade.
The Bulgarian Legion (Bulgarian: ,
Balgarska legiya) was the name of two military bands
formed by Bulgarian volunteers in the Serbian capital of 19.2 Second Bulgarian Legion
Belgrade in the second part of the 19th century. Their
ultimate goal was the liberation of the Bulgarian people The Second Bulgarian Legion ( )
from Ottoman rule through coordinated actions with the was founded in 1867, as relations between Serbia and
neighbouring Balkan countries.
the Ottoman Empire once again worsened and the Serbian authorities began preparing for war and organizing
the First Balkan Alliance. This was used by the Band
of Virtues ( ), who concluded an
19.1 First Bulgarian Legion
agreement with Serbia to establish a Bulgarian military
school in Belgrade to instruct military leaders for a fuThe First Bulgarian Legion ( )
was established in 1862 by Georgi Sava Rakovski in ture uprising in Bulgaria.
agreement with the Serbian government. At the time
Montenegro was at war with the Ottoman Empire and
Serbia itself was planning to join the conict.* [1] According to the initial plan, in case of war between Serbia and
the Ottoman Empire, the Legion would cross the border
and enter the Bulgarian lands, where it would instigate an
uprising among the population.
In order to sustain direct contact with the Serbian government, the so-called Provisional Bulgarian Command was
established on the initiative of Rakovski. His Plan for
the Liberation of Bulgaria inspired Bulgarians and some
six hundred young people responded to his appeal to create the Legion, many of them emigrants and refugees
in Romania. Among them were Vasil Levski, Stefan
Karadzha, Vasil Drumev, Dimitar Obshti, Matey Preo-

This time the expenditures were paid by Russia, the volunteers being trained by Serbian ocers. The surviving
rebels from the bands of Panayot Hitov and Filip Totyu
joined the Legion, as well as young people from Bulgarian and the Bulgarian diaspora in Romania.
However, since the expected war between the two countries never broke out due to the Ottoman authorities'
engagement with the suppression of the Cretan Revolt
(18661869) and reluctance to further complicate its relations with Serbia. Meanwhile, the government of Jovan
Risti, which opted for reconciliation with the Ottomans,
came into oce in Serbia. The Second Bulgarian Legion
became redundant to the Serbians as a result of this. It
was disbanded in April 1868 despite the opposition of
the Russian diplomats, its members being expelled from

74

19.4. REFERENCES
Serbia.

19.3 Historical experience

The experience of the two Legions showed the Bulgarian Legionnaires that the formation of an insurrectionary
centre to manage the Bulgarian liberational movement
from the outside and particularly the binding of the national uprising's task with the politics of other states
would always be exposed to danger. Nevertheless, the
Legions were an excellent school that prepared a large
number of the future Bulgarian leaders.

19.4 References
[1] Perry, Duncan (1993). Stefan Stambolov and the Emergence of Modern Bulgaria, 1870-1895. Duke University
Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-8223-1313-8.
[2] Perry, p.8
[3] Trotsky, Leon; Brian Pearce; George Weissman; Duncan
Williams (1980). The War Correspondence of Leon Trotsky. The Balkan Wars, 1912-13. Resistance Books. p.
487. ISBN 0-909196-08-7.
[4] Trotsky, p.487
[5] Trotsky, p.487.

75

Chapter 20

Chinese in the Russian Revolution and in

the Russian Civil War
There are a number of reports about the involvement
of Chinese detachments in the Russian Revolution
and Russian Civil War. Chinese served as bodyguards of Bolshevik functionaries,* [1]* [2] served in the
Cheka,* [3] and even formed complete regiments of the
Red Army.* [4] Although it has been estimated that there
were tens of thousands of Chinese troops in the Red
Army,* [5] they did not constitute a signicant fraction
of the Red Army.* [6] By the summer of 1919, the
Red Army comprised over a million men. By November 1920, it comprised over 1.8 million men.* [7]

20.2 Dungans in the 1916 Revolt

Dungans fought alongside Kyrgyz rebels in attacking
Przheval'sk during the 1916 Basmachi revolt.* [14]
A Dungan Muslim and communist Commander Magaza
Masanchi of the Dungan Cavalry Regiment fought for the
Soviet Union against the Basmachis.* [15] He also took
part in other actions in central Asia.

Other notable examples of foreigners serving in the Red 20.3

Army include Koreans in the Russian Far East,* [8]* [9]
Czech and Slovak nationals, Hungarian Jewish Bolsheviks under Bla Kun, Red Latvian Riemen as well as a
number of other national detachments.* [10]
20.3.1

Chinese detachments in service of Soviet state

Chinese in the Red Army

The Chinese with the Red Army were recruited from factory workers who had been attracted into Russia before
the war and sided with the urban proletariat with whom
they worked. Separate Chinese units fought for the Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, Trancaucasia and Siberia.* [6]

20.1 Background: Chinese speakers in Russia

Large numbers of Chinese lived and worked in Siberia in
the late Russian Empire. Many of these migrant workers
were transferred to the European part of Russia and to
the Ural during World War I because of the acute shortage of workers there.* [11] For example, by 1916 there
were about 5,000 Chinese workers in Novgorod Governorate. In 1916-1917 about 2,000 Chinese workers
were employed in the construction of Russian fortications around the Gulf of Finland. A signicant number
of them were convicted robbers (honghuzi,Red Beards
, transliterated into Russian as "khunkhuzy", )
transferred from katorga labor camps in Harbin and other
locations in the Far Eastern regions of the Russian Empire. After the Russian Revolution, some of them stayed
in Finland and took part as volunteers in the Finnish Civil
War on the allied communist side.* [12] After 1917 many
of these Chinese workers joined the Red Army.* [13] The
vast majority of these Chinese were apolitical and become soldiers solely in order to gain rights as workers in
a foreign country.* [11]

One estimate suggests that there were hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops in the Red Army.* [5] Nonetheless, Brian Murphy asserts that the number of Chinese
troops did not constitute a signicant fraction of the Red
Army.* [6] By summer of 1919, the Red Army comprised over a million men. By November 1920, it comprised over 1.8 million men.* [16]
Chinese units were involved in virtually every front of the
Russian Civil War. Some sincerely sympathized with the
Bolsheviks who treated them as proletarian brothers
. Others simply joined the Red Army in order to survive
and others wanted to ght their way home to China.
The Chinese were one of several foreign contingents
dubbed in Soviet historiography as internationalist detachments(" ").* [17] Chinese internationalist troops wore the same uniform as the
rest of the Red Army.* [18]
The Bolsheviks found special value in the use of Chinese
troops who were considered to be industrious and e-

76

20.4. CHINESE PARTICIPATION IN THE ALLIED INTERVENTION

77

ily defeated (temporarily) Romanian troops in February

1918 during the Romanian occupation of Bessarabia.

20.3.2 Chinese in the Cheka and military

guard units
Some Chinese volunteers, who had fanatical devotion to
the revolution, were allowed to join the Cheka and various military guard detachments.* [4] In 1919, there were
some 700 Chinese troops in the Cheka.* [3] The Cheka
utilized them for the arrest and execution of anti-Soviet
soldiers.* [18]

20.4 Chinese participation in the

Allied intervention

1919 White Army propaganda poster. Chinese soldiers wearing

braids and blue-gold uniforms are depicted executing a prisoner
and shoveling bones.

The Beiyang government in north China joined the Allied

intervention in the Russian Civil War. They sent forces
numbering 2,300 in Siberia and North Russia beginning
in 1918, after the Chinese community in the area requested aid. Many of these soldiers later defected to the
Red Army.* [23]

cient. In addition, they were seldom able to understand 20.5 Notable persons
Russian, which kept them insulated from outside inuences.* [18]
Ren Fuchen () (18841918) from Tieling was the
The use of Chinese troops by the Bolsheviks was com- rst Bolshevik in North Liaoning and a commander of the
mented on by both White Russian and non-Russian ob- Chinese regiment of the Soviet Red Army. He is comservers.* [13] In fact, the Bolsheviks were often derided memorated as a revolutionary hero in the People's Re*
*
*
*
for their reliance on Chinese and Lettish volunteers.* [19] public of China. [24] [25] [26] [27]
Anti-Bolshevik propaganda suggested that the Bolsheviks
did not have the support of the Russian people and thus
had to resort to foreign mercenaries who ran roughshod
20.6 In literature
over the Russian populace.* [20]
In 1918, Dmitri Gavronsky, a member of the Russian
Constituent Assembly, asserted that the Bolsheviks based
their power chiey on foreign support. He asserted that,
in Moscow, they have at their disposal 16,000 wellarmed Lettish soldiers, some detachments of Finnish Red
Guards and a large battalion of Chinese troops.Gavronsky added that The latter are always used for executions.* [21]
In his book Between Red and White, Leon Trotsky makes
sarcastic reference to the charge that the Soviets held Petrograd and Moscowby the aid of 'Lettish, Chinese, German and Bashkir regiments'".* [22]
The Red Army commander Iona Yakir headed a Chinese
detachment guarding Lenin and Trotsky. Later he headed
a regiment made up of volunteer Chinese workers, which
achieved distinction in battle when the Red Army heav-

There is a 1923 short story, Chinese Story by Mikhail Bulgakov, about a Chinese mercenary in the Red Army.* [28]
The 1936 historical novel Names in Marble by the Estonian author Albert Kivikas describes the fate of some
captured Chinese soldiers whose units were part of the
invading Russian army, in the hands of the Estonian patriots during the Estonian War of Independence.

20.7 See also

International Brigades - detachments of foreigners
who fought for the Republicans during Spanish Civil
War

78

CHAPTER 20. CHINESE IN THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND IN THE RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR

20.8 References
[1] . - .
., 1959. (Peng Ming, History of the ChineseRussian Friendship, translation from Chinese, Moscow,
Sotsekgiz, 1959, original: Zhong-su yu she, Pekin,
1957 (Russian)
[2] :
/ . .. ; .
- . . - ., 2000. . 1. - 365 . ISBN
5-8055-0043-4, Chapter IV, Section "The Perception of
China by USSR Political Elite" (Russian)
Chinese detachments, together with Latvians and
other nationals guarded the Soviet government already in 1917-1918
[3] Donald Rayeld, Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and
Those Who Killed for Him, Viking Press 2004: ISBN 0670-91088-0 (hardcover)
In 1919, 75 percent of the Cheka's central management was Latvian. When Russian soldiers refused
to carry out executions, Latvian (and Chinese force
of some 500 men) were brought in.
[4] Lukin, Alexander (2002). The Bear Watches the Dragon:
Russia's Perceptions of China and the Evolution of Russian Chinese Relations since the Eighteenth Century. China:
M.E. Sharpe. p. 98. ISBN 0-7656-1026-4.
[5] " .

. - .:
"", 2002. 504 ., p. 95 (quoted from the book: ..
" ". ., 1959.
p.p 42, 83, 94) (Russian)
[6] Murphy, Brian (2005). Rostov in the Russian Civil War,
1917-1920: The Key to Victory. Routledge. p. 154. ISBN
0-415-34977-X.
[7] Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the
Twentieth Century. p. 11. Personnel Strength[s] of
the Fighting Troopsand Personnel Strength[s] of the
Armed Forces of the Soviet Republic(both gures including naval infantry, internal security, etc.)
[8] ..
( 1918-1922 ). .,
1979 (Russian)
[9] German Kim (1999) The History of Korean Immigration, Book 1, Second half of 19th Century 1945,
Almaty, Dayk-Press
[10] National detachments of the Red Army and Cheka
[11] Larin, Alexander (2000). REDS and WHITES: Red
Army Soldiers from China. Motherland (7).
[12] Harry Haln,Kiinalaiset linnoitustyliset vuosina 19161917. In: Lars Westerlund (ed.), Venlissurmat
Suomessa 191422: osa 2.1 (Russian War Victims in Finland, 1914 - 1922. Part 2.1) Helsinki : Valtioneuvoston
kanslia (2004) ISBN 952-5354-43-1 (Finnish)

[13] Arthur Ransome (1919) Russia in 1919, New York,

B.W.Huebsch. ChapterKamenev And The Moscow Soviet:
I talked to the Chinaman afterwards. He is president of the Chinese Soviet. He told me they had just
about a thousand Chinese workmen in Moscow, and
therefore had a right to representation in the government of the town. I asked about the Chinese in
the Red Army, and he said there were two or three
thousand, not more.
[14] Islam in the Russian Federation and the Post Soviet Republics: a Historical perspective by Spyros Plakoudas, p
10
[15] Joseph L. Wieczynski (1994). The Modern encyclopedia
of Russian and Soviet history, Volume 21. Academic International Press. p. 125. ISBN 0-87569-064-5. Retrieved
2011-01-01.
[16] Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the
Twentieth Century. p. 11. Personnel Strength[s] of
the Fighting Troopsand Personnel Strength[s] of the
Armed Forces of the Soviet Republic(both gures including naval infantry, internal security, etc.): June/July
1918 - 225,000 and 374,551 June/July 1919 - 1,307,376
and 2,320,542 1st June 1920 - 1,539,667 and 4,424,317
On p. 15, Krivosheev shows the strength of the ghting
troops at 1,866,313, on 15th November 1920 - shortly before demobilization began. line feed character in |quote=
at position 184 (help)
[17] Reference about the cooperation of St.Petersburg with
the countries of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
. Ocial portal of St. Petersburg Administration. St. Petersburg Administration. Retrieved 2007-10-15. In 1917
there were several thousand of Chinese, mostly industrial
workers. In December 1917 the Union of Chinese Workers in Russia. In 1918 the Chinese internationalist
formed a Chinese internationalist detachment.
[18] Khvostov, Mikhail (1996). The Russian Civil War: The
Red Army. Andrei Karachtchouk (illust.). Osprey Publishing. p. 41. ISBN 0-415-34977-X.
[19] Mereto, Joseph J. (1920). The Red Conspiracy. The Bolsheviki came into power by violence and have sustained
themselves in power by violence and terrorism. Their
main support, the so-called Red Army, in which the Chinese and Letts have played a prominent part, is an army
of mercenaries...
[20] The British Library, Slavonic and East European Collections, Russian and Soviet Posters, 1914-1921, AntiBolshevik posters issued by the Counter-Revolutionary
Forces during the Civil War":
Poster Petr and Vasilii, or the Village in
"Sovdepiya": The text reads: Thus the punitive Bolshevik detachments of Latvians and Chinese take bread by force, destroy villages and shoot
peasants.
PosterEven the Sailors...": The text reads, in part,
"...then the commissars called in the Chinese, and
they, calmly, without trembling, shot priests.

20.8. REFERENCES

[21] Bolshevist Power Waning (PDF). New York Times.

1918-07-12.
[22] Trotsky, Leon (1922).Introduction. Between Red and
White.
[23] Joana Breidenbach (2005). Pl Nyri, Joana Breidenbach,
ed. China inside out: contemporary Chinese nationalism
and transnationalism (illustrated ed.). Central European
University Press. p. 90. ISBN 963-7326-14-6. Retrieved
18 March 2012. Then there occurred another story which
has become traumatic, this one for the Russian nationalist
psyche. At the end of the year 1918, after the Russian
Revolution, the Chinese merchants in the Russian Far East
demanded the Chinese government to send troops for their
protection, and Chinese troops were sent to Vladivostok to
protect the Chinese community: about 1600 soldiers and
700 support personnel.
[24] Tieling
[25] History
[26] (Tieling City resources) (Chinese)
[27] Ren Fuchen, China's
rst Bolshevik
[28] Chinese Story, inBulgakov's Encyclopedia(Russian)

79

Chapter 21

Condor Legion
Legion Condorredirects here. For the WW II German
bomber wing with this nickname, see Kampfgeschwader
53. For the 1939 German lm, see Legion Condor (lm).
The Condor Legion (German: Legion Condor) was
a unit composed of soldiers* [1] from the Nazi German Luftwae and Wehrmacht which served with the
Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War of July 1936
to March 1939. The Condor Legion developed methods Dornier Do 17 E-1 of the Condor Legion
of terror bombing which were used widely in the Second
World War shortly afterwards. The bombing of Guernica
was the most infamous operation carried out by the Condor Legion. Hugo Sperrle commanded the unit's aircraft
formations and Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma commanded
the ground element.

21.1 History of military aid to

Spain
Main article: German involvement in the Spanish Civil
War
A Ju 52 plane in Crete in 1943
Following the military coup in Spain at the start of the
made on 22 July, with an order for 10 transport aircraft. Hitler decided to support the nationalists on 25
or 26 July, but was wary of provoking a Europe-wide
war.* [3]* [4] The Reich Air Travel Ministry concluded
that nationalist forces would need at least 20 Junkers Ju
52s, own by Luft Hansa pilots, to carry the Army of
Africa from Spanish Morocco to Spain.* [3] This mission
became known as Operation Magic Fire (German: Feuerzauber).* [3]* [5] The joint Spanish-GermanSpanishMoroccan Transport Company(Spanish: Compana
Hispano-Marroqu de Transporte, HISMA) and an entirely German company, the Raw Materials and Good
Purchasing Company (German: Rohstoe-und-WarenEinkaufsgesellschaft, ROWAK) were established.* [3]
He-111E of the Condor Legion, 1939
This involvement was kept covert, hidden from both forministries, and funded with three milSpanish Civil War, the Spanish Second Republic turned eign and economic
*
*
[3]
[5]
lion
Reichmarks.
to the Soviet Union and France for support, and the nationalists requested the support of Hitler's Germany and The organisation and recruitment of German volunfascist Italy.* [2] The rst request for German aircraft was teers* [1] was also kept secret.* [6] The rst contingent
80

21.2. OPERATIONAL RECORD

of 86 men left on 1 August, unaware of their destination. They were accompanied with six biplane ghters, anti-aircraft guns and about 100 tons of other supplies.* [6] They were postioned at Tablada aireld near
Seville, and accompanied by German Air transport began
the airlift of Franco's troops to Spain. Germany's involvement grew in September to encompass the Wehrmacht's
other branches; Operation Magic Fire was renamed Operation Guido in November.* [6] A wide belief was that
the soldiers would train Spanish nationalists, and not engage.* [7] The head of the Kriegsmarine provided submarines from 24 October. The German navy also provided various surface ships and coordinated movement
of German supplies to Spain.* [8] German U-Boats were
dispatched to Spanish waters under the codename Ursula.* [8]
In the two weeks following 27 July, German transport
moved nearly 2,500 troops of the Army of Africa to
Spain.* [9] By 11 October, the mission's ocial end,
13,500 troops, 127 machine guns and 36 eld guns had
been carried into Spain from Morocco.* [10] Over this
period there was a movement from training and supply
missions of overt combat. The operation leader, Alexander von Scheele, was replaced by Walter Warlimont.* [11]
In September, 86 tons of bombs, 40 Panzer I tanks and
122 personnel had been landed in Spain; they were accompanied with 108 aircraft in the JulyOctober period,
split between aircraft for the Nationalist faction itself and
planes for German volunteers in Spain.* [11]

81
the possibilities for economic expansion.* [3] Although
the oensive on Madrid was abandoned in March 1937,
a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas
was supported by Germany; despite prolonging the Civil
War, it would help to distract the other western powers
from Hitler's ambitions in central Europe.* [17] The offensive on Vizcaya, a mining and industrial centre, would
help fuel German industry.* [18] On 27 June 1937, Hitler
(in a speech at Wrzburg) declared he supported Franco
to gain control of Spanish ore.* [19]
Discussions over German objectives for intervention occurred in January 1937. Germany was keen to avoid
prompting a Europe-wide war, which at the time they
felt committing further resources to Spain would do.* [20]
Contradictory views were held by German ocials: Ernst
von Weizscker suggested it was merely a matter of graceful withdrawal; Hermann Gring stated that Germany
would never recognise a red Spain. A joint Italian
German decision, that the last shipments would be made
by the start of February, was agreed.* [20]
It has been speculated that Hitler used the Spanish Civil
War issue to distract Mussolini from Hitler's own plans to
annex or Anschluss Austria. The authoritarian, Catholic,
and anti-Nazi Vaterlndische Front government of autonomous Austria had been allied with Mussolini, and
in 1934 the assassination of Austria's authoritarian president Engelbert Dollfuss had already successfully invoked
Italian military assistance in case of a German invasion.* [21]

German air crews supported the Nationalist advance on A communiqu in December 1936 from Ulrich von HasMadrid,* [11] and the successful relief of the Siege of sell, the German ambassador in Rome, illustrates another
the Alczar.* [12] Ultimately, this phase of the Siege of point:
Madrid would be unsuccessful.* [12] Soviet air support
for the Republican was growing, particularly through the
The role played by the Spanish conict as
supply of Polikarpov aircraft.* [13] Warlimont appealed
regards Italy's relations with France and Engto Nazi Germany to step up support. Following Gerland could be similar to that of the Abyssinian
man recognition of Franco's government on 30 Septemconict, bringing out clearly the actual, opposber, German eorts in Spain were reorganised and exing interests of the powers and thus preventpanded.* [14] The existing command structure was reing Italy from being drawn into the net of the
placed with the Winterbung Rgen, and the military
Western powers and used for their machinaunits already in Spain were formed into a new legion,
tions. [...] All the more clearly will Italy recogwhich was briey called the Iron Rations (German: Einize the advisability of confronting the Westserne Rationen) and the Iron Legion (German: Eiserne
ern powers shoulder to shoulder with Germany.
Legion) before Gring renamed it the Condor Legion
(German: Legion Condor).* [15] The rst German charg
d'aaires to Franco's government, General Wilhelm von
Faupel,* [nb 1] arrived in November, but was told not to 21.2 Operational record
interfere in military matters.* [16]

21.1.1

Motivation

In the years following the Spanish Civil War, Hitler

gave several possible motives for German involvement.
Among these were the distraction it provided from German re-militarisation; the prevention of the spread of
communism to Western Europe; the creation of a state
friendly to Germany to disrupt Britain and France; and

The Condor Legion, upon establishment, consisted of the

Kampfgruppe 88, with three squadrons of Ju 52 bombers
and the Jagdgruppe 88 with three squadrons of Heinkel
He 51 ghters, the reconnaissance Aufklrungsgruppe
88 (supplemented by the Aufklrungsgruppe See 88),
an anti-aircraft group, the Flakbteilung 88, and a signals
group, the Nachrichtenabteilung 88.* [15] Overall command was given to Hugo Sperrle, with Alexander Holle
as chief of sta. Scheele was transferred to become a

82

CHAPTER 21. CONDOR LEGION

military attach in Salamanca.* [15] Two armoured units 21.2.1 Vizcaya campaign
under the command of Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma, with
four tanks each, were also operational.* [22]
The isolated area of Vizcaya, a predominantly Basque
part
of northern Spain, was the most immediate tarThe Nationalists were supported by German and Italian
get,
in
what was called the War in the North.* [18] It
*
units and materials at the Battle of Madrid. [23] However, the military situation in Madrid remained poor for was largely a Nationalist and Italian oensive, but was
by a consistently re-equipping Condor Lethe nationalists, and both German and Italian aircraft supported
*
gion.
[35]
The terrain was favourable, with the planes
(under Franco's direction) began bombing raids on the
coming
over
a range of mountains to the south, mask*
city as a whole. [24] The Germans were keen to observe
*
ing
their
entrance.
[18] Sperrle remained in Salamanca;
the eects of civilian bombings and deliberate burning
Wolfram
von
Richthofen
replaced Holle in January as
*
of the city. [25] Oensives involving German aircraft,
*
deputy
and
in
actual
command.
[18] Since the Basque air
as well as the bombings, were unsuccessful. Increasing
force
was
very
limited,
even
ghters
were used in groundRepublican air superiority became apparent, particularly
attack
roles.
The
Legion's
air
force
initially attacked the
the strength of the Soviet Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 air*
towns
of
Ochandiano
and
Durango.
[36] Durango had
*
craft, [24] though historian Hugh Thomas describes their
no
anti-aircraft
defence,
and
only
minor
other defences.
*
armaments as primitive. [26] Faupel, in November
According
to
the
Basques,
250
civilians
died on the 31
December, urged the creation of a single German unit of
March,
including
the
priest,
nuns
and
congregation
of a
15,00030,000, believing it would be enough to turn the
*
*
[36]
[37]
The
Germans,
with
their
air
church
ceremony.
tide of the war to the Nationalists. Hans-Heinrich Dieck*
raids,
were
hated.
[38]
The
Basque
ground
forces
were
in
ho argued this would be insucient, and that larger
full
retreat
towards
Bilbao,
through
the
town
of
Guernica,
*
measures could provoke the wrath of the Spanish. [27]
most conBetween late 1936 and early 1937, new aircraft were which was attacked on 26 April in one of the
*
troversial
attacks
of
the
Spanish
Civil
War.
[37]
sent to the Condor Legion, including Henschel Hs 123
dive bombers, and prototypes of the Heinkel He 112 and
Messerschmitt Bf 109, with the latter proving the most
21.2.2
successful.* [24] The Heinkel He 111 was added to the
*
bomber eet, [nb 2] along with the Dornier Do 17 (E
and F types). Older aircraft were passed onto the Nationalists.* [28] By the end of 1936, approximately 7,000
Condor legion personnel were in Spain.* [29]* [nb 3]
German forces also operated in the Battle of Jarama,
which began with a Nationalist oensive on 6 February
1937. It included German-supplied ground forces, including two batteries of machine guns, a tank division,
and the Condor Legion's anti-aircraft guns.* [28] Bombing by both Republican and Nationalist aircraft, including
Ju 52s from the Legion, helped ensure a stalemate.* [30]
It showed up the inadequacy of the Legion's aircraft,
faced with superior Soviet-made ghters.* [31]* [32] Von
Thorma requested Irish nationalist support for a tank advance at one point, never to be replicated.* [32] Use of He
51 and Ju 52s, and the Legion's anti-aircraft guns used in
ground roles, only partly mitigated what was a signicant
defeat for the Nationalists at the Battle of Guadalajara
during March.* [33] A joint Italian-German general sta
had been set up in January 1937 to advise Franco on war
planning. The defeat of a signicant Italian force and
the growing Soviet superiority in tanks and aircraft led
the Germans to support a plan to abandon the oensive
on Madrid and instead concentrate a series of attacks on
weaker Republican-controlled areas.* [17] Whilst many
countries believed motorised troops had proved less effective than was rst thought, the inadequacy of the Italians as a ghting force was quite apparent to the Germans.* [34]

Guernica

Ruins of Guernica (1937)

In Operation Rgen, waves of Ju 52 and He 111 planes

bombed and strafed targets in Guernica. The number of
casualties is a matter of controversy, with perhaps 200
300 people killed;* [39] the number reported dead by the
Basques was 1,654 dead and 889 wounded.* [37]* [40]
Several explanations were put forward by the Nationalists, including blaming the attack on the Republicans,* [41] that the attack on the town had been a prolonged oensive, or that the Rentera bridge, outside
Guernica, was the true target. However, the nature of the
operation itself, including the formation and armaments
used, makes this seem unlikely. Guernica was a clear target of the Condor Legion, rather than the Nationalists as a
whole.* [42]* [43] The oensive on Bilbao, when it eventually came on 11 July, was supported by ground units

21.2. OPERATIONAL RECORD

83

of the Condor Legion, and extensive air operations. It halted by the Republican advance on Teruel and the ensuproved the worth of the Condor Legion to the Nationalist ing Battle of Teruel.* [52] Both the Legion's land and air
cause.* [44]
forces were used, and the Legion moved to Bronchales.
and the town fell
The rst English-language media reports of the destruc- Poor weather resulted in few ights,
*
to
Republican
forces
on
6
January.
[53]
Up to 100 sortion in Guernica appeared two days later. George Steer,
ties
a
day
were
launched
during
the
Nationalist's
countera reporter for The Times, who was covering the Spanish
oensive
through
the
Alfambra
valley.
The
Junkers
Civil War from inside the country, wrote the rst full acwas
used
for
the
rst
time
on
the
advance
on
Ju
87A
count of events. Steer's reporting set the tone for much
Teruel, which was retaken on 22 February.* [53] The
of the subsequent reportage. Steer pointed out the clear
German complicity in the action.* [nb 4] The evidence of continued Nationalist oensive on Aragon in AprilJune
1937, including the Battle of Belchite, involved bombthree small bomb cases stamped with the German Iming
raids and the use of the Legion's ground forces.* [53]
perial Eagle made clear that the ocial German posiThe Legion was switched to focus in the north, towards
tion of neutrality in the Civil War and the signing of a
moving south again following
Non-Intervention Pact were only nominal and that Ger- the Segre river, before
*
[54] The Legion moved its main
Nationalist
successes.
man forces were participating in the war. Steer's report
was syndicated to the New York Times and then world- headquarters to Benicarl; single-engined planes operated from airelds nearby, and twin-engined planes from
wide, generating widespread shock, outrage, and fear.
Zaragoza.* [54] Hitler's words to his colleagues belied a
change in attitude about the war in Germany that a quick
victory in the war was not desirable, a mere continua21.2.3 Further campaigns
tion of the war would be preferable.* [55] German policy would be to prevent a Republican defeat.* [56] HowThe Condor Legion also took part in the Battle of ever, casualties were beginning to mount for the Legion
Brunete, designed as a Republican oensive to take the and, combined with a resurgence in Republican air activpressure o northern Spain, where ghting was ongo- ity, the Nationalist advance stalled. This was, perhaps,
ing.* [44] The Legion was sent from the north to reinforce because of the reluctance of commanders in Germany
the broken line.* [45] There were repeated raids on Re- to supply reinforcements, with the Czechoslovakia crisis
publican armoured vehicles and later defensive positions mounting.* [54] Arguments over the bill to the Germans
by both bombers and ghters based at Salamanca.* [46] now rising at 10 million Reichmarks a month conRepublican aircraft were ineective, despite Nationalist tinued, unresolved.* [57] The Legion's materiel had been
fears, compared with German aircraft; the Messerschmitt exhausted.* [58]
Bf 109 was shown to be superior to the I-15 and I-16
models used by Republican forces.* [47] The Legion lost On 2425 July, Republican forces launched the last ma8 aircraft, but claimed 18 victories. German tactics were jor oensive of the war, the Battle of the Ebro. Realso improved with the experience of Brunete, particu- connaissance units of the Condor Legion had noticed
Nationalists forces. The
larly the en masse use of tanks by the Nationalists.* [48] a troop build-up, and warned
warning went unheeded.* [59] Although the Republic
The Nationalists returned to focus on the capture of gained ground, Republican forces failed to gain control of
northern Spain. German test aircraft, with latest mod- Gandesa, with 422 sorties by the Legion (with around 70
els, faced an outdated Basque air force, although it did aircraft operational) having considerable eect. The rest
have some Russian planes.* [49] Heavy aerial bombard- of the battle saw a series of attacks using artillery or air
ment from 200 Nationalist, German and Italian planes strikes, followed by a Nationalist ground advance.* [59]
was used far behind Basque lines in August 1937, lead- However, tensions in Czechoslovakia and a shortage of
ing to the fall of Santander after the Battle of San- pilots in Germany led to the return of 250 pilots from
tander on 1 September.* [48] The formal battle in As- the Legion, around half of them being bomber crews.
turias ended with the fall of Gijn on 21 October. A Although trained Spaniards made up some of the shortlarge amount of ammunitions had been used by the Le- fall, Volkmann complained to central command in Berlin,
gion, including a million machine gun rounds and 2,500 which would lead to his recall in September.* [60] Durtonnes of bombs.* [48] Germany immediately began to ing the battle, which saw 113 days of ghting, only 10
ship industrial production back to Germany.* [50] Sper- aircraft were lost (some by accident) and 14 were badly
rle argued repeatedly with Faupel, and against HISMA's damaged; the Legion claimed around 100 Republican airmonopoly. Faupel was replaced by Franco, through Sper- craft, a third of those lost. Only 5 aircrew had been killed,
rle.* [51] Sperrle also returned to Germany and was re- and 6 captured.* [60] Aid from Germany temporarily
placed by Hellmuth Volkmann;* [51] following disagree- halted in mid-September.* [61] Germany and Nationalments with Volkmann, Von Richthofen would be re- ist Spain settled the issue of German interests in Spanish
placed with Hermann Plocher in early 1938.* [50]
mines.* [62]
Whilst the next major campaign Madrid or Barcelona The Legion took a short break from active duty to re was discussed, the Condor Legion was moved to Soria ceive new aircraft, including Bf 109Es, He 111Es and
and began a week of strikes against Republican airelds,

84
Js, and Hs 126As, bringing its strength to 96 aircraft,
around a fth of the Nationalist's force as a whole. Von
Richthofen returned to Spain in overall command, with
Hans Seidemann as chief of sta.* [63] This reinforcement may have been the single most important intervention by a foreign side in the war, enabling a counterattack after the Battle of the Ebro.* [62] It mainly took part
in operations against the remaining Republican air force
during JanuaryFebruary 1939, with considerable success.* [64] After it took part in parades in Barcelona and
elsewhere, and minor duties over Madrid, it was rapidly
dissolved.* [65] The men returned on 26 May; the best aircraft were returned to Germany and the rest of the equipment bought by the new Spanish regime.* [66]

CHAPTER 21. CONDOR LEGION

Other operations
Main article: German involvement in the Spanish Civil
War Maritime operations
Overtly, the Kriegsmarine was partly used to enforce the
Non-Intervention Agreement from interfering in the Civil
War. However, this agreement was clearly broken by
Germany.* [71] As a result, the German pocket battleship Deutschland stood guard over Ceuta to prevent interference from Republican ships while Franco transported
troops to the Spanish mainland.* [72] By mid-October,
the German North Sea Group around Spain consisted of
the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer,
the light cruiser Kln, and four torpedo boats. After the
Germans claimed that Leipzig had been attacked by an
unidentied submarine, it was formally withdrawn from
international patrols.* [73]

The Condor Legion claimed to have destroyed 320 Spanish Republican planes using aircraft (either shot down or
bombed on the ground), and shot down another 52 using anti-aircraft guns.* [67] They also claimed to have destroyed 60 ships, including Spanish Republican Navy ves- Operation Ursula (named after the daughter of Karl
sels. They lost 72 aircraft due to hostile action, and anDnitz) saw a group of German U-boats active around
other 160 to accidents.* [68]
Spain.* [74] It began on 20 November 1936, with the
movement of the U-33 and U-34 from Wilhelmshaven.
Any identication marks were obscured, and the whole
mission was kept secret.* [74] Diculties in identifying legitimate targets and concerns about discovery limited their operations.* [75] During their return to Wil21.2.4 Maritime operations
helmshaven in December, the Republican submarine C-3
was sunk; the Germans claimed this was due to a torThe Maritime Reconnaissance Stael 88 (German: Auf- pedo red from U-34, although the Republican's enquiry
klrungsstael See 88) was the Condor Legion's maritime claimed its loss was due to an internal explosion. Their
*
unit under the command of Karl Heinz Wol. Oper- return marked the ocial end of Operation Ursula. [75]
ating independently of the land-based division, it acted However, it does seem that further submarines were sent
are not known;
against enemy shipping, ports, coastal communications in mid-1937, but details of the operation
*
*
six
are
believed
to
have
been
involved.
[75]
and occasionally inland targets such as bridges. [68] It
used oatplanes, starting with the Heinkel He 60, which
began operating at Cadiz in October 1936.* [68] Missions
started as reconnaissance but, following the move from
Cadiz to Melilla in Spanish Morocco in December 1936,
the focus shifted to attacks on shipping.* [69] It was again
moved in February 1937 to Mlaga, newly captured, and
then to Majorca when Mlaga proved unsuitable.* [69]
Beginning in June, operations were expanded to allow
attacks on all Republican ports, as long as British ships
were not present. 10 ships were attacked in the second
half of 1937; however, the Norwegian torpedoes being
used proved ineective, and strang or bombing targets
was used instead.* [69]
The arrival of Martin Harlinghausen (known as Iron
Gustav) saw operations expand, and operations targeted
Alicante, Almera, Barcelona and Cartagena. As naval
activity declined, inland targets became more numerous,
and night missions began.* [69] Activities in support of
ground forces became the main focus of the unit until
the end of hostilities. Both Wol and Harlinghausen received the Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds.* [70] In total, eleven men were killed in action,
and ve others died due to accident or illness.* [70]

21.2.5 Abwehr
The German Intelligence service, the Abwehr, working
independently of the Legion Condor was secretly involved in Operation Bodden. This was to later play a part
in the detection of the Operation Torch invasion eet.* [nb
5]

21.3 Military advantages gained

21.3.1 Training
It is known that the leaders of the Army were hesitant
about becoming involved in the conict, and resisted a
call made by the Italian government for a dual transfer
of ground troops to ght in Spain. The involvement of
the Luftwae, however, was not entirely restricted and a
commonly held viewpoint is that the involvement of the
Luftwae in the Civil War constituted a proving ground
for troops employed later during World War II. This view

21.3. MILITARY ADVANTAGES GAINED

85

21.3.2 Other units

The Condor Legion also included non-aircraft units.
Panzer crews operating Panzerkampfwagen I light tanks
were commanded by Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma. The
Germans also tested small numbers of 88 mm Flak 18
anti-aircraft artillery guns which they used to destroy Republican tanks and fortications with direct re, as well
as enemy aircraft in their designed role.
German involvement in Spain also saw the development of the rst air ambulance service for evacuation of
wounded combatants.* [nb 7]
Condor Legioninfantry training school in vila, Spain.

21.3.3 Technical advances

is supported by the testimony of Hermann Gring, later

Reichsmarschall of the Luftwae, when on trial at the
International Military Tribunal in Nrnberg. When asked
about the decision to use the Luftwae, Gring states:

When the Civil War broke out in Spain,

Franco sent a call for help to Germany and
asked for support, particularly in the air. One
should not forget that Franco with his troops
was stationed in Africa and that he could not get
the troops across, as the eet was in the hands
of the Communists, or, as they called themselves at the time, the competent Revolutionary
Government in Spain. The decisive factor was,
rst of all, to get his troops over to Spain. The
Fhrer thought the matter over. I urged him
to give support [to Franco] under all circumstances, rstly, in order to prevent the further
spread of communism in that theater and, secondly, to test my young Luftwae at this opportunity in this or that technical respect.* [76]* [nb
6]

This was also a view put forth in western media following

the disengagement of German forces from Spain.* [77]
Dozens of Messerschmitt Bf 109 ghters and Heinkel
He 111 medium bombers, and from December 1937, at
least three Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers, rst saw active service in the Condor Legion against Soviet-supplied
aircraft. The Stuka's rst mission own in Spain was
February 1938. Each of these aircraft played a major
role during the early years of the Second World War.
The Germans also realized that biplane ghters were
quickly becoming less eective when compared to newer
monoplane designs. The Heinkel He 51 ghter, after suffering many losses during the rst 12 months of the conict, was switched to a ground attack role and later saw
service as a trainer.

Bf 109 C-1, Jagdgruppe 88, Legion Condor

One important factor in World War II which is thought

to have directly resulted from the conict is the technical
development of the Messerschmitt Bf 109. The V3 V6
types entered service in Spain directly from operational
trials around January 1937. In the spring of 1938 these
were joined by type C aircraft with type Es being rst
elded in December 1938.

21.3.4 Tactics
Alongside the potential for gains in combat experience it
is also thought that various strategic initiatives were rst
trialed as part of Luftwae involvement in the conict.
Theories on strategic bombing were rst developed by
the Luftwae with the rst exhibition of "carpet bombing" in the September 1937 Asturias campaign. As the
ghting progressed into March 1938 Italian pilots under
Fieldmarshal Hugo Sperrle were involved in thirteen raids
against Barcelona involving re and gas bombs. These
particular raids resulted in the deaths of thousands of
civilians. It is worth noting that a subsequent commander
of the Legion in Spain, Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen
was to become heavily involved in the operation of the
Luftwae as part of Operation Barbarossa.
Tactics of combined or joint operations were a particular focus. Close air support for Nationalist troops, attack bombing of Republican troop concentrations, and
strang became features of the war. The Legion worked
closely in missions which maximized the ghting ability
of the Nationalist air force and troops, the Italian CTV,
and pilots from the Aviazione Legionaria (Legionary Air

86

CHAPTER 21. CONDOR LEGION

Force). German Air ace Adolf Galland was to claim after

World War II that although there was a focus on taking
lessons from the conict in Spain, he believed the wrong
conclusions were drawn by the German High Command
with particular respect to the Luftwae:
Whatever may have been the importance
of the tests of German arms in the Spanish
Civil War from tactical, technical and operational points of view, they did not provide the
experience that was needed nor lead to the formulation of sound strategic concepts.
Memorial for the Condor Legion, Almudena-graveyard, Madrid

21.4 Reaction to German involvement

21.4.2 Since reunication
Various sympathetic writers participated in condemning
the scarcely concealed interference by Germany and Italy.
An example was Heinrich Mann, who appealed from exile in France with the sloganGerman soldiers! A rogue
sends you to Spain!" in response to the Legion's involvement.
Other states tacitly approved the ght of the German Legion against the Soviet-supplied Spanish Republican side.

21.4.1

Treatment in Nazi Germany

As part of his longterm Blumenkriegstrategy Hitler

drew parallels between the conict in Spain and the
peaceful methods he used to gain control in Germany.* [nb 8] The regime also made use of the conict
as an opportunity for political education and aggrandizement.* [nb 9] Highlighting of the military aspects and success story for German arms is also evident with the publication of various pulp semi-autobiographical works in
1939, most notably:

Recrimination for the activities of the Condor Legion

and shame at the involvement of German citizens in the
bombing of Guernica surfaced following German reunication in the 1990s. In 1997, the 60th anniversary of
Operation Rgen, then German President Roman Herzog
wrote to survivors of the raid apologizing on behalf of the
German people and state. Herzog said he wished to extenda hand of friendship and reconciliationon behalf
of all German citizens.* [78] This sentiment was later ratied by members of the German Parliament who went on
to legislate in 1998 for the removal of all former Legion
members' names from associated German military bases.
This process was then carried out but the issue surfaced
again in 2005 following media revelations about the role
of pilot Werner Mlders who had volunteered to serve in
Spain. Although not involved in the bombing of Guernica
it was decided by then German Defence Minister Peter
Struck that in keeping with the law Mlders' name should
be removed from the barracks at Visselhoevede and from
association with Luftwae wing 74 (Jagdgeschwader 74)
based in Neuburg an der Donau. Up until 2005 it had not
been established that Mlders ew as a Condor Legion
volunteer before his death in 1941.* [79]

Wir funken fr Franco (literally We transmit for

Franco) by Hellmut Fhring,
Als Jagdieger in Spanien (As a ghter pilot in
Spain) by Hannes Trautloft,
Das Buch der Spanienieger (The Spanish Pilot's
Book) by Hauptmann Wulf Bley.
Each book had a high circulation; in the case of Bley the
circulation was estimated at over 1 million books sold.
Although accurate in part these works are now accepted
by scholars on the period and conict as laced with propaganda which emphasizes daring escapades and fails to
address the realities of military combat in general.

21.5 Awards
The Spanienkreuz (Spanish Cross) campaign medal was
awarded by the German authorities in seven classes from
April 14, 1939.* [nb 10] Due to the clandestine nature of
German activities in Spain, no awards were instituted up
to April 1939 at the end of German involvement in the
conict. The Spanish Cross complemented cu titles issued to those who served. Legionnaires could also expect
a Campaign Medal struck by the Spanish authorities to
thank German volunteers for their service. See the two
websites listed below for examples of each medal and others issued to Legion veterans.

21.7. SEE ALSO

87
Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen, commander
Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma, commander
Hellmuth Volkmann, commander

21.7 See also

Regia Aeronautica
Aviazione Legionaria
Fuerza Area Nacional (Arma de Aviacin), the
Spanish Nationalist Air forces.
Aviacin del Tercio, the Spanish Foreign Legion.
Fuerza Area de la Repblica Espaola (FARE),
the Spanish Second Republic Air Force, supported
mainly by the Soviet Union.
German re-armament
Kampfgeschwader 53, the World War II Luftwae
bomber wing named for the expeditionary force.
Condor legionnaires celebrated on cover of the Nazi air ministry's
magazine, June 1939

Aerial bombing of cities

Flying ace

Other notable incidents on the return of the Legion included an assembly for a personal address by Hitler on 6
June 1939, and a parade as part of the celebrations organized for Hitler's 50th birthday 20 April 1939.* [nb 11]
Also by way of commemoration the activities of the Legion were memorialized in a special edition of Der Adler,
the Luftwae's magazine for service members which at
the time was also circulated in both Spain and the United
States.

21.6 Notable participants

Alphabetically by surname
Hermann Aldinger
Oskar Dirlewanger
Rudolf Demme, head trainer
Adolf Galland
Hajo Herrmann
Werner Mlders
Hugo Sperrle, commander
Karl Schweikard, Sonderstab W
Hannes Trautloft
Heinrich Trettner

Henschel Hs 129

21.8 Notes
[1] See also: de:Wilhelm Faupel (German)
[2] See also: Heinkel He 111 operational history#Spanish
Civil War
[3] By comparison, there were now 14,000 Italians supporting
Franco's forces. (Thomas (1961). p. 337.).
[4] George Steer was a special correspondent for The Times
and his article rst appeared in The Times April 28. It was
reprinted in The New York Times April 28. Part of his report read: Guernica was not a military objective.... The
object of the bombardment was seemingly the demoralisation of the civil population and the destruction of the
cradle of the Basque race.
[5] 'Bodden' is a reference to the strait separating the Baltic
island of Rgen from the German mainland and the Abwehr operation represented a network of coastal listening
stations overseeing a seabed detection system across the
Gibraltar straits. Bodden's aim was to gather SIGINT via
the underwater detection system and via fourteen infrared ship surveillance stations (nine in Spain, ve in Morocco) which later relayed shipping information to U boats
in the Mediterranean and threatening convoys.
[6] Frequently misquoted along the lines of: The Spanish
Civil War gave me an opportunity to put my young air
force to the test, and a means for my men to gain experience.or other permutations.

88

CHAPTER 21. CONDOR LEGION

[7] Details on the 1936-39 operation can be found in The history of Anesthesia Contributions of the Legion Condor to
the Wehrmacht's surgical care during World War II. (R.J.
Defalque, A.J. Wright).

[18] Westwell (2004). p. 30.

[8] Evidenced in a January 1937 speech (prior to the outcry over Operation Rgen). Hitler speech to Reichstag
30 January 1937 available via the German Propaganda
Archive.

[21] www.ngfl-cymru.org.uk

[9] For example, political education of Hitler Youth by way

of the conict is apparent in the Worldview Education
for Winter 1938/39 available at the German Propaganda
Archive.
[10] This campaign medal is not to be confused with the Spanish War Cross which began being awarded in 1942 for acts
of gallantry on the Eastern Front. The Spanish War Cross
was awarded to Spanish volunteers of the Blue Division.
[11] Color images of this address were taken by Hugo Jger
and are available via Getty images. The formal return to
Germany and parade by of the Legion was captured by
Ufa studios.

[19] Thomas (1961). p. 459.

[20] Thomas (1961). p. 341.

[22] Thomas (1961). pp. 316317.

[23] Thomas (1961). p. 322.
[24] Westwell (2004). p. 24.
[25] Thomas (1961). p. 329.
[26] Thomas (1961). p. 317.
[27] Thomas (1961). p. 334.
[28] Westwell (2004). p. 25.
[29] Thomas (1961). p. 337.
[30] Westwell (2004). pp. 2526.
[31] Westwell (2004). p. 26.
[32] Thomas (1961). p. 376.

21.9 References
21.9.1

Citations

[1] Wehrmacht soldiers who had been selected for Operation

Condor got a quite good payment. Besides, it improved
their chances to be promoted (and/or to get a promotion faster than in Germany). Source: Stefanie SchlerSpringorum (2010): Krieg und Fliegenp. 109 (ISBN 9783-506-76747-9)
[2] Westwell (2004). p. 10.
[3] Westwell (2004). p. 12.
[4] Thomas (1961). pp. 231232.

[33] Westwell (2004). p. 27.

[34] Thomas (1961). p. 388.
[35] Thomas (1961). pp. 401402.
[36] Thomas (1961). p. 403.
[37] Westwell (2004). p. 31.
[38] Thomas (1961). pp. 403404.
[39] The legacy of Guernica
[40] Thomas (1961). p. 419.
[41] Thomas (1961). p. 420.
[42] Westwell (2004). pp. 3233.

[5] Thomas (1961). p. 230.

[43] Thomas (1961). p. 420421.

[6] Westwell (2004). p. 13.

[44] Westwell (2004). p. 33.

[7] Westwell (2004). p. 14.

[45] Thomas (1961). p. 462.

[8] Westwell (2004). p. 15.

[46] Westwell (2004). pp. 3334.

[9] Westwell (2004). p. 16.

[47] Westwell (2004). p. 35.

[10] Westwell (2004). p. 18.

[48] Westwell (2004). p. 36.

[11] Westwell (2004). p. 19.

[49] Thomas (1961). pp. 468469.

[12] Westwell (2004). p. 21.

[50] Westwell (2004). p. 38.

[13] Westwell (2004). pp. 2122.

[51] Thomas (1961). p. 471.

[14] Westwell (2004). pp. 2223.

[52] Westwell (2004). pp. 3839.

[15] Westwell (2004). p. 23.

[53] Westwell (2004). p. 39.

[16] Thomas (1961). p. 333.

[54] Westwell (2004). p. 40.

[17] Westwell (2004). p. 29.

[55] Thomas (1961). p. 502.

21.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

[56] Thomas (1961). p. 510.

[57] Thomas (1961). p. 487.
[58] Thomas (1961). p. 541.
[59] Westwell (2004). p. 41.
[60] Westwell (2004). p. 44.
[61] Thomas (1961). p. 553.
[62] Thomas (1961). p. 566.
[63] Westwell (2004). pp. 4445.
[64] Westwell (2004). p. 45.
[65] Westwell (2004). p. 46.
[66] Westwell (2004). p. 47.
[67] Westwell (2004). pp. 4748.
[68] Westwell (2004). p. 48.

89

21.10 External links

21.10.1 Militaria
Spanienkreuz in its dierent classes via wehrmachtawards.com
Cu titles of Legion Condor and wound badge via
wehrmacht-awards.com
Francoist issued Campaign Medal via Rene Chavez's
Axis101 website.

21.10.2 Essays
Aerial Warfare and the Spanish Civil War by Pamela
Feltus at centennialoight.net
Spanish Civil War: German Condor Legion's Tactical Air Power by Walter A. Musciano at TheHistoryNet.com
Portugal, Spain and Nazi Gold Some details on German reliance on Iberian mineral wealth.

[69] Westwell (2004). p. 49.

[70] Westwell (2004). p. 51.
[71] Westwell (2004). p. 56.

21.10.3 Related sites

David Nash's Exhaustively accurate listing of aircraft which served in the conict.

[72] Gannes, Harry and Repard, Theodore. Spain in Revolt.

Victor Gollancz Ltd. London 1936

Axis History - Legion Condor

[73] Westwell (2004). p. 57.

Eagles of the Third Reich - Men of the Luftwae

[74] Westwell (2004). p. 58.

[75] Westwell (2004). p. 60.
[76] Testimony of Gring, Trial of the Major War Criminals,
International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 14 November 1 October 1946, Volume IX. Available via Avalon
Project.
[77] Farewell TIME Magazine Monday, May. 22, 1939.
[78] Exhibit recalls German destruction of Spanish town of
Guernica CNN.com April 25, 2000.
[79] Germany Army Drops Name of Nazi Pilot dewelle.de January 28, 2005.

21.9.2

Sources

Thomas, Hugh (1961). The Spanish Civil War (1

ed.). London: Eyre and Spottiswoode.
Westwell, Ian (2004).
Condor Legion: The
Wehrmacht's Training Ground. Spearhead 15. Ian
Allan publishing. ISBN 978-0-7110-3043-5.

Chapter 22

Corpo Truppe Volontarie

The Corps of Volunteer Troops (Italian: Corpo Trup- 22.2 Commanders
pe Volontarie, CTV) was an Fascist Italian expeditionary
force which was sent to Spain to support the Nationalist The following are the commanders of the Corps of Volforces under General Francisco Franco against the unteer Troops and signicant battles fought with CTV
Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War, 1936- participation while they were in command:
39.* [1]
General Mario Roatta - Commander-in-Chief of the
CTV, from 1936 to 1937
Battle of Mlaga - Nationalist victory

22.1 Background

Battle of Guadalajara - Republican victory

General Ettore Bastico - Commander-in-Chief of
the CTV, 1937

In July 1936, at the beginning of Spanish Civil War, most

of the elite Nationalist forces were isolated in Spanish
Morocco or on the Canary Islands. Meanwhile, in Spain,
smaller formations of Nationalists and Guardia Civil
forces were locked in combat with pro-government militias, Assault Guards and those army units which remained
loyal to the leftist Popular Front government. Making the
situation more dicult for the Nationalists was the fact
that the Spanish Republican Air Force and Navy generally remained loyal to the government.

Battle of Santander - Nationalist victory

General Mario Berti - Commander-in-Chief of the
CTV, from 1937 to 1938
Aragon Oensive - Nationalist victory
General Gastone Gambara - Commander-in-Chief
of the CTV, from 1938 to 1939

If the Nationalist forces ghting in Spain did not receive

Catalonia Oensive - Nationalist victory
reinforcements, the rebellion could soon fail. General
Franco and the other Nationalist leaders sent emissaries
to Berlin and Rome to ask for help. Both German dic22.3 Timeline
tator Adolf Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini
immediately responded in a positive manner. They sent
transport aircraft and crews to Morocco to airlift Nation- 22.3.1 1936
alist forces from there to Spain. The colonial troops from
Morocco allowed the Nationalist forces to take the initia- 3 September : Republican forces from Catalonia, under
the command of Captain Alberto Bayo, made a landing
tive on mainland Spain.
The Italians also used Nationalist-held, and also Por- on Majorca. His formations were the target of Italian air
tuguese, harbours as staging points for sending supplies forces which attacked on 24 October. On the same date,
to the Nationalist forces, and also for landing Spanish Italian bombers and ghters launched their rst air raid on
troops to support the rebellion. Italian submarines be- Madrid. This was intended to demonstrate to the Repubgan to sink Spanish, Soviet and other nations' ships trans- lican forces the power of Franco's allies. In the following
porting materials through the Mediterranean to Repub- days, they began a series of bombing raids on the Spanish
lican harbours. However action by the League of Na- capital.
tions resulted in the Nyon Agreement of September 1937,
which classed these operations as acts of piracy, and
was enforced by the French Navy and the British Royal
Navy.* [2]

2 November : Italian and German bombers and their

ghter escorts were attacked by Soviet aircraft, nicknamed "Chatos" by the Spanish, which resulted in some
losses for the Italians.

90

22.3. TIMELINE

91
2nd Fiamme NereBlackshirt Infantry Division
(Black Flames)
3rd Penne NereBlackshirt Infantry Division (
Black Feathers)
The Blackshirt (Camicie Nere, or CCNN) Divisions
contained regular soldiers and volunteer militia from
the Fascist Party. The CCNN divisions were semimotorised. There it also had the independent XXIII de
Marzo Group of CCNN infantry.
The Italian CTV also had a Tank and Armoured Cars
Group, Corps Artillery of ten regiments (Groups) of eld
artillery, and four batteries of anti-aircraft artillery.
3 February to 8 February: The 1st CCNN Division
Dio lo Vuole,in support of the Nationalists, launched
an oensive against Mlaga. On 8 February, the Italians
and Nationalists captured the city. The Battle of Mlaga
was a decisive victory for the Nationalists. About 74 Italian soldiers were killed, 221 wounded, and two missing
in the battle.
March: The Corps of Volunteer Troops now numbered
over 50,000 troops.

Republican propaganda poster against the claw of the Italian

invader.

12 December : After the failure of Franco's oensive on

Madrid, Mussolini decided to send regular army forces
to Spain. Mussolini made this decision after consulting
with Italian Minister of Foreign Aairs Galeazzo Ciano
and General Mario Roatta. Ciano and Roatta were two of
the most inuential men in Italy at the time. Roatta was
made the Commander-in-Chief of the Italian expeditionary force.General Luigi Frusci became his Deputy
Commander.
23 December : The rst formation of 3,000 troops
landed in Cadiz. They were called the Italian Army Italian tankettes advancing with a ame thrower tank in the lead
Mission.
at the Battle of Guadalajara.

22.3.2

1937

January: By this time, approximately 44,000 regular

Italian army soldiers and members of the Fascist paramilitary (Blackshirts) were in Spain. At the end of February,
the expeditionary forcewas renamed the Corps of
Volunteer Troops(Corpo Truppe Volontarie, or CTV).
The CTV was organised into four divisions:
4th LittorioInfantry Division (Lictor) - A fully
motorized infantry division of the Italian Royal
Army (Regio Esercito).
1st Dio lo VuoleBlackshirt Infantry Division (
God wants it)

8 March to 23 March: Benito Mussolini decided that

Fascist Italian forces should lead a fourth oensive on
Madrid. This Italian oensive resulted in the Battle of
Guadalajara, which ended as a decisive victory for the
Republican forces. In contrast, the Italian forces suered
heavy losses. The Italian armor, consisting for the most
part of L3/35 tankettes, proved to be no match for the
tanks provided to the Republicans by the Soviet Union.
The Italian oensive was repulsed by a strong Republican counter-oensive led by the 11th Division. Of the
four Italian divisions engaged, only the Littorio Division
did not suer heavy losses. The three CCNN divisions
had such heavy losses that they had to be reorganized into
two divisions and a special weapons (armour and artillery)
group. The 3rd CCNN Division was disbanded and consolidated with the 2nd CCNN Division in April 1937.

92

CHAPTER 22. CORPO TRUPPE VOLONTARIE

From this point until the end of the war, the commanders
of the Italian Corps did not organize their own oensives.
Instead they acted under the Nationalist command. Similarly the commander of the Nazi German Legion Condor,
General Hugo Sperrle, commanded the Italian air force in
Spain.
April to August: As the CCNN Divisions were reduced,
Italians began to serve in mixed Italo-Spanish Flechas (
Arrows) units where the Italians provided the ocers
and technical personnel, while the Spanish served in the
rank-and-le. The rst were the Flechas Azules (Blue
Arrows) Mixed Brigade and the Flechas Negras Black
(
Arrows) Mixed Brigade, that served respectively in Extremadura and Viscaya from April to August 1937. Also
in Viscaya were the CTV's XXIII de Marzo Group and
11 Artillery Groups.
August to September: Roatta's replacement, General
Ettore Bastico, commanded the CTV forces including
the Division XXIII di Marzo, formed from the XXIII de
Marzo Group. The CTV broke the Republicans' lines
near Soncillo, captured a key pass, the Puerto del Escudo, and penetrated deep into the Republican rear during the Battle of Santander, resulting in a decisive victory
for the Nationalists. After that they were transferred to
the Aragn Front. Some CTV forces may have been involved in the Battle of El Mazuco, but details are unconrmed.
October: After the northern campaigns, the 1st CCNN
Division and 2nd CCNN Division were consolidated with
the Division XXIII di Marzo and renamed the XXIII de
Marzo - Llamas Negras Division.

22.3.4 1939
February: Following the victory of Franco and the Nationalists over the Republicans, General Bastico and the
Italian volunteers withdrew from Spain.

22.4 Aftermath
On 1 April 1939, the success of the Nationalists meant
that the Italians now had a friendly regime in the western Mediterranean. But they acquired this friend at a
high cost in both men and materials. Of the approximate
78,500 men sent to Spain, 2,989-3,819 were killed and
about 12,000 (10,629) were wounded. Those casualties
were mostly caused during the Catalan and Aragonese
Oensives, about 44% of the deads and 43% of the
wounded, and the rest during the Guadalajara, Santander
and Levante oensives.* [3] The Italian military left behind roughly 3,400 machine guns, 1,400 mortars, 1,800
artillery pieces, 6,800 vehicles, 160 tanks, and 760 aircraft. But, while the military equipment represented a
loss to Italy's war inventory, most of the equipment was
obsolete. The nancial cost of the war was more debilitating. The cost of the CTV to Italy amounted to between 6
and 8.5 billion lire. At 14 to 20 percent of annual expenditure, this represented an immense drain on the Italian
economy. The high cost of Mussolini's Spanish adventure severely handicapped Italy in the period leading up
to World War II.* [4]

22.5 See also

22.3.3

1938

March : The Flechas Negras Brigade was expanded into

the Flechas Division Arrowsserving in the Aragon
Oensive and the March to the Sea with the CTV now
under Mario Berti.
18 March: Barcelona was the target of thirteen Italian
large-scale air raids. The Italian aircraft were armed with
incendiary and gas bombs, which resulted in the death of
around 2,500 civilians.
November : The Flechas Division was strengthened renamedFlechas Negrasand the Flechas Azules Brigade
was expanded into two other Flechas Divisions that took
part in the Catalonia Oensive the nal oensive of the
war, along with the rest of the CTV under Gastone Gambara:
Flechas Negras Division Black Arrows
Flechas Azules Division Blue Arrows
Flechas Verdes Division Green Arrows

Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) and

Aviation Legion (Aviazione Legionaria)
Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) and Submariners
Legion (Sottomarini Legionari)
Luigi Frusci - Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the
CTV
Giorgio Perlasca - served in the CTV with honors. He later used his letter of commendation from
Franco to pass for a Spanish diplomat in Budapest,
saving thousands of Hungarian Jews from the Nazi
extermination camps.
Santoa Agreement - the surrendering of the Basque
Army to the CTV.

22.6 Footnotes
[1] Brian R. Sullivan,Fascist Italy's military involvement in
the Spanish Civil War,Journal of Military History (1995)
59#4 pp 697-727.

22.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

[2] Will Podmore, Britain, Italy, Germany and the Spanish

Civil War (1998)
[3] Hurtado, Vctor; Segura, Antoni; Villarroya, Joan p. 346
[4] Walker, p. 17

22.7 Further reading

Podmore, Will. Britain, Italy, Germany and the
Spanish Civil War (1998)
Rovighi, Alberto, and Filippo Stefani. La Partecipazione Italiana Alla Guerra Civile Spagnola (193639) (2 vol 1993)
Sullivan, Brian R. Fascist Italy's military involvement in the Spanish Civil War,Journal of Military
History (1995) 59#4 pp 697-727.
Walker, Ian W. (2003). Iron Hulls, Iron Hearts :
Mussolini's elite armoured divisions in North Africa.
Marlborough: Crowood. ISBN 1-86126-646-4.

22.8 Sources
Hurtado, Vctor; Segura, Antoni; Villarroya, Joan
(2012). Atles de la Guerra Civil a Catalunya (book)
(in Catalan) (2nd ed.). Barcelona: Edicions DAU
and Ajuntament de Barcelona. ISBN 978-84-9850382-1.
de Mesa, Jos Luis, El regreso de las legiones: (la
ayuda militar italiana a la Espaa nacional, 19361939), Garca Hispn, Granada:Espaa, 1994 ISBN
84-87690-33-5
Leon WyszczelskiMadryt 1936-1937Historical
Battles published by Ministry of National Defence,
Warsaw 1988.
Some details from the Republican perspective on
the Italian military in Spain appears in the works of
Luigi Longo, a former organizer of the International
Brigades.
Information on Italian army activities appearing in
this article was taken from lacucaracha.info La
Cucaracha": Civil War in Spain 1936-1939 Ocial
website.

22.9 External links

Italian Volunteers in Spain (Italian)
Italy and the Spanish Civil War

93

Chapter 23

The Crippled Eagles

The Crippled Eagles was the informal name of a group 23.2 Members killed
of American expatriates that served in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War. The name During the course of its existence the following American
and emblem came from author Robin Moore, who of- citizens died in Rhodesia:* [8]
fered a house in Salisbury as a meeting place for the
Americans who served in all units of the security forces,
but never had their own unit.* [1] The name Crippled
Eagleand their badge was meant to symbolise what 23.3 Notes
they considered their abandonment by the US government. Robin Moore and Barbara Fuca tried to publish [1] SALUTE THE TROOPERS. rhodesia.nl. 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
a book with the same title, but because of the political
controversy the book was refused by publishers and ap[2] Robin Moore and Barbara Fuca. The White Tribe
peared only in 1991, when it was published as The White
(November 1991 ed.). Aliated Writers of AmerTribe.* [2]
ica/Publishers. p. 522. ISBN 1-879915-03-0.
[3] Churchill, Ward (1980). U.S. Mercenaries in Southern
Africa: The Recruiting Network and U.S. Policy. Africa
Today (Indiana University Press) 27 (No. 2, 2nd Qtr.):
2146. JSTOR 4185921. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
[4] Taulbee, J. L. (1985). Soldiers of fortune: A legal leash
for the dogs of war?". Defense Analysis 1 (3): 187203.
doi:10.1080/07430178508405203.

23.1 Background
One of the reasons for many of the American citizens
who joined the Crippled Eagles was the Soldier of Fortune reports about both the Rhodesian Bush War and the
means of entry into the Rhodesian Army. From 1976 to
1980 almost every issue contained one or more articles
about the ongoing conict.* [3]* [4] The rst issue of the
magazine in 1975 actually contained two such articles,
prompting some Americans to travel to Rhodesia.* [5]
After 1980, their attention turned to Angola, Soweto and
other hotspots around the world.

[5] St. Amant, Nikki, Spc (29 April 2005). Soldier of

fortune: Infantry Centers Command Sgt. Maj. Mike
Kelso. The Bayonet. United States Army Training and
Doctrine Command. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
[6] Moorcraft, Paul L.; McLaughlin, Peter (April 2008)
[1982]. The Rhodesian War: A Military History. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-84415694-8.
[7] A brief biography of John Early
[8] Binda, Alexandre (2008). The Saints: The Rhodesian

Approximately 300 Americans, some with previous comLight Infantry. Johannesburg: 30 South Publishers. pp.
bat experience in Vietnam and other theatres of war, oth527529. ISBN 978-1-920143-07-7.
ers with none, volunteered to ght in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War. They did so [9] Pg 59 Gerald Horne. From the Barrel of a Gun: The
United States and the War against Zimbabwe, 19651980
not as mercenaries, but as ordinary soldiers, earning a pay
(5 December 2000 ed.). The University of North Carolina
packet in local currency equal to that of a Rhodesian reguPress. p. 400. ISBN 0-8078-4903-0.
*
lar, under the same conditions of service. [6] The Americans suered seven combat fatalities and many others [10] RHODESIAN ROLL OF HONOUR (A-C)". mawere wounded in combat, some maimed for life. Five
zoe.com. 2007. Retrieved 2009-03-30. Biederman,
served in Rhodesia's most prestigious unit, the Selous
Richard L., Sergeant Special Air Service DOAS in
Scouts.* [7]
an accidental shooting in Mozambique 06-Dec-77
94

23.5. EXTERNAL LINKS

[11] Sgt Richard Biederman. theoutnumbered.com. 2009.

Retrieved 2009-03-30.
[12] Frank P. Battaglia. therli. 2009. Archived from the
original on 4 December 2008. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
[13] Wall Street Journal 30 April 1979
[14] Gerald Horne. From the Barrel of a Gun: The United
States and the War against Zimbabwe, 19651980 (5 December 2000 ed.). The University of North Carolina
Press. p. 400. ISBN 0-8078-4903-0.
[15] Chris Cocks. Fireforce: One Man's War in the Rhodesian
Light Infantry (1 July 2001 ed.). Covos Day. p. 296.
ISBN 1-919874-32-1.

23.4 Further reading

Coey, John Alan (March 1988). A Martyr Speaks
(First ed.). Fletcher, North Carolina: New Puritan
Library. ISBN 978-0-932050-41-0.
Moore, Robin (1980). The Crippled Eagles. Manor
Books. ISBN 978-0-532-23366-4.
Horne, Gerald (December 2000). From the Barrel
of a Gun: The United States and the War against
Zimbabwe, 19651980. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN
978-0-8078-4903-3.

23.5 External links

The Outnumbered, the Crippled Eagles from which
most of the above information is taken
Rhodesian Bush War historical research / discussion
forum
Salute the Troopies
Sgt. Maj. Mike Kelso's look-back

95

Chapter 24

Dodecanese Regiment
The Dodecanese Regiment or Regiment of the Dodecanesians (Greek: ) was an
infantry regiment of the Hellenic Army composed to a
large extent of volunteers from the Dodecanese Islands
and was formed shortly after Greece entered World War
II. The islands were under Italian occupation since 1912
and consequently the Dodecanesian Greeks had Italian
citizenship, yet they were eager to ght against the Italian Army either in the Dodecanese or on the Albanian
Front.

24.1 Formation

the Macedonian Front of World War I and the Asia Minor Campaign but had been involved in the failed 1933
and 1935 pro-Republican coup attempts, and had consequently been dismissed from service; they were reinstated
and assigned active duties after the Italian invasion.* [4]
At rst the enlisted volunteers and the Dodecanesian
community believed that their mission would be to liberate their islands but soon the GHQ made clear that no
operation in the Dodecanese had been planned or was
possible. The GHQ was rmly convinced that the liberation of the Dodecanese would be a postwar procedure
depending on the outcome of the Albanian Front.* [5]
After a short but intensive training the Dodecanese Regiment received the war ag on January 12, 1941. It was
the only adequately trained, fully manned, staed and
equipped regiment available as a reserve and therefore it
became the core of the newly formed 20th Infantry Division which soon was to include the also newly formed but
thinly manned 35th and 80th Regiments, comprising low
quality reserves.* [6]

On October 28, 1940 Italy invaded Greece and the Dodecanesian community in Athens saw it as the best chance to
press for the liberation of the Dodecanese Islands. Led by
the Dodecanesian Youth organization the community organized impressive rallies in Athens and at the same time
pressed the Greek Government to allow Dodecanesian
volunteers with Italian citizenship to enlist in the Hellenic
Army.* [1] The request was accepted and on November
13, 1940 the General Headquarters issued the order for 24.2 Deployment
the formation of theDodecanese Regiment.* [2] The
true reason for this order was that the Albanian Front had
Further information: Order of battle for the Battle of
absorbed all the reserves and the GHQ was in a desperate
need for additional forces that would counter the impend- Greece
ing German oensive from the Bulgarian border.
More than 2,000 Dodecanesian volunteers of all ages, On March 6 the Central Macedonia Army Section
Army in the Allies bibliprofessions and education levels appeared to enlist but (TSKM, Central Macedonian
*
ography)
was
formed
[7]
comprising
the 12th and 20th
the 1,586 fullling the health and age requirements were
Divisions.
Its
mission
was
to
defend
the main body
enough only for a battalion plus a company in full combat
Metaxas Line
of
Greece
should
the
basic
defences
at
strength, some 2,000 less than the required for a regibe
breached
(and
provided
that
Yugoslavia
would hold
ment, which eventually was brought to strength with men
against
the
German
oensive).
On
March
28 the W
from other islands as well as with Navy reservists. The
Force
was
formed
comprising
TSKM
and
the
British
volunteers were trained mainly as riemen and machine
Expeditionary
Force
in
Greece,
general
Wilson
was
its
gunners and comprised the vast majority of the Regicommander,
under
the
overall
command
of
the
Greek
ments ghting force, leaving the support battalion and
*
*
*
combat service support company almost entirely to the commander-in-chief Alexander Papagos. [8] [9] [10]
other Greeks. These 1,586 Dodecanesian volunteers had W Force worked intensely and prepared defences in
Italian citizenship* [3] but the Regiment also comprised Vermio Position (Mount Voras Mount Vermio River
some Dodecanesians (not volunteers) with Greek citizen- Aliakmon).
ship and already serving in the Greek Army. The Regi- On April 6 the Germans simultaneously attacked Greece
ments ocers were experienced and had seen action in at the Metaxas Line and invaded Yugoslavia. Advancing
96

24.3. BATTLE AGAINST THE GERMANS

through Yugoslavia the Germans reached the western end
of the Metaxas Line and anked it, leading to the capitulation of the Greek forces holding it on 8 April. The
Germans were now in front of the Vermio Position and
in the next few days they were expected to be also in its
rear. If W Force moved to the optimum new defence position, the Germans would be free to advance from Yugoslavia to the rear of the entire Greek Army on the Albanian Front, so W Force had to hastily and insuciently
adjust its left in order to cover the Kleidi Pass.* [11] By
nightfall on April 9 the Dodecanese Regiment had completed its disposition on its new defence line to the right
of Kleidi Pass, where the hill slopes were smooth in the
front and steep in the rear.* [12] The Regiment was now
part of the allied Mackay Force assigned the defence of
Kleidi Pass and led by Iven Mackay, commander of the
Australian 6th Division.

24.3 Battle against the Germans

Main article: Battle of Vevi (1941)
Next day the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler lighter troops
advanced rapidly from Yugoslavia towards Kleidi Pass
but their artillery, tanks and heavy vehicles were delayed
by demolished bridges and muddy roads. At midnight
(April 10 to 11) a strong German reconnaissance attacked
Hill 1098 and was repelled by the Regiment.* [13]* [14]
On April 11 the Germans made another unsuccessful attack on Delinski Dol Hill.* [15]

The Battle of Vevi, April 12th 16:30 - 18:00. The Allies have
fallen back, the Germans advance through Kleidi Pass and shell
the retreating Dodecanese Regiment.

By 08:30 on April 12 the rst of three LSSAH

Kampfgruppe attacked focusing its main attempt on Hill
997.5 held by the Australian 2/8 Battalion; by 11:00 the
British Rangers astride the road in front of the Pass withdrew. By noon the Australian 2/4 Battalion on the left
had thinned out, the LSSAH had entered Kleidi Pass and

97
2/8 on the right was under extreme pressure. From 14:00
the Dodecanese Regiment on the right of the Australian
2/8 was under increasingly heavier artillery re, signifying the preparation for the second Kampfgruppes attack
and at 15:40 the Regiment received the order to withdraw
immediately.* [16]
According to the initial plan, after the withdrawal (the
precise time of which was Mackays responsibility) the
Greek GHQ counted on the Dodecanese Regiment to
hold the Kleisoura Pass,* [17] the last one before Germans
could reach the rear of the Greek Army on the Albanian
Front. Unfortunately the Greek liaison at Mackays HQ
ordered the Dodecanese Battalions I and III to march to
Kleisoura Pass and Battalion II to be brought by British
vehicles to Vlasti Pass. This order made also clear that the
withdrawal had to be completed by 18:00 and that the Allied Command would bear no responsibility, if the Greeks
failed to withdraw in time. Due to the lack of transportation, the mounting German pressure and the orders strict
timeframe the Regiment ordered the Field Battery to destroy their guns on the spot* [18] and the Battalions had
to destroy all materiel unable to be transported by the few
available pack animals.

24.3.1 The withdrawal

The Regiments commander informed his battalion commanders that all three of them were to pass through
Amyntaio, that the British had made vehicles available
for Battalion II at Amyntaio, but contrary to his instructions he did not wait at the rendezvous point with Battalions I and III to take their lead, instead he kept marching with his sta passed it. The Greek military translators with the British vehicles were not informed which of
the Regiments men they were to pick up and to make
things worse, as the LSSAH had passed through Kleidi
Pass and shelled the withdrawing Regiment, Battalion II
took a safer route, other than the specied by the withdrawal order, and did not show up at the rendezvous. So
the vehicles picked up the wrong men and dispersed them
in many cities, some of them deep in the rear.* [19]* [20]
The Regiment lost for good most of these men, as it was
impossible for them to return, even if they could somehow know where their unit was. Furthermore, the British
refused to take on the vehicles the salvaged materiel. That
was the coup de grce for the Dodecanese Regiments
battle-worthiness.* [21]
By midnight (April 12 to 13) only 800 men and 25 ofcers, most of them with destroyed boots, had reached
Ptolemaida and they were ordered to march to Pylorio in
an attempt to regroup. Kleisoura Pass would now have to
resist with whatever reserves had manned it in the previous days. On the 15th the remains of the Dodecanese
Regiment, some 1.500 men most of them unarmed or
without ammunition, were ordered to march to Grevena
but on receiving information that Germans had occupied
various sites on their route, the commander ordered them

98

CHAPTER 24. DODECANESE REGIMENT

to divert further south, on a long and exhausting march [16] Nikolaou (1996), p. 127
without even short rests, under almost constant rain, on
ragged and muddy trails. The men had had no food for 4 [17] Army History Directorate Archive, Order 2080,
12/04/1941, TSAM/Sta Oce III
days, many of them had no boots and had wrapped rags
over their frostbites and others were collapsing unable to [18] Nikolaou (1996), p. 127
keep up with the columns pace.
[19] Nikolaou (1996), pp. 130131

24.3.2

Surrender and disbandment

[20] Kladakis (1996), p. 276

[21] Kladakis (1996), p. 277

On April 17 the Regiment was ordered to turn north to

Metsovo, on the 19th they reached Ardomitsa, where [22] Kladakis (1996), p. 319
they found food and medical care, some clothing, no
rearms or ammunition and were pounded by the enemy air force. On the 20th the commander of the Greek 24.5 Sources
forces on the Albanian front, Lt. General Georgios Tsolakoglou, signed with the LSSAH an unauthorized cease1. Buckley Christopher, Greece and Crete 1941, Efre protocol and next day the Regiment was ordered to
stathiadis, Athens 1999
surrender whatever rearms and ammunition they had to
the president of Ardomitsa community and then march
2.
to Metsovo. On the 24th they reached Metsovo a nd re

1940-1941
ceived new orders to march to Malakasi. Next day they
( ), 1985, Hellenic
were informed that by a new ceasere protocol the Greek
Army General Sta, Army History Directorate
ocers were considered prisoners of war and the Ger3. Karassos Christs,
mans were arresting them on sight. On the 26th, one day
1941,
before Germans entered Athens, the Dodecanese RegiAetos, Athens 1948.
ments commander succeeded in making contact with
the TSKM commander, who conrmed that the Hellenic
4. Kay Robin Langford, 27 (Machine Gun) Battalion
Army no longer existed and all men were free to return
[Part of The Ocial History of New Zealand in the
*
to their homes. [22]
Second World War 19391945], Historical Publications Branch, 1958, Wellington

24.4 Footnotes
[1] Kladakis (1996), pp. 6570
[2] Army History Directorate Archive, Hellenic GHQ order
10234, 13/11/1940
[3] Kladakis (1996), pp. 6570
[4] Kladakis (1996), pp. 8991
[5] Kladakis (1996), pp. 125128
[6] Karassos (1948), p. 27
[7] , p. 266
[8] Papagos (1945), pp. 277278
[9] Long (1953), p. 28
[10] Buckley (1999), p. 35
[11] Papagos (1945), pp. 298299
[12] Nikolaou (1996), p. 123
[13] Kladakis (1996), p. 222
[14] Nikolaou (1996), p. 123
[15] Karassos (1948), p. 74

5. Kladakis Markos,
,

,
Athens 1996.
6. Long Gavin, Greece, Crete and Syria (Australia In
The War Of 1939-1945, Series 1 (Army)), Gavin
Long, Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1953
7. McClymont W. G., To Greece [Part of The Ocial History of New Zealand in the Second World
War 19391945], W. G. McClymont, War History Branch, Department Of Internal Aairs, 1959,
Wellington, New Zealand
8. Nikolaou Ioannis,

1940-1941, 30 December 1941, as published (pp.
117136) in ,
, Hellenic Ministry of
Foreign Aairs & Kastaniotis Eds, 1996.
9. Nikolopoulos
Petros,

20 , Chalkis 30
July 1941, Army History Directorate Archive
10. Papagos Alexandros,
1940-1941, , 1945

24.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

11. The German campaign in the Balkans-spring
(1941), German Report Series
12. , 1941,
Athens 1959, reprint 2009, Hellenic Army General
Sta, Army History Directorate
13. Weingartner J, Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler
1933-1945, Battery Classics, Nashville
14. Wilson Henry Maitland, Eight Years Overseas,
1939-1947, 1951

24.6 External links

, 2014,
.

99

Chapter 25

Eagle Squadrons
For the Aztec Eagle Squadronof the Mexican Air
Force, see Escuadrn 201. For the 1942 lm, see Eagle
Squadron (lm).
The Eagle Squadrons were three ghter squadrons of

Sweeny's eorts were also coordinated in Canada by

World War I air ace Billy Bishop and with artist Clayton
Knight who formed the Clayton Knight Committee, who,
by the time the United States entered the war in December 1941, had processed and approved 6,700 applications
from Americans to join the RCAF or RAF. Sweeny and
his rich society contacts bore the cost (over $100,000)
of processing and bringing the US trainees to the United
Kingdom for training.

25.1 Training

RAF Eagle Squadron Emblem, 1940

the Royal Air Force (RAF), formed with volunteer pilots

from the United States during the early days of World
War II (circa 1940), prior to America's entry into the war
Miles Master's of No. 5 Service Flying Training School, own by
in December 1941.
volunteers for No. 71 (Eagle) Squadron
Before America's entry into the War, many US recruits
simply crossed the border and joined the Royal Canadian
Air Force (RCAF) to learn to y and ght. Many early
recruits had originally gone to Europe to ght for Finland against the Soviets in the Winter War. Some of the
recruits were men rejected by the USAAF as lacking
in intrinsic ying ability, who instead enlisted with the
RCAF.

The basic requirements for those interested in joining the

Eagle Squadron were a high school diploma, being between 20 and 31 years of age, eyesight that was 20/40 correctable to 20/20, and 300 hours of certied ying time.
These requirements, with the exception of the ight time,
were not as strict as those required for service in the U.S.
Army Air Corps, which was a major reason why some
Charles Sweeny, a wealthy businessman living in London, of the pilots joined the squadron. Most Eagle Squadron
began recruiting American citizens to ght as a US vol- pilots did not have a college education or prior military
unteer detachment in the French Air Force, echoing the experience.
Lafayette Escadrille of World War I. Following the Fall Once in Britain, and having passed basic ight training,
of France in 1940, a dozen of these recruits joined the the newly qualied pilots were sent for advanced operaRAF.
tional training to an operational training unit (OTU) for
100

25.2. FORMATION AND EVOLUTION

101

two to four weeks to learn to y Miles Master trainers,

Hawker Hurricanes, and Supermarine Spitres before being ostensibly commissioned as RAF ocers and posted
to front-line RAF ghter squadrons.
The American pilots assigned to the Eagle Squadron
never renounced their US citizenship, and although they
wore the uniforms and held the rank titles of RAF ofcers, their dress and duty uniform coats were modied
with the Eagle Squadron patch, a white bald eagle anked
by the letters ESfor Eagle Squadron.

25.2 Formation and evolution

A total of three Eagle Squadrons were formed between
September 1940 and July 1941. They existed until 29
September 1942, when they were turned over to the
Eighth Air Force of the U.S. Army Air Forces and became the 4th Fighter Group. Of the thousands that volunteered, only 244 Americans served with the three Eagle
Squadrons; 16 Britons also served as squadron and ight
commanders.
The rst Eagle Squadron, (No. 71 Squadron), was
formed in September 1940 as part of the RAF's buildup
during the Battle of Britain,* [1] and became operational
for defensive duties on 5 February 1941. 71 Squadron
commenced operations based at RAF Church Fenton in
early 1941, before a move to RAF Kirton-in-Lindsey.
In April, the squadron transferred to RAF Martlesham
Heath in Suolk for operations over Europe. During May
they suered their rst loss when Mike Kolendorski was
killed during a ghter sweep over the Netherlands. Intensity of operations stepped up with a move into No 11
Group of Fighter Command, being based at RAF North
Weald by June 1941. On 2 July, William J. Hall became
the rst Eagle Squadron pilot to become a Prisoner of
War (POW) when he was shot down during an escort
mission. The squadron's rst conrmed victory came on
21 July 1941 when P/O William R. Dunn destroyed a
Messerschmitt Bf 109F over Lille. In August, the Spitre Mk II replaced 71 Squadron's Hurricanes, before
quickly re-equipping with the latest Spitre Mk V. The
unit soon established a high reputation, and numerous air
kill claims were made in RAF ghter sweeps over the
continent during the summer and autumn of 1941. In
December, the Squadron was rested back at Martlesham
Heath, before a move to Debden in May 1942.* [2]

American pilots of No 71 'Eagle' Squadron rush to their Hawker

Hurricanes at Kirton-in-Lindsey, 17 March 1941.

sweeps.* [2]
The third and nal Eagle Squadron, No. 133 Squadron,
was formed at RAF Coltishall in July 1941, ying the
Hurricane Mk IIb. A move to RAF Duxford followed
in August, and re-equipment with the Spitre Mk V occurred early in 1942. In May, the Squadron became
part of the famed RAF Biggin Hill Wing. On 31 July
1942 during a bomber escort mission to Abbeville, 52kill Luftwae 'ace' Oblt. Rudolf Panz of 11./JG 2 engaged in combat with 133's Spitres, and after shooting
down one was then shot down and killed in his Bf 109G1 over Berck-sur-Mer, France. 133 Squadron claimed 3
destroyed and one probable while losing 3 aircraft. P/O
JessieTaylor accounted for 2 of the claims (a Bf 109F
and a Fw 190) and P/O W. Baker was credited with a
Fw 190 destroyed. On 26 September 1942 11 of the
unit's 12 brand new Spitre Mk IXs were lost on a mission
over Morlaix, when escorting USAAF Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses in heavy cloud cover. Strong winds blew
the unit further South than realised and short of fuel,
the Squadron let down directly over Brest. Six of the
squadron were shot down and taken prisoner, four were
killed, one bailed and evaded capture, while one crash
landed in England. One of the British pilots taken prisoner, Flight Lieutenant Gordon Brettell, was later to be
shot as one of the escapees in The Great Escape from
Stalag Luft III in 1944.* [2]
The Dieppe Raid was the only occasion that all three
Eagle Squadrons saw action operating together.* [3] No.
71 moved from Debden to Gravesend in mid-August
in anticipation of the Dieppe action, while No. 121
operated from South End. 133 Squadron moved with
No. 401 Squadron of the RCAF from RAF Biggin Hill
to Lympne, on the English south coast. 71 Squadron
claimed a Ju 88 shot down, 121 a single Fw 190, while
133 claimed 4 Fw 190s, a Ju 88 and a Dornier Do 217
downed. Six 'Eagle' Spitres were lost, with one pilot
taken prisoner and one killed.

The second Eagle Squadron, No. 121 Squadron, was

formed at RAF Kirton-in-Lindsey in May 1941,* [1] ying Hurricanes on coastal convoy escort duties. On 15
September 1941, it destroyed its rst German aircraft.
The Hurricanes were replaced with Spitres and the Spitre Mk V arrived in November 1941. The following
month the Squadron moved to RAF North Weald, replacing 71 Squadron. In 1942, its oensive activities over Through to the end of September 1942, the squadrons
the English Channel included bomber escorts and ghter claimed to have destroyed 73 German planes while

102

CHAPTER 25. EAGLE SQUADRONS

Air Force of the U.S. Army Air Forces and became the
4th Fighter Group, with the American pilots becoming
ocers in the USAAF. The Eagle pilots had earned 12
Distinguished Flying Crosses and one Distinguished Service Order. Only four of the 34 original Eagle pilots were
still present when the squadrons joined the USAAF. Typical were the fates of the eight original pilots in the third
squadron: Four died during training, one was disqualied, two died in combat, and one was a prisoner of war.
About 100 Eagle pilots had been killed, were missing,
or were prisoners.* [1] Negotiations regarding the transfer between the Eagle Squadrons, USAAF, and the RAF
had to resolve a number of issues. The RAF wanted
some compensation for losing three front-line squadrons
Personnel of No.121 (Eagle) Squadron look on as three Spitre in which they had heavily invested. Determining what
Vbs come in to land at RAF Rochford in Essex, after a ghter
rank each pilot would assume in the USAAF also had
sweep over northern France during August 1942.
to be negotiated, with most being given a rank equivalent to their RAF rank. For example, a Flight Lieu77 American and 5 British members were killed. 71 tenant became a USAAF Captain, while a Wing Com*
Squadron claimed 41 kills, 121 Squadron 18 kills, and mander became a Lieutenant Colonel. [1] None of the
*
Eagle Squadron pilots had previously served in the US133 squadron 14 kills. [4]
AAF and did not have US pilot wings. As such, it was
decided that they be awarded USAAF pilot wings upon
their transfer to the USAAF. By concession, the Eagle
Squadron pilots who transferred to the USAAF Fourth
Fighter Group were permitted to retain their RAF wings,
reduced in size, on the opposite side of their uniform to
their new USAAF pilots wings. They had insisted on being allowed to retain their RAF wings, which they had
earned, when ordered to wear USAAF wings, which they
had not directly earned in the normal way.* [5]

Spitre Mk Vb of the 334th FS, 4th Fighter Group, previously of

No 71 EagleSquadron.

When informed of the attack on Pearl Harbor, most of

the Eagle Squadron pilots wanted to immediately join
the ght against Japan. Representatives from 71 and 121
Squadrons went to the American Embassy in London and
oered their services to the United States. The pilots
from 71 Squadron decided they wanted to go to Singapore
to ght the Japanese and a proposal was put to RAF
Fighter Command, but it was turned down.
71 Eagle Squadron Crest
121 Eagle Squadron Crest
133 Eagle Squadron Crest
334th Fighter Squadron
335th Fighter Squadron
336th Fighter Squadron
On 29 September 1942, the three squadrons were ofcially turned over by the RAF to the edgling Eighth

Major General Carl Spaatz, head of the USAAF in Europe, wanted to spread the experience of the Eagles
amongst various new US ghter squadrons. However,
the pilots of the three Eagle Squadrons wanted to stay
together. The 71, 121, and 133 squadrons were respectively designated by the USAAF as the 334th, 335th, and
336th and transferred as complete units, retaining their
Spitres* [6] until P-47 Thunderbolts became available in
January 1943. The 4th Fighter Group ew Spitres until
its conversion to P-47s was completed in April 1943. The
4th Fighter Wing, along with the 334th, 335th, and 336th
Fighter Squadrons, exist today as F-15E Strike Eagle
units at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base in Goldsboro,
North Carolina and are part of the Ninth Air Force.

25.3 Individual pilots

The rst three members of the Eagle Squadron obtained
their transfers to No. 71 Squadron RAF in September
1940. They were:
Vernon CharlesShortyKeough, service number
81620
Andrew B. Mamedo, service number 81621

25.4. DEDICATION

103

Eugene Quimby RedTobin, service number Fighter Group under Chesley Peterson, then commanded
81622
the group from January to October 1944. Blakeslee ew
briey with the 354th and 357th Fighter Groups in JanAll three men were Battle of Britain veterans, having uary 1944 when the P-51 Mustang was introduced to
served together in No. 609 Squadron RAF, at RAF Mid- combat in Europe and immediately became the driving
force behind conversion of all but one of the Eighth Air
dle Wallop.
They had joined the RAF Volunteer Reserve (RAFVR) Force ghter groups to the Mustang. His insistence on
together (receiving consecutive service numbers), having converting to the Mustang resulted in a rapid turnover
been posted to 609 Squadron together, having fought the of airplanes, with the former Eagle squadrons ying their
Battle of Britain together, and having transferred to 71 rst Mustang mission on February 24, 1944.
Squadron together. The trio had also all been killed by Flt Lt Charles A. Cook Jr. was a member of 133
the time of the transfer of the Eagle Squadrons to the US- Squadron. Shot down in September 1942, he was a prisAAF in 1942 (from the database of the Commonwealth oner of war at Stalag Luft III until 1945 and was a memWar Graves Commission (CWGC):
ber of what was known as The Long March, when
Pilot Ocer Keough was killed in February 1941
age 29. record
Flight Lieutenant Mamedo was killed in October
1941 age 29, by then transferred, with a promotion
to be a Flight Commander in another Eagle Sqn.,
No. 133 Squadron RAF. CWGC record
Flying Ocer Tobin was killed in September 1941
age 24. CWGC record
Another Battle of Britain veteran was Phillip Howard
Leckrone, service number 84653. He had served in another squadron with an Auxiliary Air Force heritage: No.
616 Squadron RAF. He was also killed before the USAAF took charge of the Eagle Squadrons:

German forces decided to empty the Allied POW camps

in the face of the Soviet advance.
Pilot Ocer Donald Everett Miller; from
Dixon,Illinois; transferred to USAAF Second
Lieutenant 85341; assigned to Africa; shot down,
taken prisoner in Germany for two years.

25.4 Dedication
British composer Kenneth J. Alford wrote a march,Eagle Squadron, in honour of the pilots of the squadron.
It is also a thank youto the American pilots: small
sections of the Star Spangled Banner can be heard in the
low brass during the trio.

Pilot Ocer Leckrone was killed in January 1941

age 28. CWGC record
The lives of these four pilots have been described in THE
FEW by Alex Kershaw.* [7]
It is reported that Pilot Ocer Art Donahue DFC stayed
with the Eagle Squadron only a short time before requesting a transfer back to his original RAF unit. He did not
appreciate the unruly behavior of many of the American
pilots. He was killed in action in 1942.* [8]* [9]
Captain Don Gentile, USAAF, was a pilot with 133
Squadron, claiming 2 air victories, and by March 1944
became the 4th FG's top ace in World War II with 22
aerial kills.
Colonel Chesley 'Pete' Peterson had 130 sorties with the
Eagle Squadrons, he then became the youngest Squadron
Commander in the RAF. When the Eagle Squadrons were
transferred to the USAAC 4th Fighter Group, Peterson
became the group's executive ocer, succeeding to command of the group in April 1943, and at 23 years of age
the youngest (at the time) Colonel in the US Army Air
Forces.
Colonel Donald Blakeslee was a pilot in 121 and 133
Squadrons during 1942, making 120 sorties and claiming 3 air kills. He became deputy commander of the 4th

25.5 See also

Flying Tigers American volunteers who fought for
the ROC in the Sino-Japanese War (19371945).
Kociuszko Squadron American volunteers ghting for Poland in the Polish-Soviet War (1919
1921).
Lafayette Escadrille American volunteers in the
French Air Service during World War I.
No. 164 Squadron RAFArgentine volunteers in
the RAF during World War II
Non-British personnel in the Royal Air Force during
the Battle of Britain.
The American Eagle Club in Charing Cross Road,
London.

25.6 References

104

25.6.1

CHAPTER 25. EAGLE SQUADRONS

Notes

[1] Eagles Switch to U. S. Army. Life. 1942-11-02. p.

37. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
[2] 'Aces High', Shores and Williams, 1994
[3] Franks, 1992.
[4] 'Aces High', Shores and Williams, 1994, pages 31, 38, 40
[5] Tumult in the Clouds: James A. Goodson
[6] 133 Squadron had been re-equipped in September 1942
with Spitre IXs. These aircraft did not transfer to the
USAAF, and 336th Fighter Squadron formed with Spitre
Vs.
[7] Kershaw, 2006.
[8] CWGC :: Casualty Details
[9] Donahue, 1942.

25.6.2

Bibliography

Caine, Philip D. American Pilots in the RAF: The

WWII Eagle Squadrons. Brassey's, 1993. ISBN 002-881070-8.
Childers, James Saxon. War Eagles: The Story of
the Eagle Squadron. Windmill Press, 1943.
Republished by Eagle Publishing in 1983,
ISBN 0-941624-71-4. Same as the 1943 edition, except it has an epilogue of the members
as of 1982.
Donahue, Arthur Gerald. Tally-Ho! Yankee in a
Spitre. McMillan & Company, 1942.
Dunn, William R. Fighter Pilot: The First American
Ace of World War II. University of Kentucky Press,
1982. ISBN 0-8131-1465-9.
Franks, Norman. The Greatest Air Battle: Dieppe,
19 August 1942. London: Grub Street, 1992. ISBN
0-948817-58-5.
Fydenchuk, W. Peter. Immigrants of War: Americans Serving With the RAF and RCAF During World
War II. WPF Publications, 2005. ISBN 0-97375230-0.
Goodson, James A. and Norman Franks. Over-Paid,
Over-Sexed and Over-Here. Wingham Press Ltd.,
1991. ISBN 1-873454-09-0.
Goodson, James A. Tumult in the Clouds. NAL
Trade, 2004. ISBN 0451211987
Haughland, Vern. Caged Eagles: Downed American
Fighter Pilots, 194045. TAB Books, 1992. ISBN
0-8306-2146-6.

Haughland, Vern. The Eagle Squadrons: Yanks

in the RAF, 19401942. Zi-Davis Flying Books,
1979.
Republished by TAB Books in 1992, ISBN
0-8306-2146-6, with all the photos dierent
from the 1st edition.
Haughland, Vern. The Eagles' War: The Saga of the
Eagle Squadron Pilots, 19401945. Jason Aronson,
Inc., 1982. ISBN 0-87668-495-9.
Republished by TAB Books in 1992, ISBN
0-8306-2145-8, with all the photos dierent
from the 1st edition.
Holmes, Tony. American Eagles: American Volunteers in the R.A.F., 19371943. Classic Publications, 2001. ISBN 1-903223-16-4.
Kershaw, Alex. The Few. Da Capo Press, 2006.
ISBN 0-306-81303-3.
Morris, John T. The Lives of an American Eagle.
Mulberry River Press, 1999. ISBN 0-9636529-9-0.
Nelson, Kenneth James, CD. Spitre RCW: The
Wartime Exploits of Wing Commander Royce Clifford Wilkinson OBE, DFM & Bar, C.de G.(France).
Hignall Printing Ltd., 1994.
Sweeny, Charles and Colonel James A. Goodson.
Sweeny: The autobiography of Charles Sweeny. Harrop Press Ltd., 1990. ISBN 1-872809-00-6.

25.7 External links

Peter Provenzano: A Digital Memoir of World War
II as a Pilot in the RAF and USAAF
List of Eagle Squadron Aces
RAF Eagle Squadron (historic video)
Eagle Squadrons at RAF North Weald, UK
Eagle Squadron pilots buried at Brookwood Military
Cemetery & Charles Sweeny's grave marker
Eagle Squadrons became the USAAF 4th Fighter
Group on 29 September 1942

Chapter 26

Flying Regiment 19, Finnish Air Force

The unit made a signicant contribution to the defense of
Finnish Lapland, from January 7, 1940, with 12 Gloster
Gladiator II ghters,* [1] ve Hawker Hart bombers, and
eight other planes. In total, the unit destroyed twelve Soviet aircraft (eight in the air, four on the ground), and lost
a total of six planes; two to enemy action and four to accidents. Three of its pilots were killed and two more were
captured by Soviet forces. The captives were returned to
Sweden ve months after the end of the war.

26.1 Organization
Sta

A Gladiator Mk.I at F 3 Malmsltt in 1976.

Sta Detachment
Radio Detachment
Household Detachment
Truck Detachment
Medical Detachment
Aireld Company
Fighter Squadron, equipped with Gloster Gladiator Mk. Is
Attack/Joint Operation Flight, equipped with
Hawker Harts
Transport/Liaison Flight, various aircraft types
A Hawker Hart at F 3 Malmsltt in 1976.

The unit was equipped with 12 Gloster Gladiator Mk. Is,

four Hawker Hart Mk. Is, one Raab-Katzenstein RK-26,
The Flight Regiment 19 (Swedish: Flygottilj 19, one Waco ZQC-6, and one Junkers F 13k.
Finnish: Lentorykmentti 19 or LentoR 19), also known as
the Swedish Voluntary Air Force or F 19 was a Finnish
Air Force unit, manned by Swedish volunteers, which 26.2 Victories
operated from Kemi in northern Finland for the last 62
days of the Winter War. The aircraft also came from the * *
Swedish Air Force inventory. Its designation number was [2] [3]
taken from the Swedish Air Force which had 18 ying The F 19 unit destroyed 12 enemy aircraft, and lost three
regiments at the time. The designation F 19 has not been Hawker Harts and three Gloster Gladiators due to various
used in Sweden. When new regiments were formed they incidents, however, only one of these, a Gladiator, was
lost in an air battle.
were named F 20, F 21 and F 22.
105

106

CHAPTER 26. FLYING REGIMENT 19, FINNISH AIR FORCE

26.3 External links

F19, Swedish volunteer unit in Finland during the
Winter War

26.4 References
[1] Avrosys.nu: J 8 - Gloster Gladiator (1937-1947)
[2] Falk, Greger: F19:n - en krnika; Flyghistorisk Revy nummer 33, Svensk Flyghistorisk Frening, Stockholm, Sweden. c. 1989-1990
[3] Geust, Carl-Fredrik: F19; Ikaros - Flygvapenmusei rsbok 1997, Flygvapenmuseum, Linkping, Sweden 1997

Chapter 27

Flying Tigers
For other uses, see Flying Tigers (disambiguation).
U.S. and the Allied Forces as to give hope to America
The 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG) of the that it might eventually defeat the Japanese. AVG pilots
earned ocial credit, and received combat bonuses, for
destroying 296 enemy aircraft,* [1] while losing only 14
pilots in combat.* [1] The combat records of the AVG still
exist and researchers have found them credible . On 4
July 1942 the AVG was disbanded. It was replaced by
the 23rd Fighter Group of the United States Army Air
Forces, which was later absorbed into the U.S. Fourteenth
Air Force with General Chennault as commander. The
23rd FG went on to achieve similar combat success, while
retaining the nose art on the left-over P-40s.

27.1 Origin
US Air Forces video:Flying Tigers Bite Back

Chinese Air Force in 19411942, nicknamed the Flying

Tigers, was composed of pilots from the United States
Army Air Corps (USAAC), Navy (USN), and Marine
Corps (USMC), recruited under presidential authority
and commanded by Claire Lee Chennault. The sharkfaced nose art of the Flying Tigers remains among the
most recognizable image of any individual combat aircraft or combat unit of World War II.
The group consisted of three ghter squadrons of around
30 aircraft each. It trained in Burma before the American entry into World War II with the mission of defending
China against Japanese forces. The group of volunteers
were ocially members of the Chinese Air Force. The
members of the group had contracts with salaries ranging from $250 a month for a mechanic to $750 for a
squadron commander, roughly three times what they had
been making in the U.S. forces. While it accepted some
civilian volunteers for its headquarters and ground crew,
the AVG recruited most of its sta from the U.S. military.
The group rst saw combat on 20 December 1941, 12
days after Pearl Harbor (local time). It demonstrated innovative tactical victories when the news in the U.S. was
lled with little more than stories of defeat at the hands
of the Japanese forces, and achieved such notable success during the lowest period of the war for both the

Chennault in his Kunming oce, May 1942. He wears a US

Army brigadier general's star on his left shoulder but Chinese
insignia otherwise.

The American Volunteer Group was largely the creation

of Claire L. Chennault, a retired U.S. Army Air Corps
ocer who had worked in China since August 1937,
rst as military aviation advisor to Generalissimo Chiang
Kai-shek in the early months of the Sino-Japanese War,
then as director of a Chinese Air Force ight school centered in Kunming. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union supplied
ghter and bomber squadrons to China, but these units

107

108

CHAPTER 27. FLYING TIGERS

were mostly withdrawn by the summer of 1940. Chiang then asked for American combat aircraft and pilots,
sending Chennault to Washington as adviser to China's
ambassador and Chiang's brother-in-law, T. V. Soong.
Since the U.S. was not at war, the Special Air Unit
could not be organized overtly, but the request was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt himself. The
resulting clandestine operation was organized in large
part by Lauchlin Currie, a young economist in the White
House, and by Roosevelt intimate Thomas G. Corcoran.
(Currie's assistant was John King Fairbank, who later
became America's preeminent Asian scholar.) Financing was handled by China Defense Supplies primarily Tommy Corcoran's creation with money loaned by
the U.S. government. Purchases were then made by the
Chinese under the Cash and Carryprovision of the
Neutrality Act of 1939.* [1] Previously in the 1930s, a
number of American pilots including Annapolis graduate Frank Tinker had own combat during the Spanish
Civil War, engaging Nazis and fascist Italians. Members
were organized into the Yankee Squadron.

P-40 Warhawk painted with Flying Tigers shark face at the

National Museum of the United States Air Force

Ten more army ight instructors were hired as check pilots for Chinese cadets, and several of these would ultimately join the AVGs combat squadrons.) The volunteers were discharged from the armed services, to be employed fortraining and instructionby a private military
contractor, the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company
(CAMCO), which paid them $600 a month for pilot ocer, $675 a month for ight leader, $750 for squadron
leader (no pilot was recruited at this level), and about
$250 for a skilled ground crewman.* [2]

Chennault spent the winter of 19401941 in Washington,

supervising the purchase of 100 Curtiss P-40 ghters (diverted from a Royal Air Force order; the Royal Air Force
at that time deemed the P-40 obsolete ) and the recruiting
of 100 pilots and some 200 ground crew and administrative personnel that would constitute the 1st AVG. He also
laid the groundwork for a follow-on bomber group and a
second ghter group, though these would be aborted after Some of the pilots were also orally promised a bounty of
$500 for each enemy aircraft shot down, however no one
the Pearl Harbor attack.
knew if that would actually happen until they returned
home and found the funds deposited in their bank.

27.1.1

Original
Group

American

Volunteer Although sometimes considered a mercenary unit, the

3rd Squadron Hell's Angels, Flying Tigers over China, photographed in 1942 by AVG pilot Robert T. Smith.

Of the pilots, 60 came from the Navy and Marine Corps

and 40 from the Army Air Corps. (One army pilot
was refused a passport because he had earlier own as
a mercenary in Spain, so only 99 actually sailed for Asia.

AVG was closely associated with the U.S. military. Most

histories of the Flying Tigers say that on 15 April 1941,
President Roosevelt signed asecret executive order" authorizing servicemen on active duty to resign in order to
join the AVG. However, Flying Tigers historian Daniel
Ford could nd no evidence that such an order ever existed, and he argued that a wink and a nodwas more
the president's style.* [3] In any event, the AVG was organized and in part directed out of the White House, and
by the spring of 1942 had eectively been brought into
the U.S. Army chain of command.
During the summer and fall 1941, some 300 men carrying civilian passports boarded ships destined for Burma.
They were initially based at a British aireld in Toungoo
for training while their aircraft were assembled and test
own by CAMCO personnel at Mingaladon Airport outside Rangoon. Chennault set up a schoolhouse that was
made necessary because many pilots hadlied about their
ying experience, claiming pursuit experience when they
had own only bombers and sometimes much less powerful airplanes.* [4] They called Chennault the Old
Mandue to his much older age and leathery exterior
obtained from years ying open cockpit pursuit aircraft
in the Army Air Corps. Most believed that he had own

27.1. ORIGIN

109
Starting from areas in Free China, in hundreds of small villages, in lonely outposts,
in hills and caves, stretching from near Canton through all Free China to the capital in
Chungking and to Lanchow, far northwest, are
a maze of alarm stations equipped with radios
and telephones that give instant warning of the
approach of Japanese planes.* [6]
When Japanese aircraft attacked, Chennault's doctrine
called for pilots to take on enemy aircraft in teams from
an altitude advantage, since their aircraft were not as maneuverable or as numerous as the Japanese ghters they
would encounter. He prohibited his pilots from entering into a turning ght with the nimble Japanese ghters,
telling them to execute a diving or slashing attack and
to dive away to set up for another attack. This diveand-zoomtechnique was contrary to what the men had
learned in U.S. service as well as what the Royal Air Force
(RAF) pilots in Burma had been taught; it had been used
successfully, however, by Soviet units serving with the
Chinese Air Force.* [7]

Resignation letter from the U.S. Marine Corps, used to accept a

position with the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Co.

27.1.3 Curtiss P-40

Main article: Curtiss P-40
AVG ghter aircraft came from a Curtiss assembly

as a ghter pilot in China, although stories that he was a

combat ace are probably apocryphal.* [5]
The AVG was created by an executive order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. He did not speak English, however, and Chennault never learned to speak Chinese. As
a result, all communications between the two men were
routed through Soong Mei-ling, or Madame Chiang
as she was known to Americans, and she was designated
the group's honorary commander.

27.1.2

Chennault ghter doctrine

Chennault preached a radically dierent approach to air

combat based on his study of Japanese tactics and equipment, his observation of the tactics used by Soviet pilots
in China, and his judgment of the strengths and weaknesses of his own aircraft and pilots. The actual average
strength of the AVG was never more than 62 combatready pilots and ghters. Chennault faced serious obstacles since many AVG pilots were inexperienced and a few
quit at the rst opportunity. However, he made a virtue
out of these disadvantages, shifting unsuitable pilots to
sta jobs and always ensuring that he had a squadron or
two in reserve. (The AVG had no ranks, so no division
between ocers and enlisted soldiers existed.* [6])

1943: A Kittyhawk Mark III of 112 Squadron, taxiing through

scrub at Medenine, Tunisia. The ground crewman on the wing is
directing the pilot, whose view ahead is hindered by the aircraft's
nose.

line producing Tomahawk IIB models for the Royal Air

Force in North Africa. The Tomahawk IIB was similar to the U.S. Army's earlier P-40B model, and there is
some evidence that Curtiss actually used leftover components from that model in building the ghters intended for China.* [8] The ghters were purchased withoutgovernment-furnished equipmentsuch as reector
gunsights, radios and wing guns; the lack of these items
caused continual diculties for the AVG in Burma and
Chennault and the Flying Tigers beneted from the coun- China.
try's warning network, called the best air-raid warning The 100 P-40 aircraft were crated and sent to Burma
system in existence":* [6]
on third country freighters during spring 1941. At Ran-

110

A ZG 76 Bf 110C with sharks mouthnose paint

CHAPTER 27. FLYING TIGERS

of the P-40s had arrived in Asia, the Flying Tigers were
divided into three squadrons: 1st Squadron (Adam &
Eves); 2nd SquadronPanda
(
Bears) and 3rd Squadron
(Hells Angels).* [4] They were assigned to opposite ends of the Burma Road to protect this vital line of
communications. Two squadrons were based at Kunming
in China, and a third at Mingaladon Airport near Rangoon. When the United States ocially entered the war,
the AVG had 82 pilots and 79 aircraft, although not all
were combat-ready. Tiger Erik Shilling, part of the third
squadron commented:. This was the beginning of the
greatest adventure I would ever hope to experience. It
wasn't until years later that I fully realized the magnitude
and signicance of this rst step, to be a lifelong adventure in the mystic Far East.* [15]

goon, they were unloaded, assembled and test own by

personnel of Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company
(CAMCO) before being delivered to the AVG training
unit at Toungoo.* [9] One crate was dropped into the water and a wing assembly was ruined by salt water immersion, so CAMCO was able to deliver only 99 Tomahawks
before war broke out. (Many of those were destroyed
in training accidents.) The 100th fuselage was trucked
to a CAMCO plant in Loiwing, China, and later made
whole with parts from damaged aircraft. Shortages in
equipment with spare parts almost impossible to obtain
in Burma along with the slow introduction of replacement
ghter aircraft were continual impediments although the
AVG did receive 50 replacement P-40E ghters from
USAAF stocks toward the end of its combat tour.

The AVG's rst combat mission was on 20 December

1941, when aircraft of the 1st and 2nd squadrons intercepted 10 unescorted Kawasaki Ki-48Lilybombers of
the 21st Hiktai attacking Kunming. The bombers jettisoned their loads before reaching Kunming. Three of the
Japanese bombers were shot down near Kunming and a
fourth was damaged so severely that it crashed before returning to its aireld at Hanoi. Furthermore, the Japanese
discontinued their raids on Kunming while the AVG was
based there. One P-40 crash-landed; it was salvaged for
parts.

AVG ghter aircraft were painted with a large shark face

on the front of the aircraft. This was done after pilots saw a photograph of a P-40 of No. 112 Squadron
RAF in North Africa,* [10] which in turn had adopted
the shark face from German pilots of the Luftwae's ZG
76 heavy ghter wing, ying Messerschmitt Bf 110 ghters in Crete. (The AVG nose-art is variously credited to
Charles Bond* [11] and Erik Shilling.) About the same
time, the AVG was dubbed The Flying Tigersby its
Washington support group, called China Defense Supplies.* [12] The P-40's good qualities included pilot armor, self-sealing fuel tanks, sturdy construction, heavy
armament, and a higher diving speed than most Japanese
aircraft qualities that could be used to advantage in
accordance with Chennault's combat tactics.* [13] Chennault created an early warning network of spotters that
would give his ghters time to take o and climb to a superior altitude where this tactic could be executed.* [14]

The rst squadron had own up to Kunming to defend

the terminus of the Burma Road and saw some combat
action on 20 December 1941 while defending Rangoon
from Japanese bombers, taking down four of them and
disrupting their attack on Burma Road.* [16]

27.2.1 Defense of Rangoon

At this time, the focus of Japan's oensive eorts in

the AVG's coverage area was southern Burma. The 3rd
Squadron 18 aircraft strong defended Rangoon from
2325 December. On 23 December, Mitsubishi Ki-21
Sallyheavy bombers of the 60th, 62nd and 98th Sentais,
along with single-engined Mitsubishi Ki-30 Annattack bombers of the 31st Sentai, sortied against Rangoon.
They were escorted by Nakajima Ki-27 Nateghters
of 77th Sentai. The Imperial Japanese Army Air Force
(JAAF) formation was intercepted by the AVG and RAF
Brewster Bualos of 67 Squadron. Eight Ki-21s were
shot down for the loss of three AVG P-40s. The 60th
Sentai was particularly hard hit it lost ve out of the 15
bombers it had dispatched. Nevertheless, Rangoon and
Mingaladon aireld were successfully bombed, with the
city suering more than 1,000 dead. Two Bualos and
27.2 Combat history
two P-40s were destroyed on the ground, and one P-40
The port of Rangoon in Burma and the Burma Road lead- crashed when it attempted to land on a bomb-damaged
ing from there to China were of crucial importance. East- runway.
ern China was under Japanese occupation, so all mili- On 25 December, the JAAF returned, reinforced by Kitary supplies for China arrived via the Burma route. By 21s of 12th Sentai and Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (OsNovember 1941, when the pilots were trained and most cars) of the 64th Sentai (Colonel Tateo Kat's Flying

27.2. COMBAT HISTORY

111
the loss of no Allied aircraft.
Despite these minor victories and Chennault's reinforcement of thePanda Bearswith pilots from theAdam
and Eves, by mid-February, only 10 P-40s were still
operational at Mingaladon. Commonwealth troops retreated before the Japanese onslaught, and the AVG was
pressed into the ground attack role to support them. One
unfortunate result of these missions was a prolonged air
attack on a suspected Japanese column on 21 February
that turned out to consist of Commonwealth troops. More
than 100 Allied lives were lost in this friendly re incident. On 27 February, after hearing that the RAF was
retreating and pulling out its radar equipment, the AVG
withdrew to bases in northern Burma.

By 24 January, the Flying Tigers had destroyed 73

Japanese aircraft while only losing ve themselves a
notable performance, considering the AVG was outnumbered and faced experienced and fully trained Japanese
pilots. The main disadvantage of JAAF ghter pilots of
this period was the near-obsolescence of their predominant ghter type in the theater, the Ki-27. Though more
maneuverable than the P-40, its armament and performance was inferior. Lightly constructed and armed, it
A "blood chit" issued to the American Volunteer Group Flying could not withstand frontal attacks nor could it out-dive
Tigers. The Chinese characters read: This foreign person has Allied ghters such as the P-40; if it attempted to, it ofcome to China to help in the war eort. Soldiers and civilians, ten came apart in the air. In fact, its cruising speed was
one and all, should rescue and protect him.(R. E. Baldwin Col- less than that of the Ki-21 bombers it was intended to
lection)
escort.* [16]
Squadron). A total of 63 bombers escorted by 25 ghters
were committed. These were intercepted by 14 P-40s of
the AVG's 3rd Squadron and 15 Bualos of 67 Squadron.
In the two encounters, 35 Japanese bombers and ghters
were shot down. The Allies lost two pilots and ve P40s.* [15] Mingaladon aireld was once again damaged,
and eight Bualos were destroyed on the ground.
After its losses in the 2325 December battles, the 3rd
Squadron was relieved by the 2nd Squadron Panda
Bears, which carried out a series of raids on JAAF airbases in Thailand. The Japanese had moved aircraft to
Malaya to nish o Singapore, and its remaining aircraft
in the area (the 77th, 31st and 62nd Sentais) launched
ghter sweeps and counter raids on the Allied aireld at
Mingaladon.
On 12 January, the Japanese launched their Burma Campaign. Signicantly outnumbered, the AVG was gradually reduced through attrition, but often exacted a disproportionate toll of their attackers. On 24 January, six
Ki-21s of the 14th Sentai escorted by Ki-27s attacked
Mingaladon. All the Ki-21s were shot down by the AVG
and RAF defenders. On 28 January, a ghter sweep of
37 Ki-27s was engaged by 16 AVG P-40s and two RAF
ghters. Three Nateswere shot down for the loss of
two P-40s. The next day, another sweep of 20 Ki-27s of
the 70th Sentai was met by 10 Allied ghters (eight P-40s
and two Hawker Hurricanes). Four were shot down for

27.2.2 Retreat into China

After Rangoon was lost to the Japanese at the end of
February, the AVG relocated to Magwe, a small British
aireld more than 300 miles north of Rangoon. Chennault started moving elements of the now reconstituted
3rd Squadron to Magwe as reinforcement to his worn
down 1st and 2nd squadrons. Aircraft attrition became
so high that at this point, individual squadron distinctions became meaningless, and all three squadrons had
elements based there, along with a number of RAF aircraft. In total, the Allies had 38 aircraft, including eight
P-40s and 15 Hawker Hurricanes. Opposing them were
271 Japanese aircraft, including 115 ghters. Although
the AVG and the RAF scored some successes against
the JAAF, Magwe was continuously bombed, including
a very heavy raid on 21 March by 151 bombers and ghters. On 23 March with only four aircraft left, the AVG
was forced to relocate to Loiwing, just across the Chinese border. The Tigers crossed into China on a rickety
suspension bridge over a deep gorge. A few months later,
they came back to destroy the bridge so no Japanese soldiers could come across that way into China.* [17]
Reinforced by new P-40EKittyhawksand by repaired
aircraft from the AVG's excellent maintenance group, 12
P-40s were based at Loiwing on 8 April. Despite the long
retreats, their losses and incessant air combat, the AVG

112

CHAPTER 27. FLYING TIGERS

Despite being on the defensive thereafter, the AVG continued to harass the JAAF with raids on their Vietnamese
bases.

With the Burma campaign over, Chennault redeployed

his squadrons to provide air protection for China. The
Doolittle Raid had prompted the Japanese to launch an
oensive to seize AVG air bases that could be used for
attacks on the Japanese homeland. By 1 June, personnel that would form the nucleus of the new USAAF 23rd
Fighter Group (the AVG's replacement) were beginning
to trickle into the theater. Some of the last missions
the AVG ew were defending Guilin against raids by
JAAF Nates, Lilys, and new Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu (
The Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa was a single-engined land-based Nick) heavy ghters. The AVG's last combat was over
ghter used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force in World Hengyang on the day it was disbanded, 4 July 1942. In
War II
this nal action, the AVG shot down four Ki-27s with no
AVG losses.
still retained their abilities. That day, 12 Oscars from the
64th Sentai raided the base. In the ensuing series of dogghts, four Ki-43s were downed in exchange for one P40E destroyed on the ground. During this period, Chinese and American commanders pressured Chennault to
order his pilots to undertake so-calledmorale missions
. These were overights and ground attacks intended
to raise the morale of hard-pressed Chinese soldiers by
showing they were getting air support. The AVG's pilots seethed with resentment at these dangerous missions
(which some considered useless), a feeling which culminated in the so-called Pilot's Revoltof mid-April.
Chennault suppressed therevoltand ordered the ground
attack missions to continue. But despite their eorts, the
Allied situation in Burma continued to deteriorate. On
29 April the AVG was ordered to evacuate Loiwing and
relocate to Baoshan in China.
Like the AVG's other bases, Baoshan was repeatedly
bombed by the Japanese Army Air Force. Still, the AVG
scored against their JAAF tormentors, bringing down
fourNatesof the 11th Sentai on 5 May and twoAnns
. By 4 May, the successful Japanese Burma oensive
was winding down, except for mopping up actions. One
of these was an attempt by a regiment of the Japanese
56th Division to drive for Kunming, an eort that was
stopped by the Chinese army operating with strong air
support from the AVG. On 7 May the Japanese Army began building a pontoon bridge across the upper Salween
River, which would allow them to move troops and supplies into China and drive towards Kunming. To stem
this tide, 2nd Squadron Leader David Lee TexHill
led a ight of four new P-40Es bombing and strang into
the mile deep Salween River Gorge. During the next four
days, the AVG pilots ew continuous missions into the
gorge, eectively neutralizing the Japanese forces. This
prevented a Japanese advance on Kunming and Chungking; the Japanese never advanced farther than the west
bank of the upper Salween. Claire Chennault later wrote
of these critical missions, The American Volunteer
Group had staved o China's collapse on the Salween.

27.3 Assessment of the AVG

Flight leader and ghter ace RobertR.T.Smith stands next to

his P-40 ghter at Kunming, China. TheFlying Tigerinsignia
was created by the Walt Disney Company.* [18]

The AVG lacked many resources. Despite its location in

areas with malaria and cholera, it only had four doctors, three nurses and a bottle of iodine.Pilots found the
food disgusting, and the slow mail from home and lack
of women hurt morale. A squadron had 45 maintenance
personnel compared to the normal more than 100, and
only one base could perform major repairs.* [6] Nonetheless, the AVG was ocially credited with 297 enemy
aircraft destroyed, including 229 in the air.* [19] Fourteen AVG pilots were killed in action, captured, or disappeared on combat missions. Two died of wounds sustained in bombing raids, and six were killed in accidents
during the Flying Tigers' existence as a combat force.
The AVG's kill ratio was superior to that of contemporary Allied air groups in Malaya, the Philippines, and
elsewhere in the Pacic theater. The AVG's success is
all the more remarkable since they were outnumbered by
Japanese ghters in almost all their engagements. The

27.5. LEGACY
AVG's P-40s were superior to the JAAF's Ki-27s, but the
group's kill ratio against modern Ki-43s was still in its favor. In Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American
Volunteers, 19411942, Daniel Ford attributes the AVG's
success to morale and group esprit de corps. He notes that
its pilots were triple volunteerswho had volunteered
for service with the U.S. military, the AVG, and brutal
ghting in Burma. The result was a corps of experienced
and skilled volunteer pilots who wanted to ght.
During their service with the Nationalist Chinese air
force, 33 AVG pilots and three ground crew received the
Order of the Cloud and Banner, and many AVG pilots received the Chinese Air Force Medal. Each AVG ace and
double ace was awarded the Five Star or Ten Star Wing
Medal.

113
Robert Neale: 13 victories
Ed Rector: 10.5 victories
David Lee TexHill: 10.25 victories
George Burgard: 10 victories
Robert Little: 10 victories
Charles Older: 10 victories
Robert T. Smith: 8.9 victories
William McGarry: 8 victories
Robert Walters: 8 victories
Charles Bond: 7 victories

27.4 Members of the AVG

GregoryPappyBoyington broke his contract with
the AVG* [20] in the spring of 1942 and returned to
active duty with the U.S. Marine Corps. He went on
to command theBlack SheepSquadron and was
one of two AVG veterans (the other being James H.
Howard of the USAAF) to be awarded the Medal of
Honor.
David LeeTexHill later commanded the USAAF
23rd Fighter Group.* [21]
Charles Older earned a law degree postwar, became
a California Superior Court judge, and presided at
the murder trial of Charles Manson.* [22]
Kenneth Jernstedt was a long-time Oregon legislator
and mayor of his home town of Hood River.* [23]

Frank Lawlor: 7 victories

John V. Scarsdale JackNewkirk: 7 victories
Robert Hedman: 6 victories
C. Joseph Rosbert: 6 victories
J. Richard Rossi: 6.25 victories
Robert Prescott: 5.5 victories
Percy Bartelt: 5 victories
William Bartling: 5 victories
Edmund Overend: 5 victories
Robert Sandell: 5 victories
Robert H. Smith: 5 victories

Robert William Prescott * [24]

Allen BertChristman, who bailed out at Ran- 27.5 Legacy
goon, was strafed and killed while parachuting to
the ground in January 1942, had earlier scripted 27.5.1 Transition to the USAAF
and drawn the Scorchy Smith and Sandman comic
strips.* [25]
The success of the AVG led to negotiations in spring 1942
Journalist Joseph Alsop served as Chennault'ssta to induct it into the USAAF. Chennault was reinstated
secretarywhile the AVG trained at Rangoon; he as a colonel and immediately promoted to brigadier genwas interned at Hong Kong on Christmas Day, 1941. eral commanding U.S. Army air units in China (initially
designated China Air Task Force and later the 14th Air
Emma Foster RN became Executive Director of the Force), while continuing to command the AVG by virtue
of his position in the Chinese Air Force. On 4 July 1942,
Pennsylvania Health Council.* [26]
the AVG was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group. Most
AVG pilots refused to remain with the unit as a result
27.4.1 Aces
of the strong arm tactics by the USAAF general sent to
negotiate with them. However, ve pilots accepted comSee also List of Flying Tigers pilots, which inmissions in China including TexHill, one of Chencludes their victories and bonuses paid.
nault's most loyal devotees, with others remaining for a
two-week transition period. (U.S. airmen and the press
Nineteen pilots were credited by the AVG with ve or continued to use theFlying Tigername to refer to USmore air-to-air victories:* [19]
AAF units in China to the end of the war, and the name

114

CHAPTER 27. FLYING TIGERS

continues to be applied to certain air force and army aviation squadrons.) Most AVG pilots became transport pilots in China, went back to America into civilian jobs, or
rejoined the military services and fought elsewhere in the
war.* [27]

in AVG markings. Finally, a memorial to the AVG and

14th AF is located at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, depicting a P-40 in AVG markings with a bronze
plaque describing the unit's history and Vandenberg's role
as headquarters for the 14th AF.

One of the pilots drawn to the success of the AVG was

Robert Lee Scott, Jr. who was ying supplies into Kunming over the Hump from India. He convinced Chennault to loan him a P-40 which he ew to protect the supply route; his aggressiveness led to Chennault's recruiting him as commander of the 23rd Fighter Group. Scott
brought recognition to his exploits and those of the Flying Tigers with his 1943 best-selling autobiography God
is My Co-Pilot that was then made by Warner Bros. into
a popular lm in 1945.

There are also several memorials to the AVG in Asia. In

Chiang Mai, Thailand, a marble obelisk was dedicated
on 11 November 2003, inscribed to Chennault; to Jack
Newkirk, who was killed in North Thailand on 24 March
1942; and to Charles Mott and William McGarry, who
were shot down and captured in Thailand. In Taiwan,
Madame Chiang Kai-Shek requested a statue of Chennault in the New Park of Taipei to commemorate this
wartime friend after his death (the statue has since been
relocated to Hualian AFB). A Flying Tigers Memorial is
located in the village of Zhijiang, Hunan Province, China
and there is a museum dedicated exclusively to the Flying Tigers. The building is a steel and marble structure,
with wide sweeping steps leading up to a platform with
columns holding up the memorial's sweeping roof; on its
back wall, etched in black marble, are the names of all
members of the AVG, 75th Fighter Squadron, and 14th
Air Force who died in China. In 2005, the city of Kunming held a ceremony memorializing the history of the
Flying Tigers in China, and on 20 December 2012, the
Flying Tigers Museum opened in Kunming. The date is
the 71st anniversary of the rst combat from Kunming
of the Flying Tigers. The Memorial Cemetery to AntiJapanese Aviator Martyrs in Nanjing, China features a
wall listing the names of Flying Tiger pilots and other pilots who defended China in World War II, and has several
unmarked graves for such American pilots.* [28]

27.5.2

Tributes and memorials

The largest private museum in China, Chengdu Jianchuan

Museum, devotes a wing in its military section to the history of the Flying Tigers, including a tribute wall featuring a thousand porcelain photos of members of the Flying Tigers as well as many historical artifacts from the
era.* [29]
In March 2015, the Flying Tiger Heritage Park was
opened in Guilin in collaboration with the Flying Tiger
Historical Organization. The park is built on the site of
There are several museum displays in the United States Yangtang Aireld and includes a museum, aircraft *shelhonoring the Flying Tigers. The National Museum of ters, and relics of a command post located in a cave. [30]
the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio, has an extensive display dedicated to the AVG, including an A-2
jacket worn by an AVG pilot in China, a banner presented 27.5.3 Flying Tigers wrecks
to the AAF by the Chinese government, and a P-40E.
The National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, The wreckage of a P-40 with CAF serial number PFlorida also has a Flying Tiger display. The Chennault 8115 is on display in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The airAviation Museum in Monroe, Louisiana has an exten- craft is believed to be that own by WilliamMacMcsive collection of Flying Tigers and AVG memorabalia. Garry when he was hit by anti-aircraft re while ying top
The AVG monument in the National Museum of the cover over Chiang Mai on 24 March 1942. The aircraft
United States Air Force Memorial Garden features a mar- crashed into the rain forest in northern Thailand. Mcble sculpture of a pagoda crowned with a brass model of a Garry was captured and interrogated, and spent most of
P-40; the monument stands nearly 14 feet tall. The Palm the war in a Thai prison. Toward the end of the war the
Springs Air Museum has a display of memorabilia inside Oce of Strategic Services (OSS) arranged for the Free
a mockup of AVG ground facilities, with a P-40N painted Thai Movement to spirit him out of the prison to a PBY
Flying Tigers Monument Ocala, Florida Memorial Park

27.6. SEE ALSO

115

Catalina in the Gulf of Thailand. The wreck of his P40 was discovered in 1991, and consists of the P-40's
Allison engine, Hamilton Standard propeller and parts
of the airframe. Today the wreckage is displayed at the
Tango Squadron Wing 41 Museum in Chiang Mai, Thailand.* [31]* [32]

In the Star Wars guidebook The Essential Guide to Warfare, an X-wing Starghter squadron named the Lightspeed Pantherswas mentioned in the book. Warfare coauthor Paul R. Urquhart conrmed in Warfare's endnotes
that the squadron was intended to be a direct reference to
the Flying Tigers.* [34]

The wreck of another AVG P-40 is believed to be in Lake

Dianchi (Lake Kunming). The ghter is believed to be a
P-40E piloted by John Blackburn when it crashed into
the lake on a gunnery training ight on 28 April 1942,
killing the pilot. His body was recovered from the aircraft, which was submerged in 20 feet of water. In 1997
a U.S.-Chinese group called the Sino-American Aviation
Heritage Foundation was formed to locate the aircraft and
possibly raise and restore it. In March 1998, they contacted the China Expedition Association about conducting the recovery operation. Over 300 aircraft are believed
to have crashed into Lake Dianchi (including a second
AVG P-40) so locating the aircraft proved dicult. In
2003, an aircraft believed to be Blackburn's was found
embedded in nine feet of bottom silt. An eort was made
in September 2005 to raise the aircraft, but the recovery
was plagued with diculties and it remains deep under
the lake bottom. Since the aircraft was complete and relatively undamaged when John Blackburn's body was removed from it in 1942, it is hoped that the aircraft will be
in good condition and capable of being restored, possibly
to ying condition.

An American TV show, Tales of the Gold Monkey, featured a ctional ex-Flying Tiger named Jake Cutter. The
show had only one season, airing between 1982 and 1983.
Despite the Flying Tigers not existing prior to 1941, while
wearing the trademark Flying Tiger jacket with blood
chit, Cutter repeatedly says throughout the show it's
1939.This however was the least of the show's historical
inaccuracies.

27.5.4

Recognition by the United States

Just before their 50th reunion in 1992, the AVG veterans were retroactively recognized as members of the
U.S. military services during the seven months the group
was in combat against the Japanese. The AVG was
then awarded a Presidential Unit Citation for professionalism, dedication to duty, and extraordinary heroism.In 1996, the U.S. Air Force awarded the pilots the
Distinguished Flying Cross and the ground crew were all
awarded the Bronze Star Medal.* [33]

In Warthog PLC's space-based science ction ight simulator computer game Starlancer, the player's squadron is
renamed from the 45th Volunteer Squadron to the 45th
Flying Tigers or Tigers for short after destroying a key
enemy ship.
In the alternate history comic series Atomic Robo, the
titular character ew with the Flying Tigers for a time.
2011 Chinese TV lm Feng Shui featured a ctional Flying Tigers character.

27.6 See also

27.6.1 About China
Arthur Chin America's rst ace in World War II
Development of Chinese Nationalist air force
(19371945)
Second Sino-Japanese War
Chiang Kai-shek
Madame Chiang Kai-shek
History of the Republic of China

27.5.5

Popular culture

A number of feature lms have referenced the AVG directly or indirectly, the most famous being Flying Tigers,
a 1942 black-and-white lm from Republic, starring John
Wayne and John Carroll as ghter pilots. Other wartime
lms with an AVG angle included The Sky's the Limit
(1943, starring Fred Astaire as a Flying Tiger ace on
leave); Hers to Hold (1943, with Joseph Cotten); God is
My Co-Pilot, (1945, with Dennis Morgan as Robert Lee
Scott, Raymond Massey as Chennault, and John Ridgely
as Tex Hill); and China's Little Devils (1945).
Similarly, the Flying Tigers have been the focus of several
novels, including Tonya, by Pappy Boyington; Remains,
by Daniel Ford; and Spies in the Garden, by Bob Bergin.

James H. Howard Flying Tigers pilot later

awarded the Medal of Honor
Pappy BoyingtonFlying Tigers pilot later awarded
the Medal of Honor
Military of the Republic of China
National Revolutionary Army
Republic of China Air Force
Soviet Volunteer Group
Whampoa Military Academy
Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign

116

27.6.2

CHAPTER 27. FLYING TIGERS

About American volunteers

[17] Wambold Jr., Donald A..A Flying Tiger's War.World

War II 20, no. 2, 2005, pp. 2225.

Lafayette Escadrille American volunteers in the

[18] Rossi, J. R. The Flying Tigers, American Volunteer
French Air Service during World War I
Kociuszko SquadronAmerican volunteers ghting for Poland in the Polish-Soviet War (1919
1921).

Group Chinese Air Force, A Brief History with Recollections and Comments by General Claire Lee Chennault. AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying
Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.

Yankee Squadron American volunteers ghting in [19] Olynk 1986

the Spanish Civil War (19361939) engaging Nazis
and fascist Italian forces.
[20] Rossi, J. R.Complete Roster of the American Volunteer
Eagle SquadronAmerican volunteers in the RAF
during World War II
23d Fighter GroupUSAF group descended from
Flying Tigers

27.7 References
27.7.1

Notes

[1] Ford 1991, pp. 3034.

[2] Ford 2007, pp. 4545.
[3] Ford 2007, pp. 8586.
[4] Feltus, Pamela. Claire Chennault and the Flying Tigers
of World War II. U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission,
2003. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
[5] Scott 1973, p. 7.

Group, 1941'42.AFG: American Volunteer Group, The

Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
[21] Rossi, J. R.David Lee Hill biography.AFG: American
Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5
July 2011.
[22] Rossi, J. R.Charles Older biography.AFG: American
Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5
July 2011.
[23] Rossi, J. R.Kenneth Jernstedt biography.AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved:
5 July 2011.
[24] Rossi, J. R.Robert Prescott biography.AFG: American
Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5
July 2011.
[25] Rossi, J. R.Allen Christman biography.AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved:
5 July 2011.

[6] Belden, Jack. Chennault Fights to Hold the China

Front. Life, 20 August 1942, Retrieved: 19 November
2011.

[26] Rossi, J. R.E. J. Red Foster biography.AFG: American

Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5
July 2011.

[7] Scott 1973, p. 21.

[27] Ford 2007, ch. 17.

[8] Ford 2007, p. 36.

[9] Howard 1991, p. 65.

[28] Former 'Flying Tigers' Visit Nanjing Memorial Cemetery.

china.org (Xinhua News Agency), 25 August 2005. Retrieved: 17 February 2010.

[10] Rossi, J. R.A Flying Tigers Story by Dick Rossi, Pilot.

AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. [29] JianChuan Museum Baidu Baike. baike.baidu.com.
Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Retrieved: 30 November 2010.
[11] Rossi, J. R.Charles Bond biography.AFG: American
Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5
July 2011.
[12] Ford 2007, pp. 8283, 107.
[13] Smith, Robert T. Tale of a Tiger From The Diary Of
Robert T. Smith, Flying Tiger, part 4.Planes and Pilots
Of World War Two, 1986. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
[14] Scott 1973, pp. 6165.

[30] Heritage park honoring U.S. 'Flying Tigers' opens in

China. news.xinhuanet.com, 29 March 2015. Retrieved:
26 April 2015.
[31]Flying Tigers Curtiss P40.thaiaviation.com. Retrieved:
27 October 2007.
[32] Lednicer, David. Photo of P-8115 wreck. myaviation.net, 10 January 2007. Retrieved: 12 February 2012.

[15] History of the Flying Tigers.Retrieved: 26 April 2015.

[33] Ford 2007, p. 349.

[16] Sherman, Steven. The Flying TigersClaire Chennault

and the American Volunteer Group. Acepilots.com, 27
June 2011. Retrieved: 26 April 2015.

[34] Fry, Jason and Paul R. Urquhart. EG to Warfare: Endnotes, pt. 10.Jason Fry's Dorkery, 2010. Retrieved: 17
November 2012.

27.7. REFERENCES

27.7.2

Bibliography

Ayling, Keith. Old Leatherface of the Flying Tigers:

The Story of General Chennault. New York: BobbsMerrill Co., 1945. OCLC 527511
Baisden, Chuck. Flying Tiger to Air Commando.
Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing, 1999.
ISBN 0-7643-0690-1.
Bishop, Lewis S. and Shiela Bishop-Irwin. Escape
From Hell: An AVG Flying Tiger's Journey. New
York: Tiger Eye Press, 2005. ISBN 0-9763037-01.
Bond, Maj. Gen. Charles and Terry Anderson. A
Flying Tiger's Diary. College Station, Texas: Texas
A&M University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-89096-1786.
Boyington, Pappy(Col. Gregory Boyington,
USMC, Ret.).Baa Baa Black Sheep. New York:
G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1958. OCLC 2124961
Byrd, Martha. Chennault: Giving Wings to the Tiger.
Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press,
2003. ISBN 0-8173-0322-7.
Chennault, Anna. Chennault and the Flying Tigers.
New York: Paul S. Eriksson, 1963. OCLC 1294226
Chennault, Claire Lee. Way of a Fighter. New
York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1949. OCLC 1314119

117
Howard, James H. Roar Of The Tiger: From Flying
Tigers to Mustangs, A Fighter Ace's Memoir. New
York: Crown, 1991. ISBN 0-517-57323-7.
Koskodian, Kenneth. K. No Greater Ally: The Untold Story of Poland's Forces in World War II. New
York: Osprey Publishing, 2009. ISBN 978-1-84908479-6.
Losonsky, Frank S. Flying Tiger: A Crew Chief's
Story: The War Diary of an AVG Crew Chief.
Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing, 2000.
ISBN 0-7643-0045-8.
Meredith, Kenneth T. Tiger Tenacity: Courage
and Determination Forged the Don Rodewald Story.
Lake City, Colorado: Golden Stone Press, 2000.
ISBN 1-928590-05-5.
Neumann, Gerhard. Herman the German. New
York: William Morrow and Company, 1984. ISBN
0-688-01682-0.
Newkirk, John J. The Old Man and the Harley: A
Last Ride Through Our Fathers' America. Nashville,
Tennessee: Thoman Nelson, 2008. ISBN 978-159555-180-1.
Olynyk, Frank J. AVG & USAAF (China-BurmaIndia Theater) Credits for Destruction of Enemy Aircraft in Air to Air Combat, World War 2. Aurora,
Ohio: Privately published, 1986. OCLC 23108588
Samson, Jack. Chennault. New York: Doubleday,
1987. ISBN 0-385-23171-7.

Clements, Terrill.
American Volunteer Group
Colours and Markings. London: Osprey Publishing,
2001. ISBN 978-1-84176-224-1.

Schramm, Leo J. Leo The Tiger. Charleston, South

Carolina: BookSurge Publishing, 2007. ISBN 14196-6285-6.

Dumas, Jim. Longburst and the Flying Tigers. Tollhouse, California: Scrub Jay Press (www.Scrubjay.
net), 2004. ISBN 0-9646851-5-9.

Schultz, Duane. The Maverick War: Chennault and

the Flying Tigers. New York: St. Martin's Press,
1987. ISBN 0-312-00618-7.

Ford, Daniel. Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault

and His American Volunteers, 19411942. Washington, D.C.: HarperCollins-Smithsonian Books,
2007. ISBN 0-06-124655-7.

Scott, Robert Lee, Jr. Flying Tiger: Chennault

of China. Santa Barbara, California: GreenwoodHeinemann Publishing, 1973. ISBN 0-8371-67744.

Frillmann, Paul and Graham Peck. China: The

Remembered Life. Boston: Houghton Miin Co.,
1968. OCLC 712357

Shilling, Erik. Destiny: A Flying Tigers Rendezvous

With Fate. Pomona, California: Ben-Wal Printing,
1993. ISBN 1-882463-02-1.

Greenlaw, Olga S. The Lady and the Tigers. New

York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1943. OCLC 1337748

Smith, Robert M. With Chennault in China: A Flying

Tiger's Diary. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schier Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-7643-0287-6.

Hill, David Lee and Regan Schaupp. Tex Hill: Flying Tiger. Spartanburg, South Carolina: Honoribus
Press, 2003. ISBN 1-885354-15-0.

Smith, R[obert] T. Tale of a Tiger. Van Nuys, California: Tiger Originals, 1986. ISBN 0-9618012-04.

Hotz, Robert B. et al. With General Chennault: The

Story of the Flying Tigers. New York: CowardMcCann, 1943. OCLC 385646

Whelan, Russell. The Flying Tigers: The Story of

the American Volunteer Group.New York: Viking
Press, 1942. OCLC 3531493

118

27.8 External links

Sino-American Aviation Heritage Foundation
Annals of the Flying Tigers
Flying Tigers Association veterans' group
Flying Tigers Heritage Park
Flying Tigers In Burma, 30 March 1942 Life
magazine article, including numerous photographs
Wings Over China: The Story of the Flying Tigers
documentary posted by MaxMediaAsia
The short lm The Air Force Story The Drawing of
the Battle Lines, December 1941-April 1942 (1953)
is available for free download at the Internet Archive
AVG colour schemes and markings

CHAPTER 27. FLYING TIGERS

Chapter 28

Foreign enlistment in the American Civil

War
Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War was
largely dominated by the Union, which was far more successful in attracting international volunteers. Nonetheless, thousands of immigrants and mercenaries served
with the Confederacy.

28.1 Union enlistment

Although the Union Army's largest foreign-born contingents comprised Irish- and German-Americans, regiments such as the 79th New York Infantry Highlanders,
originally formed in the 1850s, consisted completely
of descendants of Scottish immigrants before accepting
Irish, English and others into its ranks during the early
years of the war. It should be noted that these immigrants
had been living in the US for years prior to the war and
did not come to this country to ght in the war.
Communication diculties, especially in Union regiments, were a constant problem in divisions made up of
varied nationalities. Such divisions included volunteers
from Germany, Ireland, Italy, Poland, and other European countries. One regiment, in particular, was made
up of ocers and soldiers from 15 dierent nations, and
the commanding ocer's orders had to be translated in
seven dierent languages. Major General Franz Sigel had
his orders translated from his native German to Hungarian, for his ocers, then to Reports to him then had to
be translated in English for the rest of his command and
nally to German again, when Sigel received reports.

Polish Legion, as well as several German and Mexican

divisions. These units were composed of men who
had lived most of their lives in the USA. The most
notable volunteer division comprised descendants of
people from various European countries then living in
Louisiana, under the command of French Major General
Count Camille Armand Jules Marie, Prince de Polignac.
Another prominent volunteer was the Scotland-born
blockade runner, Captain William Watson.

28.3 See also

African-Americans in the Civil War
Andrew Cowan (soldier)
German-Americans in the Civil War
Hispanics in the American Civil War
Irish military diaspora
Irish-Americans in the American Civil War
Italian Americans in the Civil War
Military history of Jewish Americans

28.4 References
Linedecker, Cliord L., ed. Civil War, A-Z: The
Complete Handbook of America's Bloodiest Conict. New York: Ballantine Books, 2002. ISBN
0-89141-878-4

The US, especially in the North, had received a large inux of European immigrants in the 1850s, due to people
leaving Europe to avoid the ongoing wars and rebellions
there. Europe had been in the midst of a pro-republican
transformation with people such as Garibaldi, in Italy.

28.5 Further reading

28.2 Confederate enlistment
Thousands of pre-war immigrants served in the
Confederate Army, which had its own Irish Brigade and
119

Early, Curtis A. and Gloria J. Early. Ohio Confederate Connection: Facts You May Not Know about
the Civil War. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, 2010.
ISBN 9781450273732 Despite the title, this book

120

CHAPTER 28. FOREIGN ENLISTMENT IN THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

does contain information on foreign-born Confederates.

Mahin, Dean B. The Blessed Place of Freedom: Europeans in Civil War America. Dulles, Virginia:
Brassey's Inc., 2003. ISBN 1-57488-523-5

28.6 External links

Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in
the American Civil War
The Britons who died for the Stars and Stripes: How
thousands of volunteers gave their lives in America's
Civil War
The Blue, the Gray and the Chinese: American Civil
War Participants of Chinese Descent
Diversity In The Ranks: Foreign-Born Soldiers
(And More) At Gettysburg
Englishmen in the Confederate Service
Foreign Soldiers in the American Civil War by Andy
Waskie
From a Foreign Field: Service by Foreign-Born Residents in North Carolina's Confederate Ranks
Scotland and the Confederate States of America

Chapter 29

Mexican Expeditionary Air Force

The Mexican Expeditionary Air Force (Spanish: Fuerza Area Expedicionaria Mexicana, FAEM) was a military
aviation unit which represented Mexico on the Allied side
during World War II. It is notable as the only Mexican
military unit ever to ght outside Mexico itself.

29.1 History

Monument to the 201 Squadron and the Mexican Expeditionary

Air Force that took part in the liberation of the Philippines in
1945

Mexican P-47D Thunderbolt over the Philippines (1945)

the Gulf. The 201 Squadron name -also known as Aztec

Eagles- covered all pilots, mechanics, armorers and other
personnel who were trained in the United States from July
1944 onward to take part in the conictthe unit was
previously known as the Grupo de Perfeccionamiento de
Aeronutica (Aeronautical Training Group).
On 29 December 1944, Mexico's Senate authorized these
troops to be sent into combat* [1] Founded by order 8606
of the Direccin de Aeronutica of the Secretariat of
National Defense, the unit was ocially made part of
the Mexican Army on 1 January 1945. Its structure
was organised as Command (Mando), Command Group
(Grupo de Comando), Escuadrn 201 and Reinforcement Group (Grupo de Reemplazos), to be consistent with
the structure of a U.S. ghter squadron, though the unit
ew with its own markings and remained under Mexican
commandColonel P.A. Antonio Crdenas Rodrguez
(19051969) was appointed its commander.

Trained on various bases in the U.S., at the end of their

training they were reviewed by the Under Secretary of
National Defense, general Francisco L. Urquizo on 23
Capt. Radams Gaxiola stands in front of his P-47D with his February 1945 at Major's Field Airbase in Greenville,
Texas. Due to their knowledge of Spanish and the vicmaintenance team after he returned from a combat mission
tories in Europe the U.S. War department assigned these
Mexico declared war on the Axis Powers in support of the Mexican troops to the Pacic theater. They sailed out of
Allies on May 22, 1942, following losses of oil ships in San Francisco in the U.S. Navy transport Fairisle on 27
121

122
March, to aid other Allied forces in the liberation of the
Japanese-occupied Philippines. On arrival in Manila on
30 April, Colonel Crdenas was welcomed by General
Douglas MacArthur, supreme Allied commander in the
southwest Pacic. The FAEM was then given a base at
camp Porac, Pampanga, in the Clark Field complex on
the island of Luzon, forming part of 58th Fighter Group,
V Fighter Command, U.S. Fifth Air Force.
FAEM's operational element Escuadrn 201, commanded by 1 P.A. Radams Gaxiola Andrade (1915
1966) led 59 combat missions over Luzn and
Formosa, of which 50 were deemed successful, making
an eciency of 85%, dropping 252 bombs totalling 1,000
lb (450 kg) and ring 138,652 .50 in (12.7 mm) machine
gun rounds, with only ve of its pilots killed in action
a high eciency, since it was only in action from June August 1945. At the end of the war, the FAEM returned
to Mexico, where it paraded on Plaza de la Constitucin
in Mexico City on 18 November 1945.

29.2 References
[1] (Spanish) FUERZA AREA EXPEDICIONARIA
MEXICANA ESCUADRN DE PELEA 201
Aztecamodels.com Accessed on 24-10-2008.

CHAPTER 29. MEXICAN EXPEDITIONARY AIR FORCE

Chapter 30

Greek Volunteer Guard

The Greek Volunteer Guard (Serbian:

, Greek:
) was a unit of Greek volunteers that fought
in the Bosnian War on the side of the Army of the
Republika Srpska. Some members of the unit are
alleged to have been present in the area of the Srebrenica
Massacre and reportedly hoisted a Greek ag over the
town on Ratko Mladi's instigation.* [1]* [2]

30.1 History
The rst detachment of Greek volunteers in Bosnia arrived in 1993. In March 1995, the Greek Volunteer Guard (), a contingent of one hundred Greek
paramilitaries formed at the request of the Chief of Sta
of the Bosnian Serb Army Ratko Mladi, became a regular ghting unit of the Drina Corps with its own insignia,
a white double-headed eagle on a black background. The
unit, led by Serb ocers, was based in Vlasenica, a town
in the Drina Valley.* [3]

the brave Greeks ghting on our side.* [1] The Report

also revealed that the Greek government had sent shipments of light arms and ammunition to the Bosnian Serb
army between 1994 and 1995.* [6]
According to a report by Agence France Presse (AFP),
a dozen Greek volunteers were alleged to have fought
alongside Serb forces during the time of the Srebrenica
massacre.* [7] The GVG's involvement in the attack on
Srebrenica was reported and several of the volunteers
were interviewed in the Greek media.* [8]* [9]

30.3 Unholy Allianceand The

Greek Way

In his book Unholy Alliance, published in 2002,

the Greek author Takis Michas referred to the claim reported by the Sarajevo weekly review Globalthat a
dozen Greek paramilitaries had been present in the area
of the Srebrenica massacre and had raised the Greek ag
over the town,* [10] reproducing pictures of the volunSome of the volunteers allegedly had links with Golden
teers published in the Greek press. Michas also said that
Dawn ( ), a Greek nationalist political party
Radovan Karadi had subsequently decorated the volaccused as being neo-nazi by their opponents,* [4] while
unteers.* [11] In September 1995, four of the unit's ghtothers were mercenaries. They were allegedly motivated
ers were awarded the White Eagle medal of honour by
to support their Orthodox brothers in battle.* [5]
Radovan Karadi.* [3]* [6]
Archbishop Seraphim of Athens had invited Bosnian Serb
In the Ingeborg Beugels documentaryThe Greek way
leader Radovan Karadi to visit Athens in 1993. At a
by Dutch public broadcaster IKON, which investigated
rally attended by some Greek politicians, Karadi proGreek complicity with Serbia in the Bosnian war,* [12] a
claimed:We have only God and the Greeks on our side.
director of the semi-ocial Athens News Agency, Niko*
[6]
las Voulelis, admitted to widespread censorship in the
Greek media, Editorial interference was a given.said
Voulelis.* [6]

30.2 Presence at Srebrenica in July

1995

In 2002 the Dutch NIOD report on Srebrenica described

how the Greek Volunteer Guard, or GVG, unit had
hoisted the Greek ag over Srebrenica after the town's
fall, citing video footage of the event and excerpts from
intercepted Bosnian Serb army telephone communications that included Gen. Ratko Mladi's specic request
for the Greek ag to be hoisted over the town to honour

30.4 Public inquiry

In 2005 Greek deputy Andreas Andrianopoulos called
for an investigation. On 10 July 2005, 163 Greek academics, politicians, journalists and political activists issued a call for Greece to ocially apologise to the victims of Srebrenica for any Greek presence in the area of
the massacre. After asserting that the Greek public had

123

124
beenmisinformedabout the alliance with the Bosnian
Serb forces, their statement called for the Greek state to
apologise publicly to the families of the victims, to indict the Greek volunteers' who had been present in
Bosnia alongside Karadzic and Mladic and dishonoured
the Greek ag by raising it over the carnage at Srebrenica,
and to pursue the 'supposedly unknown' people who manipulated them.* [13]

CHAPTER 30. GREEK VOLUNTEER GUARD

support to the Bosnian Serbs and successive Greek governments' reluctance to investigate the issue the organisation found the self-censorshipof the Greek political class and media about the presence of any paramilitaries or mercenaries forces from the country in Bosnia
and Herzegovina during the Srebrenica massacre surprising and disturbingand in the public interest called
for further close examination of the role of the Greek authorities.* [19]

The Minister of Justice, Anastasios Papaligouras, commissioned an inquiry* [5]* [6] which has yet to report.
On 17 September, very shortly before the court hearing
was due to commence, Vitalis withdrew from the action.

30.5 Volunteer response to allega30.7 References

tions
In 2007 in the paper Eleftheri ora Kyriakos Katharios, a
member of the Greek Volunteer Guard, denied that they
had participated in the massacre. While acknowledging
the erection of the Greek ag, he stated that the honors received from Mladi were not linked to the incident.* [14]
In an interview with Al-Jazeera Katharios claimed that he
had been telephoned at home by fellow volunteers who
told him that they had raised the ag but had not taken
part in the battle itself.* [15]

30.6 Lawsuit against Takis Michas

In 2009 Stavros Vitalis, a representative of the Greek volunteers, announced that he was suing Takis Michas over
allegations in his book. Vitalis maintained that the volunteers were members of the Bosnian Serb army who had
simply taken part in what he described as the town'sreoccupation. In his press statement he acknowledged
that I was present with a group of senior Serb ocers
in all the operations for the re-occupation of Srebrenica
by the Serbs.* [16]* [17] This was despite Vitalis telling
the journalist Barnaby Phillips that although in Bosnia he
was not at Srebrenica when it fell to the Serbs.* [15]

[1] NIOD: Srebrenica. Reconstruction, background, consequences and analyses of the fall of a safearea. 2002,
p. 2787
[2] Steve IatrouGreek volunteers fought alongside Bosnian
Serbs, OMRI Daily Digest II, No. 136, 14 July 1995,
HR-Net (Hellenic Resources Network). Retrieved 31 July
2010
[3] Koknar, Ali M. (14 July 2003).The Kontraktniki : Russian mercenaries at war in the Balkans. Bosnian Institute.
[4] Anna Stai & Kostas Koutelos (Antinazi Initiative in
Athens) The twilight world of Golden Dawn, Searchlight Magazine (December 16, 2003). MHRMI (Macedonian Human Rights Movement International).
[5] Grohmann, Karolos;Greece starts probe into Srebrenica
massacre"; Reuters, 27 June 2006 Archived 4 January
2009 at the Wayback Machine.
[6] Smith, Helena (5 January 2003). Greece faces shame
of role in Serb massacre. London: The Guardian. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
[7] OMRI Daily Digest II, No. 136, 14 July 1995. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
[8] Howden, Daniel. Greek role in Srebrenica massacre

Vitalis also claimed that Greek volunteers travelled to

investigated. The Independent. Retrieved 11 July 2014.
the conict area with the supposed knowledge of senior Greek politicians .* [18] Michas focused on inac- [9] " ". . Retrieved 11 July 2014.
tion : No-one tried to stop them and the Greek legal authorities made no attempt to assist the work of
[10] Michas 2002, p. 22.
the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia at The Hague by pursuing inquiries about crimes [11] Michas 2002, p. 1741.
the volunteers may have committed themselves or known
[12]Factor: The Greek WayIKON. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
about.* [15]
The suit against Michas was funded by an umbrella group [13] The BALKAN Human Rights Web Pages. Retrieved
of extreme-right Greek nationalists.* [16]* [17]
21 January 2015.
The campaigning organisation Reporters Sans Frontieres
[14] Super User. error-page-elora-4. elora.gr. Retrieved
urged the Greek court to dismiss the action, which it de22 March 2015.
scribed as surrealand a clear case of judicial harassment. Referring to the quality, thoroughness and courage [15] The Greek role in Bosnia's war, Al-Jazeera. Retrieved
31 July 2010
of Michas's reporting of the Greekvolunteers"'military

30.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

[16] Greece: Suit Against Journalist For Srebrenica Claims

to Go Forward. Balkan Investigative Reporting Network.
21 June 2010.
[17] Daniel Toljaga, INTERVIEW: Greek journalist sued
for writing about the presence of Greek paramilitaries in
Bosnia. Congress of North American Bosniaks (5 August 2009). Accessed 8 April 2010.
[18] Greek volunteers in the Srebrenica Genocideby Harun
Karcic, Today's Zaman, 4 July 2010. Retrieved 25 July
2010
[19] Athens court urged to dismiss libel action against journalist, Reporters Sans Frontieres (17 September 2010).
Retrieved 28 October 2010

30.8 External links

Takis Michas Greece's Balkan Closets
Kyriakos Katharios " "
Uloga grkih dobrovoljaca u ratu u BiH. Al
Jazeera Balkans (in Serbo-Croatian). 13 Sep 2012.

125

Chapter 31

Hungarian volunteers in the Winter War

Finno-Ugric anity and regarded the proud and freedomloving Hungarian nation as an ideal.* [3]
After the First World War, Finland became independent,
but Hungary lost the war and roughly two-thirds of its
territory as a result of the Treaty of Trianon. One-third
of Hungarians were suddenly left outside Hungary's borders, as it became increasingly isolated. Finland was one
of the few European countries that felt sympathy towards
Hungary. Hungarians in turn, then regarded newly independent and democratic Finland as an ideal. Because of
this, good connections formed between the two countries
during the 1920s.
When the Winter War broke out between Finland and
the Soviet Union, many Hungarians felt great sympathy
towards the Finns and wanted to help them.* [4]

Hungarian volunteers leaving Finland after the Winter War. The

group was led by Captain Imre Kmeri Nagy. Seeing him o was
Lieutenant General Oscar Enckell.

31.2 Hungarian support to Finland

The Hungarian government ocially did not support Finland, but secretly started to search for ways of helping.* [5] In addition, non-governmental organisations began to organize support for Finland. Hungary helped
Finland by giving monetary donations, armaments and
military volunteers.

The Hungarian Volunteers in the Winter War travelled to ght for the Finns after the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939. For a variety of reasons, volunteers from
the Kingdom of Hungary fought on the side of Finland
during the Winter War (19391940) against the Soviet
Union.
The Hungarian-Finnish Association began to organize
nationwide collections in the rst days of December
as Brother for brotherand Hungarian Mothers for
31.1 Hungarian-Finnish Relation- Finnish Children. Collecting of donations and clothes
was organised by the Hungarian Red Cross, which also
ship before and after World organized the shipment of this aid to Finland. Nobel
Prize winner Albert Szent-Gyrgyi oered all of his prize
War I
money to Finland.
At the end of the 19th century the Finno-Ugric linguistic anity became widely accepted after extensive public
debate. Some Magyar scientists (e. g. rmin Vmbry
orientalist) and intellectuals (e. g. Arany Jnos, Jkai
Mr) were unable to accept that the Hungarian nation had
family relations in Northern Europe.* [1] To them, relationships with the Hun or Turkic peoples seemed much
more plausible, mainly in the years of the Hungarian millennium around 1896.* [2] At this time the Finnish people, living in Tsarist Russia, were receptive to the idea of

Count Pl Telekis government sent armaments and

war equipment valued at 1 million Hungarian pengs by
British and Italian ships during the Winter War (with
knowledge and accord of Regent Mikls Horthy de Nagybnya). It contained 36 anti-aircraft guns with 10,250
cartridges, 16 mortars with 32,240 shells, 300 ries with
520,000 cartridges, 30 armor-piercing ries with 3,300
cartridges (taken from the Polish army), 300,000 hand
grenades, 3,654 land mines, 93,680 helmets, 223 military transceivers, and 26,000 bandoleers.

126

31.3. HUNGARIAN VOLUNTEER DETACHED BATTALION

127

of 346 ocers and men.

31.3.2 Going to Finland

Statue of Count Pl Teleki, who organized the Hungarian support

of Finland during the Winter War, in Balatonboglr, Hungary.

The recruiting of volunteers started on 16 December with

the printing of recruitment leaets. The acts of Teleki
s government were motivated on one hand by helping
a related nation, and on the other hand by the staunch
anti-communist and anti-Soviet attitude of the Hungarian elite.

31.3 Hungarian Volunteer

tached Battalion
31.3.1

De-

The volunteers

During the Winter War, around 25,000 Hungarian men

applied to ght in Finland. The applicants underwent
a strenuous selection process: the only applications accepted were from unmarried men who had already completed their obligatory military service, had no criminal
record, and were not communist sympathizers.
Finally, 350 applications were accepted who were
mainly from the environs of Budapest, Nagykanizsa and
Debrecen. They were mostly between 18 and 30 years
old.
Their military training started on 10 January and took almost a month. The volunteers formed a battalion commanded by Captain Imre Kmeri Nagy. The Hungarian
Volunteer Detached Battalion had 24 ocers, 52 noncommissioned ocers, 2 doctors and 2 padres; a total

Routes taken by the Volunteer Detached Battalion to Finland (red

line) and back to Hungary (blue line) during and after the Winter
War.

Travel to Finland was very dicult, because the German

Reich forbade transit of armaments and war equipment
across its territory (including the occupied Polish territories). This was in one respect a simple honoring of the
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, but was also because Teleki
had not given the Wehrmacht permission to use Hungarian railway lines for attacking Poland. The German government was also unhappy that Teleki's government had
harbored thousands of Polish refugees after the German
and Soviet invasion of Poland because of the HungarianPolish friendship.
Because of this, volunteers had to travel across
Yugoslavia, Italy, France, the United Kingdom, Norway
and Sweden to make their ways to Finland. They travelled
without any weapons by a special train, ocially classied as tourists going to ski-camp. The battalion was
embarked at Edinburgh to Bergen as a part of a convoy.
This convoy had to be ensured by air and naval covers because the United Kingdom and the German Reich were
at state of war and it was greatly to be feared of German
attacks (Phony War). Finally the battalion arrived in
Finland on 2 March after three weeks' travelling.

31.3.3 In Finland
In Finland the battalion was quartered in Lapua, in the
training center of the international volunteers. In Lapua they took a part in another military training, learned

128

CHAPTER 31. HUNGARIAN VOLUNTEERS IN THE WINTER WAR

skiing and winter warfare. Before the Hungarian battalion could see military action, the Moscow Peace Treaty
was signed, on 12 March in Moscow, so many volunteers
felt frustration.

meetings are supported in part by the Hungarian Ministry

of Defence. In 1991 medallions were given to surviving
Hungarian veterans at the Finnish Embassy in Budapest.

31.3.4

31.7 References

The memory of the Hungarian volunteers has been preIn the last days of March, Field Marshal Mannerheim vis- served by memorial tablets in Lapua and Lappeenranta,
ited Lapua where he met the Hungarian battalion. He in Finland.
expressed his thanks to the volunteers for coming to Finland and he promoted Lieutenant Imre Kmeri Nagy to
Captain (this promotion was later accepted by the Hun- 31.6 See also
garian General Sta). From 17 April to 19 May the Hungarian battalion served in Karelia, at the new state border
Foreign support in the Winter War
in Lappeenranta.

Going back to Hungary

The Hungarian battalion was embarked at Turku on 20

May 1940, from where a steamboat sailed to Stettin,
German Reich (now Szczecin, in Poland). In Turku the
Order of the White Rose of Finland was given to the Hungarian ocers. They travelled across the German Reich
by a special train with a German guard. The German government gave them special permission to use the German
railway lines in order to reach Hungary. Expenses of the
homeward travel were paid by the Finnish Ministry of Defence. The volunteers arrived at Budapest on 28 May.
They were welcomed by count Pl Teleki prime minister.

31.4 Other Hungarian volunteers

in the Winter War
Outside the Hungarian Volunteer Detached Battalion
other Hungarian volunteers fought in the Winter War in
the Finnish army as individuals. 2nd Lieutenant Mtys Pirityi served in the Finnish Air Force and took
part in more than 20 sorties. Warrant Ocer Vilmos
Bkssy's plane disappeared over the Gulf of Bothnia.
Gza Szepessy, along with four fellows from the Military
Technical College of Berlin, went to Finland where he
was wounded in action.

31.5 Memory of the Hungarian

volunteers
In Hungary during the communist regime (between
1949 and 1989) the history of the Hungarian volunteer
battalion could not be studied (the list of the volunteers
names was found in Finland). Survivors today are well
over 80 years old. They could only orally recount their
experiences during that time, therefore proper research
of the battalions history could only start in the 1990s.
Many volunteers fell in World War II and some died of
old age. From 1991 the Finnish and Hungarian veterans have been able to meet and visit each other. These

[1] Finnugor kalauz; Panorma Kiad, Budapest, 1998., pp.

19-25.
[2] Finnugor kalauz; Panorma Kiad, Budapest, 1998., pp.
161.
[3] Finnugor kalauz; Panorma Kiad, Budapest, 1998., pp.
161.
[4] Ruprecht Antal: Magyar nkntesek a Tli hborban
Unkarilaiset Vapaaehtoiset Talvisodassa; Hadtrtneti Intzet s Mzeum, Budapest, 2003. pp. 9-11.
[5] Ruprecht Antal: Magyar nkntesek a Tli hborban
Unkarilaiset Vapaaehtoiset Talvisodassa; Hadtrtneti Intzet s Mzeum, Budapest, 2003. pp. 9-11., 23-25., 91.

Richly Gbor: Magyar katonai segtsgnyjts

az 1939-40-es nn-szovjet hborban, Szzadok
1996/2. 403-444. o.
Richly, Gbor: Unkari ja Suomen talvisota, Sotahistoriallinen Aikakauskirja no 15, Helsinki 1997.
134-196. s.
Richly, Gbor: Ungarische Freiwillige in Wintwrkrieg, Hungarologische Beitrge no 7. Jyvskyl
1996, 101-132. p.
Ruprecht Antal: Magyar nkntesek a Tli
hborban Unkarilaiset Vapaaehtoiset Talvisodassa; Hadtrtneti Intzet s Mzeum, Budapest,
2003. (ISBN 963 7097 198)
Mannerheim, G. A.: A Tli Hbor (orosz-nn),
1939/40; Pski Kiad, Budapest, 1997. (ISBN 963
9040 541)
Finnugor kalauz; Panorma Kiad, Budapest, 1998.
(ISBN 963 243 813 2)
Foreign volunteers in the Winter War

Chapter 32

International Brigades

The ag of the International Brigades was the Spanish Republican ag with the three-pointed star of the Popular Front in the
center

A unit of the Bulgarian International Brigade, 1937

The International Brigades (Spanish: Brigadas Internacionales) were military units, made up of volunteers
from dierent countries, who travelled to Spain in order
to ght for the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish
Civil War, between 1936 and 1939.
The number of combatant volunteers has been estimated
at between 32,00035,000, though with no more than
about 20,000 active at any one time.* [1] A further 10,000
people probably participated in non-combatant roles and
about 3,0005,000 foreigners were members of CNT or
POUM.* [1] They came from a claimed 53 nations
to ght against the Spanish Falangist forces led by General Francisco Franco, who was assisted by German and
Italian forces.* [2]

32.1 Formation and recruitment

Flag of the Hungarian International Brigades.

For military structure and organization, see International

Brigades order of battle. For anti-Stalinist communist propaganda for Western Europe. As a security measure,
brigades, see POUM.
non-Communist volunteers would rst be interviewed by
an NKVD agent.
Using foreign Communist Parties to recruit volunteers for
Spain was rst proposed in the Soviet Union in September 1936 apparently at the suggestion of Maurice
Thorez* [3]by Willi Mnzenberg, chief of Comintern

By the end of September, the Italian and French Communist Parties had decided to set up a column. Luigi Longo,
ex-leader of the Italian Communist Youth, was charged to
make the necessary arrangements with the Spanish gov-

129

130
ernment. The Soviet Ministry of Defense also helped,
since they had experience of dealing with corps of international volunteers during the Russian Civil War. The
idea was initially opposed by Largo Caballero, but after the rst setbacks of the war, he changed his mind,
and nally agreed to the operation on 22 October. However, the Soviet Union did not withdraw from the NonIntervention Committee, probably to avoid diplomatic
conict with France and the United Kingdom.

CHAPTER 32. INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES

missar.* [4]
The French Communist Party provided uniforms for the
Brigades. They were organized into mixed brigades, the
basic military unit of the Republican People's Army.* [5]
Discipline was extreme. For several weeks, the Brigades
were locked in their base while their strict military training was under way.

The main recruitment centre was in Paris, under the su- 32.2 Service
pervision of Soviet colonel KarolWalterwierczewski.
On 17 October 1936, an open letter by Joseph Stalin to
Siege of
Jos Daz was published in Mundo Obrero, arguing that 32.2.1 First engagements:
Madrid
victory for the Spanish second republic was a matter not
only for Spaniards, but also for the whole ofprogressive
humanity"; in a matter of days, support organisations for Main article: Siege of Madrid
the Spanish Republic were founded in most countries, all
more or less controlled by the Comintern.
The Battle of Madrid was a major success for the ReEntry to Spain was arranged for volunteers: for instance, public. It staved o the prospect of a rapid defeat at the
a Yugoslav, Josip Broz, who would become famous as hands of Francisco Franco's forces. The role of the InMarshal Josip Broz Tito, was in Paris to provide assis- ternational Brigades in this victory was generally recogtance, money and passports for volunteers from Eastern nised, but was exaggerated by Comintern propaganda, so
Europe. Volunteers were sent by train or ship from that the outside world heard only of their victories, and
France to Spain, and sent to the base at Albacete. How- not those of Spanish units. So successful was such proever, many of them also went by themselves to Spain. The paganda that the British Ambassador, Sir Henry Chilton,
volunteers were under no contract, nor dened engage- declared that there were no Spaniards in the army which
had defended Madrid. The International Brigade forces
ment period, which would later prove a problem.
that fought in Madrid arrived after other successful ReAlso many Italians, Germans, and people from other
publican ghting. Of the 40,000 Republican troops in
countries joined the movement, with the idea that combat
the city, the foreign troops numbered less than 3,000.* [6]
in Spain was a rst step to restore democracy or advance
Even though the International Brigades did not win the
a revolutionary cause in their own country. There were
battle by themselves, nor signicantly change the situaalso many unemployed workers (especially from France),
tion, they certainly did provide an example by their deand adventurers. Finally, some 500 communists who had
termined ghting, and improved the morale of the popbeen exiled to Russia were sent to Spain (among them,
ulation by demonstrating the concern of other nations
experienced military leaders from the First World War
in the ght. Many of the older members of the InterlikeKlberStern,GomezZaisser,LukacsZanational Brigades provided valuable combat experience,
lka and GalGalicz, who would prove invaluable in
having fought during the First World War (Spain recombat).
mained neutral in 191418) and the Irish War of IndepenThe operation was met with enthusiasm by communists, dence (Some had fought in the British army while others
but by anarchists with skepticism, at best. At rst, the had fought in the IRA).
anarchists, who controlled the borders with France, were
One of the strategic positions in Madrid was the Casa de
told to refuse communist volunteers, but reluctantly alCampo. There the Nationalist troops were Moroccans,
lowed their passage after protests. A group of 500 volcommanded by General Jos Enrique Varela. They were
unteers (mainly French, with a few exiled Poles and Gerstopped by III and IV Brigades of the Spanish Republican
mans) arrived in Albacete on 14 October 1936. They
Army.
were met by international volunteers who had already
been ghting in Spain: Germans from the Thlmann Bat- On 9 November 1936, the XI International Brigade talion, Italians from Centuria Gastone Sozzi and French comprising 1,900 men from the Edgar Andr Battalion,
from Commune de Paris Battalion. Among them was the Commune de Paris Battalion and the Dabrowski BatBritish poet John Cornford. Men were sorted according talion, together with a British machine-gun company
took up position at the Casa de Campo. In the evening,
to their experience and origin, and dispatched to units.
its commander, General Klber, launched an assault on
Albacete soon became the International Brigades headthe Nationalist positions. This lasted for the whole night
quarters and its main depot. It was run by a troika of
and part of the next morning. At the end of the ght, the
Comintern heavyweights: Andr Marty was commanNationalist troops had been forced to retreat, abandoning
der; Luigi Longo (Gallo) was Inspector-General; and
all hopes of a direct assault on Madrid by Casa de Campo,
Giuseppe Di Vittorio (Nicoletti) was chief political comwhile the XIth Brigade had lost a third of its personnel.

32.2. SERVICE
On 13 November, the 1,550-man strong XII International Brigade, made up of the Thlmann Battalion, the
Garibaldi Battalion and the Andr Marty Battalion, deployed. Commanded by General Lukacs, they assaulted Nationalist positions on the high ground of Cerro
de los Angeles. As a result of language and communication problems, command issues, lack of rest, poor coordination with armoured units, and insucient artillery
support, the attack failed.
On November 19, the anarchist militias were forced to
retreat, and Nationalist troops Moroccans and Spanish
Foreign Legionnaires, covered by the Nazi Condor Legion captured a foothold in the University City. The
11th Brigade was sent to drive the Nationalists out of
the University City. The battle was extremely bloody, a
mix of artillery and aerial bombardment, with bayonet
and grenade ghts, room by room. Anarchist leader
Buenaventura Durruti was shot there on 19 November
1936, and died the next day. The battle in the University went on until three quarters of the University City
was under Nationalist control. Both sides then started
setting up trenches and fortications. It was then clear
that any assault from either side would be far too costly;
the nationalist leaders had to renounce the idea of a direct
assault on Madrid, and prepare for a siege of the capital.

131
were built by both sides, resulting in a stalemate.
The Nationalists did not take Madrid until the very end
of the war, in March 1939, when they marched in unopposed. There were some pockets of resistance during the
consecutive months.

32.2.2 Battle of Jarama

Main article: Battle of Jarama
On 6 February 1937, following the fall of Mlaga,
the nationalists launched an attack on the Madrid
Andalusia road, south of Madrid. The Nationalists
quickly advanced on the little town Ciempozuelos, held
by the XV International Brigade, which was composed
of the British Battalion (British Commonwealth and
Irish), the Dimitrov Battalion (miscellaneous Balkan
nationalities), the 6 Fvrier Battalion (Belgians and
French), the Canadian Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion
and the Abraham Lincoln Brigade (Americans, including African-American). An independent 80-men-strong
(mainly) Irish unit, known as the Connolly Column, made
up of people from both sides of the Irish border also
fought. Several histories of the Irish in Spain record that
they included an ex-Catholic Christian Brother and an ordained Church of Ireland (Anglican Protestant) Clergyman, ghting and dying on the same side. (These battalions were not composed entirely of one nationality or
another, rather they were for the most part a mix of many)

On 13 December 1936, 18,000 nationalist troops attempted an attack to close the encirclement of Madrid
at Guadarrama an engagement known as the Battle of
the Corunna Road. The Republicans sent in a Soviet armoured unit, under General Dmitry Pavlov, and both XI
and XII International Brigades. Violent combat followed,
and they stopped the Nationalist advance.
On 11 February 1937, a Nationalist brigade launched a
An attack was then launched by the Republic on the surprise attack on the Andr Marty Battalion (XIV InterCrdoba front. The battle ended in a form of stale- national Brigade), stabbing its sentries and crossing the
mate; a communique was issued, saying: During the Jarama. The Garibaldi Battalion stopped the advance
day the advance continued without the loss of any terri- with heavy re. At another point, the same tactic allowed
tory.Poets Ralph Winston Fox and John Cornford were the Nationalists to move their troops across the river.
killed. Eventually, the Nationalists advanced, taking the
hydroelectric station at El Campo. Andr Marty accused
the commander of the Marseillaise Battalion, Gaston Delasalle, of espionage and treason and had him executed.
(It is doubtful that Delasalle would have been a spy for
Francisco Franco; he was denounced by his own secondin-command, Andr Heussler, who was subsequently executed for treason during World War II by the French
Resistance.)
Further Nationalist attempts after Christmas to encircle
Madrid met with failure, but not without extremely violent combat. On 6 January 1937, the Thlmann Battalion
arrived at Las Rozas, and held its positions until it was
destroyed as a ghting force. On January 9, only 10 km
had been lost to the Nationalists, when the XIII International Brigade and XIV International Brigade and the 1st
British Company, arrived in Madrid. Violent Republican
assaults were launched in attempt to retake the land, with
little success. On January 15, trenches and fortications

On 12 February, the British Battalion, XV International

Brigade took the brunt of the attack, remaining under
heavy re for seven hours. The position became known as
Suicide Hill. At the end of the day, only 225 of the 600
members of the British battalion remained. One company was captured by ruse, when Nationalists advanced
among their ranks singing The Internationale.
On 17 February, the Republican Army counter-attacked.
On February 23 and 27, the International Brigades were
engaged, but with little success. The Lincoln Battalion
was put under great pressure, with no artillery support. It
suered 120 killed and 175 wounded. Amongst the dead
was the Irish poet Charles Donnelly* [7] and Leo Greene.
There were heavy casualties on both sides, and although
both claimed victory ... both suered defeats.* [8] It
resulted in a stalemate, with both sides digging in, creating elaborate trench systems.
On 22 February 1937 the League of Nations NonIntervention Committee ban on foreign volunteers went

132

CHAPTER 32. INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES

into eect.

32.2.3

Battle of Guadalajara

of Teruel in January 1938. The 35th International Division suered heavily in this battle from aerial bombardment as well as shortages of food, winter clothing and
ammunition. The XIV International Brigade fought in the
Battle of Ebro in July 1938, the last Republican oensive
of the war.

32.3 Casualties
Although exact gures are not available, an estimated
5,857 to 25,229 brigadiers died in Spain, of an estimated
23,670 to 59,380 who served, with estimated death rates
of 16.7% to 29.2%. These high casualty rates are blamed
on lack of training, poor leadership and use as shock
troops.* [10]
Flag of Giustizia e Libert, an Italian anti-fascist resistance
movement led by Carlo Rosselli. Rosselli took part in the war,
uniting a mix of Italian anti-fascist political forces, including socialists, anarchists, communists, and liberals together to support
the Republican cause and took part in the ghting. Rosselli was
assassinated by a French fascist in 1937.

32.4 Disbandment

Main article: Battle of Guadalajara

After the failed assault on the Jarama, the Nationalists attempted another assault on Madrid, from the North-East
this time. The objective was the town of Guadalajara, 50
km from Madrid. The whole Italian expeditionary corps
35,000 men, with 80 battle tanks and 200 eld artillery
was deployed, as Benito Mussolini wanted the victory
to be credited to Italy. On 9 March 1937, the Italians
made a breach in the Republican lines, but did not properly exploit the advance. However, the rest of the Nationalist army was advancing, and the situation appeared criti- Bronze plaque honoring the British soldiers of the International
cal for the Republicans. A formation drawn from the best Brigades who died defending the Spanish Republic at the monuavailable units of the Republican army, including the XI ment on Hill 705, Serra de Pndols.
and XII International Brigades, was quickly assembled.
In October 1938, at the height of the Battle of the Ebro,
At dawn on 10 March, the Nationalists closed in, and
the Non-Intervention Committee ordered the withdrawal
by noon, the Garibaldi Battalion counterattacked. Some of the International Brigades which were ghting on the
confusion arose from the fact that the sides were not aware
Republican side.* [11] The Republican government of
of each other's movements, and that both sides spoke Ital- Juan Negrn announced the decision in the League of
ian; this resulted in scouts from both sides exchanging in- Nations on 21 September 1938. The disbandment was
formation without realising they were enemies.* [9] The part of an ill-advised eort to get the Nationalists' forRepublican lines advanced and made contact with XI In- eign backers to withdraw their troops and to persuade the
ternational Brigade. Nationalist tanks were shot at and Western democracies such as France and Britain to end
infantry patrols came into action.
their arms embargo on the Republic.
On March 11, the Nationalist army broke the front of By this time there were about an estimated 10,000 foreign
the Republican army. The Thlmann Battalion suered volunteers still serving in Spain for the Republican side,
heavy losses, but succeeded in holding the Trijueque and about 50,000 foreign conscripts for the NationalTorija road. The Garibaldi also held its positions. On ists (excluding another 30,000 Moroccans).* [12] Perhaps
March 12, Republican planes and tanks attacked. The half of the International Brigadists were exiles or refugees
Thlmann Battalion attacked Trijuete in a bayonet charge from Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy or other countries, such
and re-took the town, capturing numerous prisoners.
as Hungary, which had authoritarian right-wing governThe International Brigades also saw combat in the Battle ments at the time. These men could not safely return

32.5. COMPOSITION
home and some were instead given honorary Spanish citizenship and integrated into Spanish units of the Popular
Army. The remainder were repatriated to their own countries. The Belgian and Dutch volunteers lost their citizenship because they had served in a foreign army.* [13]

32.5 Composition
32.5.1

133
The same decree also specied that non-Spanish ocers
in the Brigades should not exceed Spanish ones by more
than 50 per cent* [15]
MKVD created in 1937 Control and Security Service
.

32.5.2 Non-Spanish battalions

Overview

For military structure and organization, see International

Brigades order of battle.
The rst brigades were composed mostly of French, Belgian, Italian, and German volunteers, backed by a sizeable contingent of Polish miners from Northern France
and Belgium. The XIth, XIIth and XIIIth were the rst
brigades formed. Later, the XIVth and XVth Brigades
were raised, mixing experienced soldiers with new volunteers. Smaller Brigades the 86th, 129th and 150th were formed in late 1937 and 1938, mostly for temporary
tactical reasons.
About 32,000 * [2] people volunteered to defend the
Spanish Republic. Many were veterans of World War
I. Their early engagements in 1936 during the Siege of
Madrid amply demonstrated their military and propaganda value.
The international volunteers were mainly socialists, communists, or under communist authority, and a high proportion were Jewish. Some were involved in the ghting in Barcelona against Republican opponents of the
Communists: the Workers' Party of Marxist Unication
(POUM) (Partido Obrero de Unicacin Marxista, an
anti-Stalinist Marxist party) and anarchists. These more
libertarian groups like the POUM fought together on the
front with the anarchist federations of the CNT (CNT,
Confederacin Nacional del Trabajo) and the FAI (FAI,
Iberian Anarchist Federation) who had large support in
the area of Catalonia. However, overseas volunteers from
anarchist, socialist, liberal and other political positions
also served with the international brigades.
To simplify communication, the battalions usually concentrated people of the same nationality or language
group. The battalions were often (formally, at least)
named after inspirational people or events. From Spring
1937 onwards, many battalions contained one Spanish
volunteer company (about 150 men).
Later in the war, military discipline tightened and learn- Spanish Civil War Medal awarded to the International Brigades
ing Spanish became mandatory. By decree of 23 Septem Abraham Lincoln Battalion: from the United States,
ber 1937, the International Brigades formally became
Canada and Irish Free State, with some British,
units of the Spanish Foreign Legion.* [14] This made
them subject to the Spanish Code of Military Justice.
Cypriots and Chileans who lived in New York and
However the Spanish Foreign Legion itself sided with the
were members of the Chilean worker club of New
Nationalists throughout the coup and the civil war.* [14]
York.

134

CHAPTER 32. INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES

Connolly Column: This mostly Irish republican group fought as a section of the Lincoln
Battalion

Mickiewicz Battalion: predominantly Polish.

Andr Marty Battalion: predominantly French and
Belgian, named after Andr Marty.
British Battalion: Mainly British but with many from
the Irish Free State, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, Cyprus and other Commonwealth countries.
Checo-Balcnico Battalion: Czechoslovakian and
Balkan.
Commune de Paris Battalion:
French.

predominantly

Deba Blagoiev Battalion: predominantly Bulgarian,

later merged into the Djakovic Battalion.
Dimitrov Battalion: Greek, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, Czechoslovakian, Hungarian and Romanian.
Named after Georgi Dimitrov.
Djuro Djakovic Battalion: Yugoslav, Bulgarian,
anarchist, named for former Yugoslav communist
party secretary uro akovi.
Dabrowski Battalion: mostly Polish and Hungarian. Also Czechoslovakian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian
and Palestinian Jews. See also Dbrowszczacy.
Edgar Andr Battalion: mostly German. Also Austrian, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, Albanian, Romanian,
Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Dutch.
Espaol Battalion: Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican,
Chilean, Argentine and Bolivian.
Figlio Battalion: mostly Italian; later merged with
the Garibaldi Battalion.
Garibaldi Battalion: Raised as the Italoespaol Battalion and renamed. Mostly Italian and Spanish, but
contained some Albanians.

Marseillaise Battalion: predominantly Frenchcommanded by George Nathan.

Incorporated one separate British company.
Palafox Battalion: Yugoslavian, Polish, Czechoslovakian, Hungarian, Jewish and French.
Naftali Botwin Company: a Jewish unit
formed within the Palafox Battalion in December 1937.
Pierre Brachet Battalion: mostly French.
Rakosi Battalion:
mainly Hungarian, also
Czechoslovakians, Ukrainians, Poles, Chinese,
Mongolians and Palestinian Jews.
Nine Nations Battalion (also known as the Sans nons
and Neuf Nationalits: French, Belgian, Italian, German, Austrian, Dutch, Danish, Swiss and Polish.
Six Fvrier Battalion (Sixth of February):
French, Belgian, Moroccan, Algerian, Libyan,
Syrian, Iranian, Iraqi, Chinese, Japanese, Indian and
Palestinian Jewish.
Thlmann Battalion:
predominantly German,
named after German communist leader Ernst
Thlmann.
Tom Mann Centuria: A small, mostly British,
group who operated as a section of the Thlmann Battalion.
Thomas Masaryk Battalion:
vakian.

mostly Czechoslo-

Chapaev Battalion: composed of 21 nationalities (Ukrainian, Polish, Czechoslovakian, Bulgarian, Yugoslavian, Turkish, Italian, German, Austrian, Finnish, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Belgian, French, Greek, Albanian, Dutch, Swiss and
Baltic).* [16]

George Washington Battalion: the second U.S. battalion. Later merged with the Lincoln Battalion, to
form the Lincoln-Washington Battalion.

Vaillant-Couturier Battalion: French, Belgian,

Czechoslovakian, Bulgarian, Swedish, Norwegian
and Danish.

Hans Beimler Battalion: mostly German; later

merged with the Thlmann Battalion.

Veinte Battalion: American, British, Italian, Yugoslavian and Bulgarian.

Henri Barbusse Battalion: predominantly French.

Zwlfte Februar Battalion: mostly Austrian.

Henri Vuilleman Battalion: predominantly French.

Company De Zeven Provincin:Dutch

Louise Michel Battalions: French-speaking, later

merged with the Henri Vuillemin Battalion.
MackenziePapineau Battalion: the Mac-Paps,
predominantly Canadian.

32.5.3 Brigadiers by country of origin

32.6. STATUS AFTER THE WAR

135

32.6.2 Canada
Survivors of the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion were often investigated by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
and denied employment when they returned to Canada.
Some were prevented from serving in the military during
the Second World War due to political unreliability.
In 1995 a monument to veterans of the war was built near
Ontario's provincial parliament.* [38]* [39] On February
12, 2000, a bronze statue The Spirit of the Republic
based on an original poster from the Spanish Republic,
East German stamp honoring Hans Beimler with a ght scene of by sculptor Jack Harman, was placed on the grounds of
the BC Legislature.* [40] And in 2001, the few remainthe International Brigades in the background
ing Canadian veterans of the Spanish Civil War dedicated
a monument to Canadian members of the International
32.6 Status after the war
Brigades in Ottawa's Green Park.
Since the Civil War was eventually won by the Nationalists, the Brigadiers were initially on the wrong side 32.6.3 Switzerland
of history, especially since most of their home countries
had a right-wing government (in France, for instance, the In Switzerland, public sympathy was high for the RePopular Front was not in power any more).
publican cause, but the federal government banned all
However, since most of these countries found themselves fundraising and recruiting activities a month after* the
at war with the very powers which had been support- start of the war so as to preserve Swiss neutrality. [26]
ing the Nationalists, the Brigadists gained some prestige Around 800 Swiss volunteers joined the International
*
as the rst guard of the democracies, having fought a Brigades, among them a small number of women. [26]
Sixty
percent
of
Swiss
volunteers
identied
as
commuprophetical combat. Retrospectively, it was clear that
the war in Spain was as much a precursor of the Second nists, while *the others included socialists, anarchists and
antifascists. [26]
World War as a Spanish civil war.
Some glory therefore accrued to the volunteers (a great
many of the survivors also fought during World War II),
but this soon faded in the fear that it would promote (by
association) communism.

Some 170 Swiss volunteers were killed in the war.* [26]

The survivors were tried by military courts upon their
return to Switzerland for violating the criminal prohibition on foreign military service.* [26]* [41] The courts
pronounced 420 sentences which ranged from around two
weeks to four years in prison, and often also stripped the
convicts of their political rights. In the judgment of Swiss
historian Mauro Cerutti, volunteers were punished more
harshly in Switzerland than in any other democratic country.* [26]

An exception is among groups to the left of the Communist Parties, for example anarchists. Among these groups
the Brigades, or at least their leadership, are criticised for
their alleged role in suppressing the Spanish Revolution.
An example of a modern work which promotes this view
is Ken Loach's lm Land and Freedom. A well-known
contemporary account of the Spanish Civil War which Motions to pardon the Swiss brigadists on the account that
also takes this view is George Orwell's book Homage to they fought for a just cause have been repeatedly introduced in the Swiss federal parliament. A rst such proCatalonia.
posal was defeated in 1939 on neutrality grounds.* [26]
In 2002, Parliament again rejected a pardon of the Swiss
war volunteers, with a majority arguing that they did
32.6.1 East Germany
break a law that remains in eect to this day.* [42] In
Germany was undivided until after the Second World March 2009, Parliament adopted a third bill of pardon,
War. At that time, the new German Democratic Repub- retroactively rehabilitating Swiss brigadists, only a hand*
lic began to create a national identity which was sepa- ful of whom were still alive. [43]
rate from and antithetical to the former Nazi Germany.
The Spanish Civil War, and especially the role of the International Brigades, became a substantial part of East 32.6.4 United Kingdom
Germany's memorial rituals because of the substantial
numbers of German communists who had served in the On disbandment, 305 British volunteers left Spain.* [44]
brigades. These showcased a commitment by many Ger- They arrived at Victoria Station on 7 December, to be
mans to antifascism at a time when Germany and Nazism met by a crowd of supporters including Clement Attlee,
were often conated together.* [37]
Staord Cripps, Willie Gallacher, and Will Lawther.

136

32.6.5

CHAPTER 32. INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES

United States

London (Lambeth)

Main article: Abraham Lincoln Brigade

London (Fulham)

In the United States, the returned volunteers were labeled

premature anti-fascistsby the FBI, denied promotion
during service in the US military during World War II,
and pursued by Congressional committees during the Red
Scare of 1947-1957.* [45]* [46] However, threats of loss
of citizenship were not carried out.

Madrid
Paris
Reading
San Francisco
Seattle

32.7 Recognition

Victoria, British Columbia

Jarama Battleeld

32.7.1

Spain

On 26 January 1996, the Spanish government gave Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists. At the time, roughly 600
remained. At the end of 1938, Prime Minister Juan Negrn had promised Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists,
which citizenship was of course not recognized by the Nationalists who were about to take over the entire country.

32.7.2

32.9 Symbolism and heraldry

France

In 1996, Jacques Chirac, then French President, granted

the former French members of the International Brigades
the legal status of former service personnel (anciens
combattants) following the request of two French communist Members of Parliament, Lefort and Asensi, both
children of volunteers. Before 1996, the same request
was turned down several times including by Franois Mitterrand, the former Socialist President.

32.8 Monuments

The Internationalist star, a three-pointed red star used as emblem

by International Brigades

There is a full list of British and Irish monuments on the The International Brigades were inheritors of a socialist
aesthetic.
International Brigade Memorial Trust's website.
The ags featured the colours of the Spanish Republic:
red, yellow and purple, often along with socialist symbols
Albacete
(red ags, hammer and sickle, st). The emblem of the
Barcelona
brigades themselves was the three-pointed red star, which
is often featured.
Belgrade
Berlin
Canberra
Dudelange
Stockholm
Glasgow
Kirkcaldy
Limerick

32.10 Notable associated people

Note: not all the following were International Brigade
members.

32.11 See also

Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War

32.12. REFERENCES
International Brigade Memorial Trust
Militant anti-fascism
Irish socialist volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
Arditi del Popolo
Nationalist Foreign Volunteers
Moscow Gold
Red Terror (Spain)
International Freedom Battalion

32.12 References
[1] Thomas (2003), pp. 9415; Beevor (2006), p. 257.
[2] Thomas (2003), pp. 9415
[3] Beevor 1982, p. 124
[4] Thomas 2003, p. 443
[5] Orden, circular, creando un Comisariado general de
Guerra con la misin que se indica. (PDF). Ao CCLXXV
Tomo IV, Nm. 290. Gaceta de Madrid: diario ocial de
la Repblica. 16 October 1936. p. 355.
[6] Beevor (1982), p 137; Anderson (2003), p 59.
[7] Archived April 4, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
[8] Thomas 2003, p. 579
[9] Beevor 1982, p. 158

137

[22] Los voluntarios cubanos en la GCE. Retrieved 25

April 2015.
[23] New book on Cubans in SCW. Retrieved 25 April
2015.
[24] Voluntarios Argentinos en la Brigada XV Abraham Lincoln. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
[25] Thomas 2003, p. 943
[26] Daniele Mariani (February 27, 2008). No pardon for
Spanish civil war helpers. Swissinfo.
[27] Moen, Jo Stein og Sther, Rolf: Tusen dager Norge
og den spanske borgerkrigen 1936-1939, Gyldendal 2009,
ISBN 978-82-05-39351-6
[28] frifagbevegelse.no - Nyheter fra arbeidslivet og fagbevegelsen. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
[29] Tusen dager. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
[30] Juusela, Jyrki: Suomalaiset Espanjan sisllissodassa,
Atena Kustannus 2003, ISBN 951-796-324-6
[31] Kuuli, (1965).
[32] efor. The Greek antifascist volunteers in the Spanish
Civil War. EAGAINST.com. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
[33] China Museum (May 31, 2012). "
". chnmuseum.
[34] Unknown (March 30, 2005). "
". Luobinghui.
[35]Spanish Civil War - Filipino Involement [sic]". Retrieved
25 April 2015.

[10] Michael W. Jackson (1995). Fallen Sparrows: The International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War. American
Philosophical Society. p. 106.

[36] SPANISH FALANGE IN THE PHILIPPINES, 19361945. Retrieved 25 April 2015.

[11] Lorenzo Pea, eroj@eroj.org. Mensaje de de despedida

a los voluntarios de las Brigadas Internacionales y otros
discursos de La Pasionaria. Retrieved 25 April 2015.

[37] The Cult of the Spanish Civil War in East Germany (abstract) - Krammer, Arnold, Texas A&M University. Retrieved 2008-05-14.

[12] Exit - Time, Monday, 3 October 1938

[38] Canadians in the Spanish Civil War (PDF).

[13] Orwell (1938).

[39] Unsung Canadian soldiers honored . . .at las. Toronto

Star. 1995-06-04.

[14] Beevor 2006, p. 309

[15] Castells (1974), pp. 2589

[40] Untitled Document. Retrieved 25 April 2015.

[16] Kantorowicz (1948)

[41] Swiss Military Penal Code , SR/RS 321.0 * (EDFI), art.

94 * (EDFI)

[17] Lefebvre (2003), p. 16. Quoted by Beevor (2006), p.

468.

[42] Report of the Judicial Committee of the National Council,

O. J. 2002 pp. 7786 et seq.

[18] Quoted in Alvarez (1996).

[43] Parliament pardons Spanish Civil War ghters.

Swissinfo. Retrieved 2009-03-13.

[19] Thomas (1961), pp. 634639.

[20] Beevor 2006, p. 163
[21] Richard Baxell, British Volunteers in the Spanish Civil
War, 2012

[44] Baxell, Richard (September 6, 2012). Unlikely Warriors: The British in the Spanish Civil War and the Struggle Against Fascism (Hardcover). London: Aurum Press
Limited. p. 400. ISBN 1845136977.

138

[45] Premature antifascists and the Post-war world, Abraham

Lincoln Brigade Archives Bill Susman Lecture Series.
King Juan Carlos I of Spain Center at New York University, 1998. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
[46] Bernard Knox, Premature Anti-Fascist, reprinted from
The Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives Bill Susman
Lecture Series. King Juan Carlos I of Spain Center
New York University, 1998. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
[47] Thomas 2003, p. 927

CHAPTER 32. INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES

Kantorowicz, Alfred (1938, 1948), Spanisches
Tagebuch, Madrid (1938), Berlin (1948).
Kuuli, O; Riis, V; Utt, O; (editors) (1965) (Estonian) Hispaania tules. Mlestusi ja dokumente
faismivastasest vitlusest Hispaanias 1936.1939.
aastal. Tallinn: Eesti raamat.
Lefebvre, Michel; Skoutelsky, Rmi. (Spanish) Las
brigadas internacionales. Barcelona: Lunwerg Editores (2003). ISBN 84-7782-000-7

[48] Homage to Catalonia. Author:Orwell, George.Publisher:

Penguin Group. Date: Re-print, 2000. Work: Autobiographical account of the Authors participation in the
Spanish Civil War. ISBN 978 0 141 18305 3

Orwell, George. [1938] A Homage to Catalonia.

London: Penguin Books, 1969. (New edition)
ISBN 978-0-14-001699-4

[49] Thomas 2003, p. 926

Thomas, Hugh. (1961) The Spanish Civil War. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1961.

32.13 Sources

Thomas, Hugh. (2003) The Spanish Civil War,

2003. London: Penguin (Revised 4th edition),
2003. ISBN 978-0-14-101161-5

Alvarez, Santiago. (Spanish) Historia politica y militar de las brigadas internacionales Madrid: Compaa Literaria, 1996.
Anderson, James W. The Spanish Civil War: A History and Reference Guide. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-313-32274-7
Baxell, Richard (September 6, 2012). Unlikely Warriors: The British in the Spanish Civil War and the
Struggle Against Fascism (Hardcover). London: Aurum Press Limited. p. 400. ISBN 1845136977.

Wainwright, John, L. (2011) The Last to Fall: the

Life and Letters of Ivor Hickman - an International
Brigader in Spain. Southampton: Hatchet Green
Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9568372-1-9
Spanish Civil War 'drew 4,000 Britons' to ght
fascism. London: BBC News. 27 June 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.

32.14 External links

Beevor, Antony. [1982] The Spanish Civil War.

Reissued London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson (Cassell), 1999. ISBN 978-0-304-35281-4

IBMT the international brigade memorial trust

Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain: The

Spanish Civil War 19361939. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson, 2006. ISBN 978-0-297-84832-5

Reproduction of International Brigades ags, badges

and T-shirts

Bradley, Ken International Brigades in Spain 193639 with Mike Chappell (Illustrator) Published by
Elite. ISBN 978-1855323674. Good basic introduction to the subject in a readable and wellillustrated format. Author made several visits to battleelds and interviewed veterans in the 1980s and
90s.

Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives

Freedom ghters or Comintern army? The International Brigades in Spain by Andy Durgan
International Solidarity With the Spanish Republic:
19361939

Castells, Andreu. (Spanish) Las brigadas internacionales en la guerra de Espaa. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1974.

Documents on the International Brigades fromTrabajadores: The Spanish Civil War through the eyes
of organised labour, a digitised collection of more
than 13,000 pages of documents from the archives
of the British Trades Union Congress held in the
Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick

Copeman, Fred (1948). Reason in Revolt. London:

Blandford Press, 1948.

SIDBRINT Project: Digital Information System on

the International Brigades. Universitat de Barcelona

Eby, Cecil. Comrades and Commissars. Pennsylva- Media

nia: Penn State University Press, 2007. ISBN 9780-271-02910-8
asso.acer.free.fr
Gurney, Jason (1974) Crusade in Spain. London:
Faber, 1974. ISBN 978-0-571-10310-2

english.uiuc.edu

Chapter 33

International Brigades order of battle

33.1 Introduction
33.1.1 Early International units
The rst volunteers arrived in Spain in Mid-August 1936.
These were mostly Franco-Belgian, German, British and
Italian. At rst, they grouped themselves into sections,
called Columns or Centuria (nominally of a hundred
men). These were mostly formed in August/September
1936.
The Tom Mann Centuria, named after English trade
unionist leader Tom Mann, became part of the
Thaelmann Battalion
The Thaelmann Centuria (the nucleus of the
Thaelmann Battalion), named for Ernst Thlmann.

The International Brigades Star

Centuria Gastone Sozzi, named for Gastone Sozzi

The International Brigades (IB) were volunteer military units of foreigners who fought on the side of the
Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War.
The number of combattant volunteers has been estimated
at between 32,00035,000, though with no more than
about 20,000 active at any one time.* [1] A further 10,000
people probably participated in non-combattant roles and
about 3,0005,000 foreigners were members of CNT or
POUM.* [1] They came from a claimed 53 nationsto
ght against the Spanish Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco and assisted by German and Italian
forces.* [2]
The volunteers were motivated to ght on political or social grounds and made their way to Spain independently
of the Spanish government. The brigades were not initially formally conceived and methodically recruited. Instead, they evolved as a means of organising the streams
of volunteers arriving from every quarter of the world.
It has been estimated that up to 25% of IB volunteers
were Jewish.* [3] This article describes the order of battle
of each of the International Brigades, describing the order and manner in which each brigade was mustered and
formed, and following the progress of individual battalions throughout the conict.

Rosselli's Italian Column

Colonna Giustizia e Libert

33.1.2 Brigade structure

Main article: Mixed brigade
Each brigade was a mixed brigade consisting of four battalions, sometimes with an ancillary specialist support
company. They had a brigade commander and a political
commissar, and a small brigade sta. Initially, the battalions were formed entirely of foreign volunteers but, increasingly, it became practice to have at least one Spanish battalion in each brigade (and, from spring 1937, one
Spanish company in each battalion). As time went on,
and the diculties of recruiting new international volunteers increased, the percentage of Spaniards went up. At
rst, these were volunteers but conscription was later introduced. The brigades were formally incorporated into
the Spanish Army in September 1937, as Spanish Foreign
Legion units.* [4]

139

140

33.1.3

CHAPTER 33. INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES ORDER OF BATTLE

Battalion structure

The battalions were originally organised by language,

with volunteers sharing the same (or similar languages)
and given names that reected the groups. To develop an
esprit de corps, these names were replaced by names of
inspirational gures or events, for example, Garibaldi, or
Commune de Paris.
Theoretically, the Battalion organisation consisted of the
Battalion Commander, his Second in Command, the Political Commissar, the Adjutant and orderly room sta,
three Companies of infantry, one machine-gun Company, Battalion scouts, and the Quartermaster and cookhouse sta. There were three platoons in each company,
each divided into [four] sections of ten men, so that the
Battalion at full strength would number more than 500
men....* [5]

33.1.4

Political commissars

See article: Political commissar

33.1.5

International brigade depots

Albacete - Headquarters
Madrigueras - Training camp
Tiis - Ocer training school* [6]
Camp Lukcz - Penal battalion

33.2 XI International Brigade

33.2.1 Formation
Formed at Albacete: 1417 October 1936 as IX
Brigada Movil (Mobile Brigade).
1st Bn Franco-Belgian (14 October 1936)
2nd Bn Austro-German (14 October 1936)
3rd Bn Italo-Spanish (14 October 1936)
4th Bn Polish-Balkan (17 October 1936)
Re-Organised: 1422 October 1936 as XI Hans
BeimlerInternational Brigade. The battalions were
renamed as follows:
Commune de Paris Battalion (after the Paris
Commune. (Formerly 1st Franco-Belge)
Edgar Andr Battalion (after Edgar Andr).
(Formerly 2nd Austro-German)
Garibaldi
Battalion
(after
Giuseppe
Garibaldi). (Formerly 3rd Italo-Espaol)
Dabrowski Battalion (pronounced Dombrowski), (after Jarosaw Dbrowski).
(Formerly 4th Polish-Balkan)
Minor Re-Organisation: 3 November 1936
Garibaldi Battalion, as it had no ries, was
transferred to XII Brigade
Thaelmann Battalion joined XI Brigade from
XII Brigade
Asturias-Heredia Battalion (Spanish) joined
XI Brigade.

Main article: XI International Brigade

33.2.2 Brigade sta

Names:
The Hans Beimler Brigade (after Hans Beimler)
The Thlmann Brigade (after Ernst Thlmann)
Songs by Ernst Busch and the choir of the XI
Brigade:

33.2.3 Division Klber(XI and

Brigade 20 Nov.36 - 4 Feb 37 )
Commander:
Stern)* [8]

General

XII

Klber(Manfred

(German) Hans Beimler Lied

33.3 XII International Brigade

(German) Lied von XI Brigade (Song of the XIth

Brigade)

Main article: XII International Brigade

(German) Lied der XI Brigade Or Ballade or Marsch

Name: The Garibaldi Brigade
der XI Brigade)
Detailed Order of Battle
Detailed Order of Battle
(Spanish) EPR Order of Battle Website

(Spanish) EPR Order of Battle Website

(Spanish) Associaci Catalana Website

(Spanish) Associaci Catalana Website

33.5. XIV INTERNATIONAL BRIGADE

33.3.1

Formation

141

33.4.3 3rd formation

Raised 22 October 1936 at Albacete, General Lukcs Reformed (in Monredn): 1 October 1938 (exclusively
(Mate Zalka) commanding.* [8] (Lukcs was killed dur- Spanish battalions)
ing the Huesca Oensive.)
Units that formed part of the Brigade at dierent 33.4.4 4th formation
times:
Reformed: 23 January 1939 (from demoblised Interna Andr Marty Battalion
tional Brigade members who had remained in Spain)
Dabrowski Battalion a.k.a. Dombrowski Battalion
Figlio Battalion
Garibaldi Battalion
Madrid Battalion
Prieto Battalion
Thaelmann Battalion

33.4.5 Brigade sta

33.5 XIV International Brigade

Main article: XIV International Brigade
Name/s: The Marseillaise Brigade

33.4 XIII International Brigade

Main article: XIII International Brigade
Names: The Dabrowski Brigade, The Dombrowski
Brigade
Detailed Order of Battle
(Spanish) EPR Order of Battle Website
(Spanish) Associaci Catalana Website

33.4.1

1st formation

Raised: 12 December 1936

Louise Michel (II) Battalion
Chapaev Battalion (Tchapaiev, Czapiaew; named
for Vasily Chapayev)
Vuillemin Battalion
One Balkan Company
1st Battery Ernst Thaelmann
2nd Battery Karl Liebknecht
3rd Battery Antoni Gramsci

33.4.2

2nd formation

Order of Battle
(Spanish) EPR Order of Battle Website
(Spanish) Associaci Catalana Website

33.5.1 Formation
Raised 20 December 1936 with volunteers mainly from
France and Belgium, under General Walter(Karol
wierczewski). After the Battle of Brunete (625 July
1937), brigade strength was reduced from four to two
battalions.* [9] The battalions attached to this Brigade at
dierent times were:

Commune de Paris Battalion

Domingo Germinal Battalion
Henri Barbusse Battalion
Louise Michel I Battalion
Louise Michel II Battalion
Marsellaise Battalion
Pierre Brachet Battalion
Primera Unidad de Avance Battalion
Nine Nations Battalion a.k.a. Sans nons or Des
Neuf Nationalits Battalion
Sixth February Battalion
Vaillant-Couturier Battalion

Reformed: 4 August 1937

Dabrowski Battalion
Palafox Battalion
Rakosi Battalion

33.6 XV International Brigade

Main article: XV International Brigade

142

CHAPTER 33. INTERNATIONAL BRIGADES ORDER OF BATTLE

Raised: Albacete, 31 January 1937

33.7.2 CXXIX / 129th Brigade

Brigade name/s: XVth Brigade, XV Brigada Mixta

Name/s: Central European Brigade Raised 13 February

Brigade songs: Jarama Valley, An tldirnisinta (In- 1938
ternationale), Viva la Quinta Brigada, Ay Carmela
(song) (Viva La Quince Brigada)
Units that formed part of the Brigade at dierent
times:
Battles: Jarama, Brunete, Boadilla, Belchite,
Fuentes de Ebro, Teruel, Ebro
Order of Battle
Main Sources: (i) (Spanish) EPR Order of Battle Website, (ii) *(Spanish) Associaci Catalana Website
Sub-battalion units attached to Brigade

Dimitrov Battalion
Djure Djakovic Battalion
Thomas Mazaryk Battalion (after Tom
Masaryk)
Tschapaiew Battalion

33.7.3 CL / 150th Brigade

Connolly Column (Irish volunteers operating

Name/s: Dabowski Brigade Raised 27 May 1937
as a unit of the Lincoln Battalion)
Brigade Anti-Tank Company
Units that formed part of the Brigade at dierent
XVth Brigade Photographic Unit (August
times:
1937 September 1938) Archive
Re-organised May/June 1937, into two regiments:

Andr Marty Battalion (after Andr Marty)

Mathis Rakosi Battalion (after Mtys Rkosi)

First regiment, commanded by George

Nathan* [11]
33.7.4 Ad hoc units
Lincoln Bn, commanded by Robert Hale
Merriman
Agrupaci Torunczyk (21 January 1939 9 Febru Washington Bn, commanded by Mirko
ary 1939)
Markovic
Elements from XI, XIII and XV Brigades
British Bn, commanded by Fred Copeman
Second regiment, commanded by Major Catalonia Oensive
Chapaiev* [12]
Agrupaci Szuster (1 February 1939 9 February
Dimitrov Battalion
1939)
Sixth February Battalion
Voluntario 24 Battalion (Spanish) (Capi Elements from XII and CXXIX Brigades
tano Aquilla)* [13]
Post-Brunete, reinforced by:

Catalonia Oensive

Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion
International Volunteers Demobilised
Barcelona, 23 September 1938

33.7 Other International Brigades

33.8 Notes
[1] Thomas (2003), pp 941-5; Beevor (2006), p. 257.
[2] Thomas (2003), pp 941-5
[3] Sugarman, pp 1-2

33.7.1

86th Brigade

Raised 13 February 1938

Units that formed part of the Brigade at dierent
times:
Veinte Battalion (Twentieth Battalion)

[4] Thomas (2001), p. 759

[5] Gurney (1974), p. 64
[6] Beevor (2006), p. 163
[7] (Spanish) XI Thaelmann Brigade
[8] Beevor (2006) p. 167

33.10. SEE ALSO

[9] Beevor (2006), p 285

[10] Briey known as the Washington-Lincoln Battalion
[11] Thomas (1961), p. 460
[12] Thomas (1961), p. 461
[13] (Russian) Combat use of BT-5 in Spain (
5 )

33.9 References
Beevor, Antony. (2006). The Battle for Spain: The
Spanish Civil War 1936-1939. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson, 2006. ISBN 978-0-297-84832-5
Gurney, Jason (1974) Crusade in Spain. London:
Faber, 1974. ISBN 978-0-571-10310-2
Thomas, Hugh. (1961) The Spanish Civil War. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1961.
Thomas, Hugh. (2003) The Spanish Civil War,
2003. London: Penguin (Revised 4th edition),
2003. ISBN 978-0-14-101161-5
O'Riordan, Michael. The Connolly Column,
1979. Reprinted by Warren and Pell, 2005.
Rust, William (2003). Britons in Spain, 1939.
Reprinted by Warren and Pell, 2003.
Ryan, Frank (ed.) The Book of the XV Brigade
, 1938. Reprinted by Warren and Pell, 2003. ()
Sugarman, Martin. Jews Who Served in The Spanish
Civil War PDF le

33.10 See also

Foreign legions

143

Chapter 34

Irish commandos
Two units of Irish commandos fought alongside the Boers South Africa from State Secretary F. W. Reitz, Comdt.against the British forces during the Second Boer War Gen. Louis Botha and General B. Viljoen.* [1]* :79
(18991902).

34.2 Second commando

34.1 Irish Transvaal Brigade
The Irish Transvaal Brigade was organised by John
MacBride, who at the time was employed at the Band
mines. Most of the battalion-strength Brigade were Irish
or Irish-American miners living in the Transvaal, who
were willing to ght with the Boers against the British.
The Brigade was bolstered during its campaign by a contingent of volunteers who came from Chicago and by a variety of Irish volunteers, who travelled from America and
Ireland for the purposes of joining the Brigade.* [1]* :66,
68, 71

The Second Irish Brigade was formed in January, 1900 by

former members of the Irish Transvaal Brigade. Former
Le Journal correspondent Arthur Lynch was appointed
as the unit's commander. The brigade consisted of 150
commandos from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. Including among others Irish, Australian, Greek, German,
Boer and Italian members.* [3]

The brigade remained attached to General Lukas Meyer's

command in Natal, retiring to Laing's Nek after the siege
of Ladysmith.The brigade fought in the rear guard, during
the retreat from Ladysmith to Glencoe.The brigade was
later ordered to Vereeniging, but was disbanded while in
John MacBride wrote his own account of the Irish
Johannesburg. After the dissolution of the brigade, Lynch
Transvaal Brigade. This is to be found in Anthony J. Jortogether with a small group of Irishmen joined various
dan's edited version of the writings of MacBride.* [1]* :1
commandos along the Vaal river.* [3]
79
The brigade (also known as MacBride's Brigade) was
operational from September 1899 to September 1900.
In that time, the brigade fought in about 20 engagements, with 18 men killed and about 70 wounded from
a complement of no more than about 300 men at
any one time. When it disbanded, most of the men
crossed into Mozambique, which was a colony of neutral Portugal. Colonel John Y. F. Blake, a former United
States Army ocer was the brigade's commander. When
he was wounded, his second-in-command, Major John
MacBride, took command.* [2]* [3]
Prior to the siege of Ladysmith,the commandos were involved in guarding the artillery under Carolus Johannes
Trichardt.The brigade also provided signal service at the
battle of Modderspruit.* [3] At the Siege of Ladysmith,
they serviced the famous Boer artillery piece, called Long
Tom, and they fought at the Battle of Colenso. Having
worked in the gold mines, they had a well-deserved reputation as demolition experts and it was they who delayed
the British advance on Pretoria by blowing up bridges.
The brigade disbanded after the battle of Bergendal.* [3]

34.3 See also

Boer foreign volunteers

34.4 References
[1] Anthony J. Jordan, Boer War to Easter Rising: The Writings of John MacBride, Westport Books 2006. ISBN 9780-9524447-6-3
[2] American Volunteers in the Boer War. Retrieved 12
September 2014.
[3] Davitt: Chapter XXVI - Blake's Irish Brigade. Retrieved 12 September 2014.

34.5 Further Reading

The brigade received letters of thanks before they left

144

Anthony J. Jordan, Major John MacBride 'MacDonagh & MacBride & Connolly & Pearse'". West-

34.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

port Historical Society, 1991. ISBN 0-9514148-28.
Prof. Donal P. McCracken, MacBride's Brigade:
Irish Commandos in the Anglo-Boer War, Dublin,
1999 ISBN 1-85182-499-5

34.6 External links

Ireland: Green Flag

145

Chapter 35

Irish military diaspora

The Irish military diaspora refers to the many people of either Irish birth or extraction (see Irish diaspora)
who have served in overseas military forces, regardless of
rank, duration of service, or success.

Franz Moritz Graf von Lacy

Many overseas military units were primarily made up

of Irishmen (or members of the Irish military diaspora)
and had the word 'Irish', an Irish place name or an Irish
person in the unit's name. 'Irish' named military units
took part in numerous conicts throughout world history.* [1]* [2]* [3] The rst military unit of this kind was
in the Spanish Netherlands during the Eighty Years' War
between Spain and the Dutch. A notable example is that
of Owen Roe O'Neill.

Laval Graf Nugent von Westmeath

Andreas Graf O'Reilly von Ballinlough

Maximilian Ulysses Graf von Browne

Maximilian Graf O'Donnell von Tyrconnell

Gottfried Freiherr von Baneld

35.2 Britain
Main article: Irish in the British Armed Forces

35.1 Austria and Austria-Hungary

A signicant number of Irish people, of all backgrounds,

have served in the forces of the British Crown over the
centuries. By the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, well over one-third of the military forces of the British Army consisted of Irishmen),
because of: the Kingdom of Ireland was in a personal union with
England (and later Great Britain) until 1801
Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland from 1801 to 1922
the traditions of the nobility and landed gentry,
which caused them to prefer military service to a
career in trade (see: Noblesse oblige)
economic necessity
ambition
family tradition
loyalty
Ireland had a larger population compared to today.
In 1800, Ireland's population was eight million, not
far below the population of England at ten million,
a ratio of 1:1.25. By 1900 this ratio had fallen to
1:12.* [4] The immediately pre- and post-1900 enlistment was proportionately very high, even though
the absolute numbers seem low.

Franz Moritz von Lacy

Major Peter Martyn

146

35.3. CANADA
Irishmen with notable or outstanding overseas careers
included:Others were not born in Ireland, but were born into Irish
families, such as:Victoria Cross recipients:-

147
Leinster Regiment, disbanded 1922
Royal Munster Fusiliers, disbanded 1922
Royal Dublin Fusiliers, disbanded 1922
South Irish Horse, disbanded 1922

Main article: List of Irish Victoria Cross recipients

The Victoria Cross, the British Crown's highest award for
military valour, has been awarded to 188 persons who
were born in Ireland or had full Irish parentage. Of these
thirty were awarded in the Crimean War, 52 in the Indian
Mutiny, and 46 in numerous other British Empire campaigns between 1857 and 1914. In the 20th century,
37 Irish VCs were awarded in the First World War, ten
in the Second World War. One has been awarded in
Afghanistan in the 21st century to a Belfast-born soldier
of the Parachute Regiment.

35.2.1
35.2.2

35.3 Canada
The Irish Regiment of Canada in the Second World War
was the only Canadian Irish unit to ght in any war. It
also perpetuates the active service of the 1st Canadian
Machine Gun Battalion from the First World War and
the indirect service of the 190th (Sportsmen) Battalion,
Canadian Expeditionary Force, and the 208th (Canadian
Irish) Battalion, CEF. Served as 1915 110th Irish Regiment; 1920 The Irish Regiment; 1932 The Irish Regiment of Canada; 1936 The Irish Regiment of Canada
(MG); 1940 The Irish Regiment of Canada.

'Irish' named units of the British The Irish Fusiliers of Canada (Vancouver Regiment) perArmy
petuated the First World War active service of the 29th
(Vancouver) Battalion, CEF plus the indirect service of
'Irish' named 1922 disbanded units the 121st (Western Irish) Battalion, CEF and the 158th
(Duke of Connaught's Own) Battalion, CEF. Served as
of the British Army
1913 11th Regiment, Irish Fusiliers of Canada; 1920
The Irish Fusiliers of Canada; 1936 The Irish Fusiliers
of Canada (Vancouver Regiment); 1946 65th Light
Anti-Aircraft Regiment (Irish Fusiliers); 1958 The
Irish Fusiliers of Canada (Vancouver Regiment); 1965
placed on the Supplementary Order of Battle; 2002
amalgamated with The British Columbia Regiment.
The Irish Canadian Rangers perpetuated the indirect service of the 199th Battalion Duchess of Connaught's Own
Irish Rangers, CEF. Served as 1914 55th Irish Canadian Rangers; 1920 The Irish Canadian Rangers; 1936
disbanded.

The Royal Irish regiment in the Battle of Amoy in China, 26 August 1841

The 218th (Edmonton Irish Guards) Battalion, CEF lacks

perpetuation. The colonel had Irish ancestry, but the
largest group of its men were recent eastern European
immigrants from the fringes of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire who spoke Ukrainian but would have had Austrian citizenship. This combined with the 211th (Alberta
Americans) Battalion, CEF, to form the 8th Battalion,
Canadian Railway Troops, which served in France building and maintaining railroads.

Following the establishment of the independent Irish Free

State in 1922, the six regiments that had their traditional
recruiting grounds in the counties of the new state were all
disbanded.* [6] On 12 June, ve regimental Colours were
laid up in a ceremony at St George's Hall, Windsor Castle
in the presence of HM King George V.* [7] (The South 35.3.1 'Irish' named units of the Canadian
Irish Horse had sent a Regimental engraving because the
Army
regiment chose to have its standard remain in St. Patrick's
Cathedral, Dublin). The six regiments nally disbanded
The Irish Canadian Rangers
on 31 July 1922 were:
The Irish Fusiliers of Canada
Royal Irish Regiment, disbanded 1922

The Irish Regiment of Canada

Connaught Rangers, disbanded 1922

121st (Western Irish) Battalion, CEF

148

CHAPTER 35. IRISH MILITARY DIASPORA

Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally General, commander in chief of the French Armies in India
Arthur Dillon General
Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke Marshal of
France
Henri D'Alton General

The camp ag of the Irish Regiment of Canada.

199th (Duchess of Connaught's Own Irish Rangers)

Battalion, CEF
208th (Canadian Irish) Battalion, CEF
218th (Edmonton Irish Guards) Battalion, CEF

35.4 France

Jacques Lauriston General Jacques Law, Marquis of Lauriston

Charles Edward Jennings de Kilmaine
Edward Stack General

35.4.1 'Irish' named units of the French

Army
Kingdom of France
Irish Brigade
Rgiment de Albemarle (16981703) (renamed Rgiment de Fitzgerald)
Rgiment de Athlone
Rgiment de Berwick (16981775) (to
Rgiment de Clare)
2nd Battalion (17031715) (to 1st Battalion and Rgiment de Roth)
Rgiment de Botagh
Rgiment de Bourke (16981715) (renamed
Rgiment de Wauchop)
Rgiment de Bulkeley
Rgiment de Butler (16891690)
Rgiment de Charlemont
Rgiment de Clare
Rgiment de Clancarty
Rgiment de Dillon (16981733) (renamed
Rgiment de Lee)
Rgiment de Dorrington (1698 ) (renamed
Rgiment de Roth)
Rgiment de Dublin
Rgiment de Feilding (16891690)

Patrice de MacMahon, duc de Magenta at the Battle of Magenta

Notable Irishmen who served in the French military include

Patrice de Mac-Mahon, Duke of Magenta General
and President of the Third Republic

Rgiment de Fitzgerald (17031708) (renamed Rgiment de O'Donnell)

Rgiment de Fitzgorman
Rgiment de Galmoy (16981715) (to Rgiment de Dillon)
Rgiment de Lally
Rgiment de Lee (1733 )
Rgiment de Limerick

35.6. LATIN AMERICA

149

Rgiment de Mountcashel (1698 ) (renamed

Rgiment de Lee)
Rgiment de MacElligott
Rgiment de O'Brien
Rgiment de O'Donnell (17081715) (to Rgiment de Clare)
Rgiment de Roscommon
Rgiment de Roth (or Rooth) (renamed Rgiment de Walsh)
Rgiment de Walsh (renamed from Rgiment
de Roth)
Rgiment de Wauchop (1715) (to Spain)
Fitzjame's Horse
Galmoy's Horse
Kilmallock's Dragoons
O'Gara's Dragoons
Nugent's Horse (renamed Fitzjames' Horse)
Sheldon's Horse (1698 ) (renamed Nigent's
Horse)

Bernardo O'Higgins

First French Empire

Irish Legion (18031815)

35.5 Germany
Baron George Von Scheer, Gardes du Corps
(Prussia) 191418
In the First World War, Imperial Germany tried with the
help of Roger Casement to recruit an Irish Brigade
from Irish-born prisoners of war who had served in the
British Army. By 1916 only 52 men had volunteered, and
the plan was abandoned.
In the Second World War an even smaller number volunteered to join the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany and were
trained at Friesack Camp. Separately some IRA sympathisers planned certain operations with the Abwehr that
were generally unsuccessful.

35.6 Latin America

Daniel Florence O'Leary

35.6.1

35.6.2 People

Events

Spanish American wars of independence (181126)

Irish and German Mercenary Soldiers' Revolt
Brazil 1828
USA intervention in Mexico (184648)

William Aylmer Aide-de-camp to Mariano Montilla in Venezuela

William Brown (admiral) Father of the Argentine
Navy

150

CHAPTER 35. IRISH MILITARY DIASPORA

Che Guevara
Commemorative plaque of Saint Patrick's Battalion at Mexico
City plaza

William Lamport nicknamed El Zorro, The Fox,

due to his exploits in Mexico
Patrick Lynch Capitn de Milicias in Ro de la
Plata
Estanislao Lynch Argentine ocer in
the Army of the Andes
Patricio Lynch Admiral of
the Chilean navy
Monument of Vargas Swamp Battle

Peter (Pedro) Campbell Founder of the Uruguayan

Navy (see Pedro Campbell (Spanish) for detailed information.)
John Deveraux Commander of Irish Legion
Antonio Donovan (18491897) General in
Argentina (text in Spanish)
William Ferguson (18001828) Aide-de-camp to
General Simon Bolvar, involved in the struggle
for independence of Venezuela, New Granada and
Peru. On 28 September 1828 at Santafe de Bogot,
Ferguson was mistaken by conspirators for Bolvar,
and shot in the back and mortally wounded while
walking down the street. He was honoured him
with a public funeral and his remains interred at the
cathedral of Bogot.

Che Guevara Argentinian-Irish descent. Revolutionary in Cuba

Rupert Hand Cavalry colonel that assassinated
general Jos Mara Crdova. Governor of El Choco
(Colombia)
Juan MacKenna Founder of the Military Corps of
Engineers of the Chilean Army.
Juan Garland military engineer in the service of
Spain and active in Chile.
John Thomond O'Brien Aide-de-camp to general
Jos de San Martn.
Jorge O'Brien Captain of the Chilean Navy during
the Chilean War of Independence.
Francis O'Connor aide de camp to Mariano Montilla in Venezuela

35.9. RUSSIA

151

Demetrio O'Daly (general) Puerto Rican delegate

to the Spanish Cortes
Ambrosio O'Higgins Colonial administrator and
military governor of Chile (17881796), father of
Bernardo O'Higgins
Bernardo O'Higgins First Chilean head
of state (Supreme Director, 181723),
commanded the forces that won independence from Spain.

35.9 Russia
Field Marshal Count Peter von Lacy

35.10 South Africa

35.10.1 Disbanded 'Irish' named units in
South Africa
Cape Town Irish Volunteer Ries

Daniel Florencio O'Leary aide de camp to Simn

Bolvar in Venezuela
Alexander O'Reilly General,Father of the Puerto
Rican Militia
Robert Otway materially
Independence of Brazil

supported

Irish Boer commandos

Irish Transvaal Brigade
2nd Irish Brigade

the

35.10.2 'Irish' named units in South

Africa
Santiago Mario Fitzgerald Venezuelan born of an
Irish mother descent, aide de camp to Simn Bolvar
in Venezuela
James Rooke at command of British Legions was
seriously wounded in Vargas Swamp Battle (Colombia)

South African Irish Regiment Formed in 1914

35.11 Spain

Arthur Sandes commander of 1st Venezuelan Ries of Bolivar Army

James Towers English Irish commander of British
Legions forces in the Spanish American wars of independence.

35.6.3

'Irish' named units in Latin America

1st Regiment Venezuelan Ries Irish regiment that

took part in the Venezuelan War of Independence.
Saint Patrick's Battalion Irish American battalion
that fought for Mexico in the MexicanAmerican
War

35.7 Papal States

An Irish Brigade including Myles O'Reilly fought for
Papal States in 185960 during the Second Italian War
Ambrosio O'Higgins, 1st Marquis of Osorno, governor of Chile,
of Independence.
Viceroi of Peru, Bernardo O'Higgins's father, whom he never
met.

35.8 Portugal
Hugh Dubh O'Neill
Kingdom of Portugal
Marshal William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford

Shane O'Neill (son of Hugh)

Field Marshal Alejandro O'Reilly

152

CHAPTER 35. IRISH MILITARY DIASPORA

Spanish Cvil War (19361939)
Connolly Column
Irish Brigade (Spanish Civil War)
Irish Socialist Volunteers

35.12 United States of America

Leopoldo O'Donnell, 1st Duke of Tetuan

Juan O'Donoj
Joaqun Blake y Joyes
Ricardo Wall
Leopoldo O'Donnell y Jorris
Carlos Luis O'Donnell y Jorris
Ambrosio O'Higgins
Spanish Civil War

Commodore John Barry by Gilbert Stuart

Frank Ryan
Eoin O'Duy

35.11.1

'Irish' named units in Spain

Historical

Michael Corcoran, General in the Union Army

Thomas Francis Meagher
Commodore John Barry Father of the American
Navy

Regimento de Infanteria de Hibernia (1705 )

Myles Walter Keogh

Regimento de Infanteria de Irlanda (1702 )

Edward Stack

Regimento de Infanteria de Limerick (1718 )

Regimento de Infanteria de Ultonia (1718 )
Regimento de Infanteria de Wauchop (1715 )
Regimento de Infanteria de Waterford (1718 )
Dragones de Dublin (17011722)

Richard Montgomery
Philip Sheridan
James Shields (Brig. Gen. USA) Planned defeat of
General ThomasStonewallJackson at Kernstown
in 1862

35.13. SEE ALSO

35.12.1

Confederate States of America

William M. Browne
Patrick Cleburne
Richard W. Dowling
Joseph Finegan
James Hagan (Confederate colonel)

153
63rd New York Volunteer Infantry
69th New York Volunteer Infantry
( Fighting 69th
)
88th New York Volunteer Infantry
99th New York Volunteer Infantry
116th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry

Walter P. Lane

164th New York Volunteer Infantry (Corcoran's

Irish Zouaves)

Patrick T. Moore

Irish Brigade (US)

35.12.2

'Irish' named units in the United

States

Many of these units have their origins from the participation of Irish-Americans in the American Civil War.
Incomplete
American Revolution
Loyalists

Confederate Army
1st Irish Battalion, Virginia Infantry Regulars
2nd Tennessee Volunteer Infantry (Irish)
6th Louisiana Volunteer Infantry (Irish Brigade
)
9th Georgia Cavalry
10th Tennessee Volunteer Infantry (Sons of Erin
)

Loyal Irish Volunteers

Company E, 33rd Virginia Infantry, Stonewall

Brigade (Emerald Guards)

2nd American Regiment (Volunteers of Ireland) later the 105th Regiment of Foot (British
Army)

McMillan Guards, Company K, 24th Georgia Infantry

American Civil War

Union Army
9th Connecticut Infantry
7th Missouri Volunteer Infantry
8th Missouri Volunteer Infantry
9th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry
10th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
10th Tennessee Volunteer Infantry (formerly 1st
Middle Tennessee Volunteer Infantry)
23rd Illinois Volunteer Infantry
28th Massachusetts Infantry

Je Davis Guard, Company F, 1st Texas Heavy Artillery

Company I, 8th Alabama Volunteer Infantry (
Emerald Guards)
Cobb's Legion (Georgia Legion)
Company D, 18th Arkansas Infantry Regiment,
Marmaduke's (The Shamrock Guards)
Modern era
Admiral William M. Callaghan
Michael Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of
Sta 2007-11
Martin Dempsey, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of
Sta 2011-

30th Missouri Volunteer Infantry

35th Indiana Volunteer Infantry (1st Irish)
37th New York Volunteer Infantry (The Irish Ries)
42nd New York Volunteer Infantry (Tammany
Jackson Guard)

35.13 See also

Flight of the Wild Geese
Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War
Loyalist (American Revolution)

154

CHAPTER 35. IRISH MILITARY DIASPORA

35.14 Notes
[1] Harris, R. G.: The Irish Regiments 16891999 , Sarpedon
New York (1989, 1999) ISBN 1-885119-62-3
[2] Murphy, David: The Irish Brigades 16852006, Four
Courts Press Dublin (2007) ISBN 978-1-84682-080-9
[3] Murphy, David: Introduction, xviixxi
[4] Norman Davies, Vanished Kingdoms (London: Penguin,
2011), p. 638 (last paragraph)
[5] http://www.movilleinishowen.com/history/moville_
heritage/moville_heritage_htm/family_field_marshal_
montgomery.htm
[6] Murphy, David: Irish Regiments in the World Wars (Osprey Publishing (2007) ISBN 978-1-84603-015-4), p. 20
quote:Following the treaty that established the independent Irish Free State in 1922, it was decided to disband the

The Royal Irish regiment in the Battle of Amoy in China, 26 August 1841
regiments that had their traditional recruiting grounds in
southern Ireland: The Royal Irish Regiment; The Connaught Rangers; The Prince of Wales' Leinster Regiment;
The Royal Munster Fusiliers; The Royal Dublin Fusiliers;
The South Irish Horse"
[7] Harris, Major Henry E. D.: p.209

Chapter 36

Islamic Legion
The Islamic Legion (Arabic: al- 36.2 The Legion
Faylaq ul-'Islmiyyu* [1]) (aka Islamic Pan-African Legion) was a Libyan-sponsored pan-Arabist paramilitary
force, created in 1972. The Legion was part of Muammar This Islamic Legion was mostly composed of immigrants
Gadda's dream of creating the Great Islamic State of the from poorer Sahelian countries,* [5] but also, according to
Sahel.* [2]
a source, thousands of Pakistanis and some Bangladeshis
who had been recruited since 1981 with the false promise
of civilian jobs once in Libya.* [6] Generally speaking,
the Legion's members were immigrants who had gone to
Libya with no thought of ghting wars, and had been provided with inadequate military training and had sparse
commitment. A French journalist, speaking of the Legion's forces in Chad, observed that they were foreigners, Arabs or Africans, mercenaries in spite of them36.1 Creation
selves, wretches who had come to Libya hoping for a civilian job, but found themselves signed up more or less by
force to go and ght in an unknown desert.* [5]
Gadda, who had come to power in September 1969,
was not only a Pan-Africanist, but an Arab cultural According to the Military Balance published by the
supremacist. His hostility to Chad's government of International Institute for Strategic Studies, the force was
President Franois Tombalbaye was at least partly in- organized into one armored, one infantry, and one paraspired by Tombalbaye's African and Christian back- troop/commando brigade. It had been supplied with Tground. It also led Gadda to drive the Toubou of Libya, 54 and T-55 tanks, armored personnel carriers, and EEwho were considered 'black', o Fezzan and across the 9 armored cars. The Legion was reported to have been
committed during the ghting in Chad in 1980 and was
Chadian border. Gadda supported the Sudanese government of Gaafar Nimeiry, referring to it as an Arab praised by Gadda for its success there. However, it was
believed that many of the troops who ed the Chadian
Nationalist Revolutionary Movement, and even oered
to merge the two countries at a meeting in late 1971. attacks of March 1987 were members of the Legion.
Gadda's plans for the peaceful formation of an "Arab Gadda dispatched legionnaires to Uganda, Palestine,
Union" were dashed when Nimeiry turned down his oer Lebanon and Syria,* [7] but the Legion was to be mostly
and negotiated the Addis Ababa Agreement ending the associated with the ChadianLibyan conict, where alFirst Sudanese Civil War, fought with the Black, animist ready in 1980 7,000 legionnaires participated to the secand Christian, South.* [3] Gadda's denition ofArab ond battle of N'Djamena,* [8] where its ghting record
was broad, including the Tuareg of Mali and Niger, as was most noted for its ineptitude.* [9] To this force
Benin's Marxist regime is said to have provided legionwell as the Zaghawa of Chad and Sudan.* [4]
*
In 1972, Gadda created the Islamic Legion as a tool to naires during the 1983 oensive in Chad. [10] At the beunify and Arabize the region. The priority of the Le- ginning of the 1987 Libyan oensive into Chad, it maingion was rst Chad, and then Sudan. In Darfur, a western tained a force of 2,000 in Darfur. The nearly continuous
province of Sudan, Gadda supported the creation of the cross-border raids that resulted greatly contributed to a
Arab Gathering (Tajammu al-Arabi), which according to separate ethnic conict within Darfur* that killed about
Grard Prunier was a militantly racist and pan-Arabist 9,000 people between 1985 and 1988. [11]
organization which stressed the 'Arab' character of the
province.* [1] The two organizations shared members
and a source of support, and the distinction between the
two is often ambiguous.

The Legion was disbanded by Gadda following its defeats in Chad in 1987 and the Libyan retreat from that
country. But its consequences in this region can still be
felt. Some of the Janjaweed leaders were among those

155

156
said to have been trained in Libya,* [12] as many Darfuri
followers of the Umma Party were forced in exile in the
1970s and 1980s.* [13]
The Legion was also to leave a strong impact on the
Tuareg living in Mali and Niger. A series of severe
droughts had brought many young Tuareg to migrate to
Libya, where a number of them were recruited into the
Legion, receiving an indoctrination that told them to reject their hereditary chiefs and to ght those governments
that excluded the Tuareg from power. After the disbandment of the Legion, these men were to return to
their countries and to play an important role in the Tuareg rebellions that erupted in the two countries in 1989
90.* [14]
Immediately prior to the overthrow of the Gadda
regime, there were media reports that his hard-core of
supporters included former members of the Islamic Legion who had been granted Libyan citizenship and remained in the country.* [15]

36.3 Afterwards
In an eort to realize Gadda's vision of a united Arab
military force, plans for the creation of an Arab Legion
have been announced from time to time. The goal, according to the Libyan press, would be to assemble an
army of 1 million men and women ghters to prepare
for the great Arab battle--"the battle of liberating Palestine, of toppling the reactionary regimes, of annihilating the borders, gates, and barriers between the countries of the Arab homeland, and of creating the single
Arab Jamahiriya from the ocean to the gulf.In March
1985, it was announced that the National Command of
the Revolutionary Forces Command in the Arab Nation
had been formed with Gadda at its head. A number of
smaller radical Arab groups from Lebanon, Tunisia, Sudan, Iraq, the Persian Gulf states, and Jordan were represented at the inaugural meeting. Syrian Baath Party
and radical Palestinian factions were also present. Each
of these movements was expected to earmark 10 percent
of its forces for service under the new command. As of
April 1987, there was no information conrming the existence of such a militia.

36.4 References
Azam, J.-P., C. Morrisson, S. Chauvin & S.
Rospab (1999). Conict and Growth in Africa.
OECD. ISBN 92-64-17101-0.
Flint, Julie and de Waal, Alex, Darfur: A Short
History of a Long War, Zed Books, London March
2006, ISBN 1-84277-697-5
Markakis, John; Waller, Michael (1986). Military

CHAPTER 36. ISLAMIC LEGION

Marxist Regimes in Africa. Routledge. ISBN 07146-3295-3.
Nolutshungu, Sam C. (1995). Limits of Anarchy:
Intervention and State Formation in Chad. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-1628-3.
Prunier, Grard, Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide,
Cornell University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-8014-44500
Simons, Geo (2004). Libya and the West: From
Independence to Lockerbie. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 186064-988-2.
Thomson, Janice E. (1996). Mercenaries, Pirates
and Sovereigns: State Building and Extraterritorial
Violence in Early Modern Europe. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02571-1.
Wright, John (1989). Libya, Chad and the Central
Sahara. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 1-85065-050-0.

36.5 Notes
[1] G. Prunier, Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide, p. 45
[2] S. Nolutshungu, Limits of Anarchy, p. 127
[3] Prunier, pp. 43-45
[4] Flint and de Waal, Darfur: A Short History of a Long War,
p. 23
[5] S. Nolutshungu, p. 220
[6] J. Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, p. 91
[7] J.-P. Azam et al., Conict and Growth in Africa, p. 168
[8] G. Simons, Libya and the West, p. 57
[9] J. Wright, Libya, p. 140
[10] J. Markakis & M. Waller, Military Marxist Regimes, p. 73
[11] Prunier, pp. 61-65
[12] de Waal, Alex (2004-08-05). Counter-Insurgency on
the Cheap. London Review of Books 26 (15).
[13] McGregor, Andrew (2005-06-17). Terrorism and Violence in the Sudan: The Islamist Manipulation of Darfur
. Terrorism Monitor (The Jamestown Foundation) 3 (12).
Archived from the original ( * Scholar search) on October
16, 2006.
[14] J.-P. Azam et al., p. 14
[15] Washington Post, March 11, 2011

36.6 See also

Foreign legion (disambiguation)

Chapter 37

Italian Volunteer Legion

The Italian Volunteer Legion was an expatriate military unit which took part in the Anglo-Boer War, raised
and led by soldier and adventurer Camillo Ricchiardi on
behalf of General Louis Botha.

or Uitlander complicity. In addition, Begbie's notorious

anti-Boer stance contributed to pushing many Italians towards the Boer side. Botha was brought to trial for the
factory explosion, but was later acquitted.* [2]

37.1 Prior events: Italian immi- 37.2 Formation

gration to South Africa

As a consequence of this, Ricchiardi created theItalian

Volunteer Legion, which was somewhat disproportionThe ow of Italian migrants to South Africa started af- ate to the numbers of the Italian community (only 200
ter the discovery of the rst diamonds in 1867 and be- members), but it took advantage from guerrilla tactics
came steady at the end of the 19th century although that its leader had learned in the Philippines.
it never reached the huge numbers of immigration to
Argentina or the United States, which remained the fa- The Italians mainly saw service as Scouts, renowned for
vorite destinations of Italians seeking better living con- their riding and shooting skills. Others, being expert in
ditions abroad. Nevertheless, the Italian population in the handling of explosives, were tasked with blowing up
South Africa totaled roughly 5,000 people scattered be- bridges and railway lines to hamper the British retreat
tween various cities. A high number, considering that from Tugela to Komatiepoort on the Mozambiquean borJohannesburg counted 80,000 inhabitants at the time. der. They received orders not to set o charges until the
One of the rst immigrant communities was hired for the British - recognizable from their white pith helmets - were
production of explosives: the Modderfontein dynamite near. On one such occasion they were so near that they
factory was searching for skilled workers just as its equiv- were able to spot and extinguish the fuses underneath a
alent in Avigliana was in nancial diculties. So, more bridge, thwarting the destruction attempt at the last secthan half of the workers and their families were trans- ond.
ferred from Piedmont to Johannesburg, where a city sec- At some point, the Italian guerrilla men began to fear for
tion was promptly named Little Italyand the sub- their fate: since Italy was a supporter of Britain in the
urb of Orange Grove also increased its Italian popula- war, any of them who would be captured might have been
tion. Only a few of them accepted the harsh conditions tried and executed as a traitor. Also in danger were Italian
of mining or living o the land; most were employed as farmers with suspected Boer sympathies, and even withstonemasons, bricklayers, artisans, cabinet makers, metal out, who had their farms plundered by the British Army
workers. In some factories such as the Thomas Beg- and were deported into concentration camps. Other Italbie and Son Foundrythree quarters of the 200 or so ian nationals had already been forcibly repatriated earlier,
workforce was Italian. Tragedy struck when a massive when their pro-Boer sympathies had become apparent. In
and abrupt explosion killed and maimed many Italians, the end, the countless eorts of the Italian Consul, Count
causing a large outcry among immigrants. When the - de Morpurgo contributed to saving many Italian imminal count was done all the 12 dead were Italian and of the grants from ill-treatment at the hands of the British.
56 injured 36 were Italians, the others being 10 Austrians
and the rest French, German and Dutch. There were no Many more were Italian expatriates to Argentina, who
joined Ricchiardi's forces after serving as horse breeders
Uitlanders.* [1]
When theTransvaal and Diggersnewspaper published for the British since their second homeland was supplying
the words of the State Mining Engineer, who was con- a great many of them for the Empire's cavalry forces.
vinced that foul play was intended, and later added that Among those Italians who became well known in that war
the failed Jameson Raid had also been followed by a sim- there was a Dr. Umberto Cristini who joined the Italilar dynamite explosion, it fueled the suspicion of British ian Scouts after leaving General de Wet's commando on
157

158
the Western Front. Such was his admiration of De Wet
that he asked his permission to add the General's name
to his own baptised name, becoming Umberto Dewet
Cristini. In fact at one stage it seemed he would even
marry one of de Wet's daughters. He returned to the
Transvaal to rejoin the war. In a letter to his mother he
even mentions the fact that though everyone may have
thought he went back only to ght, his other intention
was to 'help nd the greatest treasure anyone could imagine'. (Maybe the Kruger Millions). To this end Ricchiardi was even reported by the British Army to having
been spotted in the Pretoria Station well after his departure. Cristini fought right up to the end of the war then
remained in South Africa for some years ending up by
training local athletes, some world famous, such as world
class South African runner Jack Donaldson and marathon
runner Charles Heeron, in Cape Town. On his return
to Europe became the assistant trainer of Georges Carpentier, the French world boxing-champion in 1912. A
man who thrived on wars, he was implicated in the 1908
assassination of King Carlos of Portugal with a group of
anarchists in an attempt to overthrow the Braganza Dynasty, which nally occurred in 1910. Arrested, he managed to escape to Spain where he spent several months.
From there he moved to France where he joined the
French army and was killed in action in the battle of Argonne in 1915.
Another interesting character was Ciccio de Giovanni,
a 12-year-old boy who made an unexpected visit to the
laager of the Italian Scouts to see his father Giovanni
serving in the unit. He rode all the way from Johannesburg, some 400 km, on his own.
Curiously Peppino Garibaldi, Giuseppe's nephew, joined
the British side and found himself ghting against and
Scout Pilade Sivelli, whose father was the youngest
among the One Thousand Redshirtswho had participated in the unication of Italy.
Another Italian by the name of Dr. M. Ricono, a prominent surgeon from Cape Town, oered the British his services. Of the 3,000 or so Italians who resided on the Reef
just some 1,200 were left after the war.

37.3 See also

Boer foreign volunteers
Camillo Ricchiardi

37.4 References
[1] South African Military History Society - Lectures - Italian participation in the Anglo-Boer War. Samilitaryhistory.org. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
[2] Papers Past Timaru Herald 29 Haratua 1900

CHAPTER 37. ITALIAN VOLUNTEER LEGION

THE WAR. Paperspast.natlib.govt.nz. Retrieved 201210-04.

37.5 External links

(English) Page of the South African Military History
Society on the Italian participation in the AngloBoer War.
(Italian) Short bio of Riccardi with details of
Churchill's capture.
(Italian) Short history of Italian immigration to
South Africa.

Chapter 38

Military history of Jewish Americans

Jewish Americans have served in the United States
armed forces dating back to before the colonial era, when
Jews had served in militias of the Thirteen Colonies. Jewish military personnel have served in all branches of the
armed forces and in every major armed conict to which
the United States has been involved. The Jewish Chaplains Council estimated that there are currently 10,000
known Jewish servicemen and servicewomen on active
duty.* [1]* [2]
A number of Jewish American servicemen have gained
fame due to their military service, and many have received awards and decorations for distinguished service,
valor, or heroism. More than 20 Jewish servicemen
were awarded the military's highest award, the Medal of
Honor. Many other American Jews who served in the
military later achieved prominence in business, politics,
science, entertainment and other elds. American Jews
have also been signicant in the development of military
science and technology including physicists Albert Einstein, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Richard Feynman, and
Edward Teller, who were important in the Manhattan
Project, which led to the development of the rst nuclear
weapons.
Grave of a Jewish American soldier at Normandy. An inscription on the stone reveals that the soldier was a rst lieutenant
from New York who served in the 411th Antiaircraft Artillery
Gun Battalion.* [3]* [4]

38.1 Participation by war

38.1.1

French and Indian War

Though the history of Jews in this pre-independence conict is poorly documented, the 19th-century historian
Simon Wolf documented one Jew from New York who
became captain of a company of bateau men, and two
others who served in an expedition across the Allegheny
Mountains.* [5]

side in the conict, including Francis Salvador, the rst

Jew known to die for the cause of American independence.* [6] (In 1895, Simon Wolf had counted 46* [7]).

Haym Solomon
Main article: Haym Solomon

38.1.2

Revolutionary War

During the American Revolutionary War, the Polish-born

Haym Solomon (17401785), who immigrated to New
York and was a friend of George Washington, was a
American Jews served in numbers disproportionate to key nancier who helped fund the Continental Army.
their small population of the period. Of an estimated Solomon became the agent to the French consul, as well as
population of 3,000, 160 Jews served on the Colonial the paymaster for the French forces in North America. In
Main article: Jewish history in Colonial America

159

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CHAPTER 38. MILITARY HISTORY OF JEWISH AMERICANS

Haym Solomon, personal friend of General George Washington

and nancier of the American Revolution

Judah P. Benjamin served as the second Confederate States Secretary of War from September 17, 1861 March 24, 1862.

1781, he began working extensively with Robert Morris,

the newly appointed Superintendent for Finance for the
Thirteen Colonies.* [8] Often working out of the "London
Coee House" in Philadelphia, at one time Solomon sold
about $600,000 in bills of exchange to his clients. At one
point, when Washington's war chest and the treasury of
the Continental Congress was completely empty, Washington determined that he needed at least $20,000 to nance the campaign. When Morris told him there were
no funds and no credit available, Washington gave him a
simple but eloquent order: Send for Haym Salomon.
Haym again came through, and the $20,000 was raised.
Washington conducted the Yorktown campaign, which
proved to be the nal battle of the Revolution, thanks to
Haym Salomon.* [9]

had generally taken on regional loyalties according to residence. Jews were among the supporters of each side of
the American Civil War. Some 150,000 Jews lived in
the United States at the time of the American Civil War,
about 0.5 percent of the population.* [12] One academic
estimate was that at least 8,000 Jewish soldiers fought for
the Union and Confederate during the Civil War.* [13]
Donald Altschiller estimates that at least 10,000 Jews
served, about 7,000 for the Union and 3,000 for the Confederacy, with some 600 Jewish soldiers killed in battle.* [12]

Jews also played leadership roles on both sides, with nine

Jewish generals and 21 Jewish colonels participating in
the war. Judah P. Benjamin, a non-observant Jew, served
as Secretary of State and acting Secretary of War of the
Salomon negotiated the sale of a majority of the war aid Confederacy.
from France and the Dutch Republic, selling bills of exchange to American merchants. Solomon also personally
supported various members of the Continental Congress Jews and the Union
during their stay in Philadelphia, including James Madison and James Wilson. He requested below market inter- The Civil War, also saw the appointment of the rst
est rates, and he never asked for repayment.* [10]* [11]
ocial Jewish chaplain in the US Army, Rev. Jacob
Frankel of Philadelphia's Congregation Rodeph Shalom,
on September 18, 1862.* [14] While Catholic chaplains
38.1.3 Civil War
had been appointed rst during the MexicanAmerican
War, to serve the needs of the large inux of Irish imReecting their pattern of long settlement in both north- migrant enlistments,* [15] the same had not been accomern and southern cities, Jews served and supported both plished for Jewish Americans; to make matters worse,
the Union Army of the Northern States as well as the in 1861 Congress ordered military regiments to apConfederate States Army of the Southern Confederate point Chaplains who were specically of the Christian
States of America during the American Civil War. They faith.* [14] Following protests by the Board of Delegates

38.1. PARTICIPATION BY WAR

161
May 1865. He was mustered out of the Army in
January 1865, and President Lincoln appointed him
superintendent of the Warehouses at the Baltimore
custom house.* [18]
2. Brevet Brigadier General Frederick Kneer's father,
Dr. Nathan Kneer, was one of the founders of the
Indianapolis Hebrew Congregation, the rst synagogue in the city. He was commissioned as a rst
lieutenant of the 11th Indiana Infantry. In 1861
he was promoted to captain. He served as a major
and assistant adjutant general on the sta of Major
General Lew Wallace and appointed captain of the
79th Indiana. He led them into battle at the battles
of Perryville, Murfreesboro and in the Tullahoma
and Chickamauga campaigns. In the Chattanooga
Campaign he led the charge at Missionary Ridge.
In March 1865 he was appointed a Brevet Brigadier
General for bravery and meritorious services.* [19]

Union Army Brevet Major General Frederick C. Salomon.

of American Israelites and introductions by others, a

meeting was held in December 1861 with President Lincoln, which led to the rescinding of the order and the appointment of the rst Jewish chaplain.* [14] Some sources
consider this intercession perhaps the rst example of
organized Jewish lobbying in Washington.* [16]
During the war, approximately 7,000 Jews (out of around
150,000 Jews in the United States) fought on the Union
side.* [17] Two Union Jewish companies were raised, including Company C of the 82d Regiment of the Illinois
Volunteers, made up mostly of recent immigrants from
Europe, and thePerkins Riesof Syracuse, New York.
But, most Jews serving in the war served alongside Christian soldiers, many in units such as Company D of the
8th New York National Guard Regiment and the Light
Infantry Blues of Richmond.* [12]

3. Brevet Brigadier General Edward S. Salomon was

the commander of the 82nd Illinois which included
more than 100 Jews, when the Confederate and
Union armies collided and battled at the Battle of
Gettysburg July 13, 1863. His ability to lead men
was quickly recognized and he rapidly rose through
the ranks. Salomon received a brevet promotion to
brigadier general in March 1865. After the Battle
of Atlanta, Colonel John Cleveland Robinson recognized the feats of Colonel Salomon when he wrote:
I consider Colonel Salomon one of the most deserving ocers. His regiment is deserving of high
praise. In a point of discipline it is second to none
in the corps.* [20]
4. Brevet Major General Frederick C. Salomon enlisted in the Union Army in 1861. He was commissioned as a captain in the 5th Missouri Volunteers.
He was appointed as a colonel in the 9th Wisconsin
Infantry. In June 1862 he was promoted to brigadier
general and was assigned to command a brigade. He
made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Newtonia,
Missouri. His unit battled the Confederate Army to
defend Helena and Jenkins Ferry. He served to the
end of the war and he received the brevet of major
general in March 1865.* [21]

Four generals are known to have been Jews who served

the Union and attained higher rank in the heat of key batJews and the Confederacy
tles:
1. Brevet General Leopold Blumenberg: When the
Civil War erupted, his unit was called upon to do
battle in the Battle of Antietam against the Confederate Army led by General Robert E. Lee. Major Leopold Blumenberg was severely wounded. He
was appointed a brevet general, an honorary rank
without any an increase in pay or in authority. Because of his wounds, Blumenberg was appointed a
Provost Marshal for the 3rd District of Maryland in

During the war, approximately 3,000 Jews (out of a total of about 150,000 Jews in the United States and the
Confederacy) fought on the Confederate side.* [17] Probably the most notable Jewish gure was Judah P. Benjamin (18111884) who, before the Civil War, was the
rst Jewish Cabinet member in a North American government. Benjamin was born a British subject in Saint
Croix to Phillip Benjamin, an English Jew, and his wife,
Rebecca Mendes, a Portuguese Jew (Sephardic).* [22] He
emigrated with his parents to the U.S. several years later

162

CHAPTER 38. MILITARY HISTORY OF JEWISH AMERICANS

and grew up in North and South Carolina. He was con- 38.1.5 World War II
sidered thebrains of the Confederacy,serving in high
oce throughout the war: as Confederate Attorney Gen- See also: History of the Jews during World War II
eral in 1861, Secretary of War in 1861 and 1862, and
Secretary of State from 1862 to 1865. President Jeerson Davis called Benjamin the most capable statesman
I have ever known,* [23] but he was subject tovicious Half a million Jewish soldiers
anti-Jewish attacksas the object of popular discontent
after becoming acting Secretary of War in 1861.* [12] He
quarreled with the Confederate generals P.G.T. Beauregard and Stonewall Jackson over strategy. In 1864, as the
South's military position became increasingly desperate,
Benjamin publicly advocated a plan whereby any slave
willing to bear arms for the Confederacy would be emancipated and inducted, but his proposal faced sti opposition from traditionalists. It was not passed until March
1865, by which time it was too late to salvage the Southern cause.
Other prominent Jewish Confederate gures include
Colonel Abraham Charles Myers of Charleston, South
Carolina, the Quartermaster General of the Confederate
States Army* [24] and Dr. David Camden DeLeon,
the Surgeon General of the Army.* [25]* [26] The surgeon Dr. Simon Baruch, father of the nancier Bernard Servicemen of the 20th Air Force stationed in Guam during WWII
Baruch, served on General Robert E. Lee's personal sta. participate in a Rosh Hashanah service.
His widow became an early member of the Daughters of
the Confederacy.
During World War II, approximately 500,000 American
Major Raphael J. Moses, a Georgia businessman and later Jews served in the various branches of the United States
a state representative, before the war was commissary of- armed services. Roughly 52,000 of these received U.S.
*
cer of Georgia. He carried out the last order of the Con- military awards. [29] The historian Solomon Grayzel, in
A
History
of
the
Jews: From the Babylonian Exile to the
federate government on May 5, 1865, by taking possesPresent,
records
that
more than a million Jews were ofsion of $40,000 in gold and silver bullion from the Concially
enrolled
in
the
ghting forces of the Allies and
federate treasury and delivering it to defeated Confederthat
the
largest
number
were Jewish Americans. Grayzel
ate soldiers headed home following President Jeerson
gives
a
number
of
550,000
Jews in military service in the
Davis' instructions. All three of Moses' sons served
United
States
during
World
War II out of a total populain the Confederate Army, and one was killed at Seven
*
*
tion
of
4,770,000
American
Jews.* [30]* [31]
Pines. [27] [28]
Major General Maurice Rose
See also: Maurice Rose
Major General Maurice Rose (November 26, 1899
March 30, 1945) was a United States Army general dur38.1.4 World War I
ing World War II and World War I veteran. The son
and grandson of rabbis, General Rose was at the time the
One prominent story involves William Shemin who highest ranking Jew in the U.S. Army. He was married
sprinted across a World War I battleeld and to pull twice and had two sons.
wounded comrades to safety no fewer than three times.
The 19-year-old American then took over command of The Third Armored Division ocial history of World
his unit and led it to safety. For his actions, he was War II, published after Rose had been killed in action
awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. In December states He was over six feet tall, erect, dark haired, and
2011, President Obama signed the National Defense Au- had nely chiseled features. He was rm and prompt of
thorization Act which contains a provision known as the decision, brooking no interference by man, events or conWilliam Shemin Jewish World War I Veterans Act which ditions in order to destroy the enemy.
provides for a Pentagon review of Jewish soldiers and Rose was the highest-ranking American killed by enemy
sailors who may have been overlooked for the Medal of re in the European Theater of Operations during the
Honor simply due to their faith.* [29]
war.

38.1. PARTICIPATION BY WAR

163

Chaplain Goode

Maurice Rose

Rabbi Goode and the Immortal Chaplains

Chaplain Alexander D. Goode, a rabbi, was one of the
"Four Chaplains" or Immortal Chaplains, a name
given to honor four US military chaplains who sacriced their lives to save other soldiers during the sinking of the troop transport Dorchester by a U-boat o the
coast of Newfoundland in February 1943. Goode and
the three other chaplains, Methodist, Roman Catholic,
and Reformed Church in America, helped to evacuate the
ship. When lifejackets ran out, they gave up their own to
save more troops. The four sang and prayed as they went
down with the ship.* [32]* [33]
Jewish scientists and the Manhattan Project
Main articles: Manhattan Project, Le Szilrd, Albert
Einstein, EinsteinSzilrd letter, J. Robert Oppenheimer
and Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
America's rise as a nuclear power resulted directly
from the Manhattan Project, codename for a project during World War II to develop the rst atomic bombs for
wartime use. The project's roots began in 1939 when,
at the urging of Le Szilrd, Albert Einstein signed the
EinsteinSzilrd letter to US president Franklin D. Roosevelt expressing his concerns that Nazi Germany may be

A few months after he was put in charge of fast neutron research,

Berkeley physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer convened a conference
on the topic of nuclear weapon design.

trying to develop nuclear weapons.

Albert Einstein (18791955) was a theoretical physicist
and philosopher, widely regarded as one of the most in-

164

CHAPTER 38. MILITARY HISTORY OF JEWISH AMERICANS

Le Szilrd driving force to create the Manhattan Project authored the EinsteinSzilrd letter signed by Albert Einstein

The Fat Man mushroom cloud resulting from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rises 18 km (11 mi, 60,000 ft) into the
air from the hypocenter resulting in the surrender of Japan and
United States' victory over Japan in World War II. By executive
order of president Harry S. Truman, the U.S. dropped the nuclear
weapon "Little Boy" on the city of Hiroshima on Monday, August 6, 1945,* [34]* [35] followed by the detonation of "Fat Man"
over Nagasaki on August 9. These two events are the only active deployments of nuclear weapons in war.* [36] The target of
Hiroshima was a city of considerable military importance, containing Japan's Second Army Headquarters, as well as being a
communications center and storage depot.* [37] Six days after
the detonation over Nagasaki, on August 15, 1945, Japan announced its surrender to the Allied Powers, signing the Instrument
of Surrender on September 2, 1945, ocially ending the Pacic
War and therefore World War II.

ing at universities. A month later, the Nazi book burnings occurred, with Einstein's works being among those
burnt, and Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels
proclaimed,Jewish intellectualism is dead.* [40] EinAlbert Einstein (left) with J. Robert Oppenheimer (right) working stein also learned that his name was on a list of assassion the Manhattan Project
nation targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head. One
German magazine included him in a list of enemies of
German regime with the phrase, not yet hanged
uential and best known scientists and intellectuals of all the
*
*
[40]
[41]
.
time. A German-Swiss Nobel laureate, Einstein is of*
ten regarded as the father of modern physics. [38] His Le Szilrd (18981964) was a Jewish Hungarian
father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. physicist who conceived the nuclear chain reaction in
His mother was Pauline Einstein (ne Koch). The Ein- 1933, patented the idea of a nuclear reactor with Enrico
steins were non-observant Jews.
Fermi, and in late 1939 wrote the letter for Albert EinIn 1933, Einstein was compelled to immigrate to the stein's signature that resulted in the Manhattan Project
United States due to the rise to power of the Nazis under that built the atomic bomb. Szilrd left Hungary beGermany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.* [39] While vis- cause of the rising antisemitism under the Horthy regime,
iting American universities in April 1933, he learned that which excluded Jewish students from Hungary's univerthe new German government had passed a law barring sities.
Jews from holding any ocial positions, including teach- Szilrd was directly responsible for the creation of the

38.2. COLD WAR

Manhattan Project. He drafted a condential letter to
Franklin D. Roosevelt explaining the possibility of nuclear weapons, warning of Nazi work on such weapons
and encouraging the US development of a program to
create them. During August 1939 he approached his
old friend and collaborator Albert Einstein and convinced him to sign the letter, lending his fame to the proposal.* [42] The EinsteinSzilrd letter resulted in the establishment of research into nuclear ssion by the U.S.
government and ultimately to the creation of the Manhattan Project; FDR gave the letter to an aide, General Edwin
M.PaWatson with the instruction:Pa, this requires
action!"* [43] Later, Szilrd relocated to the University
of Chicago to continue work on the project. There, along
with Fermi, he helped to construct the rstneutronic reactor, a uranium and graphite "atomic pile" in which the
rst self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction was achieved,
during 1942. Szilrd became a naturalized citizen of the
United States during 1943.

165
adds that the President was a man of considerable action once he had chosen a direction,and believed that
the U.S. could not take the risk of allowing Hitlerto
possess nuclear bombs.* [46]
Other weapons historians agree that the letter was arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious
investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S.
entry into World War II. As a result of Einstein's letter, and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the
raceto develop the bomb rst, drawing on itsimmense
material, nancial, and scientic resources. Due to the
Manhattan Project, it was the only country to succeed in
developing an atomic bomb during World War II.* [47]

J. Robert Oppenheimer (19041967) was appointed the

scientic director of the Manhattan Project, the World
War II project that developed the rst nuclear weapons.
He is often referred to as thefather of the atomic bomb
.* [44] Oppenheimer was born to Julius S. Oppenheimer,
who had immigrated to the United States from Germany
in 1888 with his parents and become a wealthy Jewish
textile importer, and Ella Friedman, a painter.
Among other German scientists forced to ee Germany
were fourteen Nobel laureates and 26 of the 60 professors of theoretical physics in the country. Among the scientists who came to the United States or its Allies were
Edward Teller, Niels Bohr, Enrico Fermi, Otto Stern,
Victor Weisskopf, Hans Bethe, and Lise Meitner, many
of whom worked to ensure that the Allies would develop
nuclear weapons before the Nazis.* [40] With so many
Jewish scientists forced to live in the United States, where
they often worked together, Einstein wrote to a friend,
For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with
a few ne Jewsa few millennia of a civilized past do
mean something after all.In another letter he writes,
In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now.
*
[40] Einstein was oered a position at the Institute for
Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey,* [45] an aliation that lasted until his death in 1955.
In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II, Einstein was persuaded to write
a letter to president Franklin D. Roosevelt and warn him
that Nazi Germany might be developing an atomic bomb.
Einstein helped strengthen the letter, and he recommended the U.S. begin uranium enrichment and nuclear
research. According to F.G. Gosling of the U.S. Department of Energy, Einstein, Szilard, and other refugees including Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, regarded
it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build
an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more
than willing to resort to such a weapon.* [46] Gosling

Germany surrendered before atomic weapons could be

used against it. Japan was bombed into surrendering
when the United States nally deployed two atomic
bombs against it at the atomic bombings of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945.

38.1.6 Korean and Vietnam Wars

Jewish Americans continued to serve in the following
two major wars, both of which involved the use of
conscripted troops. Over 150,000 Jewish Americans
(men and women) served in the Korean War. In Vietnam, 30,000 served.* [48]

38.2 Cold War

Main article: Cold War

38.2.1 Jewish scientists and the Hydrogen

bomb and SDI
Key Jewish-born scientists ensured that the United States
became the rst and most dominant hydrogen bomb
power, not long after having played key roles in the development of the rst atomic bombs. Also known as
the TellerUlam design that is the nuclear weapon design
concept used in most of the world's nuclear weapons* [49]
colloquially referred to as the secret of the hydrogen
bombbecause it employs hydrogen fusion to generate
neutrons.

Edward Teller
Main articles: Edward Teller, TellerUlam design and
Strategic Defense Initiative
The TellerUlam design is named for its inventors and
creators Edward Teller (19082003) and Stanislaw Ulam.

166

CHAPTER 38. MILITARY HISTORY OF JEWISH AMERICANS

Teller was born in Budapest, Austria-Hungary to a Jewish family. He left Hungary in 1926 partly due to the
antisemitic numerus clausus rule under Horthy's regime.
He became a physicist, and was later known as the father of the hydrogen bomb,even though he did not care
for the title.

States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles.

Supporters of SDI claimed it helped contribute to the
fall of the Soviet Union by the so-called strategy of
technology, which was a prevalent doctrine at the time.
While SDI was a source of disagreement between the
United States and the Soviet Union a summit led to the
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, which some
have claimed was an outgrowth of USSR's Mikhail Gorbachev's fear of SDI. In 1991 president George H. W.
Bush shifted the focus of SDI from defense of North
America against large scale strikes to a system focusing on
theater missile defense called Global Protection Against
Limited Strikes (GPALS).* [53] In 1993 president Bill
Clinton changed its name to the Ballistic Missile Defense
Organization (BMDO) and its emphasis was shifted to
theater missile defense and from global to regional coverage. BMDO was renamed to the Missile Defense Agency
in 2002.

Edward Teller lobbied for the Strategic Defense Initiative to president Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, and succeeded in convincing
him of its need.

Stanislaw Ulam

Teller emigrated to the United States in the 1930s, and

was an early member of the Manhattan Project charged
with developing the rst atomic bombs. During this time
he made a serious push to develop the rst fusion-based
weapons as well, but these were deferred until after World
War II. After his controversial testimony in the security
clearance hearing of his former Los Alamos colleague
J. Robert Oppenheimer, Teller was ostracized by much
of the scientic community. He continued to nd support from the U.S. government and military research establishment, particularly for his advocacy for nuclear energy development, a strong nuclear arsenal, and a vigorous nuclear testing program. He was a co-founder of
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and
was both its director and associate director for many
years.
In the 1980s, Teller began a strong campaign for what
was later called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI),
derided by critics as Star Wars,the concept of using
ground and satellite-based lasers, particle beams and missiles to destroy incoming Soviet ICBMs. Teller lobbied
with government agenciesand got the sanction of president Ronald Reaganfor a plan to develop a system using elaborate satellites which used atomic weapons to re
X-ray lasers at incoming missilesas part of a broader
scientic research program into defenses against nuclear
weapons. Teller's own comments on the role of lasers
in SDI, as disclosed in live panel discussions, were published, and are available, in two laser conference proceedings.* [50]* [51]

Main articles: Stanislaw Ulam and TellerUlam design

Stanislaw Marcin Ulam (19091984) was an American mathematician of Polish Jewish origin, who participated in the Manhattan Project and originated the Teller
Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons. He also invented nuclear pulse propulsion and developed a number of mathematical tools in number theory, set theory,
ergodic theory and algebraic topology. Ulam was born
in Lww Galicia to a wealthy Polish-Jewish banking and
timber-processing family* [54] who were part of the large
Jewish minority population of the city. Lww (now Lviv,
Ukraine) was then in the Austro-Hungarian Empire; from
1918 until 1939 was in the Second Polish Republic.

38.3 Jews and the US Navy

38.3.1 Commodore Uriah P. Levy
Main article: Uriah P. Levy

Uriah Phillips Levy (17921862) was the rst JewishAmerican Commodore of the United States Navy and a
veteran of the War of 1812. At the time, Commodore
was the highest rank obtainable in the U.S. Navy and
would be roughly equivalent to the modern-day rank of
Admiral. During his tenure, he ended the Navy's practice of ogging,* [55] and prevailed against the antisemitic
bigotry he faced among his fellow naval ocers. His serThe Strategic Defense Initiative was created by U.S. Pres- vice is memorialized through the Commodore Uriah P.
ident Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983* [52] to use Levy Center and Jewish Chapel at the US Naval Academy
ground and space-based systems to protect the United at Annapolis.

38.3. JEWS AND THE US NAVY

38.3.2

167

Admiral Hyman G. Rickover

Admiral Rickover looking over USS Nautilus, the world's rst

nuclear-powered vessel.

Main article: Hyman G. Rickover

Hyman George Rickover (19001986), was born to
Abraham Rickover and Rachel (ne Unger) Rickover,
a Jewish family in Makw Mazowiecki Poland, at that
time under Russian rule.* [56]* [57] He rose to a four-star
admiral in the United States Navy who directed the original development of naval nuclear propulsion and controlled its operations for three decades as director of
Naval Reactors. He was known as the Father of the
Nuclear Navy", which as of July 2007 had produced 200
nuclear-powered submarines, and 23 nuclear-powered
aircraft carriers and cruisers.
With his unique personality, political connections, responsibilities, and depth of knowledge regarding naval
nuclear propulsion, Rickover became the longest-serving
naval ocer in U.S. history with 63 years active
duty.* [58]* [59]* [60]

38.3.3

Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda

Main article: Jeremy Michael Boorda

Jeremy Michael Boorda (19391996) was an admiral of
the United States Navy and the 25th Chief of Naval Operations (CNO). Boorda is the only CNO to have risen
to the position from the enlisted ranks. He was born on
November 26, 1939, in South Bend, Indiana, to a Jewish
family.* [61]* [62] He grew up in Chicago, Illinois. He

Boorda's headstone at Arlington National Cemetery located at

Section 64, Lot 7101, Grid MM-17.

dropped out of high school when he was seventeen years

old and joined the Navy. This was the beginning of his
naval career of 40 years. Boorda kept his Jewish roots
private: Although Boorda was not a practicing Jew and
in fact raised his children as Protestants, he was born to
two Jewish parents and had a bar mitzvah. He did not
in any way emphasize his Jewish roots or his Jewishness,
said Rabbi Aaron Landes, a retired U.S. Navy rear admiral...virtually no one knew that Boorda, who became the
rst enlisted man to rise to the Navy's highest post of chief
of naval operations, was born a Jew...Among Boorda's ancestors were a cantor and a Chasidic family, Landes said.
*
[63]
Boorda believed thatpeople should have the opportunity
to excel, and be all they can be, even if they don't get a
perfect or traditional start.* [64] He committed suicide
at the age of 57 in 1996. He was disturbed by pending
questions about Vietnam War combat ribbons he wore;
he had not had service there and was not entitled to wear
them.* [65] Researchers have noted thatthe most important reason that no one paid attention to Boorda's Jewish
background was that...being Jewish is no longer an issue
in the military.* [66]

168

CHAPTER 38. MILITARY HISTORY OF JEWISH AMERICANS

38.4 Secretaries of Defense

38.4.1

James R. Schlesinger

Main article: James R. Schlesinger

James Rodney Schlesinger (born February 15, 1929)
served as US Secretary of Defense from 1973 to 1975
under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. He
became America's rst Secretary of Energy under Jimmy
Carter. While Secretary of Defense, he opposed amnesty
for draft resisters, and pressed for development of more
sophisticated nuclear weapon systems. Additionally, his
support for the A-10 and the lightweight ghter program
(later the F-16) helped ensure that they were carried to
completion. Schlesinger was born in New York City, the
son of Rhea Lillian, a Russian Jewish immigrant, and
Julius Schlesinger, an Austrian Jew. In 1960 he published
The Political Economy of National Security. In 1963 he
moved to the Rand Corporation, where he worked until
1969, in the later years as director of strategic studies.

38.4.2

Harold Brown

Main article: Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)

Harold Brown (born September 19, 1927) was U.S. Secretary of Defense from 1977 to 1981 in the cabinet
of President Jimmy Carter. Brown is a Jewish American* [67] born in New York City to Gertrude Cohen and
A. H. Brown. He had previously served in the Lyndon
Johnson administration as Director of Defense Research
and Engineering and Secretary of the Air Force. While
Secretary of Defense, he insisted in laying the groundwork for the Camp David accords. He took part in the
strategic arms negotiations with the Soviet Union and
supported (unsuccessfully), ratication of the SALT II
treaty. He advocated dtente with the Soviet Union.

38.4.3

the Unitarian Universalist tradition.

William Cohen

Main article: William Cohen

William Sebastian Cohen (born August 28, 1940) was a
Republican who served as Secretary of Defense (1997
2001) under Democratic President Bill Clinton. His father, Reuben Cohen, was a Russian Jewish immigrant,
while his mother, Clara, was of Protestant Irish ancestry; the two owned the Bangor Rye Bread Co.* [68]* [69]
Cohen attended Hebrew school as a child. When he was
told that he would have to undergo a conversion ceremony
(see Matrilineality in Judaism), however, he decided not
to follow through with his Bar Mitzvah. Instead, he followed his mother's example in refusing to convert to Judaism and became a Christian,* [70] specically within

38.5 Intelligence
38.5.1 Intelligence work serving America
There have been notable examples of those who have
risen in the service of American intelligence and national
security. Some notable examples have been the following:

Henry Kissinger
Main article: Henry Kissinger
Henry Alfred Kissinger (born May 27, 1923) is a German
Jewish American political scientist, diplomat, and recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. He served as the eighth US
National Security Advisor (19691975) and later concurrently as the fty sixth US Secretary of State (19731977)
in the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon and
Gerald Ford. After his term, his opinion was still sought
out by many following presidents.
Kissinger was born Heinz Alfred Kissinger in Frth,
Bavaria, Weimar Republic to a family of German
Jews. His father, Louis Kissinger (18871982) was a
schoolteacher. His mother, Paula Stern Kissinger (1901
1998), was a homemaker. The surname Kissinger was
adopted in 1817 by his great-great-grandfather Meyer
Lb, after the city of Bad Kissingen.* [71] In 1938, eeing Nazi persecution, his family moved to New York. He
never lost his pronounced Frankish accent, due to childhood shyness that made him hesitant to speak.* [72]* [73]
A proponent of Realpolitik, Kissinger played a dominant
role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and
1977. During this period, he pioneered the policy of
dtente with the Soviet Union, orchestrated the opening
of relations with the People's Republic of China, and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords, ending American involvement in the Vietnam War. His role in the bombing
of Cambodia and other American interventions abroad
during this period remains controversial.

John M. Deutch
Main article: John M. Deutch
John Mark Deutch (born July 27, 1938) was the United
States Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1994 to 1995
and Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) from May 10,
1995 until December 14, 1996. Deutch was born in
Brussels, Belgium, to a Russian Jewish father.

38.6. CHAPLAINCY

169

38.6 Chaplaincy
See also: Chaplain Corps (United States Army), United
States Navy Chaplain Corps, and United States Air Force
Chaplain Corps
The United States military has a long-standing and strong
tradition of supporting Jewish military chaplains in all
sectors. Chaplains are drawn from all Jewish denominations including Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox Judaism.
The Board of Delegates of American Israelites, organized
in 1859 shortly before the Civil War, was the rst American civic defense organization for Jews.* [12]* [74]

38.6.1

Civil War

On July 22, 1861, the North's Congress passed legislature

requiring all chaplains to be ordained Christian ministers,
making rabbis ineligible to serve. The Board of Delegates
of American Israelites lobbied the government and organized a petition drive to change the law. On July 12, 1862,
Congress reversed itself and changed the law to permit
non-Christian clergy to serve as chaplains. In Bangor,
Maine, 200 non-Jews signed the petition, although only
three Jews lived in the community. Rabbi Jacob Frankel
of Philadelphia was the rst rabbi appointed as a military US Army Jewish chaplain insignia
chaplain.* [12]* [75]
See also: List of United States Navy sta corps and
38.6.3
Religious symbolism in the United States military

World War II

Many Jewish chaplains served with honor during World

The following are the ocial insignia of Jewish chaplains War II. For example, Rabbi Herschel Schacter was a
in the US military:
chaplain in the Third Army's VIII Corps.* [77] and was
the rst US Army Chaplain to enter and participate in the
liberation of the Buchenwald concentration camp in 1945
38.6.2 JWB Jewish Chaplains Council
and later aided in the resettlement of displaced persons.
The JWB (Jewish Welfare Board) Jewish Chaplains
Council was founded in 1917 as the Chaplains' Committee of the Jewish Welfare Board. It is an agency of the
Jewish Community Center (JCC) association, and serves
as the endorsing body for Jewish military chaplains who
serve in the US Armed Forces and VA chaplaincy services.
The JWB Jewish Chaplains Council consists of sixteen rabbis, four each from the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), the Rabbinical Council of America
(Orthodox), and the Central Conference of American
Rabbis (Reform), plus four active duty Jewish chaplains
representing the Chaplains Advisory Group (CAG). As
of 2010, the Council serves approximately 37 full-time
Jewish military and Veterans Administration chaplains,
55 chaplain reservists, more than 88 military lay leaders,
and thousands of Jews at more than 500 military installations and VA medical centers.* [76]

38.6.4 Post World War II

Jewish Chaplain Rabbi Arnold E. Resnico's eye-witness
report of the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing had historical importance for two reasons. First, four days after
the attack, then-Vice president George H. W. Bush led
a White House team to visit the scene of the attack, and
asked Resnicothen one of the chaplains for the U.S.
Sixth Fleetto write a report for president Ronald Reagan.* [78] Resnico had arrived in Beirut on Friday, October 21, to lead a memorial service for a young Marine
killed by sniper re (then only the fth death of American
forces present as part of the international peace-keeping
force).* [79] He refused to accept transportation back to
Sixth Fleet Headquarters in Gaeta, Italy the next day because it was Shabbat, the Jewish Sabbath, and so ended
up being on the scene the morning of October 23, when

170

CHAPTER 38. MILITARY HISTORY OF JEWISH AMERICANS

President Ronald Reagan reads Jewish Chaplain Rabbi Arnold

Resnico's report of the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing as
keynote address for the Rev. Jerry Falwell's conference,Baptist
Fundamentalism '84.

a president was attributed to a rabbi.* [80]

US Air Force Jewish chaplain insignia

American chaplain Rabbi Herschel Schacter conducts religious

services at the liberated Buchenwald concentration camp in 1945.

the attack occurred.* [80] When Reagan received the report, he decided to use it as his keynote speech to the
20,000 attendees of the Baptist Fundamentalist '84
convention, led by the late Rev. Jerry Falwell. Rabbi
David Lapp, then-Director of the National Jewish Welfare Board Commission on Jewish Chaplaincy, said that
many rabbis had quoted Presidents, but that this may have
been the rst time in history that a president had quoted
a rabbicertainly, the rst time that an entire speech of

Jewish Chaplain Arnold Resnico, wearing the makeshiftcamouage kippamade for him by Catholic chaplain (Fr.) George
Pucciarelli, after his had become bloodied when it was used to
wipe the face of a wounded Marine.

Secondly, one story from the aftermath of the attack was

instrumental in terms of changing military policies regarding the wearing of kippot, head-coverings, for Jews
in uniform. Thereligious apparel amendment,allowing kippot, had twice failed to pass. But during the rescue eorts following the bombing, Catholic Chaplain Fr.
George Pucciarelli tore a piece of his camouage uniform
o to use as a makeshift kippa for Resnico, who had

38.7. JEWISH WAR VETERANS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

discarded his kippa when it became blood-soaked after
being used to wipe the faces of wounded Marines.* [81]
When that story was read into the Congressional Record,
both the Senate and House passed the Religious Apparel
Amendment, which then laid the groundwork for Department of Defense Directive (now Instruction) 1300.17,
Accommodation of Religious Practices Within the Military Service.* [80]* [82]* [83]* [84]

171

The Levy Center cost $8 million.* [87] Approximately

$1.8 million was paid for with military construction
funds.* [87] The remaining amount was paid for by private donations raised by the Friends of the Jewish Chapel,
headed by Jewish alumni of the academy and others.* [87]* [88] It was given to the Academy upon completion.* [88] The building was dedicated in September
2005.* [89]

This story of the camouage kippahwas retold at

many levels,* [81] in addition to Reagan's speech, including another event involving a meeting between Reagan 38.7 Jewish War Veterans of the
and theAmerican Friends of Lubavitch.* [85] During
United States of America
the group's visit to the White House, Reagan recounted
the Beirut story, and then asked the rabbis to explain
to him the religious meaning of the kippah.* [85] Rabbi Main article: Jewish War Veterans of the United States
Abraham Shemtov, the leader of the group, responded, of America
Mr. President, the kippah to us is a sign of reverence. The Jewish War Veterans of the United States of AmerRabbi Feller, another member of the group, continued,
We place the kippah on the very highest point of our
beingon our head, the vessel of our intellectto tell
ourselves and the world that there is something which is
above man's intellect: the innite Wisdom of God.* [85]

38.6.5

Naval Academy Jewish Chapel

Jewish War Veterans logo

ica (also referred to as the Jewish War Veterans of the

U.S.A., the Jewish War Veterans, or the JWV) is an
Commodore Uriah P. Levy Center and Jewish Chapel at the US American Jewish veterans' organization, and the oldest
Naval Academy, in Annapolis, Maryland.
veterans group in the United States. It has an estimated
37,000 members.* [90]
Main articles: Naval Academy Jewish Chapel and Uriah
The Jewish War Veterans were established in 1896.* [90]
P. Levy
The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of
the United States Code.* [91]* [92]
The Naval Academy Jewish Chapel, also known as the
Commodore Uriah P. Levy Center and Jewish Chapel is In the preamble to its National Constitution the purpose
the Jewish chapel at the United States Naval Academy, in of the JWV is stated:
Annapolis, Maryland. The center is named in honor of
Commodore Uriah P. Levy (17921862), the rst Jewish
To maintain true allegiance to the United States
commodore in the United States Navy, who is famous for
of America; to foster and perpetuate true
refusing to og his sailors.* [86]* [87] The Levy Center
Americanism; to combat whatever tends to imcontains a 410-seat synagogue, fellowship hall, Characpair the eciency and permanency of our free
ter Learning Center, classrooms, Brigades social direcinstitutions; to uphold the fair name of the Jew
tor oces, academic board, and the Academys Honor
and ght his or her battles wherever unjustly
Board.* [87]
assailed; to encourage the doctrine of universal

172

CHAPTER 38. MILITARY HISTORY OF JEWISH AMERICANS

liberty, equal rights, and full justice to all men
and women; to combat the powers of bigotry
and darkness wherever originating and whatever their target; to preserve the spirit of comradeship by mutual helpfulness to comrades and
their families; to cooperate with and support existing educational institutions and establish educational institutions, and to foster the education of ex-servicemen and ex-servicewomen,
and our members in the ideals and principles of
Americanism; to instill love of country and ag,
and to promote sound minds and bodies in our
members and our youth; to preserve the memories and records of patriotic service performed
by the men and women of our faith; to honor
their memory and shield from neglect the graves
of our heroic dead.* [93]

38.9 Misconceptions of Jewish service

The early history of Jewish service was complicated by
American assumptions that Jews were unwilling or unable
to serve in the military. This perception was to last for
centuries, and it was in response to an 1891 article in the
North American Review regarding the perceived lack of
Jews in the military that historian Simon Wolf compiled
his 1895 work The American Jew as patriot, soldier and
citizen.* [7]
This perception was so widespread and long-lasting that
author Mark Twain, in his 1899 article Concerning the
Jews, criticized the American Jews for their lack of patriotism and willingness to serve. However, when presented
with statistics proving Jewish participation throughout
American military history, Twain withdrew his remark,
and contradicted the misperception in his 1904 The
American Jew as Soldier.* [7]

38.8 National Museum of American Jewish Military history

38.10 See also
History of the Jews in the United States
Jewish Institute for National Security Aairs
List of Jewish Americans in the military
List of Jewish American generals and admirals
List of Jewish Medal of Honor recipients
United States military chaplain symbols

38.11 References
Building of the National Museum of American Jewish Military
History

[1] http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.
org/images/Benjamin_B._Levy.pdf
[2] JWB Jewish Chaplains Council

Main article: National Museum of American Jewish

Military History
The National Museum of American Jewish Military History (NMAJMH), founded in 1958, is in Washington,
D.C., documents and preserves the contributions of
Jewish Americans to the peace and freedom of the
United States...[and to educate] the public concerning the
courage, heroism and sacrices made by Jewish Americans who served in the armed forces.* [94]
The museum operates under the auspices of the Jewish
War Veterans (JWV), USA, National Memorial, Inc.
(NMI), located at 1811 R St., NW, Washington, DC,
in the Dupont Circle area. The building also houses the
JWV National Headquarters.

[3] Atlanta D-day Memorial, list of sorted names of soldiers

who died in Normandy.
[4] Anti-Aircraft Artillery, Olive-Drab military information
website
[5] Simon Wolf. The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier and
Citizen. The Levytype Company, 1895
[6] Jack Wertheimer. Imagining the American Jewish community. UPNE, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-670-0, ISBN 9781-58465-670-8
[7] Louis Harap, American Jewish Archives. Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American
literature, 1900-1940s. Greenwood Publishing Group,
1987 ISBN 0-313-25386-2, ISBN 978-0-313-25386-7.
Pg 146

38.11. REFERENCES

[8] Wiernik, Peter. History of the Jews in America. New

York: The Jewish Press Publishing Company, 1912. p.
96. Solomon is mentioned nearly 75 times in Morris's
personal correspondence relating to the nancing of the
Revolution.
[9] revolutionarywararchives.org

173

[26] Jacob Rader Marcus and Gary Phillip Zola, The Dynamics
of American Jewish History: Jacob Rader Marcus's Essays
on American Jewry (2004). Brandeis University Press,
121122.
[27] Sullivan, Kevin and Mary Jordan (June 10, 2004). In
Central America, Reagan Remains A Polarizing Figure
. The Washington Post. Retrieved June 18, 2007.

[10] Wiernik, Peter. History of the Jews in America. New

York: The Jewish Press Publishing Company, 1912. p.
95.
[11]
[12]

[13]

[14]
[15]
[16]

[28] Lewis Regenstein, "Raphael Moses (18121893).New

Georgia Encyclopedia (2004). Georgia Humanities Council.
http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.
[29] Decades after death, Jewish WWI vet up for top honor
org/images/Midstream_-_Haym_Salomon.pdf
. phillyburbs.com. January 12, 2012. Retrieved 2012-01Donald Altschiller,Jews,Encyclopedia of the American
14.
Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, eds.
David Stephen Heidler, Jeanne T. Heidler, and David J. [30] Grayzel, Solomon: A History of the Jews: From the Babylonian Exile to the Present (Philadelphia: The Jewish PubColes (2000). W. W. Norton, p. 1070-1071.
lication Society, 1968), p. 786.
Jonathan D. Sarna and Adam Mendelsohn. Jews and the
Civil War: A Reader (2010). New York University Press, [31] "(Section): The Second World War and its Consequences
(Citation 2)". Columbia University MA thesis (1982) at
2010.
jpi.org/holocaust/. November 22, 2010.
Guide to the Records of the Board of Delegates of Amer[32] Saga page, FourChaplains.org., Accessed February 4,
ican Israelites, American Jewish Historical Society
2011.]
OConner, Thomas H. Breaking the religious barrier
[33] http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.
, The Boston Globe, Boston, 10 May 2004.
org/images/The_Four_Immortal_Chaplains_-1997_
version.pdf
Steven Bayme, Understanding Jewish History, 1997

[17] ["The Jewish AmericansDir. David Grubin. PBS Home

Video, 2008. Disc 1, Episode 1, Chapter 5, 0:30:40]
[18] Florida Atlantic University Libraries Jewish Generals and
Admirals in America's Military: Brevet General Leopold
Blumenberg: A Hero of the Civil War.

[34] Rezelman, David; F.G. Gosling; Terrence R. Fehner

(2000).The atomic bombing of hiroshima. The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History. U.S. Department of
Energy. Retrieved September 18, 2007. External link in
|work= (help) page on Hiroshima casualties.

[19] Florida Atlantic University Libraries Jewish Generals and

Admirals in America's Military: Brevet Brig. Gen. Frederick Kneer: A Hero of the Civil War.

[35] Adams, S. & Crawford, A.. 2000. World War II. First
edition. Printed in association with the Imperial War
Museum. Eyewitness Books series. New York, Doring
Kindersley Limited.

[20] Florida Atlantic University Libraries Jewish Generals and

Admirals in America's Military: Brig. Gen. Edward S.
Salomon: Hero of Gettysburg.

[36] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all
that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-509514-6.

[21] Florida Atlantic University Libraries Jewish Generals and

Admirals in America's Military: Major General Frederick
Salomon: A Hero of the Civil War.

[37] World War 2. World-war-2.info. Retrieved 2010-1104.

[22] Florida Atlantic University Judaica Collection biography. Fau.edu. October 18, 2006. Retrieved 2010-0131.
[23] Henry Steele Commager and Erik Brunn, The Civil War
Archive: The History of the Civil War in Documents
(2000). Black Dog & Leventhal: New York, p. 505-506.

[38] Zahar, lie (2001), Poincar's Philosophy. From Conventionalism to Phenomenology, Carus Publishing Company,
p. 41, ISBN 0-8126-9435-X, Chapter 2, p. 41
[39] In Brief. Institute for Advanced Study. Retrieved
March 4, 2010.
[40] Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon
& Schuster (2007) pp. 407410

[24] David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Myers, Abraham Charles (18111889)", Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History,
eds. David Stephen Heidler, Jeanne T. Heidler, and David
J. Coles (2000). W. W. Norton, p. 1381.

[41] Dunn, Jean (July 7, 2010).Albanian Muslims Who Sheltered Jews Honored at Program. Voicesnews.com.

[25] Robert N. Rosen, The Jewish Confederates (2000). University of South Carolina Press, p. 132-133.

[43] The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Pa, this requires action!". Retrieved 2007-05-26.

[42] The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Einstein's Letter to

Franklin D. Roosevelt. Retrieved 2007-05-26.

174

CHAPTER 38. MILITARY HISTORY OF JEWISH AMERICANS

[44] Bird 2005, p. xi

[45] In Brief (Albert Einstein)". The Center for History of
Physics. American Institute of Physics. 2005. Retrieved
2010-11-02.

[63] Navy chief Boorda, a suicide victim, was born Jewish (by Matthew Dorf, Jewish Telegraphic Agency)".
jweekly.com-San Francisco Jewish Community Publications Inc. May 24, 1996.
[64] Seaman to Admiral Commissioning Program Overview

[46] Gosling, F.G. The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic

Bomb, U.S. Department of Energy, History Division (January 1999) p. vii
[47] Diehl, Sarah J.; Moltz, James Clay. Nuclear Weapons and
Nonproliferation: a Reference Handbook, ABC-CLIO
(2008) p. 219
[48] David A. Rausch. Friends, colleagues, and neighbors:
Jewish contributions to American history. Baker Books,
1996. ISBN 0-8010-1119-1, ISBN 978-0-8010-1119-1
[49] From National Public Radio Talk of the Nation, November 8, 2005, Siegfried Hecker of Los Alamos, the hydrogen bomb that is, a two-stage thermonuclear device,
as we referred to it is indeed the principal part of the US
arsenal, as it is of the Russian arsenal,
[50] C. P. Wang (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers '85 (STS, McLean, Va, 1986).
[51] F. J. Duarte (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers '87 (STS, McLean, Va, 1988).
[52] Federation of American Scientists. Missile Defense Milestones. Accessed March 10, 2006.
[53] North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Limited Ballistic
Missile Strikes. Accessed April 27, 2006.
[54] Anxiously from Lww: Family Letters to Stanislaw M.
Ulam A website dedicated to the Ulam family, part of
which perished in The Holocaust.
[55] Jewish Chapel Is Set to Open at Naval Academy, By
Hamil R. Harris, Washington Post, September 17, 2005;
Page B09

[65] Shenon, Philip (May 17, 1996).His Medals Questioned,

Top Admiral Kills Himself New York Times. The New
York Times. Retrieved 2008-12-26.
[66] Diversity in the power elite: how it happened, why it matters
(by Richard L. Zweigenhaft, G. William Domho), p. 30.
Simon & Schuster. November 23, 2010.
[67] Encyclopedia of American Jewish history, Volume 1 (by
Stephen Harlan Norwood, Eunice G. Pollack), p. 279.
ABC-CLIO.
[68] Mother of former Maine senator, Clara Cohen, dies.
Boston.com. May 12, 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-11.
[69] "Love in Black and Whiteexplores race Relationships. MSNBC. February 20, 2007. Retrieved 200906-11.
[70] William S. Cohen | UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography | Find Articles at BNET. Findarticles.com. 2003.
Retrieved 2009-06-11.
[71] Die Kissingers in Bad Kissingen (in German). Bayerischer Rundfunk. June 2, 2005. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
[72] Isaacson, pp 37.
[73] Bygone Days: Complex Jew. Inside Kissinger's soul.
Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2008-09-04.
[74] Sussman, Lance J., Isaac Leeser and the Making of American Judaism (2004), Wayne State University Press, p.
223-224.
[75] Sussman, Lance J. 2004 p. 223-224
[76] JWB Jewish Chaplains Council: About Us

[56] The Man in Tempo 3. Time. January 11, 1954. ISSN

0040-781X. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
[57] Duncan, Francis (2001). Rickover: the struggle for excellence. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Inst. Press. p. 7. ISBN
978-1-55750-177-6.
[58] http://books.google.com/books?id=z095cIB0coAC&
pg=PA87&dq=Rickover+%2263+years%22#v=
onepage&q=Rickover%20%2263%20years%22&f=
false
[59] http://www.history.navy.mil/bios/rickover.htm
[60] http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/hymangeo.htm
[61] Jewish Generals and Admirals in America's Military
A Judaica Collection Exhibit. fau.edu-Florida Atlantic
University Libraries. July 8, 2008.
[62] The Clinton Tapes: wrestling history with the president (by
Taylor Branch), p. 355. Simon & Schuster. November
23, 2010.

[77] American Jewish Chaplains and the Shearit Hapletah:

AprilJune 1945
[78] The American Presidency Project, President Ronald Reagan,Remarks at the Baptist Fundamentalist Annual Convention,Apr 13, 1984. Speech also reprinted in Modern Day Heroes: In Defense of America, Anderson-Noble
Publishing, 2004.]
[79] New York Post, November 22, 1983,Comrades in Tribute to Fallen Marine.
[80] Library of Congress Veterans History Project: Arnold
Resnico collection, AFC/2001/001/70629, May 2010.
[81] Larry Bonko, Rabbi's Camouage Yarmulke Woven
With Tragedy, Heroism,Norfolk Ledger-Star, January
13, 1984.
[82] Congressional Record, 100th Congress, May 11, 1987.
[83]Solarz Passes Religious Apparel Amendment, The Jewish Press, May 22, 1987

38.13. EXTERNAL LINKS

[84] Accommodation of Religious Practices Within the Military Services, Department of Defense Instruction
[85]Rabbis Explain 'Top to Top'". Wellsprings (No. 12 (Vol
2, No. 7)) (Lubavitch Youth Organization). August
September 1986.
[86] Bailey, Steve (August 22, 2008).In Annapolis, Md., the
Past Is Always at Hand. New York Times. Retrieved
2010-03-18.
[87] Facts: The Commodore Uriah P. Levy Center and Jewish Chapel. Public Aairs Oce. U.S. Naval Academy
ocial website. Retrieved 2010-03-18.

175

38.13 External links

Florida Atlantic University Libraries: Jewish Generals and Admirals in America's Military
Jews in America's Military (fau.edu) (35 pages)
Jewish-American History Foundation: Jewish Civil
War Veterans Database
Museum of Jewish Heritage: American Jews in the
Second World War
Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America

[88] Lebovich, William (May 3, 2006). Navy Temple.

Architecture Week. p. D1.1. Retrieved 2010-03-18.

(Jewish Welfare Board) JWB Jewish Chaplains

Council

[89] Press Kit: Uriah P. Levy Center Dedication Ceremony

18 September 2005. U.S. Naval Academy. Archived
from the original on February 22, 2007. The link features
an architectural rendering of the chapel interior.

Jews in Green: The Ultimate Resource for Jews in

the U.S. Armed Forces

[90]Associations and Societies.The World Almanac and

Book of Facts 2007. New York: World Almanac Education Group, 2007, p. 397.
[91] "Article I (Name).Jewish War Veterans of the United
States National Constitution.
[92] "Title 36 (Patriotic and National Observances, Ceremonies, and Organizations). Subtitle II (Patriotic and
National Organizations), Part B (Organizations), Chapter
1101 (Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America, Incorporated).Title 36 of the United States Code.
[93] "Preamble.Jewish War Veterans of the United States National Constitution.
[94] National Museum of American Jewish Military History
ocial website

Bird, Kai (2005). American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41202-6.

38.12 Bibliography
Evans, Eli N., Judah Benjamin: The Jewish Confederate, New York: The Free Press, 1988.
Hart, Charles Spencer. General Washington's Son of
Israel and Other Forgotten Heroes of History. ISBN
0-8369-1296-9
Schwartz, Laurens R. Jews and the American Revolution: Haym Solomon and Others, Jeerson, North
Carolina: McFarland & Co., 1987.

National Museum of American Jewish Military History

Guide to the Collection of Judah P. Benjamin
(1811-1884), undated, 1838, 1854-1884, 1893,
1925, 1930, 1942, 1948 (bulk 1854-1884) at the
American Jewish Historical Society, New York.

Chapter 39

Lafayette Flying Corps

The Lafayette Flying Corps is a name given to the
American volunteer pilots who ew in the French Air
Force (Arme de l'Air) during World War I. It includes
the pilots who ew with the bona de Lafayette Escadrille
squadron. The estimations of number of pilots range
from 180 to over 300. The generally accepted number
of pilots who successfully completed French ight training is 209. Of these, 180 served in combat.* [1]
More than 50 Flying Corps personnel (including members of the Lafayette Escadrille) initially served in the
Ambulance Corps of the American Field Service.* [2]
AFS Surgeon-General Col. Edmund L. Gros, M.D. is
credited with initiating the corps.* [3]

Escadrille pilots with Fram and a Nieuport 16, March

1916. Pilots L-R: Sergeant Victor Emmanuel Chapman
of New York City, New York); Sergeant Elliott Christopher Cowdin II of New York City, New York; Adjutant
Bert Hall of Missouri, USA; Lieutenant William Thaw
II of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Lieutenant Alfred de
Laage de Meux of Clesse, Deux Svres, France; SousLieutenant Norman Prince of Boston, Massachusetts;
Sergeant James Rogers McConnell of Carthage, North
Carolina; Sergeant Kin Yates Rockwell of Asheville,
North Carolina; Captain Georges Thenault of Paris,
176

39.3. MEMBER LIST

France, and Fram-Captain Thenault's bon chien

177
Philip Phillips Benny (died in service)
Leo E. Benot (alias Ernest L. Benway)

39.1 Casualties and honors

Sixty-nine Corps members died during the war, 42 of
them in action against the enemy. The rest were results
of disease, accidents, wounds, and suicide. The planes
weren't very sturdy, and sometimes guns jammed too,
just when they were needed.* [4] The Corps is credited
with 159 enemy kills. It amassed 31 Croix de guerre, and
its pilots were awarded seven Mdailles militaires and four
Lgions d'honneur. Eleven of its members were deemed
ying aces, claiming ve air kills or more. The core
squadron suered nine losses and was credited with 41
victories.* [5]

Charles John Biddle

Julian Cornell Biddle (died in service)
Stephen Sohier Bigelow (Lafayette Escadrille)
Charles Raymond Blake
Arthur Bluethenthal (died in service)
Pierre de Lagarde Boal
Ellison Converse Bogos
William Vernon Booth, Jr. (died in service)
Clarence Marsh Bosworth
Edgar Jean Bouligny

39.2 Note
There is frequent confusion between the terms Lafayette
Escadrille and Lafayette Flying Corps, exacerbated by the
inaccuracies in the movie Flyboys.

39.3 Member list

Members* [6]
Wainwright Abbott
John Russell Adams

Algernon Boyesen
Lester Strayer Brady
Ray Clain Bridgman (Lafayette Escadrille)
Jasper Cornish Brown
Staord Leighton Brown (died in service)
Everett Timothy Buckley
Thomas Bradley Buum
Eugene Jacques Bullard, the world's rst black military pilot (93 Spad Squadron)
Richard Nixon Bullen

Sidney Thayer Allen

William Graham Bullen

Walter K. Appleton, Jr.

Philip Nelson Bush

Alan Newton Ash (died in service)

Louis Leslie Byers

Arthur Mills Aten

Andrew Courtney Campbell, Jr.

cadrille, died in service)

Jules James Bach

Paul Frank Baer
Benjamin Hester Baird
Horace Clyde Balsley (Lafayette Escadrille)
Leif Norman Barclay (died in service)
Charles Chester Bassett, Jr.
Henry Augustus Batchelor

(Lafayette Es-

Hugh Gordon Campbell

Joseph Maxwell Carrere, Jr.
Thomas Gantz Cassady
Oliver Moulton Chadwick (died in service)
Cyrus Foss Chamberlain (died in service)
Charles Wesley Chapman (died in service)

James Henry Baugham (died in service)

Victor Chapman (Lafayette Escadrille, died in service)

Frank Leaman Baylies (died in service)

Louis Charton

James Alexander Bayne (died in service)

Herman Lincoln Chatko

178

CHAPTER 39. LAFAYETTE FLYING CORPS

Roger Harvey Clapp (died in service)

Edwin Bradley Fairchild

Caleb James Coatsworth

Clarence Henry Faith

Edward M. Collier

Cedric Erroll Fauntleroy

Phelps Collins (died in service)

Ian Fearchar Ferguson

James Connelly

Joseph Flynn

Alan Augustus Cook

Christopher William Ford (Lafayette Escadrille)

Linn Palmer Cookson (died in service)

Tod Ford

Russell Bracken Corey

Henry Forster

Edward Charles Corsi

Eric Anderson Fowler (died in service)

John Rowell Cotton

William Frey

Isadore Court

Edmond Charles Clinton Genet (Lafayette Escadrille, died in service)

Elliot Christoprer Cowdin (Lafayette Escadrille)

Austen Ballard Crehore
Arthur Lawrence Cunningham
Frazier Curtis
Alvan Alexander Cushman
Philip Washburn Davis (died in service)
George Dock, Jr.
Charles Heave Dolan (Lafayette Escadrille)
Robert Louis Donze
James Ralph Doolittle (Lafayette Escadrille, died in
service)

William Wallace Gibson

Joseph Francis Gill
William Smith Gilmore
Clarence Merritt Glover
Reginald G. Gourard
Charles Gossage Grey
Henry Norman Grieb (died in service)
James Murray Grier
David Porter Guest
Andre Gundelach (died in service)

Dennis Dowd (died in service)

David Wade Guy

Meredith Loveland Dowd (died in service)

James Norman Hall (Lafayette Escadrille)

Sidney Rankin Drew, Jr. (died in service)

Weston Bircu Hall (Lafayette Escadrille)

John Armstrong Drexel (Lafayette Escadrille)

Edgar Guerard Hamilton

Nathaniel Edmund Duy

Robert Marshall Hanford (died in service)

William Edward Dugan, Jr. (Lafayette Escadrille)

John B. Harrison, Jr.

Lowell Richards Dulon

Willis Bradley Haviland (Lafayette Escadrille)

Sherburne Eaton

John Raynolds Heilbuth

Stuart Emmet Edgar (died in service)

Thomas Moses Hewitt, Jr. (Lafayette Escadrille)

Donald Herbert Eldredge

Leslie Matheson Hickson

Chester Arthur Elliott

Dudley Lawrence Hill (Lafayette Escadrille)

Dinsmore Ely (died in service)

Edward Foote Hinkle (Lafayette Escadrille)

John Endicott

Tommy Hitchcock, Jr. (19001944), star professional polo player, later assistant air attach to the
US Embassy in Great Britain during World War II

Roberi Grimshaw Eo

39.3. MEMBER LIST

179

Warren Tucker Hobbs (died in service)

W. Leslie Ludlam

Robert Bentley Hoeber

Raoul Gervais Lufbery (Lafayette Escadrille, died

in service)

Milton Whitely Holden

Charles Dabney Horton
Ronald Wood Hoskier (Lafayette Escadrille, died in
service)
Edwin A. Hough
John William Huer
Daniel Elliott Huger
Earl Wayland Hughes
Mark Leslie Hull
Sereno Thorp Jacob
Charles Chouteau Johnson (Lafayette Escadrille)
Harry Firmstune Johnson (died in service)
Archibald Burtt Johnston
Charles Maury Jones

Gordon B. Macke
Douglas Macmonagle (Lafayette Escadrille, died in
service)
Guy Bertram Magley
Charles Thomas Malone
Harold L. Manierre
Kenneth Archibald Marr (Lafayette Escadrille)
Pierre Didier Masson (Lafayette Escadrille)
George Archibald McCall
James Rogers McConnell (Lafayette Escadrille,
died in service)
James B. McCreary, Jr.
William McGinn

Henry Sweet Jones (Lafayette Escadrille)

'Lucky' Herschel McKee (18971964), McKee

made 12 kills to become the youngest Ace

Edward David Judd

William John McKerness (died in service)

Lt. Clarence Courtney Kahle

James Haitt McMillen

Hugo Alden Kenyon

William Henry Meeker (died in service)

Charles Wayne Kerwood

Gordon R. Miles

Charles Mcilvaine Kinsolvino

Alvin Ford Miller

William Francis Kirkwood

George Miller

John Robert Kowall

Walter Bernard Miller (died in service)

Theodore De Kruij

Bennet Arthur Molter

George Marion Kyle

Robert Louis Moore

Gorman De Freest Larner

George Clark Moseley

Henry S. Lee

Oscar Mouvet

Schuyler Lee (died in service)

Curtis B. Munson

Manderson Lehr (died in service)

Alan Hammond Nichols (died in service)

David Wilbur Lewis

Charles Bernard Nordho

Kenneth Procter Littauer

Nathan Prince Oakes, Jr.

Ralph Lane Loomis

Carter Landram Ovington (died in service)

William Fitch Loomis

David Paden

Edward Loughran (died in service)

Henry Brewster Palmer (died in service)

Walter Lovell (Lafayette Escadrille)

Austen Gilette Parker

180
Edwin Charles Parsons (Lafayette Escadrille)
Paul Pavelka (Lafayette Escadrille, died in service)
Alfred Digby Pelton (died in service)
David M. Peterson, (Lafayette Escadrille, died in
service)

CHAPTER 39. LAFAYETTE FLYING CORPS

Clarence Bernard Shoninger (Crois De Guerre recipient) * [7]
Reginald Sinclaire
Glenn Nelson Sitterly
Samuel Wiggins Skinner (died in service)

Granville Alexander Pollock

Robert Soubiran (Lafayette Escadrille)

William Ponder

Wallace Speers

Thomas Windeatt Potter

Dumaresq Spencer (died in service)

Frederick Henry Prince, Jr. (Lafayette Escadrille)

Alfred Holt Stanley

Norman Prince (Lafayette Escadrille, died in service)

Frank Elmer Starret, Jr. (died in service)

David Endicott Putnam (died in service)

John Francis Randall
Rufus Randall Rand
Robert Emery Read
Leonard Minor Reno
Walter Davis Rheno (died in service)
Hugh Owen Ridlon
George J. Rockwell, Jr.
Kin Yates Rockwell (Lafayette Escadrille, died in
service)

Russell Falconer Stearns

Joseph Charles Stehlin
Henry Elmer Stickney
Donald Edward Stone (died in service)
Gerald Starr Stone
Upton Supple Sullivan
Leslie Ray Taber
William Hallet Tailer (died in service)
Elmer Bowden Taylor (died in service)
Hugh Terres (died in service)

Robert Lockerbie Rockwell (Lafayette Escadrille)

William Thaw (aviator) (Lafayette Escadrille)

Marius Romain Rocle

Clifton Badlam Thompson

William Blackstock Rodgers, Jr.

Charles Trinkard (died in service)

John F. Rolf, Jr.

Dudley Gilman Tucker (died in service)

Cliord De Roode

George Evans Turnure, Jr.

Raymond Thomas Ross

Stephen Mitchell Tyson (died in service)

Kenneth Rotharmel

Fleet William Carey Van, Jr.

Leland Lasell Rounds

Charles Herbert Veil

Laurence Dana Rumsey, Jr. (Lafayette Escadrille)

Neal Wainwright

Joseph Roe Saul

Benjamin Stuart Walcott (died in service)

Harold Young Saxon

William Ethelbert Van Wass

Lawrence Scanlan
Edwin Booth Schreiber (died in service)

William A.Wild BillWellman (18961975), Director of Wings(the rst motion picture to win
the Academy Award)

Horace Seaver

Frank Willard Wells

Walter John Shaer

Herman Kotzchmer Whitmore

Walter B. Shipley

John Joyce Whitmore

39.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

Charles Herbert Wilcox
Marcellus Edward Wild
George Gale Willard
Harold Buckley Willis (Lafayette Escadrille)
Westel Robinson Willoughby
Joseph Volney Wilson (died in service)
Pierre Marie Wilson
Alan Francis Winslow
Carroll Dana Winslow
Charles Wallace Winter, Jr. (died in service)
Henry Houston Woodward (died in service)
Warwick Worthington
Harold Everett Wright
Walter Raymond York (died in service)
Frederick Wilhelm Zinn
The following pilots are not listed as part of the Flying
Corps by the Lafayette Escadrille Memorial Foundation.
Gill Robb Wilson

39.4 See also

List of World War I ying aces
Vintage Aero Flying Museum

39.5 References
[1] http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/
flying_corps.html
[2] http://www.ourstory.info/2/c/EscLaf.html
[3] The Lafayette Flying Corps; edited by James Norman
Hall, Charles Nordho, Edgar G. Hamilton; Cambridge
1920
[4] Flood, Charles (2015). First to Fly. p. 27.
[5] Bailey, Frank and Norm Franks. A Complete Record of the
Fighter Aces and Units of the United States and French Air
Services. London: Grub street, 1992. ISBN 0-94881754-2.
[6] http://pagesperso-orange.fr/rdisa/html/Pages/List%
20of%20Pilots%20En.pdf
[7] Medal in grand daughter's possession

39.6 External links

181

Chapter 40

List of members of the British Free Corps

This is a list of members of the British Free Corps.
It is based on the list printed in Appendix 5 of Adrian
Weale. Renegades: Hitler's Englishmen. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1994. ISBN 0-7126-6764-4.* [1]
The Corps (German: Britisches Freikorps) was a unit of
the Waen SS during World War II consisting of British
and Dominion prisoners of war who had been recruited
by the Nazis. The Corps used the SS rank structure. The
column 'MI5 no.' refers to the number allocated to the
member in question in MI5's Report on the British Free
Corps dated 27 March 1945, which is printed in Appendix 1 of 'Renegades'.* [2] Starting in February 1944,
BFC members were ordered to adopt aliases for ocial
purposes, although several declined to do so.* [3] After
the War, some members of the Corps were prosecuted.
Of those members, those who had been serving in the
armed forces were court-martialed, while the merchant
seamen and other civilians were tried in the Old Bailey.
The column 'Seymer Category' refers to a list prepared by
Colonel Vivian Home Seymer of MI5 on 30 August 1945
and which is held in le KV 2/2828, entitled 'The British
Free Corps. Papers about the military unit established by
the German authorities to exploit renegade British prisoners of war' in the National Archives
Another list, containing at least 165 names, appears in
Richard Landwehr, Britisches Freikorps PP7788, Lulu,
2008. ISBN 0-5570-3362-4. However: The author records many members of the Corps separately under their real names and their aliases, as set
out in the list below.
He includes Wilhelm August 'Bob' Rssler* [4] (4),
Walter Plauen (100) (an alias used in 'Jackals of
the Reich' PP 20 for Hauptmann Werner Plack
of the England Committee Amerys aide-cumminder) * [5] andFredStrmer* [6] (156) (who
appears on page 106 of 'Jackals of the Reich' as Captain Harry Mehner (106)) who were Germans connected with the Corps.
He includes men who served in other German units
(see list below), without citing any reference stating
that they were also in the British Free Corps.
He includes John Amery (1), George Logio (86) and
182

Maurice Tunmer (90), who were involved with the

'Legion of St George', a forerunner of the Corps 'Tunmer, through contacts in the French Resistance,
was organizing a journey across the Pyrenees so that
he could travel to Britain and join de Gaulles Free
French forces in England.'* [7]
He includes Raymond Davies Hughes (47),* [8]
Arthur Chapple (52),* [9] Carl Hoskins (159),* [10]
R. Spillman (161),* [8] William Humphrey Grifths (163)* [8] who were 'Service renegades [who
had] been employed in editing, writing scripts, and
broadcasting for the enemy, and in certain cases the
same men [were] also employed in journalism'.* [11]
- this category also covers Railton Freeman and
Walter Purdy who also served in the SS-Standarte
Kurt Eggers.
He includes Gordon Bowler (20), John Henry Owen
Brown DCM (49) (a British espionage agent), Douglas Maylin (76), Joseph Trinder (84) and RAF
Bombardier Marshall (85), who had all been on the
staat a 'holiday camp' set up by the Germans in
Genshagen, a suburb of Berlin, in August 1943* [12]
- Maylin decided to join the Corps but was prevented from doing so by Thomas Haller Cooper
He includes Sgt. Cushing (60), Pte. Walsh (61), Pte.
OBrien (62) and Pte. Murphy (63), four Irishmen who ... eventually found themselves incarcerated in a special compound of Sachsenhausen concentration camp as German doubts about their essential loyalties grew. The Germans were right to
be sceptical: none of the four had any real intention
of working for the Nazis ... they nished the war
with no stain on their characters.* [13] See Friesack
Camp#Training.
He includes John Welch* [14] (92), who was on the
'sta' of an interrogation camp at Luckenwalde.
He includes 'Lieutenant Tyndal of the US Army Air
Corps - this man is referred to as 'Lieutenant Tyndall' on page 80 of 'Jackals of the Reich', whose author states on page 10 that he has 'given every man
a pseudonym'. This may be a reference to Martin
James Monti, but Landwehr gives no reference that

40.4. REFERENCES

183

he was either a British subject or a member of the

British Free Corps.

[5] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 1085-1087). Random House. Kindle Edition.

He includes Harold Cole (158), a British soldier who

assisted and later betrayed the French Resistance
during World War II, and who was killed while resisting arrest after the war ended. He cites no reference that Cole was a member of the Corps.

[6] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2804-2805). Random House. Kindle Edition
[7] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 1208-1210). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[8] The National Archives - Information about UK renegades
from the Continent of Europe - KV 2/3581 - 20/84

40.1 List of members

40.2 Other current or former
British subjects who served in
the German Armed Forces in
the Second World War
This category includes citizens of neutral Eire who were
captured while serving in the British Army - see British
nationality law and the Republic of Ireland#British subjects with local Irish nationality. It does not include members of the BFC who also served in other units of the
German armed forces, such as Roy Courlander, Dennis
John Leister and Francis Paul Maton (all SS-Standarte
Kurt Eggers) and Frank McLardy (SS Medical Corps
Lichtenberg).
(*) Not in Weale's list.

40.3 Notes
[1] joined about September 1944
[2] joined February 1945
[3] alias
[4] Civilian
[5] joined about Christmas 1944
[6] Possibly dead by end of war
[7] South African

40.4 References
[1] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 3757). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[2] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 3505-3506). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[9] The National Archives - Information about UK renegades

from the Continent of Europe - KV 2/3581 - 22/84
[10] The National Archives - Information about UK renegades
from the Continent of Europe - KV 2/3581 - 24/84
[11] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 3649-3661). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[12] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 3181-3182). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[13] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 1503-1507). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[14] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2041). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[15] Allocated by Colonel Vivian Home Seymer of MI5
[16] The legion of traitors. Scotland on Sunday. 8 September 2002. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
[17] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2933). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[18] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2523-2524, 2873, 2950). Random House. Kindle
Edition.
[19] The National Archives - Information about UK renegades
from the Continent of Europe - KV 2/3581 - 23/84
[20] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2981-2984). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[21] News in Brief.Times, London, England 10 Jan. 1946:
2. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 18 Feb. 2015.
[22] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2360-2366, 2946, 3009-3011, 3187). Random
House. Kindle Edition.
[23] Assisting The Enemy Charge. Times, London, England, 24 Dec. 1945: 2. The Times Digital Archive. Web.
18 Feb. 2015. remand hearing
[24] Seamen Committed For Trial. Times, London, England, 3 Jan. 1946: 2. The Times Digital Archive. Web.
18 Feb. 2015.

[3] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2289-2290). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[25] Seamen Sentenced For Aiding Enemy.Times, London,

England, 21 Feb. 1946: 2. The Times Digital Archive.
Web. 20 Mar. 2015.

[4] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 154). Random House. Kindle Edition

[26] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2413-2414, 3154). Random House. Kindle Edition.

184

CHAPTER 40. LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE BRITISH FREE CORPS

[27] National Archives

[28] Nazi Dreamtime: Australian Enthusiasts for Hitlers Germany by David Bird, P354
[29] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2328-2330). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[48] Sean Murphy. Letting the Side Down: British Traitors of

the Second World War, P221. London: The History Press
Ltd, 2005. ISBN 0-7509-4176-6
[49] The National Archives - Information about UK renegades
from the Continent of Europe - KV 2/3581 - 25/84

[30] Stalag XVIIIa Roll Call

[50] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2525-2526). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[31] Death Sentence For High Treason. Times, London,

England, 12 Jan. 1946: 2. The Times Digital Archive.
Web. 20 Mar. 2015.

[51] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2968-2969). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[32] Court Of Criminal Appeal.Times, London, England,

12 Feb. 1946: 8. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 9
May 2015.
[33] News in Brief.Times, London, England, 15 Feb. 1946:
2. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 26 July 2015.
[34] News in Brief.Times, London, England, 21 Feb. 1946:
2. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 26 July 2015.

[52] Times, London, England, 16 Jan. 1946: 2d. (earliest edition)

[53] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 1976-1977, 2347-2348). Random House. Kindle
Edition.
[54] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2448-2450). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[35] Helping The Enemy.Times [London, England] 3 Nov.

1945: 2. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 16 Apr. 2015.

[55] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2862-2864, 3000, 3187-3188). Random House.
Kindle Edition.

[36] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2414-2416, 2865, 2929-2930). Random House.
Kindle Edition.

[56] South African Soldiers' Treason.Times, London, England, 18 Apr. 1947: 3. The Times Digital Archive. Web.
18 Feb. 2015.

[37] Penal Servitude For Aiding Enemy. Times, London,

England, 5 Jan. 1946: 2. The Times Digital Archive.
Web. 18 Feb. 2015.

[57] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2485). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[38] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2482-2484). Random House. Kindle Edition
[39] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2857). Random House. Kindle Edition
[40] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2445-2447, 3161). Random House. Kindle Edition
[41] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2917-2921, 3025-3026). Random House. Kindle
Edition.
[42] The National Archives - Information about UK renegades
from the Continent of Europe - KV 2/3581 - 21/84
[43] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2282-2283, 2328-2329, 2428-2429). Random
House. Kindle Edition.
[44] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2280-2289, 2340-2341, 2425-2428). Random
House. Kindle Edition.
[45] Hitler's Bastard 'Pleasants' reference to Rogers as a Canadian does not t Freeman's prole. He may possibly be
referring to Edward Barnard Martin'
[46] Sean Murphy. Letting the Side Down: British Traitors of
the Second World War, P134. London: The History Press
Ltd, 2005. ISBN 0-7509-4176-6
[47] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2416-2417). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[58] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2161-2162). Random House. Kindle Edition
[59] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2935-2936). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[60] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2998). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[61] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 3124). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[62] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2914-2917, 2998-3002, 3016-3017). Random
House. Kindle Edition.
[63] Aiding The Enemy.Times, London, England, 29 Sept.
1945: 2. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 16 Apr. 2015.
[64] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 1932-1933, 2417-8). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[65] Soldier Accused Of Aiding Enemy. Times, London,
England, 27 Nov. 1945: 2. The Times Digital Archive.
Web. 18 Feb. 2015.
[66] KV 2/264
[67] Life Sentence For Aiding Enemy. Times, London,
England, 30 Jan. 1946: 2. The Times Digital Archive.
Web. 15 Apr. 2015.
[68] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2911-2912, 3000, 3186). Random House. Kindle
Edition.

40.4. REFERENCES

[69] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2450-2452, 2951). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[70] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 3155-60). Random House. Kindle Edition.

185

[93] National Archives HO 45/25829

[94] O'Reilly, Terence Hitler's Irishmen, page 90 - 2008 ISBN
1-85635-589-6

[71] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2352). Random House. Kindle Edition

[95] Penal Servitude For Serving With Enemy. Times,

London, England, 20 Dec. 1946: 2. The Times Digital
Archive. Web. 13 May 2015.

[72] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2523-2524). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[96] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2324). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[73] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2987-2988). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[97] O'Reilly, Terence Hitler's Irishmen, page 84 - 2008 ISBN

1-85635-589-6

[74] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2475-2479). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[98] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 3363-3364). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[75] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2418). Random House. Kindle Edition.

[99] Sean Murphy. Letting the Side Down: British Traitors of

the Second World War, P215; London: The History Press
Ltd, 2005. ISBN 0-7509-4176-6

[76] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Loca[100] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2295). Random House. Kindle Edition.
tion 2510). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[77] Life Sentences For Aiding Enemy. Times, London,
England, 15 May 1946: 2. The Times Digital Archive. [101] O'Reilly, Terence Hitler's Irishmen, page 83 - 2008 ISBN
1-85635-589-6
Web. 16 Apr. 2015.
[78] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Loca- [102] The War Room - Irish Volunteers in German Service by
Adrian Weale.
tions 2360-2363). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[79] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2860-2861). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[80] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2917-2921). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[81] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 3155-60). Random House. Kindle Edition
[82] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 3003-3004). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[83] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 3154). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[84] Stalag XVIIIa Roll Call
[85] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2933-7). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[86] News in Brief.Times, London, England, 1 Feb. 1946:
2. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 15 Apr. 2015.
[87] South Africa War Graves Project
[88] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 3180). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[89] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2912-2913). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[90] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Location 2968). Random House. Kindle Edition.
[91] News in Brief.Times, London, England, 22 Jan. 1946:
2. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 15 Apr. 2015.
[92] Weale, Adrian (2014-11-12). Renegades (Kindle Locations 2280-2285). Random House. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 41

Lodge-Philbin Act
The Lodge-Philbin Act was a U.S. federal law, passed
on 30 June 1950, which allowed for the recruiting of
foreign nationals into a military force ghting under the
command of the U.S. Armed Forces. The Act permitted
initially up to 2,500 non-resident aliens (later expanded to
allow up to 12,500) to enlist. If they successfully served
ve years with an honorable discharge they were guaranteed U.S. citizenship.* [1]
The Act was pushed through Congress by Massachusetts
Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. during the Cold War,
looking especially for recruits from the Eastern Bloc to
form inltration units working in that part of the world.
More than 200 Eastern Europeans qualied before the
Act expired in 1959. No German nationals or citizens of
countries of the Marshall Plan or of NATO were eligible.* [2]

41.3 Notes
[1] See Public Law 597, An Act to provide for the enlistment of aliens in the Regular Army,2nd Session, 81st
Congress.
[2] See brief comment in the article at http://www.cfr.org/
publication.html?id=7861.
[3] See Department of Homeland Security Form N-644, at
http://www.ilw.com/forms/n-644.pdf.
[4] Time article from April 2, 1951
[5] James Jay Carafano, Mobilizing Europe's Stateless

41.4 External links

Members of this force who died during active service or

from injuries or illness during active service - and were
inducted or sent to U.S. territory at least once - were entitled to posthumous citizenship. Applications could be
led as recently as November 2004 (or within 2 years of
their death).* [3]
For comparison, note that during World War II, foreigners who served just three years were entitled to citizenship.
The military was not interested in recruiting on a large
scale from overseas. WWII general and future U.S. president Dwight Eisenhower is quoted in a 1951 Time article
as saying, When Rome went out and hired mercenary
soldiers, Rome fell.* [4]* [5]

41.1 Notable foreigners

Alpo K. Marttinen
Lauri Trni, later known as Larry Thorne.

41.2 See also

French Foreign Legion
186

The short lm Big Picture: The Lodge Act Soldier is

available for free download at the Internet Archive

Chapter 42

Mahal (Israel)
Mahal (Hebrew:
", sometimes transliterated
machal) were both Jewish and non-Jewish volunteers
who went to Israel to ght in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War
including Aliyah Bet. About 4,000 volunteers from all
over the world came to ght on the Israeli side.* [1]* [2]

had no prior military experience.* [3] There were Jews

and Christians, both ideological supporters of Zionism
and mercenaries.* [4]

The Ha'apala movement, also called "Aliyah Bet", which

attempted to evade the 1939 and 1948 British naval
Mahal made up a small fraction of the Israeli forces, ex- blockade restricting Jewish immigration to Palestine, was
cept for the Air Force, where they were dominant.
assisted by 236 Machal former servicemen of the Allied
Mahal was disbanded after the war, and most volunteers navies as crews of ten clandestine Jewish refugee ships,
out of sixty-six participating vessels.
left Israel. Some, however, made their immigration permanent.
The 1948 Arab-Israeli War saw approximately 3,500
The Hebrew term "is an acronym of Hebrew: foreign volunteers from 58 countries among the Jewish
( Mitnadvei Hutz LaAretz), which means Volun- forces, out of an estimated 29,677108,300 total (it grew
in size due to increasing levels of militarisateers from outside the Land [of Israel]. The volunteers considerably
*
tion).
[5]
A
total
of 123 Mahalniks were killed in battle
were referred to as Machalniks (or Mahalniks).
(119 men and 4 women).

42.1 Origins, numbers, and Aliyah

Bet

One of the most senior Machal personnel was Mickey

Marcus, a Jewish United States Army colonel who assisted Israeli forces during the war and became Israel's
rst Brigadier General. Marcus's wartime experience was
vital in breaking the 1948 Siege of Jerusalem. Other important Mahalniks were Canadian ocer Ben Dunkelman and U.S. pilot Milton Rubenfeld.
Another personality involved in the recruitment of US
volunteers was Major Wellesley Aron, MBE, an Englishborn Palestinian Jew who had commanded a unit in the
British Army during World War II. In 1947, while on a
lecture tour of the USA, he was requested by the Haganah
to organize the recruitment of men withknowhowwho
could help in defending the newly established state.* [6]

42.2 Israeli Air Force

French volunteers in the Negev

The largest presence of Mahal was felt in the Israeli Air

The Machalniks were mostly World War II veterans from Force (IAF), making up nearly two-thirds of its personthe most
American and British armed forces. Allied armies were nel, to the point that English overtook Hebrew as
*
[7]
widely
used
operational
IAF
service
language.
reduced considerably after the end of the war and many
soldiers were demobilised; moreover, the service experi- Cargo ights own by Mahal air crews transported
ence became mundane and did not suit some servicemen, weapons and supplies to Palestine from Europe, and thouparticularly pilots. In various circumstances they were in- sands of Jewish refugees from Arab countries. During the
vited, or heard of the Jewish state's struggle for indepen- Egyptian Army siege of the Negev region in 1948, Mahal
dence and volunteered. In some cases those who enlisted pilots airlifted thousands of tons of supplies to commu187

188

CHAPTER 42. MAHAL (ISRAEL)

Mahal Forces were the Diaspora's most important contribution to the survival of the State of Israel.* [9]
A memorial honouring the Mahal volunteers was erected
near Sha'ar HaGai on the road from Tel Aviv to
Jerusalem. On it is inscribed a verse from Joshua
1:14: All those of valour shall pass armed among your
brethren, and shall help them.* [10]

42.4 Non-Israeli service with modern IDF

Inscription on Mahal memorial in Israel

nities behind enemy lines, usually by night landings of

large cargo planes and converted airliners on makeshift,
unpaved sand runways, hand lit by oil lamps. The national
Israeli airline El Al was partially founded by Mahal veterans.

Overseas residents are able to serve with the modern IDF

through various Mahal-IDF-Volunteers. These volunteer programs are for young non-Israelis of Jewish background who are legal residents in Israel (and descendants
of a Jewish grandparent) and overseas Israelis who are
younger than 24 (men), 21 (women), 36 (physicians).
The programs consist typically of 18 months of IDF service (21 months, if IDF-Hebrew study program, or ulpan,
is necessary) including extended training for those joining combat units or 1 month of non-combat training. All
overseas volunteers serve in regular Israeli military units.

The integration of Mahal personnel into the Israel Defense Forces did not proceed without diculty. Occasional tensions surfaced due to the superior pay and service conditions demanded by and given to the volunteers Sar-El is a volunteer program of IDF in non-armed supover resident or native Israeli soldiers, mainly in the air port tasks where also non-Jewish people can serve.
force; some of the volunteers were adventurers with little commitment to Zionism or to a rigid, disciplined hierarchy. This culminated in the disbandment of the Air 42.5 Notable Mahals
Transport Division, following an "industrial action" by its
Mahal personnel over pay conditions. The division was
Chalmers Goodlin
re-established with Israeli personnel.
Paul Kor
Logistic support of the founding of the IAF was provided
Paul L. Smith
by various diaspora groups which procured planes in the
critical months of 1948-9. One important such activity in
Mickey Marcus
Australia led to the export to Israel of six planes, despite
the arms blockade enforced only against Israel amongst
the combatants.* [8]
A few hours before the nal cease-re on 7 January 1949,
a ight of four British RAF Spitres bypassed the southern Israeli border on a reconnaissance ight. They were
attacked by a pair of Israeli Air Force Spitres, resulting
in three of the British planes being shot down. The Israeli
Spitres were own by Mahal volunteersSlickGoodlin
(USA) and John McElroy (Canada). Both were former
US Army Air Forces and Royal Canadian Air Force pilots, veterans of World War II.

42.3 After the war

After the end of the war in 1949, the majority of the Mahal returned to their home countries. Some remained to
live in Israel; the village of Kfar Daniel near Lod was
founded by Mahal veterans from North America and the
UK. Then Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion said the

42.6 See also

Foreign Legion
George Beurling
Lone Soldier
Garin Tzabar

Above and Beyond, a 2014 documentary lm about

the Mahal

42.7 References
[1] Benny Morris, 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli
War, 2008, p.85.
[2] Not home alone: Foreigners came to Israel's rescue in
1948, Haaretz June 15, 2012

42.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

[3] Nir Arielli (2014), ""When are foreign volunteers useful? Israel's transnational soldiers in the war of 1948 reexamined"".
[4] Celinscak, Mark (2015). Distance from the Belsen
Heap: Allied Forces and the Liberation of a Concentration Camp. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN
9781442615700.
[5] Eugene L. Rogan; Avi Shlaim (19 November 2007). The
war for Palestine: rewriting the history of 1948. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-521-699341. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
[6] Wellesley Aron; Helen Silman-Cheong (September
1992). Wellesley Aron, rebel with a cause: a memoir. Vallentine Mitchell. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-85303-245-8. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
[7] Of the roughly 600 soldiers serving as the aircrew of the
newly formed IAF, over 400 were volunteers from overseas.Israel's foreign defenders. IDF Spokesperson. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
[8] Australian planes. The History of Now. Retrieved
January 29, 2013.
[9] Association of Americans and Canadians in Israel.
Aaci.org.il. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
[10] Modern Places in Israel with Biblical references. Retrieved May 20, 2011.

42.8 External links

FOCUS on Israel: MACHAL - Overseas Volunteers
Israeli Ministry of Foreign Aairs
Machal and Aliyah Bet Virtual museum
Machal veterans association
Books by and on Machal Pilots, Multimedia les
Spitre vs Spitre Air Combat between the Israeli
Air Force and the RAF
Mahal IDF Volunteers: Guide & Assistant
Machal Museum
World Machal website
Garin Mahal website
Above and Beyond: The Birth of the Israeli Air
Force Sample Reel
Guide to the Records of MACHAL (Mitnadvei
Hutz LaAretz) and Aliyah Bet at the American Jewish Historical Society, New York, NY

189

Chapter 43

Matteotti Battalion
The Matteotti Battalion or Centuria Giustizia e Libert" or Italian Column was an Italian radical and
anarchist exile group which fought with the Spanish Republicans during the Spanish Civil War. The group
was named after Giacomo Matteotti, an Italian socialist
leader, killed by Benito Mussolini's Fascists in 1924.

43.1 History
Following the attempted coup d'tat by the Spanish army
on 19 July 1936, Camillo Berneri with Gilioli Rivoluzio,
Romagno Castagnoli and perhaps also Antonio Cieri,
met at Berneri's home in exile, to plan the creation
of an anarchist column to ght in Spain. This developed into a more ecumenical, non-communist unit organized by Berneri, radicals Carlo Rosselli, Mario Angeloni, Umberto Calosso and the Spanish anarchist Diego
Abad de Santilln.
This Italian column was ocially constituted a month after the beginning of the fascist rising on 17 August. Upon
reaching Barcelona, the Italian volunteers were attached
to the Ascaso Column Formation of the CNT-FAI anarchists. The Column Francisco Ascaso had been named
in memory of an anarchist ghter killed on 20 July in
Barcelona during the seizure of the Atarazanas barracks.
The rst military formation of the Italians, a battalion
of 150 volunteers, left Barcelona headed for the Aragon
front the day of its formation and participated in the
Battle of Monte Pelato. This rst engagement assumed
particular meaning because it was the rst push on the
Aragon front and because the republicans overcame a
much larger and better trained and equipped force.
About 3500 Italian expatriates fought on the republican
side in the Spanish Civil War.

43.2 Sources
http://www.libera-unidea.org/primavera/storia.
htm (Copyleft)

190

Chapter 44

Mickiewicz Legion
Not to be confused with Mickiewicz Battalion.
The Mickiewicz Legion or the Polish Legion was a

tian spirit, the construction of the state for Christ, must

originate in Rome, which is both church and state. Summoned to conquer for the spirit a state on earth, we must
proceed on the earth, starting from Rome, which is our
support.* [1] Hence, Mickiewicz and nine other compatriots traveled to Rome, where they summoned help
for their mission. Mickiewicz had hoped to receive the
support of Pope Pius IX, but many people rejected his
proposals: even the majority of Poles living in Italy were
unfavorable to the cause. Other opposers were the clergy
because of his adherence to Messianism, and the aristocracy because of his strong social ideals and the threat to
their wealth and power should Poland become independent again. On March 25, 1848, Mickiewicz pleaded
with Pius IX for his moral support, but after several
failed attempts, Mickiewicz proceeded independently to
create the constitutional program of the Polish Legion.
The manifesto "Skad zasad, czyli Symbol polityczny Polski" (A collection of principles of a Political symbol of
Poland) was composed by Mickiewicz for the legion and
in fteen short articles advocated freedom of conscience,
equality of all citizens, equality of women, enfranchisement of peasants, solidarity and brotherhood of Slavic
nations. The rst struggle for the legion would be to remove Austria from Italy assisted by Slavic deserters of the
Austrian Army. On May 1, Mickiewicz, now with eleven
Daguerrotype of Adam Mickiewicz, 1842
members, sent out to Milan where they were joined by a
military detachment of Polish emigrants, led by Mikolaj
military unit formed on March 29, 1848 in Rome by one Kaminski, to request the formation of the Polish Leof the most notable Polish poets, Adam Mickiewicz, to gion from the government of Lombardy. The agreement
take part in the liberation of Italy.
would make the Legion dependent on this government.
Though the Polish insurrection in the Greater Poland Up- Once granted, the company then appealed to expand the
rising of 1848 failed, many Poles had not lost sight of Polish Legion to 600 people, which the provisional govtheir longstanding dream of independence. To support ernment of Milan allowed as well.
the continuing revolutionary movements in Western Eu- Though the Legion faced nancial problems and a shortrope, Adam Mickiewicz outreached to the Polish com- age of arms, it grew to 120 members by June. Mickiewicz
munity in Italy to form the Polish Legion which would continued to search for volunteers in Paris while the Leserve the Italian initiative until the Austrians were com- gion, commanded by Kaminski, engaged in several batpletely driven out of the country. Though Mickiewicz tles. They fought alongside others in Lombardy and on
was deeply inuenced by Messianism, he believed this barricades of Genoa against the royalists, in the defence
was a time when more than just spirituality was needed: of the Roman Republic. The legionnaires also tried to
it was a time for political action. The independence of help the revolutionaries in Hungary but were dispersed
Poland, Mickiewicz believed, started in Rome. On Oc- in Greece. However, the Mickiewicz Legion had been
tober 5, 1847, in a meeting of the Circle of God's Work, nally defeated in 1849. About ve hundred people had
Mickiewicz announced,The manifestation of the Chris191

192
served in the legion throughout its short fteen-month existence.* [2]

44.1 Notes and references

[1] Kridl, Manfred. Adm Mickiewicz: Poet of Poland. New
York: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1951.
[2] Pekacz, Jolanta T. Poles in European revolutions 18481849, Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions. Retrieved on
2 May 2009.

44.2 See also

International Legion
Polish Legions (disambiguation)
Spring of Nations

CHAPTER 44. MICKIEWICZ LEGION

Chapter 45

List of militaries that recruit foreigners

This is a List of militaries that recruit foreign applicants. This includes any individuals who are aliens of the
state whose armed forces they are being recruited to join
by professional recruiters. The foreigners need not be legal residents of that nation, but may gain legal residence
status by joining the armed forces.

45.3 B

The forces in Bahrain are made up of Sunni

foreigners, mainly Arabs and Pakistanis serving within them. This has become a topic of
debate; the majority Shia Bahrainis are not
happy with foreigners in the positions of power
while the native Bahrainis are barred from
them.* [4]

45.1 Contents
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ

Belgium
Belgian Armed Forces - Any citizen of a country of the European Union within the age of
18 to 34 (33 for ocers) is eligible to join the
forces.* [5]* [6]* [7]

45.2 A

Bahrain

Australia
Australian Defence Force - The ADF routinely recruits New Zealand citizens who are
Permanent Residents to serve in the military.
*
[1]
Permanent residents who can prove they have
applied for citizenship. Or permanent residents who are ineligible to apply for Australian
citizenship as long as they are prepared to apply for citizenship within 3 months of commencing service (or 6 months if in the ADF
Reserve). If permanent residents refuse citizenship or fail in their application, their ADF
service will be terminated.

Bolivia
Foreign nationals resident in Bolivia at conscription age are permitted to join the armed
forces, which simplies their naturalization
process.* [8]

45.4 C

Overseas applicants with relevant military experience from allied countries who have signicant military experience can apply to join
the Armed Forces. A willingness to apply for
citizenship is a requirement. In exceptional
circumstances, if a position cannot be lled by
an Australian Citizen the citizenship requirement may be waived and applications may be
accepted from:* [2] In certain areas of the defence, especially sensitive work that involves
collaboration with ASIO or ASIS, citizenship
is a requirement.* [3]
193

Canada
Canadian Forces - It is reported that Royal
Canadian Air Force hires foreign pilots to y
front-line military aircraft on operati. People
who have served in the forces can then apply
for citizenship if they want.

Cyprus
Cypriot National Guard - Cyprus accepts all
foreign nationals of at least partial Cypriot descent as volunteers.* [9]

194

CHAPTER 45. LIST OF MILITARIES THAT RECRUIT FOREIGNERS

45.5 D

Denmark

45.9 M

Foreign nationals already living in Denmark may apply to join the Danish armed
forces.* [10]

Monaco
Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince
and the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers Recruits Frenchmen, as well as native
Monegasques.* [16]* [17]

45.6 F

45.10 N
France
French Foreign Legion - The legion is a branch
of the French Army, which recruits applicants
aged 18 to 40 from throughout the world.* [11]

Overseas: If you're a serving member of another military, you could join the New Zealand
Defence Force. The Requirements are to
be a current or recently serving (within 612 months) member of the UK, Australian,
USA or Canadian Armed Forces, have been
a citizen of either the UK, Australia, USA, or
Canada for a minimum period of 10 years, or
have been living in NZ for a minimum period
of 5 years, be eligible for release from current service within 18 months of applying, and
meet current vacancy criteria at the time of application. * [18]

45.7 I

India
Indian Army - Recruits Nepalese and
Bhutanese citizens, and the refugees from
Tibet who intend to permanently settle in
India.* [12] Recruits of Indian origin who have
migrated from Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka,
Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi,
the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Ethiopia, and Vietnam with the intention
of permanently settling in India may also
join.* [12]

45.11 R

Israel

45.8 L
Luxembourg
Luxembourg Army - Any citizen of a country of the European Union who has resided in
Luxembourg for at least 36 months and is at
least 18 years old but not yet 24 is eligible to
join the army.* [15]

Russia
The Russian Armed Forces are accepting foreigners of any country to their ranks. Under a plan, posted on the ministrys web site
in 2010, foreigners without dual citizenship
would be able to sign up for ve-year contracts and will be eligible for Russian citizenship after serving three years. According
to the amended law, a citizen of any foreign
country aged 1830 with a good command of
Russian and a clean criminal record can now
sign an initial ve-year contract to join the
Army.* [20]* [21]* [22] Citizens of the former
Soviet Union can also join.

Israel Defense Forces - Israel recruits nonIsraeli Jewsand non-Jews with at least one
Jewish grandparentthrough the Mahal and
Garin Tzabar programs.* [14]

Norway
Norwegian Armed Forces - By agreement between the two countries citizens of Iceland are
accepted.* [19]

Ireland
Irish Defence Forces - Nationals of the European Economic Area, which includes member states of the European Union along with
Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, as well as
foreign residents having lived in Ireland for 5
years continuously.* [13]

New Zealand

45.12 S

Serbia

45.14. V

195

Serbian Armed Forces - Serbian Armed

Forces recruits citizens of European Union
member states and former Soviet republics.
Individuals must be 1830 years old and with
a good command of Serbian Language.

Spain
Spanish Armed Forces - Spain recruits citizens
of ex-Spanish colonies (except Puerto Rico
and the Philippines). Citizens of Argentina,
Bolivia, Costa Rica, Colombia, Cuba, Chile,
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
Equatorial Guinea, Guatemala, Honduras,
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay or Venezuela may enlist in the
Spanish Legion (except as submarine personnel) with temporary/permanent residence or
acquired Spanish citizenship.* [23]

in subsequent years. From 2013, all Commonwealth citizens except for those from Cyprus,
the Republic of Ireland (not a member of the
commonwealth) and Malta must have resided
for 5 years in the UK before being allowed to
join.* [27]
As of the 23rd of May 2016, some of these
restrictions for certain positions requiring residency in the United Kingdom have been lifted
for Commonwealth Citizens, due to recruiting
diculties* [28]

United States Armed Forces - Permanent Residence/Green Card. Many have also served in
the war zones and have received US citizenship
after a period of service.* [29]
Citizens of Palau, Micronesia and the Marshall
Islands may also join the US armed forces under the Compacts of Free Association, though
some ocer positions may be restricted.* [30]
Canadian born Native Americans/First Nations may also join the US armed forces if they
are of at least 50% blood quantum.* [31]
Additionally, under the Military Accessions
Vital to National Interest program, skilled foreigners such as translators may be recruited
as needed, along with, as of September 2014
illegal immigrants with clean records and
who have graduated high school if they were
brought to the United States as children.* [32]

Singapore
Singapore has always made use of Gurkhas
to help with special military and police
roles. During the colonial days, many soldiers
were brought to Singapore from other British
colonies. Second-generation male permanent
residents are bound by Singapore's conscription laws to the same extent Singaporean citizens are, and therefore must do the standard
active and reserve service in the military, police, or civil defense force.* [24]

45.13 U

United Arab Emirates

There are people from other Arab or nearby
Muslim countries, who have served in the
UAE, mainly in non-uniformed positions.
This was mainly after independence from the
UK in 1971, when the UAE government was
still evolving.* [33] Prior to that, the UK stationed their own troops and equipment in the
region (known as the Trucial States)

Ukraine
It has been reported that EU and Belarusian
citizens are serving in the Ukrainian Ground
Forces since the outbreak of the Donbass
War.* [25]

United States

United Kingdom
British Armed Forces - The British Army
has continued the historic practice of recruiting Gurkhas from Nepal to serve in special
Gurkha units. The Gurkhas are selected and
recruited in Nepal, and are expected to keep
their Nepali citizenship throughout the length
of their service.* [26]
In 1989 previous restrictions on the enlistment of Commonwealth citizens in the British
Armed Forces were lifted, following recruiting
diculties amongst British citizens. Under the
new provisions Commonwealth citizens were
permitted to enlist directly in any one of the
British services and signicant numbers did so

45.14 V

Vatican City
Vatican City's sole armed forces, The Swiss
Guard, is made up entirely of Swiss Catholics;
however, Swiss Guards are granted Vatican
citizenship while they serve.* [34]

45.15 References
[1] http://www.defencejobs.gov.au/recruitment-centre/
can-i-join/citizenship/

196

CHAPTER 45. LIST OF MILITARIES THAT RECRUIT FOREIGNERS

[2] Nicholson, Brendan (December 27, 2011). Defence

hunting foreign troops with citizenship for service. The
Australian. Retrieved July 18, 2015.
[3] =http://www.defencejobs.gov.au/recruitment-centre/
can-i-join/citizenship/
[4] shiapost.Hiring of Pakistani ghters for Bahrain angers
Iran. The Shia Post.
[5] http://www.expatica.com/be/news/
Belgian-army-attracts-foreigners_129809.html
[6] Szvircsev Tresch, Tibor. Recruitment of Military Professionals by European All-Volunteer Forces as Exemplied by Belgium, the Netherlands and Slovenia (PDF).
Swiss Military Academy at ETH Zurich. Retrieved July
18, 2015. Thus, the armed forces of Belgium and Luxemburg also recruit other EU citizens
[7] https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/409847/
1/Lescreve+%26+Schreurs+(2007),+Recruiting+and+
retention+of+military+personnel+Belgium.pdf
[8] Bolivia: Citizenship law, including methods by which a
person may obtain citizenship; whether dual citizenship is
recognized
[9] High Commission of the Republic of Cyprus in London
[10] Danish Military Service for Foreign Nationals. um.dk.
[11] Joining the French Foreign Legion. Retrieved July 18,
2015.
[12] Army Education Corps(PDF). Join Indian Army. Retrieved July 18, 2015. A candidate must either be : (i) A
citizen of India, or (ii) A subject of Bhutan, or (iii) A subject of Nepal, or (iv) a Tibetan refugee who came over
to India before the 1st of January 1962 with the intention of permanently settling in India or (v) a person of Indian origin who has migrated from Pakistan, Burma, Sri
Lanka and East African countries of Kenya, Uganda, the
United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zaire and
Ethiopia and Vietnam with the intention of permanently
settling in India.
[13] Frequently Asked Questions. Defence Forces Ireland.
[14] Malet, David (July 22, 2014). Foreign Fightersfor
Israel. The Washington Post. Retrieved July 18, 2015.
[15] Luxembourg nationality for foreign army volunteers.
Luxemburger Wort. May 21, 2015. Retrieved July 18,
2015.
[16] La Compagnie des Carabiniers de S.A.S. le Prince Palais Princier de Monaco. Palais.mc. Retrieved 201310-17.
[17] Le recrutement : Principaute de Monaco. Pompiers.gouv.mc. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
[18] http://www.defencecareers.mil.nz/reenlistoverseas/
overseas-applicants
[19] Skriftlig sprsml[Written questions from Dagnn
Hybrten (Christian Democratic Party) to the Minister
of Defence] (in Norwegian). stortinget.no. 2011. Retrieved 2013-10-17.

[20] Russias new Foreign Legion | NEWS. The Moscow

News. 2010-11-25. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
[21] Russia's Military To Recruit More Foreigners. Rttnews.com. 2011-12-16. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
[22] Russia military looks to recruit more foreigners | Defense | RIA Novosti. En.rian.ru. 2010-11-25. Retrieved
2013-10-17.
[23] Szvircsev Tresch, Tibor. Recruitment of Military Professionals by European All-Volunteer Forces as Exemplied by Belgium, the Netherlands and Slovenia. (PDF).
Swiss Military Academy at ETH Zurich. Retrieved July
18, 2015. Spain even integrates Spanish-speaking South
Americans into its armed forces.
[24] MINDEF - Parliamentary Statements - Written Reply
by Minister for Defence Dr Ng Eng Hen to Parliamentary
Question on Permanent Residents in National Service (22
Nov 11)". mindef.gov.sg.
[25] Poroshenko legalizes foreigners in Ukrainian Army.
3 November 2015.
[26] Gurkha terms and conditions of service. mod.uk.
[27] Drury, Ian (2013-07-11). Commonwealth citizens will
have to live in Britain for ve years before joining Armed
Forces as ministers try to cut military numbers | Mail Online. London: Dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
[28] Joining from the Commonwealth.
[29] Can Non-Citizens Join the Military?". Slate Magazine.
July 7, 2000. Retrieved July 18, 2015.
[30] Azios, Tony (May 5, 2010).Uncle Sam wants Micronesians for US military. The Christian Science Monitor.
Retrieved July 18, 2015.
[31] Border Crossing Rights Under the Jay Treaty.
[32] Dyer, John (September 26, 2014). The Pentagon Will
Allow Undocumented Immigrants to Join the US Military. Vice News. Retrieved July 18, 2015.
[33] UAE national day: Pakistan helped evolve UAE armed
forces, says consul-general. The Express Tribune.
[34] Swiss Guard

Chapter 46

No. 164 Squadron RAF

No. 164 Squadron of the Royal Air Force was a ghter
squadron during the Second World War composed of
Argentine volunteers.

46.1 Background
No. 164 Squadron RAF was originally founded on 1 June
1918, but never received aircraft and was disbanded on
4 July 1918. The squadron was reformed at Peterhead,
Aberdeenshire, on 6 April 1942, as a ghter squadron
initially equipped with Spitre Mk VAs, becoming operational in early May.

Three Hurricane Mark IVs of No. 164 Squadron undergoing

Around 600 Argentine volunteers, mostly of Anglo- servicing at RAF Middle Wallop, Hampshire.
Argentine descent, joined the British and Canadian
Air Forces, many in the 164 Argentine-British RAF
List of World War II ying aces from Argentina
squadron, which motto was Firmes volamos (Determined
We Fly) and its insignia was a British lion in front of a
List of Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons
rising sun representing Argentina. Some pilots adorned
English settlement in Argentina
the side of their aircraft with a picture of a popular Argentine cartoon character called Patoruz, an indigenous
Kenneth Charney
man with incredible strength.* [1]* [2]
Maureen Dunlop
In January 1943 the squadron moved to South Wales to
train as a ground-attack unit, where it was equipped with
Hawker Hurricanes. Operations against enemy shipping 46.4 References
and coastal targets began in June 1943.
After providing support for the landing forces from southern England, using Hawker Typhoons, the squadron
moved to France in July 1944. During the Battle of Normandy, No.164 used its rockets against enemy armour
in the battle area and after the breakout moved forward
through northern France and Belgium in support of the
21st Army Group.
The squadron was renumbered No. 63 Squadron RAF on
31 August 1946.

[1] Wartime RAF Veterans Flying in From Argentina

[2] Argentine pilots break silence over World War Two

(English) Argentine pilots break silence over World

War Two - Reuters
(Spanish) Los argentinos que pelearon en la Segunda Guerra, Clarin, 07.08.2005 Interview to 4
surviving Anglo-argentinian volunteers (retrieved
on 04-09-2008)
(Spanish) Condecoran a aviadores argentinos que
pelearon en la II Guerra para Gran Bretaa,
Clarin, 08.04.2005 Report about the ceremony at
St. Clement Danes church, remembering the Argentines (including approximately 600 pilots) that
fought in World War II on the allied side (retrieved
on 04-09-2008)

46.2 Service
46.3 See also
List of World War I ying aces from Argentina
197

198

46.5 Further reading

Meunier, Claudio; Garcia, Carlos A. (2005). Alas
de Trueno. n/a, Buenos Aires.
Meunier, Claudio (2007). Nacidos con Honor.
Grupo Abierto, Buenos Aires.

46.6 External links

RAF site, 164 Sqn.
Thunder wings, the story of Argentine RAF pilots
- MercoPress, March 8th 2004 (accessed 2015-1115)

CHAPTER 46. NO. 164 SQUADRON RAF

Chapter 47

Non-British personnel in the RAF during

the Battle of Britain
The Royal Air Force (RAF) and Fleet Air Arm (FAA)
had included personnel from outside the United Kingdom
from before the beginning of the Second World War and
many served in the Battle of Britain in 1940. Many were
volunteers from the British Empire and refugees and exiles from German-occupied Europe.
The RAF Roll of Honour recognises 574 pilots, from
countries other than the United Kingdom, as ying at
least one authorized, operational sortie with an eligible
unit during the period between 10 July to 31 October
1940, alongside 2,353 British pilots. The numbers dier
slightly from the participants whose names are engraved
on the Battle of Britain Monument in London, unveiled
on 18 September 2005.

These so-called "Article XV squadrons" were given numbers in the 400-series, to avoid confusion with RAF units.
Other squadrons from Dominion air forces served under
RAF control during the Battle and other units, composed
mostly of RAAF, RCAF and RNZAF personnel were
formed within the RAF itself. Most of these squadrons
and personnel were still in training and/or were not involved in ghter operations during the Battle of Britain,
although No. 1 Squadron RCAF took part in operations
from August 1940.

47.2 Contribution by country

All pilots, regardless of nationality, who ew with British 47.2.1 Australia

units during the Battle are known collectively, after a
phrase coined by Winston Churchill, as "The Few".
When the war began, about 450 Australian pilots were
serving in the RAF.* [5]
Australia was among the rst countries to declare war on
Germany and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF;
previously the Australian Flying Corps) was among the
Prior to the outbreak of war, in view of the worsening world's oldest air forces, having served during the First
World War, in the Middle East and Europe. Under the
European situation, the RAF had embarked on a series of
expansion plans. These included Short-Service Commis- Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS), a total of 37,000
aircrew were trained in Australia during 193945.* [5]
sions for pilots from the air forces of other British Commonwealth countries, namely Australia, Canada, New However, the ow of RAAF personnel to the European
Zealand, South Africa and Southern Rhodesia.
theatre was slowed by three factors: rst, establishment
The governments of Australia, Canada, New Zealand of the massively expanded training process meant that
and the UK, under an agreement signed in December rst aircrews trained by the RAAF*during the war did
1939, created the British Commonwealth Air Training not graduate until November 1940; [5] second, RAAF
Plan (BCATP), also known as the Empire Air Training doctrine emphasised the army co-operation and maritime
Scheme. The plan had three main eects: rst, joint mil- patrol roles; third, the Australian authorities placed great
itary aircrew training facilities were set up in each mem- emphasis on a provision of EATS, that Dominion perber country, as well as Southern Rhodesia; second, these sonnel should serve with units from their own air forces,
air forces also formed a common pool of aircrew and wherever possible. RAAF Article XV ghter squadrons
*
ground sta, who were posted to units according to op- were not operational in Europe until mid-1941. [6]

47.1 Background

erational needs and regardless of nationality and; third,

under Article XV of the agreement, the Royal Australian
Air Force (RAAF), Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF)
and Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) formed
squadrons for service under RAF operational control.

Nevertheless, more than 30 Australians served in RAF

Fighter Command during the Battle.* [7] The highest
scoring Australian ace of the Battle was Flight Lieutenant
Pat Hughes, of No. 234 Squadron RAF, who claimed 14
kills before his death in September 1940.

199

200

CHAPTER 47. NON-BRITISH PERSONNEL IN THE RAF DURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

No. 10 Squadron RAAF, a ying boat squadron was also squadrons. By the summer of 1940, Belgians made up
based in Britain at the time, as part of Coastal Com- around half of No. 609 Squadron RAF, a unit ying Spitmand.* [8]
re ghters.* [10]* [9] Nos. 235 and 236 Squadrons of
RAF Coastal Command also had disproportionate numbers of Belgian pilots at 8 and 6 respectively.* [4] All to47.2.2 Barbados
gether, Belgium provided the largest contingent of pilots
during the Battle of Britain that were not from Eastern
At the start of the war, the small Caribbean island of Europe or the Commonwealth.
Barbados was a British crown colony. Aubrey Sinbad
rede Lisle Inniss (1916-2003) was the sole Bajun to serve During the course of the battle, Belgian pilots were
*
sponsible
for
shooting
down
21
German
aircraft.
[9]
Beas a pilot during the Battle of Britain. Inniss was born
*
*
in Barbados to a British family and joined the RAF in tween seven to 10 Belgians were killed. [10] [9] In 1942,
1939. During the Battle, he ew a Bristol Blenheim IF two all-Belgian squadrons were formed and, in total,
had served in the RAF during the course
night ghter with No. 236 Squadron RAF and was re- 1,200 Belgians
*
of
the
war.
[9]
sponsible for shooting down a Heinkel He 111 in September 1940. Inniss, who became an ace during his subsequent war service, survived the conict and retired from
the RAF in 1957. The RAF Monument lists Inniss as 47.2.4 Canada
Bajan,* [2] while the RAF Roll of Honour lists him as
Many Canadians served in the ghter squadrons which
British.* [4]
repulsed the Luftwae in the summer of 1940. In fact,
although the RAF only recognises 83 Canadian pilots as
47.2.3 Belgium
ying on ghter operations during the Battle of Britain,
the RCAF claims the actual gure was over 100, and
See also: Free Belgian Forces
that of those 23 who died and 30 more were killed later
At the time Belgium was invaded in May 1940, it had in the war.* [11]* [12] Much of this confusion can be attributed to the fact that apart from RCAF members ying in RCAF units, there were those RCAF members
who were in RAF units as well as Canadians who were
members of the RAF, not the RCAF. Another 200 Canadian pilots fought with RAF Bomber Command and RAF
Coastal Command during the period and approx 2,000
Canadians served as ground crew.

Belgian pilots of No. 609 Squadron RAF

only a small airforce known as the Aronautique militaire (AMI). Although it played little role during the
campaign in Belgium, a number of Belgian pilots succeeded in reaching Britain in the aftermath of the surrender. A signicant number of Belgians were also undergoing ight training in France and, despite the reluctance of
the Belgian government in Bordeaux, 124 reached Britain
by August 1940 but few were able to participate in the
Battle of Britain.* [9]
As of December 2014, the RAF ocially recognizes 30
Belgians as having participated in the Battle of Britain
(of whom 18 did not survive the war) although the Battle of Britain monument (constructed in 2005) includes
28.* [2]* [4] At the time of the battle, Belgian pilots were
mixed into British units and did not have their own

Canadian pilots from No. 1 Squadron RCAF, photographed in

October 1940

Of these, 26 were in No. 1 Squadron RCAF, ying

Hurricanes. The squadron arrived in Britain soon after Dunkirk with 27 ocers and 314 ground sta. This
squadron would later be re-numbered as No. 401City of
WestmountSquadron RCAF, in line with Article XV of
the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (see above).
It was the only ghter unit from the Commonwealth air
forces to see combat in the Battle of Britain.

47.2. CONTRIBUTION BY COUNTRY

No. 1 Squadron made an inauspicious start to its service
with Fighter Command, when on 24 August 1940 two
of its Hurricanes mistook a ight of Bristol Blenheims
for Junkers Ju 88s, shooting one down with the loss of
its crew; an example of what is now known as friendly
re. No. 1 became the rst RCAF unit to engage enemy aircraft in battle when it met a formation of German bombers over southern England on 26 August 1940,
claiming three kills and four damaged, with the loss of
one pilot and one aircraft. By mid-October the squadron
had claimed 31 enemy aircraft destroyed and 43 probables or damaged for the loss of 16 aircraft and three pilots.
Other Canadians were spread across RAF squadrons, and
on the second day of the Battle, 11 July, Canada suered
its rst ghter casualty. In a Luftwae attack on the Royal
Navy Dockyard naval base at Portland Harbour, Plt Or
D. A. Hewitt of Saint John, New Brunswick, ying a Hurricane with No. 501 Squadron RAF, attacked a Dornier
Do-17 bomber and was hit himself. His aircraft plunged
into the sea. Another Canadian pilot, Richard Howley,
died eight days later.
The dispersed Canadian airmen included one who ew
with No. 303 (Polish) Squadron. A total of 12 Canadian pilots in the Royal Air Force including Willie McKnight ew with No. 242 Squadron RAF at various times
through the Battle. On 30 August, under the command of
Squadron Leader Douglas Bader, nine 242 Squadron aircraft met 100 enemy aircraft over Essex. Attacking from
above, the squadron claimed 12 victories for no loss.

201
Many of the Czech pilots had ed to France after Hitler's
occupation of their country in March 1939 and had
fought in the short Arme de L'Air* [13] in the Battle
of France, gaining important combat experience. The
rapid fall of France caused Czechoslovak soldiers and
airmen to leave for Britain, where established their own
squadrons.* [lower-alpha 1] Nearly 90 Czechoslovak pilots would y in the Battle of Britain, with No. 310
and No. 312 (Czechoslovak) Squadrons, RAF, formed in
the summer 1940 and operational during the battle.* [14]
Some Czechs also served in other Fighter Command
squadrons. Both Czech squadrons were equipped with
Hurricanes.
Czech ghters earned a reputation for aggressive aerial
combat and for skills and bravery.* [15] Together with
Czechoslovak pilots serving in other RAF units, a total
of 88 - 86 Czechs and 2 Slovaks - served, claiming almost 60 air kills. Nine pilots were killed. The top Czech
ace was Sgt. Josef Frantiek, ying with No. 303 (Polish)
Squadron, who claimed 17 conrmed kills, making him
the highest scoring allied pilot in the Battle of Britain.

47.2.6 France

French volunteers and Free French forces served in 245

and 615 Squadron. 13 are recognised in the Battle
of Britain Roll of Honour.* [16] In addition a French
Canadians also shared in repulsing the Luftwae's last squadron, No. 346 Squadron RAF, was based at Eving*
major daylight attack. On 27 September, 303 Squadron ton. [17]
and 1 Squadron RCAF, attacked the rst wave of enemy bombers. Seven aircraft were claimed destroyed,
one probably destroyed and seven were damaged.
The top Canadian scorer during the Battle was Flt Lt H.
C. Upton of No. 43 Squadron RAF, who claimed 10.25
aircraft shot down.

47.2.5

Czechoslovakia

Pilots of No. 312 (Czechoslovak) Squadron RAF

47.2.7 Ireland
The south of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922 after
a war of independence lasting two years and relations between the two countries were still strained in 1940. Although the Republic of Ireland remained ocially neutral for the duration of the Second World War, ten pilots from the country fought in the RAF during the Battle of Britain.* [4] One of them, Brendan PaddyFinucane,* [18] became an ace who would claim a total of
32 enemy aircraft before he was killed in 1942. The eldest of ve children, Finucane grew up in County Dublin,
where his father had taken part in the Easter Rising of
1916. He and his family moved to England in 1936,
and he enlisted in the Royal Air Force aged 17. Finucane became operational in July 1940 and downed his
rst Bf 109 on 12 August, claiming a second the following day. During a 51-day period in 1941, Finucane
claimed 16 Messerschmitt Bf 109 ghters shot down,
while he was ying with an Australian squadron. Finucane became the youngest Wing Commander in the RAF,
a rank he received at 21. He was shot down on 15 July
1942.* [19]* [20]

202

CHAPTER 47. NON-BRITISH PERSONNEL IN THE RAF DURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

BrendanPaddyFinucane, an Irish ace who is believed to have

shot down four aircraft during the Battle of Britain and as many
as 32 by his death in 1942
New Zealander Keith Park

47.2.8

Jamaica

In 1940, the island of Jamaica was crown colony under

British rule. The sole Jamaican recognized as a participant in the Battle of Britain was Herbert Capstick, a Pilot
Ocer of British origin, who had been born in Jamaica
in 1920. Capstick served in No. 236 Squadron RAF
of Coastal Command. The Squadron was equipped with
Bristol Blenheims and participated in anti-submarine operations in the English Channel. He survived the war and
returned to live in Jamaica.* [21]

47.2.9

The most prominent New Zealander in the Battle was Air

Vice Marshal Keith Park, a high scoring air ace in the
First World War and a member of the RAF since its creation. He was Commander of No. 11 Group RAF, which
was tasked with the defence of London and south-east
England.* [23]* [lower-alpha 3]

Newfoundland

Newfoundland was a separate dominion within the British

Empire at the time of the Battle of Britain.* [lower-alpha
2] Pilot Ocer R. A. Howley is recognized as the sole
Newfoundlander to serve in the RAF during the period
by the Battle of Britain monument. Howley served in
No. 141 Squadron RAF, ying Boulton Paul Deant turret ghters. He was shot down over Dover on 19 July
1940 and posted missing in action.* [22]

47.2.10

started. Unlike the other Dominions, New Zealand did

not insist on its aircrews serving with RNZAF squadrons,
thereby speeding up the rate at which they entered service. An annual rate of 1,500 fully trained pilots was
reached by January 1941.

New Zealand

The Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) was set up

as a separate service in 1937, but numbered less than
1,200 personnel by September 1939. The Empire Air
Training Scheme (as the BCATP was known in New
Zealand and Australia), had resulted in about 100 RNZAF pilots being sent to Europe by the time the Battle

If any one man won the Battle of Britain,

he did. I do not believe it is realised how much
that one man, with his leadership, his calm
judgment and his skill, did to save, not only
this country, but the world.
Lord Tedder, Chief of the Royal Air Force,
February 1947 about Keith Park.

The RAF recognises 135 Fighter Command aircrew from

New Zealand as having served in the Battle. Several New
Zealanders became high scorers, including Plt Or Colin
Gray (No. 54 Squadron RAF) with 14 claims, Fg Or
Brian Carbury (No. 603 Squadron RAF) 14 claims and
Plt Or AlanAlDeere (54 Squadron), 12 claims. Carbury shot down the rst German aircraft over British territory since 1918 and was also one of two aces in a day in
the Battle.* [24]* [lower-alpha 4]

47.2. CONTRIBUTION BY COUNTRY

47.2.11

Poland

203
303 Squadron claimed the highest number of kills
(126) of all Allied squadrons engaged in the Battle of
Britain.* [29] Witold Urbanowicz of 303 Squadron was
the top Polish scorer with 15 claims. Sgt Tony Gowacki
was one of two Allied pilots in the Battle to shoot down
ve German aircraft in one day, on 24 August (the other
being New Zealander Brian Carbury). One Polish veteran, Stanislaw Skalski, became the top-scoring Polish
ghter ace of the Second World War.

303 squadron pilots. L-R: Fg Or Feri, Flt Lt Kent, Fg Or

Grzeszczak, Plt Or Radomski, Plt Or Zumbach, Plt Or
okuciewski, Fg Or Henneberg, Sgt Rogowski, Sgt Szaposznikow
(in 1940)

Following the German invasion of Poland, many Polish

pilots escaped and made their way to France and Britain.
During the German invasion of France in May 1940, of
the 1,600 Polish pilots available to the Arme de l'Air it is
estimated that only about 150 took an active part in combat. Many of these personnel escaped to the UK around
the time of the fall of France. By mid-1940 some 35,000
Polish airmen, soldiers and sailors had made their way to
Britain, making up the largest foreign military force in the
country after the French; of these some 8,500 were airmen.* [25] Many were members of the Polish Air Force
which had fought the Luftwae. However, the Air Ministry and the RAF underestimated their potential value
in ghting against the Luftwae. Most of the Poles were
posted either to RAF bomber squadrons or the RAF Volunteer Reserve.* [26]

Polish corporal wearing 1940s RAF service dress, with his

British-born family

There continues to be a perception thatfanaticalPolish

pilots, inspired by hatred caused by the German invasion
of Poland, often rammed enemy aircraft. However, with
their combat experience, Polish pilots would have known
that the quickest and most ecient way to destroy an enemy aircraft was to re from close range. For instance:
After ring a brief opening burst at 150
to 200 yards, just to get on the enemy's nerves,
the Poles would close almost to point-blank
range. That was where they did their real work.
When they go tearing into enemy bombers
and ghters they get so close you would think
they were going to collide,observed Athol
Forbes.* [30]

On 11 June 1940, the Polish Government in Exile signed

an agreement with the British Government to form a
Polish Air Force in the UK. Finally, in July 1940 the
RAF announced that it would form two Polish ghter
squadrons: 302 PoznaskiSquadron and 303 Ko- In all, 30 Polish airmen were killed during the Battle. One
ciuszkoSquadron were composed of Polish pilots and of them died at the hands of an angry crowd in east Longround crews, although their ight commanders and com- don. He had baled out of his ghter and landed, injured in
manding ocers were British.* [27]
Wapping. His incoherent rambling was mistaken for GerThe two ghter squadrons went into action in August, man and he was set-upon by the people who had gathered
with 89 Polish pilots. Another 50 Poles took part in the round him. They were incensed by recent Nazi raids on
Battle, in RAF squadrons.
civilian targets, but he was a member of the RAF.* [31]
Polish pilots were among the most experienced in the Battle; most had hundreds of hours of pre-war ying experience and had fought in the 1939 Defensive War and/or the
Battle of France. The Polish pilots had been well trained
in formation ying and had learned from combat experience to re from close range. By comparison, one Polish
pilot referred to the close formation ying and set-piece
attacks practised in the RAF assimply suicidal.* [28]

The close range tactics used by the Poles led to suggestions of recklessness, but there is little evidence for this
view. For example, the death rate in 303 Squadron was
lower than the average rate for other RAF squadrons, despite the squadron having been the highest-scoring Allied
squadron during the Battle.* [32]

The Polish War Memorial on the outskirts of RAF

Northolt was dedicated in 1948 as a commemoration of
The 147 Polish pilots claimed 201 aircraft shot down. the Polish contribution to Allied arms.

204

47.2.12

CHAPTER 47. NON-BRITISH PERSONNEL IN THE RAF DURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

South Africa

Battle was Air Vice-Marshal Sir Christopher J. QuintinBrand KBE, DSO, MC, DFC, Air Ocer Commanding
No. 10 Group RAF covering the South-West; a long service RAF ocer, he had joined the RFC in 1916.

47.2.13 Southern Rhodesia

Three pilots of Southern Rhodesian birth took part in
the Battle of Britain: Squadron Leader Caesar Hull, Pilot Ocer John Chomley, and Flight Lieutenant John
Holderness.* [34]* [35] Of these Hull and Chomley lost
their lives. Hull, the highest-scoring RAF ace of the
Norwegian Campaign earlier in the year, was killed in a
dogght over south London on 7 September 1940, a week
after taking command of No. 43 Squadron RAF.* [36]
Chomley went missing in action over the Channel on 12
August 1940 and was never found.* [37]

47.2.14 United States

Air Vice Marshal Quintin Brand, a South African and Commander in the Battle of Britain

Main article: Eagle Squadrons

The RAF recognises seven aircrew personnel who were

One of the RAF's leading aces, and one of the highest

scoring pilots during the Battle of Britain was Adolph
SailorMalan DFC, an RAF pilot since 1936, who led
No. 74 Squadron RAF at the height of the Battle of
Britain. Under his leadership No. 74 became one of the
RAF's best units. Malan claimed his rst two victories
over Dunkirk on 21 May 1940, and had claimed ve more
by the time the Battle started in earnest. Between 19 July
and 22 October he shot down six German aircraft. His
"Ten Rules for Air Fighting" were printed and pinned up
in crew rooms all over Fighter Command. He was part
of a group of about 25 pilots from South Africa that took
part in the Battle, eight or nine of whom (depending on
sources) died during the Battle.
Other notable pilots included P/O AlbertZuluLewis,
who opened his account over France in May with No. 85
Squadron, shooting down three Messerschmitt Bf 109s in
one action. With No. 85 in August, and then in September with No. 249 Squadron under Squadron Leader (later
Air Chief Marshal) Sir John Grandy, at North Weald.
Lewis ew three, four and ve times a day and 15 September 1940 got a He 111, and shared in the probable destruction of another. On 18 September he got his 12th
conrmed enemy aircraft. By 27 September, ying GNR, Lewis had 18 victories.* [33] He was shot down and
badly burned on 28 September. Lewis missed the rest of
the Battle and his recovery to ying tness took over three
months. Basil Gerald StapmeStapleton, with several
probables to his credit, survived a crash on 7 September,
trying to stop bombers getting through to London. Both
men would later command RAF squadrons.

Pilot Ocer Billy Fiske - the rst American pilot to be killed in

World War II

from the United States of America as having taken part in

the Battle of Britain. American citizens were prohibited
from serving under the various US Neutrality Acts; if an
American citizen had deed strict neutrality laws, there
was a risk of losing their citizenship and imprisonment. It
is believed that another four Americans misled the British
authorities about their origins, claiming to be Canadian or
The most senior ocer of South African origin during the other nationalities.

47.4. SEE ALSO

205

(Acting) Plt Or W. M. L. BillyFiske was probably

the most famous American pilot in the Battle of Britain,
although he pretended to be a Canadian at the time. Fiske
saw service with No. 601 (County of London) Squadron
and claimed one (unconrmed) kill. He crashed on 16
August 1940 and died the following day.* [38]

(BNP) used an image of a Spitre, with the captionBattle for Britain, in publicity to attempt to win support for
the party's anti-immigration stance. The picture chosen,
however, depicted a Spitre own by a Polish pilot from
No. 303 (Polish) Squadron and the party was mocked in
the British media as absurd.* [40]* [41]

Pilots

In 2010 the Swedish power metal band Sabaton recorded

a song calledAces in Exileabout the non-British personnel on their album Coat of Arms.

According to Kenneth G Wynn's Men of the Battle of

Britain published in 1999, and the list currently held by
the Royal Air Force,* [4] 11 American pilots qualied for
the 1939-1945 Star with Battle of Britain clasp:

47.4 See also

De Peyster Brown No. 401 Squadron RCAF

Carl Raymond Davis No. 601 Squadron (born in
South Africa to American parents. Took British citizenship in 1932)**
Arthur Gerald Donahue No. 64 Squadron**
William Meade Lindsley Fiske No. 601 Squadron
John Kenneth Haviland No. 151 Squadron
Vernon Charles Keough No. 609 Squadron**
Phillip Howard Leckrone No. 616 Squadron**
Andrew Mamedo No. 609 Squadron**
Otto John Peterson No. 401 Squadron RCAF
Eugene Quimby Tobin No. 609 Squadron**
Alexander Roman Zatonski No. 79 Squadron**

List of RAF aircrew in the Battle of Britain

47.5 References
47.5.1 Notes
[1] Czechoslovak pilots in France shot down 78 enemy planes
and with another 14 probables (12 percent of all the
French victories during Battle of France). They paid for
this success with the loss of 27 pilots killed, out of 135
who ew in France.
[2] The Dominion of Newfoundland became part of Canada
in 1949 and today is part of the Canadian province of
Newfoundland and Labrador.
[3] Air Vice Marshal Keith Park was played by the actor
Trevor Howard in the lm Battle of Britain (1969).
[4] Sergeant Toni Glowacki also achieved this feat. After
the war he went to live permanently in New Zealand and
joined the RNZAF.

(** denotes pilot killed in action (KIA))

Wynn's list omits Whitney Straight, who although in 47.5.2 Citations
Britain and a member of No. 601 Squadron, may have
not own an operational ight during the required dates [1] Who Were The Few?". Royal Air Force (ocial
website). Retrieved 16 May 2016.
(for the Battle of Britain clasp) due to recovering from
injuries sustained in the Battle of Norway in 1940.
[2] Allied aircrew in the Battle of Britain. The Battle of
Britain London Monument. Retrieved 16 May 2016.

47.3 In popular culture

At the end of the 1969 lm the Battle of Britain a list is
shown containing the nationality of pilots that ew for the
RAF. It incorrectly includes within this list a single person
from Israel. This relates to George Goodman who was
born in Haifa in 1920 and which was at the time British
military-administered Palestine. Goodman was a British
citizen and Israel did not become an independent country
until November 1947. In some lists he is even recorded
as Palestinian - also incorrectly.* [39]
During campaigning for the 2009 elections for the European Parliament, the far-right British Nationalist Party

[3] Lambert, Max (16 September 2010).Proud day for survivors of the Few. The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved
16 May 2016.
[4] Battle of Britain Roll of Honour. Royal Air Force
(ocial website). Retrieved 16 May 2016.
[5] World War Two. Royal Australian Air Force, 2008.
Retrieved: 24 September 2010.
[6] Eather 1995, p. 106.
[7] Coulthard-Clark 2001, p. 173.
[8] Eather 1995, p. 41.
[9] De Vos 2001, p. 86.

206

CHAPTER 47. NON-BRITISH PERSONNEL IN THE RAF DURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

[10] Veranneman 2014, p. 69.

[11] Canada at War.WWII: The Battle of Britain. Retrieved
28 May 2011.
[12] 4 Wing. Canada's Air Force/ Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[13] Polak et al. 2006, pp. 6, 7.
[14] Polak et al. 2006, pp. 5, 8.
[15] Czech Pilots and the Battle of Britain (History Learning
Site, UK, 2010)
[16] http://yorkshireairmuseum.org/latest-news/
french-raf-battle-of-britain-pilots-honoured-in-paris/

[39] Curtis, Philip. No, there was not a Palestinian in the

Battle of Britain. Battle of Britain Memorial Trust. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
[40] BNP uses Polish Spitre in anti-immigration poster.
The Telegraph. 4 March 2009. Retrieved 15 December
2014.
[41] BNP shot down after it uses a POLISH Spitre to front
its anti-immigration campaign. The Daily Mail. 4 March
2009. Retrieved 15 December 2014.

47.5.3 Bibliography

Veranneman, Jean-Michel (2014). Belgium in the

[17] http://www.ambafrance-uk.org/
Second World War. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. ISBN
Free-French-Air-Forces-remembered-at-WWII-commemorations.
[18] Brendan Eamon Fitzpatrick 'Paddy' Finucane.Aces of
World War 2, 2011. Retrieved: 1 November 2011.
[19] Battle of Britain Memorial - Paddy Finucane.bbm.org.
Retrieved: 28 May 2011.
[20] Byrne, Maurice. Spitre Paddy: A rose named after
a Battle of Britain pilot. bbm.org. Retrieved: 28 May
2011.
[21] The Airmen's Stories: P/O H Capstick BATTLE OF
BRITAIN LONDON MONUMENT
[22] The Airmen's Stories: P/O R A Howley BATTLE OF
BRITAIN LONDON MONUMENT
[23] Keith Park Battle of Britain. BBC. Retrieved: 19
August 2010.
[24] Brian Carbury. The Battle of Britain. Retrieved: 19
August 2010.
[25] Olson & Cloud 2003, p. 95.
[26] Olson & Cloud 2003, pp. 96-101.
[27] Olson & Cloud 2003, pp. 108-12.
[28] Olson & Cloud 2003, pp. 144-7.
[29] Olson, Lynne. A Question of Honor.lynneolson.com.
Retrieved: 19 August 2010.
[30] Olson & Cloud 2003, p. 145.
[31] Reagan, Georey. Military Anecdotes (1992) p. 76.
Guinness Publishing ISBN 0-85112-519-0
[32] Olson & Cloud 2003, p. 154.
[33] Shores and Williams 1994, p. 399.
[34] Salt 2001, pp. 107, 187.
[35] Wood & Dempster 1967, p. 518.
[36] Saunders 2003, pp. 4647.
[37] Salt 2001, p. 187.
[38] Billy Fiske. thehistorychannel.co.za. Retrieved: 19
August 2010.

978-1-78337-607-0.
Coulthard-Clark, Chris. The Encyclopedia of Australia's Battles. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2001.
ISBN 1-86508-634-7.
Eather, Steve (1995). Flying Squadrons of the Australian Defence Force. Weston Creek, Australian
Capital Territory: Aerospace Publications. ISBN 1875671-15-3.
Fiedler, Arkady. 303 Squadron: The Legendary
Battle of Britain Fighter Squadron. Los Angeles:
Aquila Polonica, 2010. ISBN 978-1-60772-004-1.
Olson, Lynne; Cloud, Stanley (2003). For Your
Freedom and Ours: The Kociuszko Squadron: Forgotten Heroes of World War II. London: Heinemann.
ISBN 0-434-00868-0.
Orange, Vincent. Park: The Biography of Air Chief
Marshal Sir Keith Park. London: Grub Street, 2001.
ISBN 1-902304-61-6.
Polak, Thomas with Jiri Radlich and Pavel Vancata.
No. 310 (Czechoslovak) Squadron 1940-1945; Hurricane, Spitre. Bo Cedex, France: Graphic Sud,
2006. ISBN 2-9526381-1-X.
Salt, Beryl (2001). A Pride of Eagles: The Denitive History of the Rhodesian Air Force, 19201980.
Weltevredenpark, South Africa: Covos Day Books.
ISBN 978-0-620-23759-8.
Saunders, Andy (2003). No 43 'Fighting Cocks'
Squadron. Aviation Elite Units 9 (First ed.). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-4399.
Shores, Christopher and Clive Williams. Aces High.
London: Grub Street, 1994. ISBN 1-898697-00-0.
Wood, Derek; Dempster, Derek (1967). The Narrow Margin: the Battle of Britain and the Rise of Air
Power, 19301940. London: Arrow Books. OCLC
459294.

47.7. EXTERNAL LINKS

De Vos, Luc (2001). The Reconstruction of Belgian Military Forces in Britain, 1940-1945. In
Conway, Martin; Gotovitch, Jos. Europe in Exile:
European Exile Communities in Britain, 1940-1945.
New York: Berghahn. ISBN 1-57181-759-X.

47.6 Further reading

Alexander, Kristen (2014). Australia's Few and the
Battle of Britain. Sydney: University of New South
Wales Press.

47.7 External links

Battle of Britain Memorial, London website - participants
Northern Irish pilots in Battle of Britain
Irish pilots from the Republic of Ireland who fought
in the Battle of Britain

207

Chapter 48

Ohrana
For the secret police force in Russian Empire, see
Okhrana.
Ohrana (Bulgarian: with meaning:Protection
); (Greek: ) were armed collaborationist detachments organized by the former Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) structures, composed of
Bulgarians* [1] (i.e. pro-Bulgarian oriented parts of the
Slavophone population) in Nazi-occupied Greek Macedonia during World War II and led by ocers of the Bulgarian Army.* [2]* [3] Bulgaria was interested in acquiring Thessalonica and Western Macedonia, under Italian
and German occupation and hoped to sway the allegiance
of the 80,000 Slavs who lived there at the time.* [3] The
appearance of Greek partisans in those areas persuaded
the Axis to allow the formation of these collaborationst
detachments.* [3] However, during late 1944, when the
Axis appeared to be losing the war, many Slavophone Bulgarian campaigns during World War I, borders in grey
Nazi collaborators, Ohrana members and VMRO regiment volunteers ed to the opposite camp by joining the
newly founded communist SNOF.* [4] The organization
managed to recruit initially 1,000 up to 3,000 armed men
from the Slavophone community that lived in the western
its minorities, namely towards its Slavic population in its
part of Greek Macedonia.* [5]
northern regions, as a result of the aftermath of Second
Balkan war and the potential threat that Bulgaria could
pose in the fear of using the pro-Bulgarian oriented mi48.1 Background
nority in Greece as a subversive Fifth Column. After the
Balkan Wars and especially after the First World War
TheMacedonian Question,became especially promi- more than 100,000 Bulgarians from Greek Macedonia
nent after the Balkan wars in 1912-1913, following the moved to Bulgaria, as part of the population exchange
defeat of the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent di- policy between the two countries.
vision of the Region of Macedonia between Greece, During the 1930s a new identity parallel to the Greek and
Bulgaria and Serbia.
Bulgarian ones began to arose in the region of Macedonia,
Bulgarian communities inhabited parts of southern
Macedonia from the Middle Ages.* [6]* [7] This continued also during 16th and 17th centuries by Ottoman historians and travellers like Hoca Sadeddin Efendi, Mustafa
Selaniki, Hadji Khalfa and Evliya Celebi. The majority
of Slavspeakers after 1870 were under the inuence of
the Bulgarian Exarchate and its education system, thus
considered themselves as Bulgarians.* [8] Part of them
were inuenced by the Greek Patriarchate, which resulted
in the formation of Greek consciousness. Greece, like all
other Balkan states, adopted restrictive policies towards

the Slav Macedonian (Greek: ) and

was initially supported by IMRO (United).* [9] In 1934
the Comintern issued a declaration supporting the development of the new Macedonian identity,* [10] which
was admitted by the Greek Communist Party. During
the 1930s under the Metaxas Regime, the government
endorsed violence by nationalist bands, which sowed the
seeds of bitterness that kept brewing within the local Slavspeaking population which found the opportunity to come
into eect during the Second World War and the occupation of Greece by the Axis forces.

208

48.4. THE KASTORIAN ITALO-BULGARIAN COMMITTEE

48.2 Bulgarian occupation and policy in Greece

209

support among parts of the population. In 1942, the Bulgarian club asked assistance from the High Command in
organising armed units among the Slavic-speaking population in northern Greece.* [14] For this purpose, the Bulgarian army, under the approval of the Commander of the
German forces in the Balkans - Field Marshal List sent a
handful of ocers from the Bulgarian Army, to the zones
occupied by the Italian and German troops (central and
west Greek Macedonia) to be attached to the German occupying forces as liaison ocers. All the Bulgarian
ocers brought into service were locally born Macedonians who had immigrated to Bulgaria with their families
during the 1920s and 30's as part of the Greek-Bulgarian
treaty of the Neuilly which saw 90,000 Bulgarians migrating to Bulgaria from Greece and 50,000 Greeks moving the opposite direction. Most were members of proBulgarian IMRO and followers of Ivan Mihailov.These
ocers were given the objective to form armed Slavophone militias.* [14]

Triple Occupation of Greece.

In 1941 Greek Macedonia was occupied by German,

Italian and Bulgarian troops. The Bulgarians occupied
the Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace, an area of
14,430 square kilometers, with 590,000 inhabitants. The
Bulgarian policy was to win the loyalty of the Slav inhabitants and to instill them a Bulgarian national identity. Indeed, some of these people did greet the Bulgarians as liberators, particularly in eastern and central
Macedonia, however, this campaign was less successful in
German-occupied western Macedonia.* [11] At that time
most of them felt themselves to be Bulgarians, irrespective of ideological aliation.* [12] However, in contrast
with the population of Vardar Macedonia, smaller fraction of the Slav population collaborated in the Greek part
of Macedonia, whether in the Bulgarian-occupied eastern
section or the German and Italian-occupied zones. Nevertheless, Bulgarian expansionism was better received in
some frotier districts, where strong pro-Bulgarian oriented Slav-speakers lived (in Kastoria, Florina and Pella
districts).* [13]

48.4 The
Kastorian
Bulgarian Committee

Italo-

The initial detachments were formed in 1943 in the district of Kastoria by Bulgarian agent Andon Kalchev with
the support of the head of the Italian occupation authorities in Kastoria, colonel Venieri,* [15] who armed the local villages to help combat the growing communist threat
presented by the ELAS raiding the Italian occupation
forces in the district. The name given to the bands armed
was 'Ohrana' which in Bulgarian is dened as 'security'.
The uniforms of the Ohranists were supplied by the Italians and were resplendent with shoulder patches bearing
the inscription Italo-Bulgarian Committee Freedom
or Death. The Kastorian unit was called the Macedonian
Committee. The reasons of locals for taking arms varied. Some of the men were pre-war members of IMRO,
and thus harbored deep nationalistic convictions, others
because of pro-Nazi sentiments, some to avenge wrongdoings inicted on them by Greek authorities during the
48.3 The Thessaloniki Bulgarian Metaxas regime, and many took arms in order to defend
themselves from the attacks of other Greek paramilitary
club
and resistance movements as the latter saw them as colDuring the same year, The German High Command laboratives with the Italian, Bulgarian and German forces.
approved the foundation of a Bulgarian military club Bulgarian collaborationist bands participated in reprisal
in Thessalonki. The Bulgarian organised supplies of missions together with the Nazi troops in the region. In
food and provisions for the Slavic-speaking population in one occasion together with the 7th SS Panzer Grenadier
Greek Macedonia, aiming to gain the hearts and minds of Regiment they were responsible for a major massacre in
the local population that was in the German- and Italian- the village of Klisoura near Kastoria, that cost the lives
occupied zones. The Bulgarian clubs soon started to gain of 250 women and children.* [16]* [17]

210

CHAPTER 48. OHRANA

48.5 The Edessa and Florina 48.7 Ohrana and Mihailov's plans
Ohrana detachments
for Macedonia
After their initial success in arming several villages in
Kastoria, Kalchev went to the German occupied zone in
order to start arming villages in Edessa region.* [18] In
Edessa, with the help of the German occupation authorities, Kalchev created the Ohrana para-military unit.* [15]
In 1943, Ohrana detachments counted a total of around
3,000 members and organized guerrilla activity. In the
tradition of the IMRO Komitadjis, these bands pursued
the local Greek population, including Greek-identifying
Slavophones, Aromanians, and Pontic Greeks, seeing
them as an obstacle to an all-Bulgarian Macedonia.* [19]
The main leaders during the early phase of activity
from 1941 to 1942 were Tsvetan Mladenov and Andon
Kalchev in the Florina prefecture, where there were 600
men under arms.

Ohrana was supported from Ivan Mihaylov too. In August 1943, Ivan Mihailov left Zagreb incognito for Germany where he was to visit the main headquarters of the
Sicherheitsdienst. From German information, it is apparent that Mihailov received consent to create battalions
consisting of volunteers armed with German weapons
and munitions. Moreover, these battalions were to be
under the operative command and disposal of Reichsfuhrer of the SS, Heinrich Himmler. Additionally, in
Soa talks were held between high-ranking functionaries of the SS and the IMRO Central Committee members. Despite the condential character of the negotiations between Mihailov and the Sicherheitsdienst, the
Bulgarian government obtained certain information about
them. In this connection to the village companies in these
counties, there was also formed three volunteer battalions in Kastoria, Florina and Edessa. These were organized by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization* [25] and were to carry the name IMRO Volunteer Battalions. They were formed after the arrival of
the IMRO cadres from the Soa.

48.8 Re-organization and clashes

with ELAS
Bulgaria during WWII.

48.6 Ohrana activity

In the summer of 1944, Ohrana constituted some 12,000
local ghters and volunteers from Bulgaria charged with
protection of the local population.* [20] During 1944,
whole Slavophone villages were armed by the occupation authorities to counterbalance the emerging power of
the resistance and especially of Greek People's Liberation
Army (ELAS). Ohrana was also ghting pro-communist
Slavic Macedonians.* [21] and Greek communists
members of the ELAS.* [22] A part of the Slavophone
population, with the help of the Greek Communist Party,
organized itself into SNOF, and their prime objective was
to struggle occupation forces and pro-Bulgarian agents in
the Ohrana,* [23] and try to persuade its members to join
ELAS and ght against the occupation. Nevertheless, in
the summer of 1944, members of the Macedonian faction of the Communist Party of Greece were unable to
distinguish friend from foe in Slav Macedonian villages.
Mass involvement of the population was one of the tactics of Ohrana, which thus aims to provide good cover for
its activities.* [24]

In spring 1944, the Germans taking up where the Italians

left o, reformed, re-organized and re-armed the village
companies in the Kastoria district. Soon after the villages
in the Edessa and Florina districts were also armed and
prepared for service. The militiamen from the Kastoria
and Edessa districts were actively involved in the German
anti-guerilla sweep operations. In June 1944 delegation
of IMRO cadres met up with the German Commander
in Edessa with whom they discussed the formation of the
volunteer corps. This was in accordance with the agreement Ivan Mihailov and IMRO struck with Hitler and
Himmler, which envisaged that these battalions would
form the avant-garde of the whole Macedonian military
eort in Western Macedonia and would spearhead the
drives and sweeps against the ELAS forces. However,
the guerrilla bands of EAM/ELAS soon forced Ohrana
to retreat and disbanded many of its groups. In one report of Colonel Mirchev to the sta of the army on 5 June
1944, it was reported that the ELAS ghters took captive
the local band consisting 28 militiamen. On 21 August
1944 ELAS successfully attacked the IMRO stronghold
at the village of Polikerason. During the battle, 20 IMRO
militiamen were reported killed in action and 300 militiamen were captured. In September, two IMRO companies were wiped out in the defense of Edessa by an ELAS
attack.

48.11. SEE ALSO

48.9 The dissolution of Ohrana

After the declaration of war by Bulgaria on Nazi Germany in September 1944 Ivan Mihaylov arrived in
German-occupied Skopje, where the Germans hoped that
he could form a Macedonian puppet-state with their support. Seeing that Germany had lost the war he refused.
Ohrana was dissolved in late 1944 after their German
and Bulgarian protectors were forced to withdrew from
Greece.* [26] In autumn 1944 Anton Kalchev escaped
northern Greece, and tried to ee with the retreating German army, but was captured in the vicinity of Bitola by
communist partisans from Vardar Macedonia, and was
apprehended to ELAS ocials. In Thesaloniki, Kalchev
was put on trial as military criminal and was sentenced to
death by the Greek authorities.
After World War II the ruling Bulgarian Communists declared the Slav-speaking population in Macedonia (including the Bulgarian part) as ethnic Macedonians. The
organizations of the IMRO in Bulgaria were completely
destroyed. Also the internment of those people disagreeing with these political activities was organized at the
Belene labor camp. Tito and Georgi Dimitrov worked
about the project to merge the two Balkan countries Bulgaria and Yugoslavia into a Balkan Federative Republic
according to the projects of Balkan Communist Federation. This led to the 1947 cooperation and signing of Bled
Agreement. It foresaw unication between Yugoslav (
Vardar) and Bulgarian (Pirin) Macedonia, as well
as a return of the so-called Western Outlands to Bulgaria. They also supported the Greek Communists and
especially Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front
in the Greek Civil War with the idea of unication of
Greek Macedonia and Western Thrace to the new state
under Communist rule.
By this situation the Macedonian section of the Greek
Communist Party created the SNOF and some of the former collaborators enlisted in the new unit.* [27] and took
part in the Greek Civil War on the side of the Democratic
Army of Greece. To an extent the collaboration of the
peasants with the Germans, Italians, Bulgarians or ELAS
was determined by the geopolitical position of each village. Depending upon whether their village was vulnerable to attack by the Greek communist guerrillas, or the
occupation forces, the peasants would opt to support the
side in relation to which they were most vulnerable. In
both cases, the attempt was to promisefreedom(autonomy or independence) to the formerly persecuted Slavic
minority as a means of gaining its support.

211
few refugees, government policy changed and the Bulgarian government actively sought out ethnic Macedonian
refugees. It is estimated that approximately 2,500 children were sent to Bulgaria and 3,000 partisans ed there
in the closing period of the war. There was a larger ow
into Bulgaria of refugees as the Bulgarian Army pulled
out of the Drama-Serres region in 1944. A large proportion of Slavic speakers emigrated there. The Slavic
Committeein Soa (Bulgarian: )
helped to attract refugees that had settled in other parts of
the Eastern Bloc. According to a political report in 1962
the number of political emigrants from Greece numbered
at 6,529.* [30] The policy of communist Bulgaria towards
the refugees from Greece was, at least initially, not discriminative with regard to their ethnic origin: Greekand Slav-speakers were both categorized as Greek political emigrants and received equal treatment by state
authorities. However, certain institutions of communist
Bulgaria, charged with the national policy, tried progressively to promote certain selection among them privileging Slav-speakers, frequently named ethnic Macedonians
and to prescribe special measures for the attainment of
their ethnicloyalty. Unlike the other countries in the
Eastern Bloc there were no specic organizations founded
to deal with specic issues relating to the child refugees,
this caused many to cooperate with the Association of
Refugee Children from the Aegean part of Macedonia,
an association based in the Socialist Republic of Macedonia.* [31] However, the end of the 1950s and the beginning of the 1960s was marked by adecisive turn in the
Macedonisticpolicy of Bulgaria, which did not recognize anymore the existence of a Macedonian ethnicity different from the Bulgarian one. As a result, the trend to a
discriminative policy, the refugees from Greece more
targeted at the Slav-speakers and less toethnic Greeks
was given a certain proselytizing aspect. In 1960, the
Bulgarian Communist Party voted a special resolution explainedwith the fact that almost all of the Macedonians
have a clear Bulgarian national consciousness and consider Bulgaria their homeland. Eventually many of these
migrants were assimilated into Bulgarian society.

48.11 See also

Democratic Army of Greece
Security Battalions
Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
(IMRO)
Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia

48.10 Aftermath

Macedonian Question
Military history of Bulgaria during World War II

After the Greek Civil War many from these people

were expelled from Greece.* [28]* [29] Although the
People's Republic of Bulgaria originally accepted very

Axis occupation of Greece during World War II

National Liberation Front (Greece)

212
National Liberation Front (Macedonia)

48.12 References
[1] .
(1941 1944 .)
[2] The Second World War and the Triple Occupation
[3] Miller, Marshall Lee (1975). Bulgaria During the Second
World War. Stanford University Press. p. 129. ISBN
0-8047-0870-3. In Greece the Bulgarians reacquired
their former territory, extending along the Aegean coast
from the Struma (Strymon) River east of Thessaloniki to
Alexandroupolis on the Turkish border. Bulgaria looked
longingly toward Salonika and western Macedonia, which
were under German and Italian control, and established
propaganda centres to secure the allegiance of the approximately 80,000 Slavs in these regions. The Bulgarian plan
was to organize these Slavs militarily in the hope that Bulgaria would eventually assume the administration there.
The appearance of the Greek left wing resistance in western Macedonia persuaded the Italian and German and authorities to allow the formation of Slav security battalions
(Ohrana) led by Bulgarian ocers.

CHAPTER 48. OHRANA

13.

1878 .

.
.(Russian)
[9] The Situation in Macedonia and the Tasks of IMRO
(United) - published in the ocial newspaper of IMRO
(United), " ", .185, 1934
[10] " (
)" -
1934 ,
[11] Loring M. Danforth. The Macedonian Conict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-69104357-9.p. 73.
[12] The struggle for Greece, 1941-1949, Christopher Montague Woodhouse, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2002,
ISBN 1-85065-492-1, p. 67.
[13] Koliopoulos, Ioannis. Macedonia in the Maelstrom of
World War II (PDF). macedonian heritage. p. 305.
Retrieved 22 April 2012.
[14] Hugh Poulton. Who are the Macedonians? C. Hurst &
Co. Publishers, 1995, ISBN 1-85065-238-4, p. 109

[4] Plundered Loyalties: Axis Occupation and Civil Strife in

Greek West Macedonia, 1941-1949, Gianns Koliopoulos, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1999, ISBN 1-85065381-X, pp. 120-121.

[15] j
j . (
j ), , 1975. .122-123

[5] Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, G Reference, Dimitar Bechev, Scarecrow Press, 2009, ISBN
0-8108-5565-8, pp. 162-163.

[16] Doris M. Condit (1967). Challenge and Response in Internal Conict: The experience in Europe and the Middle
East. Center for Research in Social Systems.

[6] A charter of Romanus II, 960 Pulcherius (Slav-Bulgarian

population in Chalcidice Peninsula is mentioned), Recueil
des historiens des Croisades. Historiens orientaux. III, p.
331 a passage in English Georgii Cedreni compendium,
op. cit, pp. 449-456 - a passage in English (Bulgarian
population in Servia is mentioned) In the so-called Legend of Thessalonica (12th c.) it is said that the Bulgarian
language was also spoken hi the market place of Thessalonica, Documents of the notary Manoli Braschiano concerning the sale and liberation of slaves of Bulgarian nationality from Macedonia (Kastoria, Seres, region of Thesalonica etc), From the Third Zograf Beadroll, containing the names of donors to the Zograf Monastery at Mt.
Athos from settlements and regions indicated as Bulgarian
lands, Evidence from the Venetian Ambassador Lorenzo
Bernardo on the Bulgarian character of the settlements in
Macedonia

[17] Winnifrith, T.J. (1987). The Vlachs : the history of a

Balkan people (2. impr. ed.). London: Duckworth. p.
17. ISBN 978-0-7156-2135-6.

[7]
-V , 2001, . 150,
188/Documenta Veneta historiam Bulgariae et Bulgarorum illustrantia saeculis XII-XV, p. 150, 188, edidit Vassil Gjuzelev (Venetian documents for the history of Bulgaria and Bulgarians, p. 150, 188 - Venetian documents
from 14-15th century about Slaves from South Macedonia
with Bulgarian belonging/origin)
[8]
0049(2007), . 138-153. .

[18] IMRO Militia And Volunteer Battalions Of Southwestern

Macedonia, 1943-1944 by Vic Nicholas
[19] IMRO Militia And Volunteer Battalions Of Southwestern
Macedonia, 1943-1944. By Vic Nicholas
[20]Macedonia and Bulgarian National Nihilism Ivan
Alexandrov(Macedonian Patriotic Organization TA
Australia Inc. 1993)
[21] Unlike the activists of the right IMRO of Ivan Mihailov
who declared themselves as Bulgarians, the communist
orientated Slavic-spacing population of Greece declared
themselves as Ethnic Macedonians -
, ,
13.XI.1944 (. 1, . 2, . 3, .
4, . 5)
[22] j
j . (
j ), , 1975. .126-127, .128
[23] (1913-1989).
, , 1990 . 133
[24] British Ocer Evans. December Report, AV, II, 413

48.13. EXTERNAL LINKS

213

[25] . .
(1941 1944 .)
[26] Macedonia in the 1940s.Modern and Contemporary
Macedonia, vol. II, 64-103. by Yiannis D. Stefanidis
[27]
, , , 2000 .43
[28] .
. 97 - 100

[29] Genocide of Macedonian Children - Macedonian tribunenewspaper, Fort Wayhe town, No. 3157 from
November 4, 1993.
[30] Marinov, Tchavdar (2004). Aegean Macedonians and the
Bulgarian Identity Politics. Oxford: St Antonys College,
Oxford. p. 5.
[31] Marinov, Tchavdar (2004). Aegean Macedonians and the
Bulgarian Identity Politics. Oxford: St Antonys College,
Oxford. p. 7.

48.13 External links

OHRANA and persecution of Bulgar-Macedonians
by Greeks
( 1940 - 9
1944 .) .
(, , 1993)
-
, .
Southwestern Macedonia 1941 - 1944
OHRANAin Aegean Macedonia (1942-1944)a comparative analysis.
Modern and Contemporary Macedonia, vol. II, 64103.Macedonia in the 1940s - Yiannis D. Stefanidis
Im Schatten des Krieges. Besatzung oder Anschluss - Befreiung oder Unterdrckung?. Eine
komparative Untersuchung ber die bulgarische
Herrschaft in Vardar-Makedonien 1915-1918 und
1941-1944 Reihe: Studien zur Geschichte, Kultur
und Gesellschaft Sdosteuropas Jahr: 2005 ISBN 38258-7997-6

Chapter 49

People's Volunteer Army

First commander
and commissar of the CPVA Peng Dehuai (19501952)

Third commander and commissar of the CPVA Deng Hua (19521953)

The (Chinese) People's Volunteer Army (PVA

or CPVA; simplied Chinese: ;
traditional Chinese: ; pinyin:
Zhnggu Rnmn Zhyun Jn) was the armed
forces deployed by the People's Republic of China
during the Korean War.* [lower-alpha 1] Although all
units in the Chinese People's Volunteer Army were
actually transferred from the People's Liberation Army
(the ocial name of the Chinese armed forces) under
orders of the Chinese Communist Party, the People's
Volunteer Army was separately constituted in order
to prevent an ocial war with the United States. The
People's Volunteer Army entered Korea on October
19, 1950, and completely withdrew by October 1958.
The nominal commander and political commissar of the
CPVA was Peng Dehuai before the ceasere agreement
in 1953, although both Chen Geng and Deng Hua
Second comman- served as acting commander and commissar after April
der and commissar of the CPVA Chen Geng (1952)
1952 due to Peng's illness. The initial (October 25
November 5, 1950) units in the CPVA included 38th,
39th, 40th, 42nd, 50th, 66th Army totaling 250,000
men, and eventually about 3 million Chinese civilian and
military personnel served in Korea by July 1953.

214

49.3. ACTIONS DURING THE KOREAN WAR

215

49.1 Background
See also: Chinese People's Volunteer Army order of
battle
Although the United Nations forces were under United
States command, this army was ocially a UN police
force. In order to avoid an open war with the US and other
UN members, the People's Republic of China deployed
the People's Liberation Army (PLA) under the name
volunteer army.* [1] The name was also an homage
to the Korean Volunteer Army that had helped the Chinese communists during the Second Sino-Japanese War
and the Chinese Civil War, and it managed to deceive
the US intelligence about the size and nature of the Chinese forces that entered Korea.* [2] Technically speaking, the PVA was the PLA's North East Frontier Force
(NEFF), with other PLA formations transferred under
NEFF's command as the Korean War dragged on.* [2]* [3]

49.2 Strengths and weaknesses

49.2.1

Clothing

Typical rearms used by the PVA

Japanese Army or was captured from the Chinese Nationalist Party. Some Czechoslovak equipment was also
purchased on the open market. During the initial offensive in the fall of 1950, great numbers of captured
American weapons were also used due to the availability
of ammunition and the increasing diculty of resupply
across the Yalu river due to U.N. air interdiction. In addition, the Chinese produced a domestic copy of the American Thompson submachine gun, many of which found
their way into Korea. Later on, after the rst year of the
Korean War, the Soviet Union began sending arms and
munitions, and the Chinese started to produce copies of
some Soviet weapons, such as the PPSh-41, which they
designated Type 50.

49.3 Actions during the Korean

War
Main article: Korean War

Uniform of the PVA, note the ute and the gong that the soldiers
typically use for communications.

The CPVA soldier was reasonably well clothed, in keeping with the PLA's guerrilla origin and egalitarian attitudes. All ranks wore a cotton or woolen green or khaki
shirt and trousers combination with leaders' uniforms being dierent in cut and with red piping and collar tabs.

49.2.2

Equipment

The nominal strength of a PLA division was 9,500 men,

a regiment was near 3,000, and a battalion had about 850
men. However, many divisions were below strength while
those divisions opposite Taiwan were above strength.
There was also variation in organization and equipment
as well as in the quantity and quality of equipment.
Some of the PLA's equipment was from the Imperial

49.3.1 First Phase Campaign (October 25

November 5, 1950)
The People's Republic of China had issued warnings that
they would intervene if any non-South Korean forces
crossed the 38th parallel, citing national security interests. Truman regarded the warnings asa bold attempt to
blackmail the UN.* [4] On October 8, 1950, the day after American troops crossed the parallel, Chairman Mao
issued the order for the NEFF to be moved to the Yalu
River, ready to cross. Mao Zedong sought Soviet aid and
saw intervention as essentially defensive: If we allow
the U.S. to occupy all of Korea... we must be prepared
for the US to declare... war with China, he told Joseph
Stalin. Premier Zhou Enlai was sent to Moscow to add
force to Mao's cabled arguments. Mao delayed his forces
while waiting for Soviet help, and the planned attack was
thus postponed from 13 October to 19 October. Soviet
assistance was limited to providing air support no closer

216

CHAPTER 49. PEOPLE'S VOLUNTEER ARMY

49.3.2 Second Phase Campaign (November 25 December 24, 1950)

On November 25, 1950, the Chinese struck again along
the entire Korean front. In the west, at the Battle of
the Ch'ongch'on River, the Chinese army overran several
South Korean divisions and landed an extremely heavy
blow into the ank of the remaining UN forces, decimating the 2nd Infantry Division in the process. The resulting withdrawal of the US Eighth Army was the longest
retreat of an American unit in history.* [5] At the east, at
the Battle of Chosin Reservoir a 3,000 man unit from the
7th Infantry Division, Task Force Faith, was surrounded
by the PVA 80th and the 81st Divisions. Task Force Faith
managed to inict heavy casualties onto the Chinese divisions, but in the end it was destroyed with 2,000 of
their 3,000 men killed or captured, with the loss of all
vehicles and most other equipment. The destruction of
Task Force Faith was considered by Chinese to be their
biggest success of the entire Korean War. The 1st Marine Division fared better; though surrounded and forced
to retreat, they inicted heavy casualties on the Chinese
forces, who committed six divisions trying to destroy the
PVA rations and mess kits
American Marines. Although the Chinese were able to
recapture much of North Korea during the Second Phase
Campaign, 40 percent of all Chinese forces in Korea were
rendered combat ineectivea loss which the Chinese
than 60 miles (96 km) from the battlefront. The MiG-15s could not recover from until the start of Chinese Spring
*
in PRC colours would be an unpleasant surprise to the Oensive. [2]
UN pilots; they would hold local air superiority against UN forces in northeast Korea withdrew to form a defenthe F-80 Shooting Stars until newer F-86 Sabres were de- sive perimeter around the port city of Hngnam, where
ployed. The Soviet role was known to the U.S. but they an evacuation was carried out in late December 1950.
kept quiet to avoid any international and potential nuclear Approximately 100,000 military personnel and material
incidents. It has been alleged by the Chinese that the and another 100,000 North Korean civilians were loaded
Soviets had agreed to full scale air support, which never onto a variety of merchant and military transport ships.
occurred south of Pyongyang, and helped accelerate the General Walton Walker of the Eighth Army was killed in
Sino-Soviet Split.
an accident on December 23, 1950. He was replaced by
On October 15, 1950, Truman went to Wake Island to Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway, who led airborne
discuss the possibility of Chinese intervention and his de- troops in the Second World War.
sire to limit the scope of the Korean War. MacArthur reassured Truman that if the Chinese tried to get down
49.3.3 Third Phase Campaign (December
to Pyongyang there would be the greatest slaughter.

31, 1950 January 8, 1951)

On October 19, 1950, Pyongyang, North Korea's capital,

fell to UN forces. On the same day, the PVA formally Hoping to pressure the UN into abandoning South Kocrossed the Yalu River under strict secrecy.
rea, Mao ordered the PVA to attack the UN forces along
The Chinese assault began on October 25, 1950, under the 38th parallel. On the last day of 1950, Chinese and
the command of Peng Dehuai with 270,000 PVA troops North Korean forces destroyed several South Korean di(it was assumed at the time that Lin Biao was in charge, visions along the parallel, breaching the UN defenses in
but this notion had been disproved). The Chinese as- the process. To avoid another encirclement, UN forces
sault caught the UN troops by surprise, and employing evacuated Seoul on January 3, and Chinese and North
great skill and remarkable camouage ability, concealed Korean forces recaptured Seoul on January 4. Both the
their numerical and divisional strength after the rst en- US Eighth Army and the US X Corps retreated another
gagement with the UN. After these initial engagements, 50 miles, but the overextended PVA were completely exthe Chinese withdrew into the mountains. UN forces in- hausted after months of nonstop ghting. Ridgway took
terpreted this withdrawal as a show of weakness; they immediate steps to raise the morale and ghting spirit of
thought that this initial Chinese attack was all that the the battered Eighth Army, which had fallen to low levels
during its retreat from North Korea.
Chinese forces were capable of undertaking.

49.3. ACTIONS DURING THE KOREAN WAR

Chinese Infantrymen at the Battle of Triangle Hill

49.3.4

Fourth Phase Campaign (January

30 April 21, 1951)

217
I Corps, which ercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin
River (2225 April 1951) and the Battle of Kapyong (22
25 April 1951), blunting the impetus of the oensive,
which was halted at theNo-name Linenorth of Seoul.
On May 15, 1951, the Chinese commenced the second
impulse of the Spring Oensive and attacked the ROK
Army and the US X Corps in the east, and initially were
successful, yet were halted by May 20. At month's end,
the US Eighth Army counterattacked the exhausted Chinese forces, inicting heavy losses. The destruction of the
PVA 180th Division of the 60th Army during the UN
counterattack has been considered to be the worst Chinese defeat during the entire Korean War.* [6] Roughly
3,000 men managed to escape (including the division
commander and other high-ranking ocers), but the majority of the division were killed or captured. During the
nal days of the Fifth Phase Campaign, the main body of
the 180th Division was encircled during a UN counterattack, and after days of hard ghting, the division was fragmented, and the regiments ed in all directions. Soldiers
either deserted or were abandoned by their ocers during
failed attempts to wage guerrilla warfare without support
from the local people. Finally, out of ammunition and
food, some 5,000 soldiers were captured. The division
commander and other ocers who escaped were subsequently investigated and demoted on return to China.* [7]
However, the UN counterattack was halted at Line
Kansaswhere they were met with fresh troops from
the counterattacking PVA 42nd and 47th Corps on 27
May,* [8] and subsequent oensive action stand-down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953.

The overextended PVA were forced to disengage and to

recuperate for an extensive period of time, but the UN
forces soon returned to the oensive. On January 23,
1951, the US Eighth Army launched Operation Thunderbolt, attacking the unprepared Chinese forces at the south
of the Han River. This was followed up with Operation
Roundup by US X Corps in central Korea. Hoping to
regain the initiative, the Chinese counterattacked at the
Battle of Hoengsong on February 11, stopping US X
Corps' advance in the process. But without proper rest
and recuperation, the new Chinese oensive soon zzled
out at the Battle of Chipyong-ni on February 15. With
the entire PVA incapable of any further oensive operations, the US Eighth Army launched Operation Killer
49.3.6
on February 21, followed by Operation Ripper on March
6. A revitalized Eighth Army, restored by Ridgway to
ghting trim, soon expelled the North Korean and Chinese troops from Seoul, destroying much of the city with
aerial and artillery bombardments in the process.

Stalemate (June 10, 1951 July 27,

1953)

MacArthur was removed from command by President

Truman on April 11, 1951, due to a disagreement over
policy. MacArthur was succeeded by Ridgway, who led
the UN forces for additional oensives across the 38th
parallel. A series of attacks managed to slowly drive back
the opposing forces, inicting heavy casualties on Chinese and North Korean units as UN forces advanced some
miles north of the 38th parallel at Line Kansas.

49.3.5

Fifth Phase Campaign (April 22

June 10, 1951)

Main article: Chinese Spring Oensive

The Chinese counterattacked in April 1951 with the Fifth
Phase Campaign (also known as the Chinese Spring
Oensive) and with three eld armies (approximately
700,000 men). The oensive's rst thrust fell upon US

Chinese troops in Korea depicted on a 1952 Chinese postage

stamp

The UN counterattack in the aftermath of the Chinese

Spring Oensive stabilized the front along the 38th parallel. The rest of the war involved little territory change,
large-scale bombing of the population in the north, and
lengthy peace negotiations, which started in Kaesong on
July 10, 1951. Even during the peace negotiations, combat continued. For the South Korean and allied forces,

218

CHAPTER 49. PEOPLE'S VOLUNTEER ARMY

the goal was to recapture all of what had been South Koattacks continued on all sides until the defendrea before an agreement was reached in order to avoid
ers were destroyed or forced to withdraw. The
loss of any territory. The Chinese attempted similar opChinese then crept forward to the open ank
erations at the Battle of the Hook and the Battle of Kumof the next platoon position, and repeated the
song. A major issue of the negotiations was repatriation
tactics.
of POWs. The Communists agreed to voluntary repatriation, but only if the majority would return to China Roy Appleman further claried the initial Chinese tactics
or North Korea, something that did not occur. The war as:
continued until the Communists eventually dropped this
issue.
In the First Phase Oensive, highly
skilled
enemy light infantry troops had carried
On November 29, 1952, U.S. President-elect Dwight D.
out
the
Chinese attacks, generally unaided by
Eisenhower fullled a campaign promise by going to Koany
weapons
larger than mortars. Their attacks
rea to nd out what could be done to end the war. With
had
demonstrated
that the Chinese were wellthe UN's and PVA's acceptance of India's proposal for an
trained
disciplined
re ghters, and particuarmistice, ghting ended July 27, 1953, by which time the
larly
adept
at
night
ghting. They were masfront line was back around the proximity of the 38th parters
of
the
art
of
camouage.
Their patrols
allel. A demilitarized zone (DMZ) was established along
were
remarkably
successful
in
locating
the pothe Military Demarcation Line, which is patrolled to this
sitions
of
the
U.N.
forces.
They
planned
their
day by North Korean troops on one side and South Koattacks
to
get
in
the
rear
of
these
forces,
cut
rean and American troops on the other.
them o from their escape and supply roads,
and then send in frontal and anking attacks
to precipitate the battle. They also employed
49.4 Tactics
a tactic which they termed Hachi Shiki, which
was a V-formation into which they allowed enChinese forces used rapid attacks on the anks and rear
emy forces to move; the sides of the V then
and inltration behind UN lines to give the appearance of
closed around their enemy while another force
vast hordes. This, of course, was augmented by the Chimoved below the mouth of the V to engage any
nese tactic of maximizing their forces for the attack, enforces attempting to relieve the trapped unit.
suring a large local numerical superiority over their oppoSuch were the tactics the Chinese used with
nent.* [9]* [10] The initial Chinese victory along the Yalu
great success at Onjong, Unsan, and Ch'osan,
River was a great morale booster for the PVA and the rst
but with only partial success at Pakch'on and
Chinese victory over the West in modern times. Howthe Ch'ongch'on bridgehead.* [12]
ever, by late 1951, overextended supply lines and superior
UN repower had forced a stalemate. The North Koreans
that invaded in 1950 had been much better supplied and
49.5 Discipline and political conarmed by the Soviets than the Chinese Army had been.
trol
The main arms of the PVA were captured Japanese and
KMT arms.* [11]
Historian and Korean War veteran Bevin Alexander had Even though the discipline of the PVA was strict by westthis to say about Chinese tactics in his book How Wars ern standards, it is a notable improvement when compared to the Nationalist and warlord armies.* [13] DisciAre Won:
pline was applied universally within the army, with the
Party members expected to be punished more than nonThe Chinese had no air power and were
Party soldiers for the same infraction.* [13] Beatings and
armed only with ries, machineguns, hand
abuses were also forbidden by regulations.* [13] Although
grenades, and mortars. Against the much more
capital punishments were enforced for disobeying certain
heavily armed Americans, they adapted a techorders, it was rarely used in accordance with the Chinese
nique they had used against the Nationalists in
traditions.* [13] Normally, public shamings and political
the Chinese civil war of 194649. The Chinese
indoctrination camps were preferred methods in dealing
generally attacked at night and tried to close
with serious infractions such as desertion, and the punin on a small troop positiongenerally a plaished are expected to return to frontline duty with his
toonand then attacked it with local superiororiginal unit.* [13]
ity in numbers. The usual method was to inltrate small units, from a platoon of fty men
to a company of 200, split into separate detachments. While one team cut o the escape route
of the Americans, the others struck both the
front and the anks in concerted assaults. The

Like the Soviet army, political and military ocers

formed a dual chain of command within the PVA, and
this arrangement could be found as low as the company
level.* [14] Political ocers were in charge of the control and the morale of the troops, and they were often

49.6. PRISONERS-OF-WAR (POWS)

expected to act like role models in combat.* [14] Unlike
other Communist armies of the same period, although
the political ocers had authority over military ocers
on combat decisions, the military ocers could issue orders without political ocers' approval.* [14] Similarly,
the line between military and political ocers were often blurred in PVA, since the political ocers often had
extensive military experiences while most military ocers were senior Party members within a unit.* [14]
Besides the political ocers, Party members and Party
candidates also enforced political controls within the
ranks.* [14] Squads were often divided into three-man
reteams, with each reteam led by a Party member or
a Party candidate.* [14] Group meetings were frequently
used to maintain unit cohesion, and within the meetings
public shamings and criticisms were conducted to raise
morale and to indoctrinate soldiers.* [15]
The by-product of the tight political control within the
PVA is that it relied on the presence of the Party members
within its ranks to be combat eective.* [16] A PVA unit
could disintegrate once the Party members were either
killed or wounded in action.* [16] Also, the tight political
control had created a general dissatisfaction amongst the
Chinese ranks, and it required constant political indoctrination and high peer pressure to maintain high morale for
each soldier.* [2]

49.6 Prisoners-of-war (POWs)

Prisoners-of-war (POWs) played a major role in the continuation of the war past 1951. The US accused China
of implementing mind control, coinedbrainwashing,
on US prisoners, while China refused to allow the US to
repatriate POWs to Taiwan.

49.6.1

American POWs

219
oners into permanent locations.* [21] Although the situation started to improve after permanent camps were established by January 1951,* [22] death by starvation still
continued until April 1951.* [23] About 43 percent of all
US POWs died from November 1950 to April 1951. In
comparison, only 34 percent of all US prisoners died under Japanese captivity during World War II.* [23] The
Chinese have defended their actions by stating that all
Chinese soldiers during this period were also suering
mass starvation and diseases due to the lack of a competent logistics system.* [24]* [25] The UN POWs, however, pointed out that a lot of the Chinese camps were located near the Sino-Korean border, and claimed that the
starvation was used to force the prisoners to accept the
communism indoctrinations programs.* [24] The starvation and the POW deaths nally stopped by the summer
of 1951 after the armistice talk started.* [26]
Allegations of mind control
Main article: Mind Control The Korean War and the
origin of brainwashing
During the Korean War, Edward Hunter, who worked at
the time both as a journalist and as a U.S. intelligence
agent, wrote a series of books and articles on the allegations of Chinese mind control, which he coined asbrainwashing.* [27]
The Chinese term (x no, literally wash
brain")* [28] was originally used to describe methodologies of coercive persuasion used under the Maoist regime
in China, which aimed to transform individuals with a reactionary imperialist mindset intoright-thinkingmembers of the new Chinese social system.* [29] To that end
the regime developed techniques that would break down
the psyche integrity of the individual with regard to information processing, information retained in the mind and
individual values. Chosen techniques included dehumanizing of individuals by keeping them in lth, sleep deprivation, partial sensory deprivation, psychological harassment, inculcation of guilt and group social pressure. The
term punned on the Taoist custom ofcleansing/washing
the heart(, x xn) prior to conducting certain ceremonies or entering certain holy places.

In contrast with their Korean counterparts, executions

committed by the Chinese are rather few in number.* [2]* [17] But according to author Kevin Mahoney in
his study of the PVA, executions of POWs did occur during the heat of the battle.* [17] Most of the executions
appear to be committed by the lower commands without
the upper echelons' knowledge,* [18] and it is often car- Hunter and those who picked up the Chinese term used
ried out to prevent the future escapes or rescues of the it to explain why, unlike in earlier wars, a relatively high
POWs.* [18]
percentage of American GIs defected to the enemy side
Because the Chinese rarely executed prisoners, the Chi- after becoming prisoners-of-war. It was believed that
nese consider themselves to be more lenient and humane the Chinese in North Korea used such techniques to disto eectively organize
than the North Koreans.* [19] However, the Chinese were rupt the ability of captured troops
*
and
resist
their
imprisonment.
[30]
British radio operaunprepared for the large inux of POWs after their en*
*
tor
Robert
W.
Ford
[31]
[32]
and
British
army Colonel
try into the war, and a large number of prisoners were
James
Carne
also
claimed
that
the
Chinese
subjected
*
crowded into temporary camps for processing. [20] Mass
them
to
brainwashing
techniques
during
their
war-era
imstarvation and diseases soon swept through those camps
prisonment.
during the winter of 195051, while numerous death
marches were conducted by the Chinese to move the pris- After the war, two studies of the repatriation of Amer-

220

CHAPTER 49. PEOPLE'S VOLUNTEER ARMY

ican prisoners of war by Robert Lifton* [33] and by the books of Hunter (whom he identied as a secret CIA
Edgar Schein* [34] concluded that brainwashing (called psychological warfare specialistpassing as a journalthought reformby Lifton and coercive persuasion ist) pushed the CIA brainwashing theory onto the general
by Schein) had a transient eect. Both researchers found public.* [39]
that the Chinese mainly used coercive persuasion to disrupt the ability of the prisoners to organize and maintain morale and hence to escape. By placing the prison- 49.6.2 Chinese POWs
ers under conditions of physical and social deprivation
and disruption, and then by oering them more comfortable situations such as better sleeping quarters, better food, warmer clothes or blankets, the Chinese did
succeed in getting some of the prisoners to make antiAmerican statements. Nevertheless, the majority of prisoners did not actually adopt Communist beliefs, instead
behaving as though they did in order to avoid the plausible
threat of extreme physical abuse. Both researchers also
concluded that such coercive persuasion succeeded only
on a minority of POWs, and that the end-result of such
coercion remained very unstable, as most of the individuals reverted to their previous condition soon after they left
the coercive environment. In 1961 they both published
books expanding on these ndings. Schein published
Coercive Persuasion* [35] and Lifton published Thought
Reform and the Psychology of Totalism.* [36] More reChinese POWs captured by US Marines, December 1950
cent writers including Mikhail Heller have suggested that
Lifton's model of brainwashing may throw light on the
use of mass propaganda in other communist states such A major source of Chinese POWs were those that were
captured from the 180th Division during the Fifth Phase
as the former Soviet Union.* [37]
Campaign. They were sent to Koje Island, 25 miles (40
In a summary published in 1963, Edgar Schein gave a km) southwest of Pusan, including the Division Commisbackground history of the precursor origins of the brain- sar Pei Shan. While there, a ght broke out amongst the
washing phenomenon:
Chinese prisoners along party lines. Supporters of Nationalist China openly slaughtered prisoners who refused
Thought reform contains elements which
to go to Taiwan, while Communist sympathizers hung
are evident in Chinese culture (emphasis on
one of their own in secret for betraying the identity of
interpersonal sensitivity, learning by rote and
Commissar Pei to the Americans during an interrogation
self-cultivation); in methods of extracting consession. Those who decided to return to China after the
fessions well known in the Papal Inquisition
war were ultimately regarded as disgraceful cowards who
(13th century) and elaborated through the cenbetrayed the Communist Party and their country by not
turies, especially by the Russian secret police;
ghting to their last breath. Each soldier was expelled
in methods of organizing corrective prisons,
from the Chinese Communist Party, given a dishonormental hospitals and other institutions for proable discharge, and either jailed or sent to labor-reform
ducing value change; in methods used by
camps.* [40]
religious sects, fraternal orders, political elites
or primitive societies for converting or initiating new members. Thought reform techniques
Anti-Communist POWs in Communist service
are consistent with psychological principles but
were not explicitly derived from such princiDuring the Panmunjeom Truce negotiations, the chief
ples.* [38]
stumbling block to the arrangement of a nal armistice
during the winter of 19511952 revolved around the exMind-control theories from the Korean War era came un- change of prisoners. At rst glance, there appeared to
der criticism in subsequent years. According to forensic be nothing to argue about, since the Geneva Convenpsychologist Dick Anthony, the CIA invented the con- tions of 1949, by which both sides had pledged to abide,
cept of brainwashingas a propaganda strategy to un- called for the immediate and complete exchange of all
dercut communist claims that American POWs in Ko- prisoners upon the conclusion of hostilities. This seemrean communist camps had voluntarily expressed sympa- ingly straightforward principle, however, disturbed many
thy for communism. Anthony stated that denitive re- Americans. To begin with, UN prisoner-of-war camps
search demonstrated that fear and duress, not brainwash- held over 40,000 South Koreans, many of whom had
ing, caused western POWs to collaborate. He argued that been impressed into Communist service and who had no

49.8. EARLY CHINESE INVOLVEMENT

desire to be sent north upon the conclusion of the war.
Moreover, a considerable number of North Korean and
Chinese prisoners had also expressed a desire not to return to their homelands. This was particularly true of the
Chinese POWs, some of whom were anti-Communists
whom the Communists had forcibly inducted during the
Chinese Civil War into the PLA unit that was later transferred into Korea.* [41]* [42]

49.7 Aftermath of the Korean War

See also: Aftermath of the Korean War
Propaganda in North Korea however still suggests that the
war was won by Kim singlehandedly with minor Chinese
help. But as with Egypt over the Suez War, the Chinese
campaign was heralded as a great victory for China's prestige by the Chinese Communist authorities, in stark comparison to the dismal military performance of the Qing
Dynasty against Europe, Japan and America.
In 2011, some former members of Chinese People's Volunteer Army, who had battled there, revisited North Korea. After the revisit, they said they're very sad, unsatised with the post-war development of North Korea.
"(We) liberated them, but they're still struggling for freedomsaid Qu Yingkui.* [43]

49.8 Early Chinese involvement

The stated historical importance of the Chinese People's
Volunteer Army's entering the war was that it marked the
beginning of Chinese government involvement. However, this is rather from political propaganda needs and
there is debate of the time of the beginning of Chinese involvement. Some scholars in the west had argued that the
Chinese involvement was much earlier, and in the North
Korean invasion on June 25, 1950, out of the 135,000
North Korean invasion force, more than 38,000 were the
former ethnic Korean soldiers of the Chinese Communist Fourth Field Army. An equal number of former
ethnic Korean soldiers of Chinese communist IV Field
Army who did not participate in the invasion also served
in North Korean army in other regions of North Korea.
The North Korean invasion force consisted of two corps,
the 1st Corps and the 2nd Corps. Jin Xiong (, Kim
Woong), the commander-in-chief of the invasion force
and the commander of the 1st Corps, was a veteran of
Eighth Route Army, and a former member of Communist
Party of China. Jin Wuting (, Kim Mu Jong), also
known as Wu Ting (, Mu Jong) the commander of
2nd corps, even had more seniority than Jin Xiong (
), in that he participated in Guangzhou Uprising and
the Long March. All of these facts are agreed by the Chinese government.

221
The North Korean invasion force attacked the south on
June 25, 1950 consisting of a total of ten divisions, an armored brigade, an armored regiment, and two independent regiments, 150 tanks, over 600 artillery pieces, and
196 aircraft (including 40 ghters and 70 bombers). The
North Korean divisions included the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th,
5th, 6th, 7th (later renamed as the 12th), 10th, 13th, and
the 15th Divisions. Out of these divisions, three were
former Chinese communist Fourth Field Army divisions.
Each had the following structure: the division headquarter, a political directorate, a supply directorate, a medical directorate, a security battalion, an artillery battalion,
a training / military police group, a propaganda /psychological warfare group and three infantry regiments. Each
regiment consisted of three battalions and each battalion consisted of three infantry companies, a machine gun
company, an engineering company, a security company,
an artillery company, an antitank gun company, and a
mortar company. Kim Il-sung spent over 13.8 million
rubles to purchase Soviet weaponry to arm his invasion
force, which was paid in the form of 9 tons of gold, 40
tons of silver and over 15,000 tons of minerals, but all
former ethnic Korean soldiers of Chinese communist IV
Field Army carried their own weapons and additionally,
the former units of the Chinese communist Fourth Field
Army were also transferred to North Korean with all of
the weapons. The three former Chinese divisions were:
5th Division (North Korea): former 164th Division of the Chinese communist IV Field Army.
The commander, Li Deshan ( ), a veteran
of Eighth Route Army and former member of
Communist Party of China, was also the political
commissar. When the division reached to North
Korea on July 20, 1949, its number totaled 10,821.
Weaponry brought with them included 5,279 ries,
588 handguns, 321 light machine guns, 104 heavy
machine guns, 206 submachine guns, 8 anti-tank ries, 32 grenade launchers, 67 50-mm mortars, 87
60-mm mortars, 26 mortars with calibre of 81-mm
or greater, 12 anti-tank guns, 1 infantry support gun,
3 other artillery pieces, 3,456 bayonets, and 734
horses.
6th Division (North Korea): former 166th Division
of the Chinese communist IV Field Army. The
commander, Fang Fushan (, Bang Ho San),
a veteran of Eighth Route Army and former member
of Communist Party of China, was also the political
commissar. When the division reached to North
Korea on July 20, 1949, its number totaled 10,320.
Weaponry brought with them included: 6,046 ries,
722 handguns, 281 light machine guns, 91 heavy
machine guns, 878 submachine guns, 69 grenade
launchers, 31 50-mm mortars, 91 60-mm mortars,
33 mortars with calibre of 81-mm or greater, 10
anti-tank guns, 3 mountain guns, 3 other artillery
pieces, 1,833 bayonets, and 945 horses.

222

CHAPTER 49. PEOPLE'S VOLUNTEER ARMY

7th Division (North Korea) (later renamed as the

12th): former 156th Division of the Chinese communist IV Field Army, with additional ethnic Korean soldiers from the 139th, 140th, and 141st Divisions of the Chinese communist IV Field Army.
The commander, Cui Ren (, Chu Yol), a veteran of Eighth Route Army and former member of
Communist Party of China, was also the political
commissar. When the division reached North Korea on April 18, 1950, its number totaled more than
14,000. The weaponry brought into North Korea
was greater than that of the other two divisions due
to its larger size.

day, and appear in school textbooks. The willingness of

China to assist North Korea against the United States, and
the show of force they engaged in, heralded that China
was once again becoming a major world power.

From ocial Chinese sources, PVA casualties during the

Korean War were 390,000. This breaks down as follows:
110,400 KIA; 21,600 died of wounds; 13,000 died of
sickness; 25,600 MIA/POW; and 260,000 more WIA.
However, western and other sources estimate that about
400,000 Chinese soldiers were either killed in action or
died of disease, starvation, exposure, and accidents with
around 486,000 wounded, out of around 3 million military personnel deployed in the war by china. Mao Zedong's oldest and only healthy son, Mao Anying (
With the exception of the 2nd and 3rd divisions, which ), was a PVA ocer during the war, and was killed by
mostly consisted of former-Soviet Union trained North a South African air strike.* [44]
Korean troops, all other North Korean divisions had at
It also contributed to the decline of Sino-Soviet relations.
least a former regiment of the Chinese communist IV
Although Chinese had their own reasons to enter the war
Field Army, and in addition to the three former Chinese
(i.e. a strategic buer zone in the Korean peninsula), the
divisions, most of commanders were former commanders
view that the Soviets had used them as proxies was shared
of the Chinese communist IV Field army, such as:
in the Western bloc. China had to use Soviet loans originally intended to rebuild their shattered economy to pay
Commander of the 2nd Division Ch'oe Hyon () for Soviet arms.
and chief-of-sta Xu Bo ()
Commander of the 3rd Division Lee Yong Ho (
) and chief-of-sta Zhang Pingshan ()
Commander of the 4th Division Lee Kwon Mu (
)
Though the Chinese government acknowledged these
facts, these early Chinese involvements were kept a secret for more than four decades in China and it was only
until the late 1990s when such information was nally allowed to be revealed on large scale. The Chinese government, however, argued that these troops were already
transferred to North Korea and thus should be strictly
considered as the internal aairs of Korea, and thus still
asserts the Chinese involvement in the Korean War began when the Chinese People's Volunteer Army joined
the ght.

49.9 Legacy
See also the article on Juche for attitudes in North Korea.

49.9.1

People's Republic of China

By many Chinese the Korean War is generally seen as an

honour in Chinese history. The People's Volunteer Army
was the rst Chinese army in a century that was able to
withstand a Western army in a major conict. They had
earned a namewho is the most lovable. Stories of heroism by members of the PVA continue to be promoted by
the People's Republic of China government even to this

49.9.2 Republic of China

After the war was over, 14,000 of the Chinese prisoners of war hostile to the People's Republic of China defected to the Republic of China (ROC) (the majority
of whom were former Republic of China soldiers who
fought against the Communists in the Chinese Civil War).
In contrast, only 7,110 Chinese POWs opted to return to
the PRC. The defectors began arriving in Taiwan on January 23, 1954 and were referred to as "Anti-Communist
Martyrs" ( ). In Taiwan January 23 became
World Freedom Day () in their honor.
The Korean War also led to other long-lasting eects.
Until the war, the U.S. had largely abandoned the government of Chiang Kai-Shek, which had retreated to Taiwan, and had no plans to intervene in the Chinese Civil
War. The start of the Korean War rendered untenable any
policy that would have caused Taiwan to fall under PRC
control. Truman's decision to send American forces to
the Taiwan Strait further deterred the PRC from making
any cross-strait invasion of Taiwan. The anti-communist
atmosphere in the West in response to the Korean War
and Cold War contributed to the unwillingness to diplomatically recognize the People's Republic of China by
the United States until the 1970s. Today, diplomacy between the Republic of China and mainland China remains strained, and mainland China continues to claim
the sovereignty of Taiwan.

49.13. REFERENCES

223

49.10 Media

[4] Korean War. (2009). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved February 04, 2009.

Who are the Most Beloved People? is the title of an essay

by Chinese writer Wei Wei about the Chinese soldiers
serving in the Korean War. It is considered to be the most
famous literary and propaganda piece produced by China
during the Korean War.

[5] The Strange Connection: U.S. Intervention in China,

19441972 By Bevin Alexander ISBN 0-313-28008-8,
ISBN 978-0-313-28008-5 P117
[6] Zhang 1995, p. 152.

Battle on Shangganling Mountain (Chinese: ; [7] Chinese Question Role in Korean War, from POW-MIA
InterNetwork
pinyin: Shanggan Ling) is a famous Chinese war movie
about the Battle of Triangle Hill. The story is centered [8] Zhang 1995, p. 152.
around a group of Chinese soldiers that were trapped in
a tunnel several days. Short of both food and water, they [9] GlobalSecurity.org Korean War
hold their grounds till the relief troops arrive. The movie's [10] Li Tso-Peng, Strategy: One Against Ten, Tactics: Ten
popularity is largely due to the fact it was one of the few
Against One.Foreign Languages Press, Peking 1966, pp.
movies that were not banned during the Cultural Revolu45.
tion.
War Trash is a novel by the Chinese author Ha Jin, who
has long lived in the United States and who writes in
English. It takes the form of a memoir written by the
ctional character Yu Yuan, a man who eventually becomes a soldier in the Chinese People's Volunteer Army
and who is sent to Korea to ght on the Communist side in
the Korean War. The majority of the memoiris devoted to describing this experience, especially after Yu
Yuan is captured and imprisoned as a POW. The novel
captured the PEN/Faulkner Award and was a nalist for
the Pulitzer Prize.

[11] Ryan, Mark A.; Finkelstein, David M.; McDevitt,

Michael A. (2003). Chinese warghting: The PLA experience since 1949. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. p.
126. ISBN 0-7656-1087-6.

[12] Appleman, Roy E.Chapter XXXIX, The Big Question

. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu. p. 719. CMH
Pub 202-1.
[13] Mahoney 2001, p. 35
[14] Mahoney 2001, p. 36
[15] Mahoney 2001, pp. 3637
[16] Mahoney 2001, p. 37

49.11 See also

Cold War

[17] Mahoney 2001, p. 105

[18] Mahoney 2001, p. 106
[19] Kinkhead 1981, p. 94.

49.12 Notes
[1] Western sources often refer to the Chinese People's Volunteer Army by using the term Chinese Communist
Forces (CCF), a title which was synonymous with the Chinese People's Liberation Army during the Cold War.

49.13 References
49.13.1

Citations

[1] Ryan, Mark A.; Finkelstein, David M.; McDevitt,

Michael A. (2003). Chinese warghting: The PLA experience since 1949. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. p. 125.
ISBN 0-7656-1087-6.
[2] Roe, Patrick C. (May 4, 2000). The Dragon Strikes. Presidio. ISBN 0-89141-703-6.
[3] Chinese Military Science Academy (Sep 2000). History
of War to Resist America and Aid Korea (
). Volume I. Beijing: Chinese Military Science
Academy Publishing House. ISBN 7-80137-390-1.

[20] Lech 2000, p. 38.

[21] Lech 2000, pp. 2, 57.
[22] Kinkhead 1981, p. 141.
[23] Lech 2000, p. 2.
[24] Lech 2000, p. 73.
[25] Zhang 1995, p. 168.
[26] Lech 2000, p. 146.
[27] Marks, John (1979).8. Brainwashing. The Search for
the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control.
New York: Times Books. ISBN 0-8129-0773-6. Retrieved 2008-12-30. In September 1950, the Miami News
published an article by Edward Hunter titled " 'BrainWashing' Tactics Force Chinese into Ranks of Communist Party.It was the rst printed use in any language of
the term brainwashing,which quickly became a stock
phrase in Cold War headlines. Hunter, a CIA propaganda
operator who worked under cover as a journalist, turned
out a steady stream of books and articles on the subject.
[28] Harper, Douglas. brainwashing. Online Etymology
Dictionary. Dictionary.com. Retrieved January 15, 2012.

224

CHAPTER 49. PEOPLE'S VOLUNTEER ARMY

[29] Taylor, Kathleen (2006). Brainwashing: The Science of

Thought Control. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 5.
ISBN 978-0-19-920478-6. Retrieved 2010-07-02.

[38] Schein, Edgar Henry (1963).

Brainwashing.
Encyclopdia Britannica 4 (14th (revised) ed.). Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc. p. 91.

[30] Browning, Michael (2003-03-14).Was Kidnapped Utah

Teen Brainwashed?". Palm Beach Post (Palm Beach).
ISSN 1528-5758. During the Korean War, captured
American soldiers were subjected to prolonged interrogations and harangues by their captors, who often worked
in relays and used the good-cop, bad-copapproach,
alternating a brutal interrogator with a gentle one. It was
all part of Xi Nao,washing the brain. The Chinese
and Koreans were making valiant attempts to convert the
captives to the communist way of thought.

[39] Anthony, Dick (1999).Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of
Jean-Marie. Social Justice Research 12 (4): 421456.
doi:10.1023/A:1022081411463.

[31] Ford RC (1990). Captured in Tibet. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-581570-X.
[32] Ford RC (1997). Wind Between the Worlds: Captured in
Tibet. SLG Books. ISBN 0-9617066-9-4.
[33] Lifton, Robert J. (April 1954). Home by Ship: Reaction Patterns of American Prisoners of War Repatriated
from North Korea. American Journal of Psychiatry 110
(10): 732739. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.110.10.732. PMID
13138750. Retrieved 2008-03-30. Cited in Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism
[34] Schein, Edgar (May 1956). The Chinese Indoctrination Program for Prisoners of War: A Study of Attempted
Brainwashing. Psychiatry 19 (2): 149172. PMID
13323141. Cited in Thought Reform and the Psychology
of Totalism

[40] Cultural Reviews, The Lament of a Chinese POW

[41] Birtle, Andrew J. The Korean War: Years of Stalemate.
United States Army Center of Military History. p. 17.
[42] Operation Big Switch
[43]
[44] The Cold War, The Korean War: An Overview

49.13.2 Sources
Alexander, Bevin R. (1986). Korea: the First War
We Lost. New York, NY: Hippocrene Books, Inc.
ISBN 978-0-87052-135-5.
Appleman, Roy (1992). South to the Naktong, North
to the Yalu. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military
History, United States Army. ISBN 0-16-0359589.
Blair, Clay Jr. (2003). The Forgotten War: America
in Korea, 19501953. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-075-7.

[35] Schein, Edgar H. (1971). Coercive Persuasion: A SocioPsychological Analysis of theBrainwashingof American
Civilian Prisoners by the Chinese Communists. New York:
W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00613-1.

Chen, Jian (1996). China's Road to the Korean

War: the Making of the Sino-American Confrontation. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
ISBN 978-0-231-10025-0.

[36] Lifton, RJ (1989) [1961]. Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism; a Study ofBrainwashingin China.
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 08078-4253-2.

Chinese Military Science Academy (2000). History

of War to Resist America and Aid Korea (
) (in Chinese). Volume I, II, III. Beijing: Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing
House. ISBN 7-80137-390-1.

[37] Heller, Mikhail (1988). Cogs in the Soviet Wheel: The Formation of Soviet Man. Translated by David Floyd. London: Collins Harvill. ISBN 0-00-272516-9. Dr [Robert
J.] Lifton draws attention to a fact of exceptional importance: the eect of 'brainwashing' and its methods is felt
even by those whom he calls the 'apparent resisters', those
who seem not to succumb to the intoxication. This study
showed that they do assimilate what has been hammered
into their brain but the eect comes only a certain time after their liberation, like the explosion of a delayed-action
bomb. It is not hard to imagine the eect which 'education' and 're-education' has upon the Soviet citizen, who is
exposed from the day he is born to 'brainwashing', bombarded every day, round the clock, by all the means of
propaganda and persuasion. Heller's footnote explains the
phrase the means of propaganda and persuasionas
"[t]he ocial name for the means of communication in
the USSR. The accepted abbreviation is SMIP [literally
from the Russian phrase meaning 'means of mass information and propaganda'].

George, Alexander L (1967). The Chinese Communist Army in Action: the War and its Aftermath.
New York, NY: Columbia University Press. OCLC
284111.
Goncharov, Serge Nikolaevich; Lewis, John Wilson; Xue, Litai (1993). Uncertain Partners: Stalin,
Mao, and the Korean War. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2115-8.
Hoyt, Edwin. (1990). The Day The Chinese Attacked: Korea, 1950: the Story of the Failure of
America's China Policy. New York, NY: McGrawHill. ISBN 978-0-07-030632-5.
Kinkhead, Eugene (1981). In Every War But One.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-31323113-3.

49.14. EXTERNAL LINKS

Lech, Raymond B. (2000).
Broken Soldiers.
Chicago, IL: University of Illinois. ISBN 0-25202541-5.
Mahoney, Kevin (2001). Formidable enemies : the
North Korean and Chinese Soldier in the Korean
War. Presidio Press. ISBN 978-0-89141-738-5.
McMichael, Scott R. (1987). Chapter 2: the Chinese
Communist Forces in Korea (PDF). A Historical Perspective on Light Infantry (Fort Leavenworth, KS:
US Army Combined Arms Center). ISSN 0887235X. part 2
Pease, Stephen E. (1992). Psywar: Psychological
Warfare in Korea, 19501953. Harrisburg, PA:
Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-2592-8.
Ryan, Mark A.; Finkelstein, David M.; McDevitt,
Michael A. (2003). Chinese Warghting: The PLA
Experience Since 1949. Armonk, New York: M.E.
Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-1087-6.
Roe, Patrick C. (2000). The Dragon Strikes. Presidio. ISBN 0-89141-703-6.
Shrader, Charles R. (1995). Communist Logistics in
the Korean War. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
ISBN 0-313-29509-3.
Spurr, Russell (1988). Enter the Dragon: China's
Undeclared War Against the U.S. in Korea 195051.
New York, NY: Newmarket Press. ISBN 1-55704008-7.
US IX Corps (1951). Enemy Tactics, Techniques
and Doctrine Korea 1951 (PDF). Fort Leavenworth,
KS: US Army Combined Arms Center. Retrieved
2010-07-27.
Zhang, Shu Guang (1992). Deterrence and Strategic
Culture: Chinese-American Confrontations, 1949
1958. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN
0-8014-2751-7.
Zhang, Shu Guang (1995). Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 19501953.
Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN
0-7006-0723-4.
Zhang, Xiaoming (2004). Red Wings Over the Yalu:
China, the Soviet Union, and the Air War in Korea.
College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
ISBN 1-58544-201-1.

49.14 External links

Peng Dehuai's memoirs on the Korean War
Centurychina.com
Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War Memorial

225
China Intervenes
Initial Communist Chinese Logistics in the Korean
War
Memoirs of a Chinese Marshal

Chapter 50

Polish 7th Air Escadrille

Albatros D.III (Oeag) series 253 ghters of the escadrille at

Lewandwka aireld in the winter of 1919-1920; the plane
marked with a large I sign was own by the escadrille's commanding ocer, Cedric Faunt-le-Roy

Polish 7th Air Escadrille emblem

American volunteers, Merian C. Cooper and Cedric Fauntleroy,

ghting in the Polish Air Force.

Polish 7th Air Escadrille (Polish: 7. Eskadra Lotnicza), better known as the Kociuszko Squadron, was
one of the units of the Polish Air Force during the PolishSoviet War of 1919-1921. Formed in late 1918, it was
re-formed in late 1919 from US volunteers. It was one of
the most active Polish squadrons in the war.

50.1 Operational history

The unit was formed when Poland regained independence, on 7 November 1918 in Krakw, as the 3rd Air
Escadrille, utilizing mostly bomber and reconnaissance
aircraft left by Austro-Hungarian forces. On 25 November 1918 it was moved to Lww (current Lviv), where it

took active part in ghting of the Polish-Ukrainian War

until June 1919. On 21 December 1918, after unication of Polish air units' names, its name was changed to
the 7th Air Escadrille. It was commanded by Jerzy
Boreysza, from April 1919 by Stefan Stec. Among pilots was World War I Ace Mieczysaw Garsztka and Harvard graduate Edmund Pike Graves. Number of aircraft
was variable, in May 1919 it possessed 3 ghters Fokker
D.VIII (E.V), 3 reconnaissance Hansa-Brandenburg C.I
and 1 LVG C.V. In June 1919 the escadrille was converted into ghter unit, then in September it was withdrawn into reserve. In October 1919 the commander became Ludomi Rayski.
In late 1919 eight American volunteers, including Major
Cedric Fauntleroy and Captain Merian C. Cooper, arrived in Poland from France where in September 1919
they had been ocially named the Kociuszko Squadron
(after the Polish American hero Tadeusz Kociuszko)
with Major Fauntleroy as its commander.* [1] After
reaching Poland the men from Kociuszko Squadron

226

50.2. SQUADRON STATISTICS

227
have been done for.
Merian Cooper was shot down but survived. Budionny
had put half a million rubles on Captain Cooper's head,
but when he was caught by the Cossacks he managed to
convince them that he was a corporal. A few months later
he escaped from a POW camp near Moscow to Latvia.
In August 1920 the Kociuszko Squadron took part in the
defense of Lww, and after the Battle of Warsaw it participated in the Battle of Komarw which crippled Budionny's cavalry. Most active days were August 16 and
17, when Escadrille, reduced to 5 uninjured pilots, fullled 18 ground attack missions each day.

After the Polish-Soviet War, in 1925 the 7th Kociuszko Squadron was reorganized as the 121st Fighter
Squadron, eventually renamed as the Polish 111th Fighter
Escadrille, each bearing theKociuszkoeponym. The
111th Squadron fought in the Invasion of Poland. Perhaps the most famous successor to the original KoInsignia of the 303 Polish Squadron, during World War II, would
ciuszko Squadron would be the World War II No.
be identical with that of the Kociuszko Squadron. The 303
303KociuszkoPolish Fighter Squadron (Warszawski
Squadron honour badge had 303added to the original Koim. Tadeusza Kociuszki), the most successful ghter
ciuszko Squadron emblem.
squadron in the Battle of Britain.
joined the 7th Squadron. More pilots arrived during the
following weeks - in all, there served 21 American pilots, along with several Polish pilots, including Ludwik
Idzikowski, the ground crew was all Polish. In November 1919 Major Fauntleroy took the command and on 31
December 1919 the escadrille took the name Kociuszko
Squadron. Meanwhile, the Polish Air Force underwent
reorganization. Even though most volunteers asked to be
sent to the frontlines as soon as possible, the Polish high
command delayed their deployment in view of the coming Polish oensive.
The Kociuszko Squadron was the rst air squadron to
use a railway train as a mobile ying base with specially
designed railroad cars that could transport their aircraft as
the front moved and developed. The train also included
the squadron's operational headquarters, aircraft spares
and repair workshops and living quarters.
The Kociuszko Squadron was rst used in the Kiev Offensive in April 1920, rebasing from Lww to Poonne.
Its aircraft were Albatros D.III (Oef) ghters, supplemented by Ansaldo A.1 Balilla. Since there were no
air encounters, primary missions became reconnaissance
and ground attack. Most of the Squadron's ights
were directed against Semyon Budionny's First Cavalry Army. The Squadron developed a tactic of lowaltitude machine-gun strang runs. Polish land commanders highly valued the contribution of the Kociuszko
Squadron. General Puchucki of the 13th Infantry Division wrote in a report: The American pilots, though
exhausted, ght tenaciously. During the last oensive,
their commander attacked enemy formations from the
rear, raining machine-gun bullets down on their heads.
Without the American pilots' help, we would long ago

50.2 Squadron statistics

In 1920 the Kociuszko Squadron made over 400 combat
ights.
Colonel Cedric E. Fauntleroy and Lt.- Col. Merian C.
Cooper received Poland's highest military decoration: the
Virtuti Militari. Other Kociuszko Squadron recipients of
the Virtuti Militari included Major George M. Crawford,
Captain Edward C. Corsi, Captain Wadysaw Konopka,
1st Lieut. Elliot W. Chess, 1st Lieut. Carl H. Clark, 1st
Lieut. E. H. Noble, 1st Lieut. H. C. Rorison, 1st Lieut.
K. O. Shrewsbury, 1st Lieut. Jerzy A. Weber* [2] and
2nd Lieut. A. Senkowski. Mieczyslaw Garsztka was to
be awarded the Virtuti Militari posthumously.

50.3 See also

Antoni Mroczkowski of the 19th Escadrille
No. 164 Squadron RAFArgentine volunteers in
the RAF during World War II
Eagle SquadronAmerican volunteers in the RAF
during World War II
Flying TigersAmerican volunteers who fought for
the ROC in the Sino-Japanese War (19371945)
Lafayette Escadrille American volunteers in the
French Air Service during World War I

228

50.4 References
[1] Murray, Murray (1932). Wings Over Poland: The Story
of the 7th (Kosciuszko) Squadron of the Polish Air Service,
1919, 1920, 1921. D. Appleton and Co. p. 362.
[2] Murray, Murray (1932). Wings Over Poland: The Story
of the 7th (Kosciuszko) Squadron of the Polish Air Service,
1919, 1920, 1921. D. Appleton and Co. p. 362.

50.5 Further reading

Faunt-le-Roy i jego eskadra w Polsce : dzieje Eskadry Kociuszki book cover

Merian C. Cooper, Faunt-le-Roy i jego eskadra w

Polsce : dzieje Eskadry Kociuszki, Wydawnictwa
Pism Zwizkowych, Chicago, 1922.
Kenneth Malcolm Murray, Wings Over Poland: The
Story of the 7th (Kosciuszko) Squadron of the Polish Air Service, 1919, 1920, 1921, D. Appleton and
Co.,1932.
Janusz Cisek, Kosciuszko, We Are Here: American Pilots of the Kosciuszko Squadron in Defense of
Poland, 1919-1921, McFarland & Company, 2002,
ISBN 0-7864-1240-2, Google Print
Poland repels the Communist invasion of Europe, A.D.
1920 (Poland vs Soviet Union)

CHAPTER 50. POLISH 7TH AIR ESCADRILLE

Chapter 51

Polish Air Forces in France and Great

Britain
The Polish Air Forces (Polskie Siy Powietrzne) was the
name of the Polish Air Forces formed in France and the
United Kingdom during World War II. The core of the
Polish air units ghting alongside the Allies were experienced veterans of the 1939 Invasion of Poland. They
contributed to the Allied victory in the Battle of Britain
and most World War II air operations.
A total of 145 Polish ghter pilots served in the RAF
during the Battle of Britain, making up the largest nonBritish contribution.* [1] By the end of the war, around
19,400 Poles were serving in the Polish Air Force in Great
Britain and in RAF.* [2]

51.1 History

Monument to fallen Polish airmen; Warsaw, Pole Mokotowskie

After the joint German-Soviet victory in the Invasion of

Poland of 1939, most of the ying personnel and technicians of the Polish Air Force were evacuated to Romania and Hungary, after which thousands found their
way to France. There, in accordance with the FrancoPolish Military Alliance of 1921 and the amendments of
1939, Polish Air Force units were to be re-created. However, the French headquarters was hesitant about creating large Polish air units, and instead most Polish pi-

lots were attached to small units, so-called keys. Only

one large unit was formed, the Groupe de Chasse polonaise I/145 stationed at Mions aireld. However, it was
not until May 18, 1940 that this unit was equipped with
planes - and even then these were the completely obsolete
Caudron C.714 ghters. After 23 sorties the bad opinion of the plane was conrmed by the front-line pilots.
It was seriously underpowered and was no match for the
enemy ghters of the period. Because of that, on May
25, only a week after the plane was introduced to active
service, French minister of war Guy la Chambre ordered
all C.710s withdrawn. However, since the French authorities had no other planes to oer, the Polish pilots
ignored the order and continued to use the planes. Although the planes were hopelessly outdated compared to
the Messerschmitt Bf 109E's they faced, the Polish pilots nevertheless scored 12 conrmed and 3 unconrmed
kills in three battles between June 8 and June 11, losing 9 in the air and 9 more on the ground. Interestingly, among the planes claimed shot down were four
Dornier Do 17 bombers, but also three Messerschmitt Bf
109 and ve Messerschmitt Bf 110 ghters. The rest of
the Polish units were using the Morane-Saulnier M.S.406
ghter, slightly more reliable. A small improvised Polish unit at Salon and Clermont-Aulnat (now ClermontFerrand Auvergne Airport) operated the equally inadequate Koolhoven F.K.58 from 30 May commanded by
Captain Walerian Jasionowski.* [3]
The Polish Air Force in France had 86 aircraft with one
and a half of the squadrons fully operational, and the remaining two and a half in various stages of training.* [4]
Altogether, the Polish pilots ew 714 sorties during the
Battle of France. According to Jerzy Cynk, they shot
down 51.9 enemy planes (summing fraction kills - 57 kills
including 16 shared victories), in addition to 3 unconrmed kills and 6 3/5 damaged. According to Bartomiej
Belcarz they shot down 53 aircraft, including 19 kills
shared with the French. These 53 victories makes 7.93%
of 693 allied air victories in the French campaign. At
the same time they lost 44 planes (in combat, accidents
and on the ground) and lost 8 ghter pilots in combat, 1
missing, and 4 in accidents.* [5]

229

230

CHAPTER 51. POLISH AIR FORCES IN FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN

and 302 and 303 ghter squadrons.
The ghter
squadrons, ying the Hawker Hurricane, rst saw action
in the third phase of the Battle of Britain in late August
1940, quickly becoming highly eective. Polish ying
skills were well-developed from the Invasion of Poland
and the pilots were regarded as fearless and sometimes
bordering on reckless. Their success rates were very high
in comparison to the less-experienced British Commonwealth pilots.* [7] The 303 squadron became the most efcient RAF ghter unit at that time,* [8] and RAF commanders protested when government censors refused to
allow this fact to appear in the press. By late 1940 the
American visitor Ralph Ingersoll reported that the Poles
were the talk of Londonbecause of their victories.
Although at rst the Poles memorized basic English sentences to identify themselves if shot down over Britain to
avoid being mistaken as Germans, the visitor wrote that
now they always have a girl on each arm. They say the
girls cannot resist the Poles, nor the Poles the girls.* [9]

Polish War Memorial, London

After the collapse of France in 1940, a large part of the

Polish Air Force contingent was withdrawn to the United
Kingdom. However, the RAF Air Sta were not willing to accept the independence and sovereignty of Polish
forces.

Many Polish pilots ew in other RAF squadrons, usually given nicknames because, as Ingersoll wrote, the
Polish names, of course, are unpronounceable.* [9]
Later, further Polish squadrons were created: 304
(bomber, then Coastal Command), 305 (bomber), 306
(ghter), 307 (night ghter), 308 (ghter), 309 (reconnaissance, then ghter), 315 (ghter), 316 (ghter), 317
(ghter), 318 (ghter-reconnaissance) and 663 (air observation/artillery spotting). The ghter squadrons initially
ew Hurricanes, then Supermarine Spitres, and eventually some were equipped with North American Mustangs.
Night ghters used by 307 were the Boulton-Paul Deant,
Bristol Beaughter and the de Havilland Mosquito. The
bomber squadrons were initially equipped with Fairey
Battles and Vickers Wellingtons, then Avro Lancasters
(300 sqn), Handley Page Halifaxs and Consolidated Liberators (301 sqn) and de Havilland Mosquitos and North
American Mitchells (305 sqn). 663 ew Auster AOP Mk
Vs.

Air Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding later admitted he had

been a little doubtfulat rst about the Polish airmen.
British government informed General Sikorski that at the
end of the war, Poland would be charged for all costs involved in maintaining Polish forces in Britain. Plans for
the airmen greatly disappointed them: they would only be
allowed to join the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve,
wear British uniforms, y British ags and be required
to take two oaths, one to the Polish government and the
other to George VI; each ocer was required to have a
British counterpart, and all Polish pilots were to begin
with the rank of pilot ocer, the lowest rank for
a commissioned ocer in the RAF. Only after posting
would anyone be promoted to a higher grade.* [6] Because
of this, the majority of highly experienced Polish pilots
had to wait in training centres, learning English Command procedures and language, while the RAF suered
heavy losses due to lack of experienced pilots. On June
11, 1940, a preliminary agreement was signed by the Pol- Polish Air Force memorial, St Clement Danes, London
ish and British governments and soon the British authorities nally allowed for creation of two bomber squadrons On April 6, 1944, a further agreement was reached and
and a training centre as part of the Royal Air Force.
the Polish Air Forces in Great Britain came under PolThe rst squadrons were 300 and 301 bomber squadrons ish command, without RAF ocers. This resulted in

51.2. POLISH VOLUNTEER AIR FORCE SQUADRONS COAT OF ARMS

231

the creation of a dedicated Polish Air Force sta college grin rampant shield design, very similar to the coat of
at RAF Weston-super-Mare, which remained open until arms of Pomerania. The identical badge can be seen on
April 1946.* [10]
photos of PZL.23 Kara light bombers ghting against
After the war, in a changed political situation, their equip- German invaders in September 1939;
ment was returned to the British. Due to the fact that
Poland ended the war, betrayed by British prime-minister
and US president, under Soviet Union occupation, only a
small proportion of the pilots returned to Poland and suffered from harassment, while the rest remained in exile.

The new 301 Transport Squadron was formed in November 1944 and operated in North Africa and in Italy for
Special Duties ights. It used a circular badge with a Polish Eagle, and below it - a Pomeranian red grin passant
shield - and a Maid of WarsawSyrenashield, with the
number
301below. The use of the grin refers to
A memorial to those Polish pilots killed while on RAF
the
earlier
301 Squadron, but it wrongly shows a grin
service has been erected at the south-eastern corner of
passant
(walking)
instead of the original grin rampant.
RAF Northolt aerodrome. On the public highway, it is
accessible without entering RAF areas. It is adjacent to 302 Squadron's badge uses an old Polish design previously
a junction on the A40 Western Avenue; the ocial name used for 131 and 132 Escadrilles, the closest is the blue
for this junction is stillPolish War Memorial. A large wings version of that badge from 132 Esc. The diamond
memorial to Polish Air Force squadrons in the war is sit- shape badge includes a red, white and blue background
uated on the oor of the north aisle of the reconstructed from both the French and UK ags and it has both the
Wren church St Clement Danes, London.
French Arme de l'AirI/145unit number and302
The Polish-American ghter ace Francis S. Gabby .
Gabreski ew his rst combat missions attached to a Pol- 303 Squadron's badge is the same as the older Polish
ish RAF squadron.
Kociuszkounit, used for 111 Escadrille in the BryKing George VI, on visiting a Polish squadron, asked a gada Poscigowa (Pursuit Brigade) tasked with the defence
Polish airman what was the toughest thing he had to deal of Warsaw. But, in the RAF badge it has 303added
with in the war. The reply was King's Regulations.... below.

51.2 Polish Volunteer Air Force

Squadrons Coat of Arms

304 Squadron's badge shows a bomb and aV

( Fifth)
reference which could be for a Polish unit, or it may refer
to the fact that 304 Sqn was the fth unit both by numerical position (300-304) and it was the fth Polish squadron
formed by date, or it may refer to V for Victory.

305 Squadron's badge uses a graphic image of a feather,

When the Polish RAF squadrons were formed, a series a letterPprobably for Polska (Poland) and a spear
of badges or coats of arms were designed for each of the signifying launched attack and the colour roundel of the
Polish squadrons or ying units with the exception of 945 RAF and the square roundel of the Polish Air Force. The
squadron number 305is added.
& 929 Balloon Squadrons, 1586 Flight and 6(C) OTU.
Some of the squadron badges were based on squadron or 306 Squadron's badge uses an old Polish design previescadrille badges of Polish ying units pre-1939 before ously used for 141 and 142 Escadrilles. The main dierences are: 141 & 142 had an inverted hexagon, 306 uses
the Second World War.
a diamond shape. Also in the 306 badge there is a bear
Some were long established such as 303's Kociuszko and tree, a symbol for Warwickshire, UK (and Madrid).
badge and some were designed specially for the large and
growing number of ying units being formed in the RAF. 307 Squadron's badge uses a crescent moon, an aircraft
and an Eagle Owl derived from the heroic exploits of The
300 Squadron's badge has CCCmeaning 300in Lww Eaglets (Polish: Orlta Lwowskie) young ghters
Roman numerals. It was the rst Polish RAF squadron who died defending the city of Lwow in Galicia, Poland
formed. It combines the coats of arms of both Poland and from invading Ukrainian & Russian forces during the
England - it has the Polish White Eagle Orze Biay Polish-Ukrainian War (19181919). The name Eagle
(an eagle argent armed, crowned) and it has the English Owlsis also appropriate because 307 Squadron's role
Lion (a lion passant guardant, crowned).
was night-ghter defence.
301 Squadron was two separate squadrons with two dif- 308 Squadron's badge uses an old Polish design previously
ferent roles at dierent times and each used a dierent used for 121 Escadrille. It uses the same emblem but
squadron badge. In July 1940, 301 Bomber Squadron facing the opposite way (right instead of left) and it is
was formed. It closed in March 1943 and most of their now enclosed in a diamond shape.
crews and aircraft were merged with 300 Squadron. Their
315 Squadron's badge uses an old Polish design previously
badges were :
used for 112 Escadrille in the Brygada Poscigowa (Pursuit
The rst 301 Bomber Squadron used an inverted hexagon Brigade) tasked with the defence of Warsaw. The only
badge with a white background and a Pomeranian red

232

CHAPTER 51. POLISH AIR FORCES IN FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN

dierence is that it was rotated 30 degrees clockwise so tions via a Polish unit. The PFT squadron's commanthe triangle is pointing down instead of left, with the bird der Stanislaw Skalski was a senior ocer in III-4 Pomore vertical and 315was added.
morze (Pomerania) Squadron during the 1939 invasion
316 Squadron's badge uses an old Polish design previously of Poland.
used for 113 Escadrille in the Brygada Poscigowa (Pursuit
Brigade) tasked with the defence of Warsaw. The only
dierence is that it was rotated 30 degrees clockwise so
the triangle is pointing down instead of left, with the owl
more vertical and 316 SQwas added.
317 Squadron's badge uses an old Polish design previously
used for 151 and 152 Escadrilles in the pre-war Polish
Narew Army Group. The blue version of that badge
for 151 Esc. is closest to the 317 Sqn. badge.
318 Squadron's badge uses the coat of arms of the City
of Gdansk - a red shield with two white crosses and a
golden crown above. The only additions are the golden
wings surrounding the shield and the number 318at
the top.
663 Squadron's badge uses the Polish red and white chequered square roundelset as a diamond with a Polish
eagle ying and carrying an artillery shell. It has the letters DSAbeside the number 663.
NOTE : In the Polish Air Force, their Air Force unit
badges had two versions depending on which side of the
aircraft they were painted, so that the emblem was always
pointing or facing forwards. So on the port (left) side, the
emblem faced left (forward) and on the starboard (right)
side, the emlem faced right (forward). For the RAF Polish squadrons, there was only one design with most facing left, but 308, 316 and 663 squadrons' emblems faced
right.
FURTHER CLARIFICATION
No. 138 Squadron including its Polish C Flightused
the badge of the earlier RAF 138 Squadron which shows a
sword cutting the reef-knot in a cord or rope, symbolising
their role of liberating occupied territories during World
War II.
No. 302 Squadron inherited the traditions of previous
Squadrons of the PAF such as III/3 Fighter Squadron,
131st Fighter Escadrille, Polish 132nd Fighter Escadrille
and the French Arme de l'Air Groupe de Chasse G.C.
I/145.
No.303 Squadron inherited the traditions and badge of
previous Kociuszko Squadrons of the PAF such as the
early Polish 7th Air Escadrille and 121st Fighter Escadrille and the later Polish 111th Fighter Escadrille.
No. 317 Squadron inherited the traditions and badge of
a previous Squadron of the PAF, the 151st Fighter Escadrille and 152nd Fighter Escadrille, part of the Narew
(151) and Modlin (152) Independent Operational Groups
respectively.
No. 145 SquadronPolish Fighting Teamuses a sphinx
with a wing. It may have derived its badge and tradi-

No. 300 Polish Bomber Squadron

Land of Masovia
No. 301 Polish Bomber Squadron
Land of Pomerania, Defenders of Warsaw
No. 302 Polish Fighter Squadron
City of Poznan
No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron
Kociuszko
No. 304 Polish Bomber Squadron
Land of Silesia-Ks. Jzefa Poniatowskiego
No. 305 Polish Bomber Squadron
Land of Greater Poland-Marshal Josef Pilsudski
No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron
City of Torun
No. 307 Polish Night Fighter Squadron
Lww Eagle-owls
No. 308 Polish Fighter Squadron
City of Krakow
No. 309 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance Squadron
Land of Czerwien
No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron
City of Deblin
No. 316 Polish Fighter Squadron
City of Warsaw
No. 317 Polish Fighter Squadron
City of Wilno
No. 318 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance Squadron
City of Gdansk
No. 663 Artillery Observation Squadron
We Fly for the Guns
Polish Fighting Team{attached to No. 145 RAF
Squadron}
Skalski's Circus
No. 138 Special Duty Squadron Polish Flight C

No. 1586 Polish Special Duties Flight

51.3. POLISH VOLUNTEER WINGS IN ALLIED AIR FORCES, 1940-45

233

51.3.2 United Kingdom

Royal Air Force (Home Command), June 6, 1944
RAF Bomber Command*

Caudron CR.714 ghter plane of Groupe de Chasse I/145, June

1940

51.3 Polish volunteer wings in Allied Air forces, 1940-45

51.3.1

France

List of Polish units based on Bartomiej Belcarz's research and publications.* [5]* [11]
Arme de l'Air, May 10, 1940 - Zone dOperations
Ariennes des Alpes
Groupe de Chasse de Varsovie at Lyon-Bron
Groupe de Chasse GC I/145 at Lyon-Bron and
at Dreux
Section no.1 aszkiewicz GC III/2
Section no.2 Pentz GC II/6
Section no.3 Sulerzycki GC III/6
Section no.4 Bursztyn GC III/1
Section no.5 Brzeziski GC I/2
Section no.6 Goettel GC II/7
Jasionowski Koolhoven Flight
DAT section Krasnodbski GC I/55 based at
Chteaudun and tampes
DAT section Skiba GC I/55
DAT section Kuzian based at Nantes
DAT section Opulski based at Romorantin
DAT section Krasnodbski based at ToulouseFrancazal
Centre d'Instruction d'Aviation de Chasse at
Montpellier
Ecole de Pilotage No 1 (Chasse) at Etampes
Ecole de Pilotage at Avord
Centre d'Instruction at Tours
Depot d'Instruction de l'Aviation Polonaise at
Lyon-Bron
Montpellier Flight

No. 1 Bomber Group

No. 300 Polish Bomber Squadron
MasoviaRAF Faldingworth (Avro
Lancaster Mk. I & III)
No. 301 Polish Bomber Squadron
PomeraniaRAF
Faldingworth
(Handley Page Halifax Mk. III)
Allied Expeditionary Air Force
Air Defence of Great Britain
No. 11 (Fighter) Group
No.
303 Polish Fighter Squadron
KosciuszkoHorne (Supermarine Spitre Mk VB)
No. 307 Polish Fighter Squadron City
of LwowChurch Fenton (De Havilland
Mosquito Mk-NF.XIII)
No. 12 (Fighter) Group
No. 309 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance
Squadron CzerwienB(Flight)
Hutton Cranswick (Hawker Hurricane
Mk. IIC)
No.
316 Polish Fighter Squadron
City of WarsawRAF Coltishall (North
American Mustang III)
No. 13 Fighter Group
No. 309 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance
SquadronCzerwien
A(Flight) RAF
Drem (Hawker Hurricane Mk. IIC)
2nd Tactical Air Force
No. 305 Polish Bomber Squadron Greater
PolandLasham (de Havilland Mosquito F.B.
Mk VI)
No. 84 Group RAF
131 Wing
No. 302 Polish Fighter Squadron City
of PoznanChailey (Supermarine Spitre
Mk. IX)
No. 308 Polish Fighter Squadron City
of KrakowChailey (Supermarine Spitre Mk. IX)
No. 317 Polish Fighter Squadron City
of WilnoChailey (Supermarine Spitre
Mk. IX)
II Corps (Poland)
No. 318 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance
SquadronCity of GdanskChailey (Supermarine Spitre P.R. Mk. IX)

234

CHAPTER 51. POLISH AIR FORCES IN FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN

No.
663 Polish Artillery Observation Squadron (Italy) (British Taylorcraft
Auster III, IV and V)
133 Wing
No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron City
of TorunCoolham (North American
Mustang III)
No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron City
of DeblinCoolham (North American
Mustang III)

Coastal Command
No 19 (GR) Group
No. 304 Polish Bomber SquadronSilesiaRAF Chivenor (Vickers Wellington
Mk. XIV)
Polish Fighting Team
Polski Zesp Myliwski (Polish Fighting
Team) (also known as Skalski's Circus) (Supermarine Spitre F VB Trop and VC, later
Supermarine Spitre F IXC)
Bases
RAF West Kirby (England) - First base
In African area
Bu Grara
La Fauconnerie
Goubrine
Hergla
Ben Gardane

51.4 Stats
51.5 See also
Air Force of the Polish Army (in the East)
Polish Air Force (modern)

[3] Cync 1998, p. 134

[4] Andrew Hempel (8 November 2005). Poland in World
War II: An Illustrated Military History. Hippocrene Books.
p. 26. ISBN 978-0-7818-1004-3. Retrieved 7 November
2012.
[5] Bartomiej Belcarz: Polskie lotnictwo we Francji, Stratus,
Sandomierz 2002, ISBN 83-916327-6-8
[6] For your freedom and ours, The Kosciuszko squadron, Olson&Cloud, pgs 98,99,100, Arrow books, 2003, ISBN 009-942812-1
[7] (English) Lynne Olson & Stanley Cloud. 2003. A Question of Honor. The Kosciuszko Squadron: Forgotten
Heroes of World War II. New York: Knopf.
[8] (English) Jerzy B. Cynk. 1998. The Polish Air Force
at War: The Ocial History, 19431945. Atglen, PA:
Schier Publishing, 1998, ISBN 0-7643-0560-3.
[9] Ingersoll, Ralph (1940). Report on England, November
1940. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 197198.
[10] RAF Weston-super-Mare. rafweb.org. Retrieved
2009-07-12.
[11] Belcarz, Bartomiej. Morane MS 406C1, Caudron Cyclone
CR 714C1, Bloch MB 151/152 (Polskie Skrzyda 2) (in
Polish), Sandomierz, Poland: Stratus, 2004. ISBN 8389450-21-6.
[12] Including Polish units both in France and in United Kingdom
[13] Including all Polish air units in France, as well as Polish
ghter units of RAF Fighter Command; excluding the pilots of the Polish Fighting Team, as well as Polish pilots
ghting in the RAF and USAAF
[14] Including the Polish units of Bomber Command, Coastal
Command and Tactical Air Force, but excluding the special units of No. 138 Squadron RAF, No. 1586 (Polish Special Duties) Flight and No. 301 Polish Bomber
Squadron
[15] No. 138 Squadron RAF, No. 1586 (Polish Special Duties) Flight and No. 301 Polish Bomber Squadron
[16] Including Polish units of the Transport Command and Air
Transport Auxiliary

Polish contribution to World War II

51.7 Further reading

51.6 References
[1] Number of participants from the Battle of Britain Monument. Bbm.org.uk. 1940-10-31. Retrieved 2011-0607.
[2] WWII Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the
West . In Depth . Fighting with the Allies. PBS. Retrieved 2011-06-07.

Belcarz, Bartomiej. Polskie lotnictwo we Francji

(in Polish), Stratus, Sandomierz 2002, ISBN 83916327-6-8.
Belcarz, Bartomiej. Morane MS 406C1, Caudron
Cyclone CR 714C1, Bloch MB 151/152 (Polskie
Skrzyda 2) (in Polish), Sandomierz, Poland: Stratus, 2004. ISBN 83-89450-21-6.

51.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

Cynk, Jerzy Bogdam. History Of The Polish Air
Force 19181968 (Aircam Special S9). Reading,
Berkshire, UK: Osprey Publications, 1972. ISBN
0-85045-039-X.
Cynk, Jerzy Bogdam. Polskie lotnictwo myliwskie
w boju wrzeniowym (in Polish). Gdask, Poland:
AJ-Press, 2000.
Cynk, Jerzy Bogdam. Polskie Siy Powietrzne w wojnie tom 1: 1939-43 (Polish Air Force in War pt. 1:
1939-43) (in Polish). Gdask, Poland: AJ-Press,
2001.
(Updated and revised edition of The Polish Air Force
at War: The Ocial History, Vol.2 19391943. Atglen, PA: Schier Books, 1998. ISBN 0-76430559-X.)
Cynk, Jerzy Bogdam. Polskie Siy Powietrzne w wojnie tom 2: 1943-45 (Polish Air Force in War pt. 2:
1943-45) (In Polish). Gdask, Poland: AJ-Press,
2002.
(Updated and revised edition of The Polish Air Force
at War: The Ocial History, Vol.2 19431945. Atglen, PA: Schier Books, 1998. ISBN 0-76430560-3.)
Gretzyngier, Robert. Poles in Defence of Britain:
A Day-by-day Chronology of Polish Day and Night
Fighter Pilot Operations July 1940 June 1941.
London: Grub Street, 2005. ISBN 1-904943-05-5.
Koniarek, Dr. Jan. Polish Air Force 1939
1945. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc.,1994. ISBN 0-89747-324-8.
Kornicki, Franciszek. Polish Air Force Chronicle
of Main Events. UK: Polish Air Force Association
of Great Britain, 1993.
Lisiewicz, Mieczysaw (Translated from the Polish
by Ann Maitland-Chuwen). Destiny can wait The
Polish Air Force in the Second World War. London:
Heinemann, 1949.
Peszke, Michael Alfred. The Polish Air Force in the
United Kingdom, 19391946 in the RAF Air Power
Review Vol.11 No.3, Winter 2008
Zamoyski, Adam. The Forgotten Few: The Polish Air Force in The Second World War. UK: Leo
Cooper Ltd., 2004. ISBN 1-84415-090-9.

51.8 External links

Polish squadrons in the RAF (Flight)
Personnel of the Polish Air Force in Great Britain
1940-1947

235

Chapter 52

Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam

The Garrison Cemetery is located in Seringapatam, on Mysore.* [9]* [10]
the banks of the river Cauvery, about 300m from the
Bangalore Mysore Highway. It has about 307 graves of
the European ocers killed in the nal assault on Tippu
52.3 Record of Constance Parsons
Sultan in 1799, and their family members. Among the
graves, there are 80 graves of the ocers of the Swiss
de Meuron Regiment, and the rest of the graves are In 1931, Parsons describes the cemetery having graves of
many brave fallen soldiers. Among them, Lt. Col. Peter
their family members.* [1]* [2]
Dallas, who tried to save the life of Seyyid Saheb, J A
The cemetery entrance gate has a marble stone, reads, Cassamaijor of the De Meuron Regiment, many young
Garrison Cemetery AD 1800. Latest burial 1860.A wives aged 2024 years. One grave stone laments loss of
few tombs are imposing, while others are small, some a young wife using Ben Johnson's epitaph for Elizabeth
shaped like of a con and said to be the remains of in- as
fants who died of plague. Many ocers of the Swiss mercenary de Meuron Regiment are buried here.* [3]
Underneath this stone doth lie
As much beauty as could die
Which in life did harbour give
52.1 Regiment de Meuron
To more virtue tan doth life* [1]
1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Parsons was invoked but never dened (see
the help page).

Main article: Regiment de Meuron

The Regiment de Meuron, was a Swiss mercenary unit,

in the services of the Dutch East India Company, and
even fought against the British East India Company in
Ceylon. Following the abeyance of wage payments by the 52.4 Grave of Caroline Isabella
Dutch East India Company in Ceylon in 1795, the regiScott
ment held negotiations with the British East India Company and joined their services with 800 men. The Regiment de Meuron took part in the Siege of Seringapatam Constance Parsons records seeing the grave of Scott's
wife at the Garrison Cemetery, with the inscription that
(1799) against Tippu Sultan.* [1]* [2]* [4]
reads Caroline Isabella Scott (and infant child), wife
of Colonel I C Scott, Commandant of Seringapatam; who
died in child-bed, 19th April 1817.

52.2 History

The names are associated with the tragedy of the Scott's

which is located on the banks
The Swiss ocers of the Regiment de Meuron, who Bungalow, Seringapatam,
*
[11]
of
the
river
Cauvery.
fell in the Siege of Seringapatam (1799) were buried at
the Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam. The rst burial
took place in 1800, and the cemetery was in use till
1860. The British East India Company has turned the 52.5 Years of neglect
town of Seringapatam into a garrison town, and hence
the cemetery came to be known as the Garrison Ceme- Years of neglect, resulted in the magnicent memotery.* [1]* [5]* [6]* [7]* [8]
rial stones going to the brink of imminent collapse.
The Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam is now under the The whole place was overrun with weeds and thick
management of the CSI St. Bartholomew's Church, bushes.* [1]* [12]
236

52.9. SEE ALSO

237

52.6 Restoration

quarters of the commanding ocer of Seringapatam. In

1809, this house was the scene of a mutiny by ocers of
In 2007, Louis Dominique de Meuron, a descendant of the Madras Army, led by Col. Bell, against Sir. George
the Regiment de Meuron, visited the Garrison Cemetery, Barlow, the Governor of Madras.
along with his wife Monique. Saddened by the state of Purnaiah lived in this house after his retirement from serneglect of the cemetery, the couple engaged an agency vice in 1811, and passed away here on 28 March 1812.
in Mysore (Ravi Gundu Rao & Associates (RGRA)) to Days before his death, he wrote a letter to his friend Col.
restore the graves. After their demise in 2012, restora- Hill, Commandant of Seringapatam, Old and inrm,
tion was continuously supported by their children Jean de after a life of unusual activity and care, I am going to the
Meuron and Dr. Sophie.* [1]* [6]
land of my fathers, for which Col. Hill replied Say
The graves were restored to their original state in con- I am travelling the same road, and passed away a short
sultation with the Karnataka State Archaeology Depart- time after Purnaiah.
ment, and formally handed over to the de Meuron family A tablet on the wall of this house records the connection
in November 2008. The cost of restoration was around of Lord Harris and Puraniah to this house.* [11]
INR 3 million* [1]* [3]* [6]
Lime and bricks were mainly used in the restoration,
with the lime coming from a local quarry. Nearly 1218 masons, craftsmen, and workers were involved in the
restoration works.* [13]
Following the restoration, the Garrison Cemetery,
Seringapatam is now included in the tourist itinerary
of Mysore/Srirangapatna.* [14]* [15] Descendants of the
soldiers often visit the cemetery and oer homage.* [6]
The caretaker of the cemetery is Ms. Vidyalakshmi, a
local history enthusiast.* [1]

52.7 His Majesty's Cemetery, Ganjam

According to Rev. E W Thompson and other accounts,
there used to exist a Madras Army cemetery calledHis
Majesty's Cemeteryat Ganjam, near the Gumbaz (a
short distance in the North-West direction), much before
the Garrison Cemetery. The cemetery was enclosed by a
wall, with an inscription on the gate-post,His Majesty's
Cemetery, Ganjam, a.d. 1799-1808. It contains burials
between 1799 to 1808, mainly from the 33rd Regiment.
Daniel Pritchard, the music master of this regiment was
buried at this cemetery in July 1799. Elinda Harmonci,
a child aged 4 years was also buried here in November
1799.

52.9 See also

Scott's Bungalow
Gumbaz, Seringapatam

52.10 References
[1] Kumar, M T Shiva (9 March 2013). There is life at the
cemetery(Bangalore). The Hindu. Retrieved 3 February
2015.
[2] Garrison Cemetery. Mysore. Retrieved 3 February
2015.
[3] Patrao, Michael (12 April 2010). Epitaphs for European ocers (Bangalore). Deccan Herald. Retrieved 3
February 2015.
[4] Harshitha, Samyuktha (18 January 2013). The Swiss
regiment that had a hand in the defeat and death of Tipu
Sultan. Hari Sarvothama Vayu Jeevothama -The Madhwa Way of the World. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
[5] Pratibha (14 December 2013).Going sombre in Mysore
and the Srirangapatna Garrison Cemetery. Rediscovering India in journeys through a small world. Retrieved 3
February 2015.

Col. Edward Montague of the Bengal Artillery, died 8

May 1799, 4 days after the nal assault is buried near the
Sangam, on the extreme east end of the island.* [16]* [17]

[6] Ganapathy, Deepti (26 November 2008). Garrison

Cemetery Restored: A Wake-Up Call To Preserve Heritage Monuments(Bangalore). The Times of India. Retrieved 3 February 2015.

52.8 Lord Harris's House

[7] Military Contemporaries of Lachlan Macquarie at

Seringapatam in 1799. Macquarie University. 2011.
Retrieved 3 February 2015.

Between the Garrison Cemetery and Scott's Bungalow a

path leads to house on the river banks. This house is
known asLord Harris's HouseorThe Doctor's BungaloworPuraniah's Bungalow. This house was the residence of General Harris, for a short time after the Siege
of Seringapatam in 1799, and went on to become head-

[8] David, Masson (1900). The Centenary of Seringapatam.. Macmillan's Magazine: 125. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
[9] Rotti, Joland (3 October 2013). St. Bartholomews
Church, Mysore. Karnataka. Retrieved 3 February
2015.

238

[10] Charya, S V Upendra (10 January 2011). A historic

church in Mysore (Bangalore). Deccan Herald. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
[11] Parsons, Constance E (1931). Seringapatam. H. Milford.
pp. 155157. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
[12] Permanent Delegation of India to UNESCO (15 April
2014). Monuments of Srirangapatna Island Town.
UNESCO: World Heritage. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
[13] Kishore, Kunkuma Devi (2012). Restoration of the
Garrison Cemetery at Srirangapatna, Karnataka(PDF).
ACCU Nara International Correspondent (Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Oce, Asia-Pacic Cultural
Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)): 710. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
[14] Gaur, June (5 May 2013).Whose history is it anyway?"
(Bangalore). The Hindu. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
[15] Sensational archaeological discovery(Sri Lanka). Sunday Observer. 19 May 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
[16] Thompson, Rev. E W (1923). The Last Siege of Seringapatam: An Account of the Final Assault, May 4th, I 799; of
the Death and Burial of Tippu Sultan ; and of the Imprisonment of British Ocers and Men; taken from the Narratives of Ocers present at the Siege and of those who
survived their captivity. Mysore City, British India: Wesleyan Mission Press. pp. 68, 69. Retrieved 27 September
2015.
[17] Newell, H A (1921). Topee and Turban, or Here and
There in India. London. p. 242. Retrieved 27 September
2015.

CHAPTER 52. GARRISON CEMETERY, SERINGAPATAM

Chapter 53

Regiment de Meuron
Dutch forces in Ceylon and they provided fortication details to the British. The regiment formally entered British
service, with the understanding that the British would enrol them at the same rate as regular British soldiers and
give them the back pay owed by the VOC. The British
subsequently took over control of the colony as British
Ceylon.
The Meuron Regiment subsequently served in the Fourth
Anglo-Mysore War of 1799, the Mediterranean and
Peninsula Campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars 1806 to
1812. During the latter campaign diculties in obtaining replacements from Switzerland led to numbers being made up by enlisting some Spanish and Portuguese
recruits. The regiment was nally posted to Canada to
serve in the War of 1812 and the Red River Colony. Rue
des Meurons in the Winnipeg suburb of Saint Boniface is
named after the regiment.
In 1816 the Meuron Regiment, together with other Swiss
units in British service, was disbanded.* [1]

Rgiment suisse de Meuron

The Regiment de Meuron was a regiment of infantry

originally raised in Switzerland in 1781 for service with
the Dutch East India Company (VOC). At the time Swiss
mercenaries were extensively employed by the French,
Spanish, Dutch and other armies. The regiment was
named for its commander, Colonel Charles-Daniel de
Meuron, who was born in Neuchtel in 1738.
The regiment served the VOC in Dutch Ceylon and Cape
Town. In 1795, while the regiment was stationed on
Ceylon, revolutionary French forces invaded the Netherlands, overthrew the Dutch Republic and replaced it with
the Batavian Republic. As a result the regiment's pay by
the VOC fell into abeyance. Later that year the Kew Letters were issued by the deposed stadtholder, William V,
Prince of Orange, ordering the surviving Dutch colonies
to surrender themselves to the British for safe keeping.
The governor of Ceylon did not immediately do so, while
he sought clarication of the situation in the Netherlands.
A delegation of Swiss soldiers and ocers approached
Count de Meuron, who retained the status of regimental proprietor, to discuss the missing pay and the political
situation. They agreed to hand over control of the regiment to the British, on the condition that they would not
ght against their former Dutch employers. However the
defection of the Swiss greatly reduced the strength of the

53.1 Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam

Main article: Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam
The Garrison Cemetery is located in Seringapatam, India,
on the banks of the river Cauvery, about 300m from the
Bangalore Mysore Highway. It has about 307 graves of
the European ocers killed in the nal assault on Tippu
Sultan in 1799, and their family members. Among the
graves, there are 80 graves of the ocers of the Swiss
de Meuron Regiment, and the rest of the graves are
their family members.* [2]* [3]

53.2 External links

239

His Majesty's Regiment de Meuron

240

53.3 References
[1] Major R. M. Barnes, page 84 Military Uniforms of
Britain & the Empire, Sphere Books London, 1972
[2] Kumar, M T Shiva (9 March 2013). There is life at the
cemetery(Bangalore). The Hindu. Retrieved 3 February
2015.
[3] Garrison Cemetery. Mysore. Retrieved 3 February
2015.

CHAPTER 53. REGIMENT DE MEURON

Chapter 54

Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia

The Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia (Romanian:
Corpul Voluntarilor romni din Rusia), or Volunteer
Corps of Transylvanians-Bukovinans (Corpul Voluntarilor ardeleni-bucovineni, Corpul Voluntarilor transilvneni i bucovineni), was a military formation of World
War I, created from ethnic Romanian prisoners of war
held by Russia. Ocially established in February 1917,
it comprised abjurers of the Austro-Hungarian Army,
mainly contingents from Transylvania and Bukovina.
These had been obliged to ght against Romania,
and, once in Russian custody, volunteered for service
against the Central Powers. As campaigners for selfdetermination and union with Romania, they passed political resolutions which, in both tone and scope, announced those adopted on Union Day 1918.

a while, Romania began investigating the fate and loyalties of Austria-Hungarian Romanians who were held
in Russian POW camps.* [1] Estimates for that period
place the total population of Bukovinan and Transylvanian Romanians in such facilities, throughout Russia, at
120,000* [2] or 130,000.* [3] Meanwhile, in Romania itself there were several thousand Romanian refugees from
Austria-Hungary who immediately signed up for service
in the Romanian Armed Forces.* [4]
In Russia, Romanian captives were complained about being worse o than prisoners from other Austro-Hungarian
backgrounds, a matter which may have contributed to
their decision of volunteering into Romanian service.* [5]
Russian authorities were undecided about letting them
join, and initially prohibited such initiatives; those who
insisted to establish contact with Romania were arrested
by Russian police forces.* [6] During the same year, after
consultations with Romania,* [1]* [6] the Russian executive reverted such policies. It was decided that Russia
would free at most 15,000 of this demographic group,
transferring them to Romania in exchange for a similar number of non-Romanian prisoners from Romanian
camps.* [6]

The Corps was eectively an active military reserve of

the Romanian Land Forces, and regularly dispatched new
units to the Romanian front after June 1917. It helped
defend the last stretches of Romania against the Central
Powers' unied oensive, and met success in the Battle
of Mreti, but it still lacked a unitary command structure. When the October Revolution in Russia and the
Romanian armistice took Romania out of the Entente
camp, the Corps was left without backing and purpose. Subsequently, those who chose to enlist were together reHowever, it inspired the creation of similar units in Enlocated at the special camp in Darnytsiaa suburb of
tente countries, most successfully the Romanian Legion Kiev, known to Romanians as Darnia. In December
of Italy.
1916, that facility held some 200 ocers and 1,200 nonMobilized volunteers or prisoners symbolically tied to commissioned ocers, who formed the nucleus (and genthe Corps were left behind in Russia after the Russian eral command) of a Romanian Corps.* [7] Elected
Civil War was ignited. Various such individuals formed First Senior of the Camp, the 40-year-old Victor Deleu
the Romanian Legion of Siberia, which resisted the was a legal professional, rank-and-le member of the
Bolsheviks in cooperation with the Czechoslovak Legions Romanian National Party (PNR) and opinion journalist
and the White movement. These units were ultimately from Transylvania, who came to Darnytsia after internrepatriated to Greater Romania in 1920.
ment in Kineshma.* [3] The other members of Darnytsia camp's leadership body were Pompiliu Nistor, Vasile
Chiroiu, Emil Isopescu, Valeriu Milovan, Octavian Vasu
and Ioan Vescan.* [8]

54.1 Darnytsia Corps

Regardless of such initiatives, Romania tended to give little attention to the potential of recruitment in Russia, as
54.1.1 Origins
many decision-makers were still uncertain about the devotion of Transylvanians and Bukovinans, and worried
During 1916, Romania entered World War I as an En- that they might be welcoming Austro-Hungarian spies
tente country, in alliance with the Russian Empire against into army ranks.* [9] Additionally, probably half of the
Austria-Hungary and the other Central Powers. After 120,000 men excluded themselves from the pool of re241

242

CHAPTER 54. ROMANIAN VOLUNTEER CORPS IN RUSSIA

cruits, as Austrian loyalists, invalids or men who had reason to fear Austria-Hungary's retaliation.* [10] Support
from within Romania was therefore weak, and Russian
obstruction still had a part to play, but in January the
camp was visited by Lieutenant Colonel Constantin Gh.
Pietraru of the Romanian Land Forces, on a mission to
evaluate the recruitment project.* [11] The reversal of fortunes on the Romanian front had brought a Central Powers' invasion into southern Romania, and the Romanian
military authority became pressured into nding new soldiers for the defensive action.* [12]

54.1.2

February Revolution

Romanian soldiers receiving visitors in Darnytsia, 1917

Shortly after these events, Russia experienced the

February Revolution, which brought to power a liberal
Russian Provisional Government. As a consequence of
these, the whole transfer project was delayed,* [13] but the
Russian acceptance of self-determination facilitated renewed political action.* [14] According to veteran Simion
Gocan, the soldiers were inspired by both these revolutionary promises and the American entry into World War
I, which seemingly made Wilsonian Self-Determination
an ocial Entente policy.* [15]

banners.* [20] The pledge ended with the words: May

God help us, so that through our blood we may liberate
our lands and create a Greater Romania, unied in substance and everlasting.* [21] All those who backed out
after signing the document were to be considered deserters.* [21] Demand for enlistment remained considerable,
even though rumor spread that Austro-Hungarian repression forces were by then murdering the families of volunteers and conscating their property.* [21] However,
Corps veteran Petru Nemoianu (Nemoian) was later to
state that envy and class conict were also characteristic
for the formation, where the intellectual leaders quarreled
over the better paid assignments.* [22]
In April, Pietraru met with the Provisional Government's
Alexander Guchkov, and an agreement was reached regarding the maximum total of troops to be enlisted
in the Romanian Corps. Answering to special pleas
from Romanian Premier Ion I. C. Brtianu, Guchkov allowed for the recruitment of 30,000 prisoners in his custody.* [23] The order was revised by Alexander Kerensky, who reduced that number to 5,000 prisoners, noting
that they were sorely needed as working hands in Russia's
agriculture and industry.* [18] In practice, Quartermaster
Ivan Pavlovich Romanovsky only allowed recruitment to
take place in Moscow Military District, ordering that
no more than 1,500 prisoners should be taken into account.* [24]

54.1.3 Darnytsia manifesto

By then, revolutionary examples also inspired the prisoners of Darnytsia to proclaim their own political goals, and
openly demand the union of Transylvania with Romania.
Their manifesto of April 26 (April 13), reviewed for publishing by the Transylvanian poet Octavian Goga,* [1] was
signed by 250 ocers and 250 soldiers, and is probably
the rst unionist statement to be issued by a Transylvanian representative body.* [25] The document states:we
Romanians, like all other subjugated nations, have grown
aware that once and for all that we [...] cannot carry on
with our lives within the frame of the Austro-Hungarian
state; we [...] demand, with unwavering will, our incorporation into Romania, so that together we may form a
single national Romanian state. [...] For the sake of this
ideal, we throw in the balance all of what we have, our
lives and fortunes, our women and children, our descendants' life and happiness. And we never will stop, lest we
vanquish or perish.* [26]

By Order 1191 of March 8 [O.S. February 23] 1917, Romania's Minister of War, Vintil Brtianu, created the
Volunteer Corps as a special formation of the national
army.* [16] On the same day, in Darnytsia, Pietraru was
tasked by Chief of Sta Constantin Prezan with equipping the new recruits and organizing them into units.* [17]
The honorary command was assigned to Constantin
Coand, who was already the military attach with Russia's Stavka (General Headquarters).* [18] Over the next
month, in Mogilev, Coand again negotiated the Corps'
recognition by Stavka. Coand received the permission,
but the number of recruits was no longer clearly speci- The text, which also survives in slightly dierent vered.* [13]
sions,* [27] included a brief analysis of the international
On March 18, Coand issued aPledge(Angajament), scene. It paid homage to Russia's democratic prowhich regulated the status of Corps soldiers in relation gram, referenced thegenerousWilsonian doctrine on
to the Romanian Army, and which the recruits had to self-determination, and looked forward to a congress of
sign.* [19] It integrated the former Austro-Hungarian o- blissful, national and democratic states.* [28] The mancers into the Romanian Army, with equivalent ranks, and ifesto made ample reference to the activity oftraitorsto
equated their Austrian service, including time they spent the Transylvanian cause. As Nemoianu later recounted,
in the POW camps, with active duty under Romanian there was a disguised reference to the PNR, whose mod-

54.1. DARNYTSIA CORPS

243

erate leaders, ostensibly loyal to the Austro-Hungarian

monarchy, still tried to achieve Austrian devolution.* [29]
More leniently, Gocan argued that the PNR at home was
deeply terrorizedand bound to government by a forcefully signed declaration of loyalty.* [15]

the Land Forces. The ceremony was attended by King

Ferdinand, Premier Brtianu, General Prezan, by representatives of Entente missions (Alexander Shcherbachov,
Henri Mathias Berthelot)* [38] and by ambassadors of
neutral countries. Manuel Multedo y Cortina of Spain
clamoringthe
Goga, a civilian refugee in transit through Russia, was recalled the sermon asa solemn act,
*
national
aspirationof
Romanians.
[39]
supposed to have left Darnytsia with a copy of the appeal. Some argue that he did, and that the subsequent At a later banquet and public rally in Union Square, Vicpopularization is largely owed to his work as publicist.* [1] tor Deleu addressed the civilian population, describing
Such accounts are contradicted by the recollections of an- the Corps' arrival as a rescue mission: We had the
other unionist activist, Onisifor Ghibu: "[The appeal] was duty of coming over here on this day, when you are livsupposed to be handed down to Goga, on his stopover in ing through such hardships. We left a foreign country,
Darnia. For whatever reason Goga stopped for a day in but did so with just one thought on our minds: comKiev. In such circumstances I was the one designated ing home. That's why there was only road meant for us,
to hold it.* [30] In this version, Ghibu passed it on the one leading us ahead. [...] We'll be the victors, for
to Romania's executive, King Ferdinand I and General the Carpathians cannot reach as high as our hearts have
Prezan.* [30]
been elevated!"* [3] As politician Ion G. Duca recalled,
In Russian and French translations, the document was no other speech left as deep an impression on the public:
distributed to various institutions: the Provisional Gov- Deleu['s speech] was*a pure and simple marvel, someernment, the Mossovet, the Petrograd Soviet and the thing unforgettable. [3]
Central Rada.* [1]* [31] It was also presented individually to representatives of Russian political life and to the
foreign press agencies,* [1] and circulated among the national emancipation movements of Czechs, Poles, Serbs
and "Ruthenians".* [3]* [15] A copy was later taken to the
United States by Romania's special delegates Vasile Stoica, Vasile Lucaciu and Ioan Moa, and reprinted in the
Romanian American community press.* [32] According
to one account, it was also included in airborne leaet propaganda dropped over the Austro-Hungarian trenches on
the Italian front.* [33]
The Darnytsia soldiers soon gave themselves a special
banner, based on the Romanian tricolor, with the added
slogan Triasc Romnia Mare (Long Live Greater
Romania).* [34] Seven such items were sewn in all,
of which one was kept by Banat-born soldier Dimitrie
Lzrel (Lzrescu).* [34]

54.1.4

Arrival in Iai

Six recruiting commissions were then dispatched from

Romania to Russia.* [35] During May 1917, they received
the Romanian volunteers, relocated from Darnytsia to the
Girls' Lyce in Podil, where work also began on tailoring
of the new Romanian uniforms.* [21] From Podil, a newly
formed battalion was quickly sent into Romania to reinforce defense. Comprising some 1,300 men,* [3]* [36]
this unit traveled by chartered train, stopping rst in
Kishinev (Chiinu). The largely Romanian-inhabited
Russian city gave them a warm welcome: the battalion
received another Romanian tricolor as war ag, and were
presented with an Orthodox icon.* [21]
The battalion arrived in the city of Iai, Romania's provisional capital, where the volunteers were welcomed as
heroes.* [3]* [37] On June 9, at Iai's marching ground,
they took their oath and were ocially integrated into

There was a noted eort on the part of Corps sta and

other Transylvanian exiles (Ion Agrbiceanu, Laurian Gabor, Octavian Tsluanu etc.) to encourage the rapid integration of Podil-formed units into the Romanian line
of defense.* [40] After a quick session of retraining, the
Corps units were attached to the 11th Division, which was
recovering in Iai.* [40] It was, however, decided that the
formations, particularly those from Transylvania, were to
be kept distinguished from the rest under the common
command structure. An ocial act of 1918 explained
the rationale behind this act:Transylvanians should ght
as Transylvanians [...] against the Hungarian state, so as
to assert, clearly and beyond all doubt, that the Romanian nationals of the Hungarian state do not recognize its
authority. To have fought against Hungary, however the
war may end, ought to have been a badge of honor for the
Romanian nation in Hungary and a moral reinforcement
during the battles to come.* [41] When it was proposed
that men from the Corps be assigned noms de guerre so
as to avoid execution if captured, Deleu reacted strongly:
We intend to be the army of Transylvania! We aim to
be the conscience of Transylvania, which is for absolute
freedom and The Union! We do not want [to receive] a
conquered land, we wish to liberate ourselves with our
own forces! Hangings? Let them hang us! But let them
be aware that Transylvania herself is ghting for liberty
and The Union!"* [42]

54.1.5 During and after Mreti

In July 1917, Corps oces in Kiev circulated the rst issue of a recruitment gazette, Romnia Mare (Greater
Romania), which became the essential component of its
propaganda eort in Russia.* [43] It was a new edition of
the Bucharest gazette founded by Voicu Niescu, and, in
this new form, was managed by a team of pro-union activists: the Transylvanians Sever Bocu, Ghi Popp, Iosif

244

CHAPTER 54. ROMANIAN VOLUNTEER CORPS IN RUSSIA

an entire people free from the [Austrian] yoke.* [42]

Like his army sta, the monarch disapproved of this initiative, informing Deleanu and Tsluanu that, at most,
units overseen by Biroul A. B. could expect to form special regiments within the existing divisions.* [51] Parallel
negotiations continued between Russia and Romania over
the total number of volunteers allowed to leave Russian
soil. During early June, Stavka approved the release of
5,000 Romanian Austro-Hungarian prisoners, all of them
from the Moscow Governorate. According to historian
Ioan I. erban, the approval was creating problems for
the Romanian side: of the soldiers in question, the majority were held deep inside Russia, and employed in
the agricultural regions and the various industrial centers of southern Russia, the Ural, western Siberia etc.
*
[40] As the Mreti battle was waging, the RomaThe Romanian front between November 1916 and January 1917 nian government called on the Russian leadership to allow yet more recruits to be sent to the front, and received
a conrmation of Guchkov's earlier 30,000 directly from
chiopu and the Bukovinan Filaret Dobo.* [44] Romnia Chief of Sta Lavr Kornilov.* [52] As a result, two of the
Mare was successful, despite the fact that only between recruiting commissions relocated to the Pacic port of
3,000 and 5,000 copies were published per issue.* [45]
Vladivostok, and set in motion a plan for recruiting more
volunteers
throughout Asiatic Russia.* [53]
Recruitment itself continued at a steady pace, and
the Romanian General Sta created Biroul A. B ( After Kornilov's promise, the Romanian high command
T[ransylvania] and B[ukovina] Bureau) to keep ev- took measures of creating a single and distinct division,
idence of Austro-Hungarian abjurers, on and behind comprising both those who had passed through Podil
the front.* [46] Its founding members were three Sub- and those refugees already in Romanian service. Biroul
lieutenants: Deleu, Vasile Osvad, Leonte Silion.* [47] A. B. was replaced by a Central Service, answering to
Biroul A. B. was assisted by a Consultative Commission of General Sta.* [54] In early December 1917, the Corps
intellectuals and politicians of Transylvanian or Bukov- was reformed a nal time, as a division-sized formation.
inan backgrounds (Goga, Ion Nistor, Leonte Moldovan) Colonel Marcel Olteanu was placed in charge of the cenand represented in Russia itself by a deputation of Tran- tral Volunteer Corps' Command, based in Hrlu.* [55]
sylvanian ocersElie Bufnea, Victor Cdere.* [47]
By the early days of 1918, it had three new regiments
Units of the Volunteer Corps earned distinction in the de- under its command: 1st Turda (commander: Dragu
Alba Iulia (Constantin Paalega), 3rd
fense of eastern Romania, which postponed the Central Buricescu), 2nd
*
*
Avram
Iancu.
[54]
[56]
Powers' advance during summer 1917. With the 11th Division, the Transylvanians-Bukovinans participated in the
battles of Mrti, Oituz and Mreti.* [48] At the time,
they were split between ve regiments of the 11th Division: 2nd, 3rd Olt, 5th Chasseurs, 19th Caracal, 26th
Rovine.* [49]

Reenlisted prisoners of war formed a large section of

the approximately 30,800 former Austria-Hungarian citizens who were registered as active on the Romanian side
by late 1917.* [4] By the time it stopped recruiting (January 1918), the Corps had enlisted some 8,500* [57] to
10,000* [58] men. However, the Kornilov order came too
late in the war for there to have been a more signicant
Transylvanian-Bukovinan contribution to the Romanian
eort.* [59]

The three battles to hold back the Central Powers ended

in early autumn 1917, by which time there were 31 dead
and 453 wounded among the volunteers; 129 received
distinction.* [50] Dimitrie Lzrel was one to have survived all three engagements, and legend has it that he
never went into combat without the banner.* [34] Deleu
had left reserve duty to join the 10th Chasseurs Battal- 54.1.6
ion in the Mreti combat, but fell severely ill and was
reassigned to other oces.* [3]
The divisive command structure was a disappointment
for the Transylvanian and Bukovinan volunteers. In a
complaint they sent to King Ferdinand during September,
they requested reintegration into a special Corps, arguing: Through such legions the free will of the formerly
oppressed citizens would be expressing a common will.
One would not be enrolling isolated individuals [...], but

October Revolution and Romanian

truce

The October Revolution shook Russia and placed most

of it under a Bolshevik government which had no intention of continuing with war against the Central Powers. Although the Romanian presence in Kiev was
set back by the November Uprising and the January
Rebellion,* [60] then dispersed by the anti-Entente
Skoropadsky regime,* [61] Constantin Gh. Pietraru and

54.2. LEGACY

245
From his temporary home in France, Bocu reestablished
Romnia Mare as the tribune of Romanian diaspora politics and unionist aspirations.* [70] He was joined there by
Octavian Goga, who had crossed over Bolshevik territory
and Finland with false papers, claiming to be a Volunteer
Corps veteran.* [71]

54.2 Legacy

Bolshevik rally at a train station in either Romania or Bessarabia

(1917). Romanian soldiers watching from the side

a small force remained behind in the new Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR), where they signed up the last group
of Romanian volunteers.* [54] Some of these eorts were
hampered by a diplomatic tensions between the UNR
and Romania. Ukrainian ocials refused to either rally
with the Entente or negotiate border treaties with Romania, but tacitly permitted Deleu, Bocu, Ghibu and other
Transylvanian Romanians activists who worked against
Austria-Hungary to work on UNR territory.* [62]
Romnia Mare gazette, which still had Bocu as chief editorial manager, closed down in December 1917, having
published 23 issues in all.* [63] By then, Ion Agrbiceanu
and family had left their temporary home in Yelisavetgrad
for Hrlu, where he became the Corps' chaplain.* [64]
A last group of Romanian units left the UNR and headed
for Kishinev, where a Romanian-friendly Moldavian
Democratic Republic was vying for power with the local Bolsheviks. The volunteers had dressed as Russian
soldiers during their passage to Iai,* [65] but were recognized as Romanian units by the Bolshevik garrisoned
in Kishinev City Station, where their train stopped on January 6. A skirmish followed, and the Bolsheviks killed or
kidnapped Corps soldiers.* [66] The survivors were held
captive in the same place as Moldavian Army founder
Gherman Pntea, and were released later that day by Republican troops.* [67] Years later, suspicion arose that
Pntea had in fact helped the Bolsheviks, as an alleged
enemy of Romanian interests in Bessarabia.* [68]

54.2.1 Diaspora units and the cut-o

troops
By spring 1918, Transylvanian-Bukovinan prisoners held
in France and Italy proceeded to form their own abjurers' units, based upon the existing Romanian Corps.* [72]
Luciano (Lucian) Ferigo became Commander of the
newly formed Romanian Legion in Italy (Legione Romena d'Italia) which took its ceremonial ag from the
Regio Esercito on July 28* [57] and contributed the Austrians' defeat at Vittorio Veneto.* [73] On the Western
Front, a similar formation was being created, mainly by
Romanian citizens who resented their country for surrendering, but also by soldiers who clandestinely left
Romania to continue the ght.* [74] Its TransylvanianBukovinian membership was small, reecting the number
of Austro-Hungarian prisoners in France, who had been
taken mainly in the Serbian and Macedonian operations.
The 135 who signed up in October 1918 were put o by
the refusal of French ocials to recognize their AustroHungarian ocer's ranks.* [75] Their unit was attached
to the French Foreign Legion, to be joined by the various other categories of Romanian recruits, but the eort
was stopped midway; in November, the Entente's victory
over Germany ended World War I for both France and
Romania.* [76]

As the dissolution of Austria-Hungary was taking eect

in October 1918, other such units were spontaneously
formed on Austrian territory, mainly from rogue components of the Imperial Army. The Romanian Legion
of Prague helped the Czechoslovak National Council and
the Sokols gain the upper hand during an anti-Austrian
uprising, while other Romanian units were breaking away
from Austrian command in Vienna.* [77] Romanians also
formed a distinct segment of the k.u.k. Kriegsmarine perRomania's own armistice with the Central Powers put the sonnel who rioted on the Austrian Littoral and elsewhere
recruitment project on a complete standstill, and dimin- in the Adriatic.* [78]
ished the eort to move Transylvanian-Bukovinan sol- A more complex situation reigned in Russia. As early as
diers into the single new force.* [69] According to his April 1918, some Romanian volunteer groups joined up
own account, Sever Bocu attempted to quickly dispatch with the Bolshevik Red Army, taking their orders from
Hrlu troops to the Western Front, but his project ve- Commissar Bla Kun, but some of their members contoed by the Romanian commander in chief Alexandru tinued to serve the nationalist cause.* [79] In June 1918,
Averescu.* [61]
a number of Romanian prisoners who had signed up
As Romania faced indecision about its future, the Corps for the Volunteer Corps were cut o from Romania by
was still the subject of unionist propaganda, spread by the Russian Civil War and left to fend for themselves.
Romanian intellectuals in the capitals of Entente nations. Some crossed into Bolshevik Russia hoping to be repatri-

246

CHAPTER 54. ROMANIAN VOLUNTEER CORPS IN RUSSIA

ated together with the Romanian consulate, while others

took to areas controlled by the White movement, reaching Irkutsk;* [65] still others escaped through northern
routes into Sweden.* [80] The various groups were monitored by French public opinion, and plans were drafted
to merge them into the Romanian Legion on the Western
Front,* [81] or even to have them open up a new Eastern
Front.* [27]

At the time, the two recruiting commissions in Vladivostok were also reactivated by the arrival of an international
anti-Bolshevik force. Their propaganda leaets, drafted
by Bukovinan Iorgu G. Toma, reached all 40 POW camps
in the region, urging any volunteer to make his own way
to Chelyabinsk.* [88] That city emerged as a main site
of Romanian political and military activity, with a reported population of 3,000 liberated Romanians (July
1918).* [53] Major Dmbu put a momentary stop to Bolshevik inuence by arresting Milovan and ordering the
Samaran unit to Chelyabinsk.* [84] A complex set of
sanctions were imposed, in the hope of curbing dissent, ranks were reintroduced, uniforms on the Romanian
Land Forces model were distributed around, and a patriotic cultural section began to function.* [89]

Meanwhile, in tandem with larger Serb and Czech national units, Romanian prisoners on the Trans-Siberian
Railway were involved in creating new armed formations.
Their original goal was to show to the Entente that Romanians were still eager to ght against the Central Powers,
but the Romanians also defended the line in skirmishes
with the Bolshevik or anarchist cells.* [82] They resisted
especially when the Bolshevik Russian government asked Taking a long and perilous journey, Elie Bufnea and some
them to surrender all weapons.* [27]
other ocers of the original Darnytsia Corps joined up
withHoriain mid autumn, at a moment when the Romanian soldiers were celebrating the breakup of Austria54.2.2 HoriaRegiment and Romanian Hungary.* [27]* [90] The union betweenHoriaand various new arrivals from the western Siberian camps became
Legion of Siberia
a second Volunteer Corps, grouping as many as 5,000
volunteers.* [91] Through the alliance it formed with the
anti-Bolshevik Czechoslovak Legions, it was a Romanian
national contribution to the international coalition, but reluctantly so.* [92] Once relocated to Irkutsk and Omsk
in late 1918, the volunteers expressed their lack of interest in ghting against the Bolsheviks: after rebelling
against Colonel Kadlec, their Czech technical adviser, the
Corps was placed under Maurice Janin of the French Mission.* [93]

Railroad car used as quarters by the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia

Some prisoners or drifting units in Russia joined up with

new arrivals from Kiev. They created the 1,300-strong
battalion of Kinel, which was eectively a subunit of
the Czechoslovak Legions.* [83] Romanian ocers' clubs
were organizing themselves in lands held by the Komuch
Democrats and the White Russian Siberian Autonomy.
The original force to emerge from such schemes was
formed at Samara by Valeriu Milovan. Criticized for his
eccentric idea of imitating egalitarian Bolshevik practices
and doing away with military ranks, he also sparked a
conict when he arrested the more conservative ocer
Voicu Niescu.* [53] Niescu escaped imprisonment and
ed to Chelyabinsk, but support for his cause continued
to be eroded by the privates' growing support for the Bolsheviks.* [84] As a result of Niescu's activity, supported
by Gocan and Nicolae Nedelcu, Dr. iur.,* [85] Romanian
loyalists in Chelyabinsk created a "Horia" Battalion (or
Regiment).* [86] Major Ioan Dmbu was assigned to lead
it, and, under Czechoslovak orders, the new Mreti
and Reserve battalions were sent on mission to other localities.* [87]

A Romanian Legion of Siberia was formed from this

structure, but only 3,000 soldiers still volunteered in its
ranks2,000 others were progressively transferred out of
the combat zone, shipped out to Romania or taken back to
prisoner of war camps.* [94] As erban notes, the Western Front victory had opened the way for Transylvania's
union, and their only thought was to regain, as fast as
possible, their families and their places of origin.* [80] A
special case was that of Bolshevik sympathizers: in October, Dmbu was killed by his own soldiers, partly in
retaliation for Milovan's arrest.* [95]
The combative Legion defended the Trans-Siberian between Tayshet and Nizhneudinsk, where they forced the
Bolsheviks into a truce and established their reputation
for brutality with the nickname Dikaya Divizia (
, Wild Division).* [96] The anti-Bolshevik
formation and the Romanian non-combatants were eventually retrieved from the Russian Far East upon the end of
foreign intervention, and were fully repatriated with the
other Romanians from May 1920.* [97] Milovan, courtmartialled by the Legion, was cleared of the charges by a
higher authority; however, those who killed Dmbu were
sentenced as mutineers and assassins.* [95]

54.3. NOTES

54.2.3

Late echoes

The original Volunteers' Corps went out of service in December 1918, soon after German defeat and Transylvania's de facto union (see Great Union Day). The Romanian volunteers' rally in support of self-determination was
judged by some Romanian authors as a direct predecessor of Alba Iulia'sGreat National Assembly, whereby
union was being endorsed on Wilsonian principles. They
call the Corps' April 26 meeting a1st Alba Iulia.* [98]
Within Transylvania itself, opinion was more divided.
Shortly before the HungarianRomanian War erupted,
members of Corps were required to present themselves
for reenlistment.* [56] The old rivals from within the
Romanian National Party, who led the Directory Council
of Transylvania after 1918, allegedly refused to welcome
the Corps back as a single unit, and plans for its mobilization had to be dropped.* [99] A new HoriaVolunteer
Corps was reportedly formed on the Criul Alb River, as
a rst line of defense against the Hungarian Soviet Republic.* [100]
In 1923, the old Corps set up a veterans' association, the
Union of Volunteers, which carried the reputation of being a fascist-inspired section of the PNR. Petru Nemoianu
strongly dismissed the accounts as enormities, and
stated that the Union had good cause to reject the PNR for
its handling of the Transylvanian issue.* [101] More sympathetic to the PNR, Simion Gocan was President of the
Union in Bihor County, and complained about tensions
with Nemoianu.* [102] The Union even ran for Transylvanian seats in Parliament during the 1931 general election. It formed an electoral cartel with Nicolae Iorga's
Democratic Nationalist Party and against PNR's successors (the National Peasants' Party), but was only assigned
non-eligible positions on the electoral lists.* [103]
All praise for the Corps' contributions was toned
down between 1948 and 1989, when Romania was a
communist state. According to erban, communist historiography presented the story supercially, usually
truncated or in the context of other events.* [104]
During the rst wave of communization, repression
touched several gures once associated with the Corps:
Bufnea,* [27]* [105] Sever Bocu (beaten to death in Sighet
prison),* [106] Ghi Popp.* [107]
Interest in the Volunteer Corps' activity was only revived
after the Romanian Revolution of 1989.* [104] Among
the relics left behind by the Corps is Dimitrie Lzrel's
banner, probably the only one of seven to have survived.
In 1923, Lzrel paraded it at the Volunteers' Union reunion in Arad.* [108] Referred to as the Darnia Banner, it was donated to a local church, then exhibited by
the Museum of Banat, Timioara.* [34] The Kishinev ag
was donated by the Corps to ASTRA National Museum
Complex of Sibiu.* [109]

247

54.3 Notes
[1] Otu, Petre, Octavian Goga despre revoluia rus din
februarie 1917(Octavian Goga on the Russian Revolution of February 1917), in Magazin Istoric, November
2007, p.20
[2] Prean, [p.1, 3]; erban (AUASH 2004), p.176
[3] (Romanian) Pop, Marin,Din viaa i activitatea lui Victor Deleu (1876-1940)" (From Victor Deleu's Life and
Activity (1876-1940)"), in Caiete Silvane, March 16, 2007
[4] Prean, [p.3]; erban (1997), p.105-106
[5] Prean, [p.1]. See also erban (AUASH 2004), p.176
[6] Prean, [p.1]
[7] Mamina et al., p.40; Prean, [p.1]. Gocan (p.11) hasapprox. 300 ocers and 1,500 non-commissioned ocers
and soldiersby March 1917
[8] List varies between Prean ([p.1-2]) and erban (2001,
p.145, 146)
[9] erban (AUASH 2004), p.176-177
[10] erban (AUASH 2004), p.176
[11] erban (2001), p.145, 146; (AUASH 2004), p.176-177
[12] erban (1997), p.101; (AUASH 2004), p.176-177
[13] Prean, [p.2]
[14] Gocan, p.11; erban (1997), p.101; (2001), p.145-146;
(AUASH 2004), p.176
[15] Gocan, p.11
[16] Mamina et al., p.40-41; Prean, [p.2]; erban (2001),
p.146
[17] Prean, [p.2]; erban (2001), p.146
[18] erban (2001), p.146
[19] Prean, [p.2-3]; erban (2001), p.146
[20] Prean, [p.2-3]
[21] Prean, [p.3]
[22] Nemoianu, p.840-841
[23] Prean, [p.3]; erban (2001), p.146
[24] Prean, [p.3, 4]
[25] Prean, [p.3]; erban (1997), p.101; (2001), p.146-148
[26] Gocan, p.12; Mamina et al., p.40
[27] (Romanian) Ivan, Sabin,Cu voluntarii romni n Siberia
(1917-1920)"
( With the Romanian Volunteers in Siberia
(1917-1920)"), in Memoria. Revista Gndirii Arestate, Nr.
30, 2000
[28] Gocan, p.12-13; erban (2001), p.147

248

CHAPTER 54. ROMANIAN VOLUNTEER CORPS IN RUSSIA

[29] Nemoianu, p.839-840

[30] erban (2001), p.148
[31] erban (2001), p.147-148. See also Gocan, p.11
[32] erban (2001), p.147. See also Gocan, p.11
[33] Gocan, p.11; erban (2001), p.147-148
[34] (Romanian) Foriu, Laura M., "Drapelul de la Darnia
este expus la Muzeul Banatului(The Darnia Banner
on Display at the Banat Museum), in Romnia Liber,
July 3, 2006
[35] Mamina et al., p.40-41; Prean, [p.3]
[36] Prean, [p.3]; erban (1997), p.102

[58] Cazacu, p.113; Mamina et al., p.41; erban (1997), p.102;

(2001), p.149
[59] erban (1997), p.105-106
[60] Cazacu, p.112
[61] Bodea, p.67
[62] erban (1997), p.106-111
[63] Mamina et al., p.41; erban (AUASH 2004), p.177, 178
[64] (Romanian) Boito, Olimpiu, Ion Agrbiceanu. Schi
bio-bibliograc" (Ion Agrbiceanu. Bio-bibliographic
Sketch Portrait), in Luceafrul, Nr. 10/1942, p.354 (digitized by the Babe-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)

[37] Mamina et al., p.41; Prean, [p.3]; erban (1997), p.102;

(2001), p.148; (AUASH 2004), p.176, 177

[65] Cazacu, p.113

[38] Prean, [p.4]. See also erban (1997), p.102

[66] (Romanian) Bulei, Ion, Acum 90 de ani... (II)" "(60

Years Ago... (II)"), in Ziarul Financiar, October 15, 2008;
Constantin, p.65, 70

[39] Denize, Eugen, and Oprescu, Paul, 1917. Trimisul

Spaniei raporteaz: 'Unitatea naional cauz a participrii la rzboi' " (1917. Spain's Envoy Reports: 'National Unity A Reason for Partaking in the War' "), in
Magazin Istoric, December 1987, p.24

[67] Constantin, p.66, 70

[68] Constantin, p.70-71
[69] erban (1997), p.106

[40] erban (1997), p.103

[41] erban (1997), p.103-104

[70] Bodea, p.68; erban (1997), p.111; (Apulum 2004),

p.363; (AUASH 2004), p.182

[42] erban (1997), p.104

[71] Bodea, passim

[43] Mamina et al., p.41; Prean, [p.4]; erban (AUASH 2004),

passim

[72] Mamina et al., p.41-43; Prean, [p.4]; erban (1997),

p.110-111; (Apulum 2004), p.359

[44] erban (AUASH 2004), p.177

[46] Prean, [p.4]; erban (1997), p.102

[73] (Romanian) Nencescu, Marian, "Legione Romena i mplinirea idealului Rentregirii("Legione Romena and the
Fulllment of the Reunion Ideal), in the Bucharest City
Library Biblioteca Metropolitan, Nr. 12/2009, p.10-11

[47] erban (1997), p.102

[74] erban (Apulum 2004), p.358-363

[48] Mamina et al., p.41; erban (1997), p.104-105; (2001),

p.149; (AUASH 2004), p.179-180

[75] erban (Apulum 2004), p.362

[45] erban (AUASH 2004), p.177-178

[49] Prean, [p.4]; erban (1997), p.103; (AUASH 2004),

p.179
[50] erban (1997), p.105; (AUASH 2004), p.179-180
[51] erban (1997), p.104-105
[52] erban (1997), p.103. See also Prean, [p.4]
[53] erban (2003), p.154
[54] erban (1997), p.105
[55] erban (1997), p.105. See also Prean, [p.4]
[56] (Romanian) Maniu, Iuliu,Ordin de chemare(Call to
Arms), in Romnul (Arad), Nr. 20/1919, p.3 (digitized
by the Babe-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
[57] Prean, [p.4]

[76] erban (Apulum 2004), p.362-365

[77] Mamina et al., p.44-45
[78] Mamina et al., p.46
[79] Bodea, p.67, 68
[80] erban (Apulum 2004), p.358
[81] erban (Apulum 2004), p.357-358
[82] erban (2003), p.153-154, 156-157
[83] erban (2003), p.153
[84] erban (2003), p.154-155
[85] Gocan, p.13
[86] Cazacu, p.113-114; erban (2003), p.158-159
[87] erban (2003), p.158-159

54.4. REFERENCES

[88] erban (2003), p.154, 157-158, 161

[89] erban (2003), p.158-161
[90] erban (2003), p.161-163. See also Gocan, p.13-14
[91] Cazacu, p.114, 116-117; erban (2003), p.161
[92] Cazacu, passim; erban (1997), p.109, 111; erban
(2003), passim
[93] Cazacu, p.115-116
[94] Cazacu, p.117
[95] erban (2003), p.155
[96] Cazacu, p.117-118
[97] erban (1997), p.109; (2001), p.149; (2003), p.145;
(Apulum 2004), p.358
[98] Nemoianu, p.840; erban (1997), p.101; (2001), p.146147
[99] Nemoianu, p.840
[100] (Romanian) Tr. M., O zi istoric. - Suveranii la ebea i povestea celor doi legionari ai lui Avram Iancu(
An Historic Day. - The Royals at ebea and the Story
of Two Avram Iancu Legionaries), in Romnul (Arad),
Nr. 32/1919, p.1 (digitized by the Babe-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
[101] Nemoianu, p.838, 840-841
[102] Gocan, p.13-14
[103] (Romanian) P., Guvernul 'Uniunei Naionale' trage pe
sfoar U.F.V. din Ardeal
The
(
'National Union' Government Pulls One on the Transylvanian UFV), in Chemarea
Tinerimei Romne, Nr. 21/1931, p.4 (digitized by the
Babe-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
[104] erban (2001), p.145
[105] (Romanian) tefnescu, Alex., Scriitori arestai (19441964) (II)" (Arrested Writers (1944-1964)"), in
Romnia Literar, Nr. 24/2005
[106] (Romanian) Ungureanu, Cornel, Poetul i capitalele literaturii(The Poet and Literary Capitals), in Romnia
Literar, Nr. 12/2009
[107] (Romanian) Popp, Gheorghe (Ghi)- un 'memorandist' al epocii comuniste(Gheorghe (Ghi) Popp - A
'Memorandum Activist' of the Communist Epoch), in
Romnia Liber, November 18, 2006
[108] Nemoianu, p.841
[109] (Romanian)Raportul general(General Report), in
Transilvania, Nr. 5-9/1920, p.564-565 (digitized by the
Babe-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)

249

54.4 References
Bodea, Gheorghe I.,87 zile prin apocalips(87
Days in the Apocalypse), in Magazin Istoric, July
2001, p. 65-69
Cazacu, Ioana, The Second Corps of Romanian
Volunteers in Russia, in Revista Romn pentru
Studii Baltice i Nordice, Nr. 1/2010, p. 111-118
(Romanian) Constantin, Ion, Gherman Pntea ntre
mit i realitate (Gherman Pntea between Myth
and Reality), Editura Biblioteca Bucuretilor,
Bucharest, 2010. ISBN 978-973-8369-83-2
(Romanian) Gocan, Simion, Contribuia voluntarilor ardeleni din Rusia la nfptuirea Romniei
Mari(The Contribution of Transylvanian Volunteers in Russia to the Fulllment of Greater Romania), in Vestitorul, Nr. 9-10/1929, p. 11-14 (digitized by the Babe-Bolyai University Transsylvanica
Online Library)
Mamina, Ion, Ugli Delapecica, Petre, DimitriuSerea, G., Bocan, Ion, Tnsescu, Fl., Butnaru, I.,
Dragne, Fl. and Brdeanu, N.,Voluntarii unitii
(Volunteers of Unity), in Magazin Istoric, October 1968, p. 40-46
(Romanian) Nemoianu, Petru, Uniunea voluntarilor
( The Union of Volunteers), in ara Noastr,
Nr. 26/1923, p. 838-841
(Romanian) Prean, Ioan, Soldai ai Romniei
Mari. Din prizonieratul rusesc n Corpul Voluntarilor transilvneni i bucovineni (1916 1918)" (
Soldiers of Greater Romania. From Russian Captivity to the Corps of Transylvanian and Bukovinan
Volunteers (1916 1918)"), in the Nicolae Blcescu
Land Forces Academy Revista Academiei Forelor
Terestre, Nr. 3-4/2002
erban, Ioan I.,
(Romanian) Din activitatea desfurat n
Vechiul Regat de voluntarii i refugiaii ardeleni i bucovineni n slujba idealului naional
(iunie 1917 - ianuarie 1918)" (On the Activity of Transylvanian Volunteers and Refugees
in Support of the National Ideal in the Old
Kingdom (June 1917 January 1918)"), in
the 1 December University of Alba Iulia Annales Universitatis Apulensis, Series Historica
(AUASH), Nr. 1, 1997, p. 101-111
(Romanian) Semnicaia memoriuluimanifest al voluntarilor romni de la Darnia
Kievului (13/26 aprilie 1917)" (The Significance of the Memoir-manifesto of Romanian
Volunteers in Kiev's Darnytsia (13/26 April
1917)"), in AUASH, Nr. 4-5, 2000-2001, p.
145-149

250

CHAPTER 54. ROMANIAN VOLUNTEER CORPS IN RUSSIA

(Romanian) Constituirea celui de-al doilea
corp al voluntarilor romni din Rusia - august
1918 (II)" (The Establishment of a Second
Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia - August
1918 (II)"), in the National Museum of the
Union Apulum, Nr. 37, 2003, p. 153-164
(Romanian)Emigranii i prizonierii romni
din Frana (1917-1919) n lupta pentru ntregirea statal a Romniei (I)"
( Romanian Emigrants and Prisoners in France (1917-1919)
Engaged in the Struggle for Romania's Stately
Completion (I)"), in Apulum, Nr. 42, 2004, p.
357-366
(Romanian)Gazeta Romnia Mare, organ de
pres al corpului voluntarilor romni din Rusia (iulie-decembrie 1917)" ("Romnia Mare
Gazette, Press Organ of the Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia (July-December 1917)"),
in AUASH, Nr. 8, 2004, p. 175-182

54.5 External links

Chapter 55

Saint Patrick's Battalion

The Saint Patrick's Battalion (Spanish: Batalln de
San Patricio), formed and led by John Riley, was a unit
of 175 to several hundred immigrants (accounts vary)
and expatriates of European descent who fought as part
of the Mexican Army against the United States in the
MexicanAmerican War of 18468. Most of the battalion's members had deserted or defected from the United
States Army. The Battalion served as an artillery unit for
much of the war. Despite later being formally designated
as two infantry companies, it still retained artillery pieces
throughout the conict. In many ways, the battalion acted
as the sole Mexican counterbalance to the recent U.S. innovation of horse artillery. The San Patricioswere
responsible for the toughest battles encountered by the
United States in its invasion of Mexico, with Ulysses S.
Grant remarking that "Churubusco proved to be about the
severest battle fought in the valley of Mexico".* [1]
Composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants, the battalion also included Canadians, English,
French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and
Mexican people, many of whom were members of the
Catholic Church.* [2] Disenfranchised Americans were in
the ranks, including escaped slaves from the Southern
United States.* [3] Only a few members of the Saint
Patrick's Battalion were actual U.S. citizens. The Mexican government printed propaganda in dierent languages to dissuade immigrants in the U.S. army of their
cause and oered incentives to foreigners who would enlist in its army including; granting them citizenship, paying higher wages than the U.S. Army and the oer of
generous land grants.
The San Patricios are revered and honoured in Mexico
and Ireland. Members of the Battalion are known to have
deserted from U.S. Army regiments including; the 1st Artillery, the 2nd Artillery, the 3rd Artillery, the 4th Artillery, the 2nd Dragoons, the 2nd Infantry, the 3rd Infantry, the 4th Infantry, the 5th Infantry, the 6th Infantry,
the 7th Infantry and the 8th Infantry.* [4]

55.1 Historical perspective

For Americans of the generation that fought the
MexicanAmerican War, the San Patricios were consid-

Commemorative plaque placed at the San Jacinto Plaza in the

district of San ngel, Mexico City in 1959: In memory of the
Irish soldiers of the heroic St. Patrick's Battalion, martyrs who
gave their lives to the Mexican cause in the United States' unjust
invasion of 1847

ered traitors.* [5] For Mexicans of that generation, and

generations to come, the San Patricios were heroes who
came to their aid in an hour of need. Successive Mexican presidents have praised the San Patricios; Vicente
Fox Quesada stated that The anities between Ireland
and Mexico go back to the rst years of our nation, when
our country fought to preserve its national sovereignty...
Then, a brave group of Irish soldiers... in a heroic gesture,
decided to ght against the foreign ground invasion,* [6]
and Mexican president Ernesto Zedillo statedMembers
of the St. Patrick's Battalion were executed for following
their consciences. They were martyred for adhering to the
highest ideals ... we honor their memory. In the name of
the people of Mexico, I salute today the people of Ireland
and express my eternal gratitude.* [7]

251

252
The great majority of these men were recent immigrants
who had arrived at northeastern U.S. ports, part of the
Irish diaspora then escaping the Great Irish Famine and
extremely poor economic conditions in Ireland, part of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland at the
time. The U.S. Army often recruited Irishmen and other
immigrants into military service shortly or sometimes immediately after arrival to America in con ships, with
promises of salaries and land after the war.
Numerous theories have been proposed as to their motives for desertion, including cultural alienation,* [8]* [9]
mistreatment of immigrant soldiers by nativist soldiers
and senior ocers,* [10]* [9] brutal military discipline
and dislike of service in the U.S. military,* [9] being
forced to attend Protestant church services and being unable to practice their Catholic religion freely* [11] as well
as religious ideological convictions,* [9] the incentive of
higher wages and land grants starting at 320 acres (1.3
km2 ) oered by Mexico,* [12]* [9] and viewing the U.S.
invasion of Mexico as unjust.* [11]* [13]
It is believed primary motivations were shared religion
with the Mexicans and sympathy for the Mexican cause
based on similarities between the situations in Mexico
and Ireland. This hypothesis is based on evidence of
the number of Irish Catholics in the Battalion, the letters of John Riley, and the eld entries of senior ocers.* [14]* [15] Another hypothesis is that the members
of the Saint Patrick's Battalion had been unhappy with
their treatment in the U.S. Army; this was the conviction of George Ballentine, an Englishman who served in
the American army. Ballentine stated that while there
was a portion of truthin the viewcommonly assigned
by ocersthat the deserters joined the Mexican army
due to their Catholicism,I have good reason to believe,
in fact in some cases I know, that harsh and unjust treatment by their ocers operated far more strongly than any
other consideration to produce the deplorable result [desertion],describing how he found the punishments used
for trivial oensivesto be revolting and disgusting.* [16] Another theory some historians hold is that
the soldiers were attracted by the incentives oered by the
Mexican government: safe passage throughout Mexico
for deserters, generous land grants, and the oer of potential military commissions.* [17] For poor people coming from famine conditions, economics was often an important incentive.* [18]

CHAPTER 55. SAINT PATRICK'S BATTALION

Flight of the Wild Geese in the 17th century. In addition,
many Irish fought as soldiers in South American wars of
independence.* [c]

55.2 Flag
Further information: List of ags of Ireland
There are conicting accounts of the design of the ag
of the Saint Patrick's Battalion. No ags or depictions of
them are known to have survived to the present day. The
only version of the ag known to have survived the war
was subsequently lost or stolen from the chapel at West
Point.* [20]
John Riley, who left an account of the battalion, noted the
ag in a letter:

The green harp ag in its 18th to 19th century design, showing

the Maid of Erinas the harp's pillar, her wing forming the
harp's neck, and the inscription Erin go Bragh
( Ireland forever
)

According to an American journalist covering the war

with Mexico:
Two other eye-witness accounts of the ag exist, both
from American soldiers. The rst describes it as:
The second notes only:
A radically dierent version of the ag was described in
this Mexican source:

Whatever the case, in 1997 a reproduction military ag

was created by the Clifden and Connemara Heritage
Group. Another was created the following year for the
MGM lm One Man's Hero. The lm was a romanticised
version of the San Patricios' history. A third version emMexican author Jos Ral Conseco noted that many Irish bodying the description of the San Luis Potos ag was
lived in northern Texas, and were forced to move south made for the Irish Society of Chicago, which hung it in
due to regional insecurity. Mainly Irish settlers from San Chicago's Union League Club.
Patricio, Texas had previously sided with Mexican forces
against Texan rebels at the Battle of Lipantitln in the Some theories suggest that the Saint Patrick's Battalion
might have used dierent banners (as an artillery unit, an
Texan Revolution.* [19]
infantry company and as a reconstructed unit).* [25]
Irish expatriates had a long tradition of serving in military forces of Catholic countries, for instance, serving
with Spain and later France in groups of young men who
had left Ireland during what would become known as the 55.3 Service as a military unit

55.3. SERVICE AS A MILITARY UNIT

55.3.1

253

Formation and early engagements

Present in the Mexican Army for the battles of Palo Alto

and Resaca de la Palma were the Legin de Extranjeros
(Legion of Foreigners); the men who would later make up
the core of the Saint Patrick's battalion. Meanwhile, deserters were abandoning General Taylor's army on the Rio
Grande.* [1] Riley anda company of 48 Irishmen* [26]
manned Mexican artillery at the Siege of Fort Texas,
which took place concurrently to the two other battles.
Martin Tritschler, German Mexican and a Captain at the
Battle of Cerro Gordo, is attributed with convincing a
large number of German soldiers to defect from the U.S.
occupying forces in Puebla, Puebla.
The Saint Patrick's Battalion rst fought as a recognised
Mexican unit in the Battle of Monterrey on 21 September
1846, as an artillery battery. Popularly they were called
Los Colorados by the Mexicans because of their ruddy,
sun-burnt complexions and red hair color.* [27]* [28]
They were commanded by John Riley,* [b] an Irish artilleryman and veteran non-commissioned ocer of the
British Army, who possibly arrived in Canada in 1843
whilst serving in the British Army (the assertion that he
served as a Sergeant in the 66th (Berkshire) Regiment of
Foot,* [27] is known to be inaccurate)* [29] going on to
join the U.S. Army in Michigan in September 1845. He
deserted in Matamoros in April 1846.* [30] Upon meeting Mexican forces he was initially given the Ocer rank
of Lieutenant by General Pedro de Ampudia.* [31]
At the battle of Monterrey the San Patricios proved their
artillery skills by causing the deaths of many American
soldiers, and they are credited with defeating two* [32]
to three* [3] separate assaults into the heart of the city.
Among their targets were companies led by such ocers
as Braxton Bragg, many of whose soldiers would end up
in their own ranks later in the war.* [33] Their tenacity,
however, did not aect the Mexican commanders' decision to capitulate and abandon the position.
Following the engagement at Monterrey, the San Patricios grew in number, by some estimates reaching an enlistment of over 700 men.* [31]* [34] Forces re-assembled
at San Luis Potos and they had their distinct green silk
ag embroidered there.

55.3.2

Buena Vista

Main article: Battle of Buena Vista

They then marched northward after joining a larger force
commanded by Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna sent from
Mexico City, theliberating army of the North. At the
Battle of Buena Vista (known as the battle of Angostura
in Mexico) in Coahuila on 23 February, the Patricios became engaged with U.S. forces. They were assigned the
three heaviest 18 and 24 pound cannons the Mexican
army possessed, which were positioned on high ground

San Patricios defended the city of Monterrey with artillery re

from its citadel, indicated here with the key F* [d]

over-looking the battleeld, at the base of a hillside (just

below what is now a gravel mine).* [35] They were later
described as a strong Mexican battery ... moved ... by
dint of extraordinary exertions ... [that] commanded the
entire plateau.* [36]
They started the battle supporting Mexican infantry by
ring on U.S. lines as the Mexicans advanced on them,
then later decimating an artillery battery directly opposite them on the battleeld (Washingtons 4th Artillery,
D Battery). A small number of San Patricios were dispatched with a division commanded by Manuel Lombardini with the express purpose of capturing the 4th's cannons once the crews had been dealt with. As the division got close enough they charged the artillery battery,
bayoneting whoever remained and routing the rest, leaving the attached San Patricios free to haul away two sixpound cannons.* [37] These cannons would later be used
by Mexican forces at the Battle of Contreras.* [12]
In frustration U.S. Commander Zachary Taylor, referring
to the Saint Patrick's Battalion, ordered a squadron of the
1st Dragoons to take that damned battery.* [38] In
this task they failed, and, badly bloodied, were forced to
retreat.* [12] At about 1 p.m. the San Patricios covered a
Mexican retreat as a disordered mass of infantry sought
refuge during a lull in the ghting.* [39] The San Patri-

254

CHAPTER 55. SAINT PATRICK'S BATTALION

cios rode out the day in a costly artillery duel with several American batteries,* [40] which killed and injured
roughly one third of them.* [7] General Francisco Mejia
s Battle Report for Buena Vista described the San Patriciosasworthy of the most consummate praise because
the men fought with daring bravery.* [41] Several Irishmen were awarded the War Cross by the Mexican government for their conduct in that battle, and many received
eld promotions.* [7]* [42]

55.3.3

Re-organization and nal battles

Despite their excellent performance in a number of engagements as artillery, the much-reduced San Patricios
were ordered to muster a larger infantry battalion in mid1847 by personal order of Santa Anna. It was renamed
the The Foreign Legion of Patricios and consisted of
volunteers from many European countries, commanded
by Col. Francisco R. Moreno, with Riley in charge of
1st company and Santiago O'Leary heading up the second.* [7] Desertion handbills were produced, specially
targeting Catholic Irish, French and German immigrants
in the invading U.S. army and stating thatYou must not
ght against a religious people, nor should you be seen in
the ranks of those who proclaim slavery of mankind as a
constitutive principle ... liberty is not on the part of those
who desire to be lords of the world, robbing properties
and territories which do not belong to them and shedding
so much blood in order to accomplish their views, views
in open war to the principles of our holy religion.* [43]

all risk.* [44] The San Patricio Companies initially met

the attackers outside the walls of the convent at a ttede-pont, which was about 500 yards (457 m) from a fortied convent.* [45] A battery of three* [46] to ve* [45]
heavy cannons were used from this position to hold o
the American advance along with support from Los Independencia Batalln and Los Bravos Batalln.* [46] The
Americans were under the command of Col. William
Homan.* [47] Several U.S. charges towards the bridgehead were thrown o,* [48] with the San Patricio companies serving as an example to the supporting battalions.* [49] Unlike the San Patricios, most of whom were
veterans (many having served in the armies of the United
Kingdom and various German states), the supporting
Mexican battalions were simply militia (the term 'National Guard' is also used* [44]) who had been untested
by battle.* [46]

A lack of ammunition led the Mexican soldiers in the

trenches between the bridgehead and the convent to disband; without ammunition, they had no way to ght
back.* [50] Santa Anna had ordered half of these soldiers to a dierent part of the battleeld.* [51] When
the requested ammunition wagon nally arrived, the 9
drachm cartridges were compatible with none but the
San Patricio Companies "Brown Bess" muskets, and they
made up only a fraction of the defending forces.* [52]
Further hampering Mexican eorts, a stray spark from
an artillery piece ring grape shot at the on-coming U.S.
troops caused the just-arrived ammunition to explode and
set re to several men, including Captain O'Leary and
Gen.l Anaya.* [53] A withdrawal behind the walls of the
As an infantry unit, the San Patricios continued to serve convento de Churubusco was called when the threat of bewith distinction. Knowing that they were likely to face ing outanked proved too great.* [12]
the death penalty if captured, the San Patricios are known
to have threatened wavering Mexican troops with death
by "friendly re" at the Battle of Cerro Gordo if they
retreated. When the San Patricios were too heavilyengaged to carry out their threat, the Mexican troops
broke and ran, leaving the San Patricios as they fought
U.S. troops in hand-to-hand combat.

Churubusco's monastery at the height of the 1847 Battle of Churubusco, painted by James Walker

A depiction of George Ballentine, an eyewitness of the battalion

The Battle of Churubusco (20 August 1847) took place The San Patricios used this battle as a chance to settle old
about four months after the defeat at Cerro Gordo. Gen. scores with U.S. troops. The large number of ocers
Santa Anna gave a verbal order topreserve the point at killed in the aair was ... ascribed to them, as for the

55.4. AFTERMATH OF CHURUBUSCO

255

gratication of their revenge they aimed at no other objects during the engagement.* [54] At some point during the ghting for the convent, two American ocers
led fteen men against a point in the Mexican defences,
and mistook San Patricio members for friendly U.S. army
troops; the San Patricios opened re on them, killing and
wounding all but one of the group.* [55] Though hopelessly outnumbered and under-equipped, the defenders
repelled the attacking U.S. forces with heavy losses until their ammunition ran out and a Mexican ocer raised
the white ag of surrender. Ocer Patrick Dalton of the
San Patricios tore the white ag down, prompting Gen.
Pedro Anaya to order his men to ght on, with their bare
hands if necessary.* [7] American Private Ballentine reported that when the Mexicans attempted to raise the
white ag two more times, members of the San Patricios shot and killed them.* [54]* [56] After brutal closequarters ghting with bayonets and sabers through the
halls and rooms inside the convent, U.S. Army Captain
James M. Smith suggested a surrender after raising his
white handkerchief.* [57] Following the U.S. victory, the
Americansventilat[ed] their vocabulary of Saxon expletives, not very courteously,on Riley and his beautiful
disciples of St. Patrick.* [58]

55.4 Aftermath of Churubusco

Gen. Anaya stated in his written battle report that 35

San Patricios were killed, 85 taken prisoner (including
a wounded John Riley, Captain O'Leary and Anaya);
about 85 escaped with retreating Mexican forces.* [7]
Some 60% of the San Patricios were killed or captured
in the engagement.* [59] The survivors were reformed
before the Battle of Mexico City some two weeks later
and were stationed at Quertaro where the Mexican government had decamped, with some 50 members serving as a body-guard for the commander-in-chief.* [60]
The battalion were caught up in the inghting and politicking of Mexico at the time, and were under the patronage of a faction that favored suing for ending of the
conict peacefully.* [61] New units were later made up
of the free survivors of the battle of Churubusco and a
roughly equal number of fresh deserters from the U.S.
Army.* [57]* [62] Following the war, the Mexican Government insisted in a clause of the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo that the remaining San Patricio prisoners held by
the Americans were to be left in Mexico, and Major General William Orlando Butler issued General Orders 116
on June 1, 1848 stating that; The prisoners conned at
the Citadel, known as the San Patricio prisoners, will be
immediately discharged
Rogues March was played
upon their release.* [41] The Saint Patrick's battalion continued to function as two infantry companies under the
command of John Riley, with one unit tasked with sentry
duty in Mexico City and the other was stationed in the
suburbs of Guadalupe Hidalgo.* [41] The San Patricios
were ocially mustered out of Mexican military service
in 1848; some members were alleged to have been involved in an abortive military coup,* [63] while historians
have said the group was disbanded because of Mexican
budget cuts.* [64]

55.4.2 Sentences

55.4.1 Trials
The San Patricios captured by the U.S. Army were treated
and punished as traitors for desertion in time of war.
Seventy-two men were immediately charged with desertion by the Army.* [32]
Two separate courts-martial were held, one at Tacubaya
on 23 August, and another at San ngel on 26 August.
At neither of these trials were the men represented by
lawyers nor were transcripts made of the proceedings.
This lack of formal legal advice could account for the fact
that several of the men claimed that drunkenness had led
them to desert (a common defense in military trials at the
time that sometimes led to lighter sentences), and others described how they were forced to join the Mexican
Army in some form or another. The majority of the San
Patricios either oered no defense or their defenses were
not recorded. Wealthy Mexicans came to the San Patricios' defence at the trails, and members of Mexico's rst
families visited them in prison.* [65]

One soldier who claimed he was forced to ght by the

Mexicans after he was captured by them, and who subsequently refused to do so, was sentenced to death by ring squad instead of hanging, along with another who
was found not to have ocially joined the Mexican
Army.* [32]
Most of the convicted San Patricios were sentenced to
death by hanging: 30 from the Tacubaya trial and 18 from
San ngel. The rationale was that they had entered Mexican military service following the declaration of war. Execution by hanging was in violation of the contemporary
Articles of War, which stipulated that the penalty for desertion and/or defecting to the enemy during a time of
war was death by ring squad, regardless of the circumstances. Hanging was reserved only for spies (without
uniform) and foratrocities against civilians, neither of
which activities were among the charges brought against
any members of the Saint Patricio's Battalion.* [42] Although more than 9,000 U.S. soldiers deserted the army
during the MexicanAmerican War, only the San Patricios (who unlike almost all other deserters had also fought
against the United States) were punished by hanging.* [66]
Those soldiers who had left military service before the
ocial declaration of war on Mexico (Riley among them)
were sentenced to:

55.4.3 Executions
In all, fty Saint Patrick's battalion members were ocially executed by the U.S. Army. Collectively, this was

256
the largest mass execution in United States historythe
hanging of 38 Sioux at the conclusion of the Dakota War
of 1862 appears the be the largest execution by hanging
at a single event. En masse executions for treason took
place at three separate locations on three separate dates;
sixteen were executed on 10 September 1847 at San ngel, four were executed the following day at the village
of Mixcoac on 11 September, and thirty were hanged at
Chapultepec on 13 September.* [68] A sole San Patricio
was murdered by American soldiers when he was recognised among the prisoners of war in the aftermath of the
Battle of Molino del Rey, by being thrown into a mill
ume and crushed by the wheel.* [69] At the San ngel hangings all prisoners were executed without incident
except for Patrick Dalton, who, as an American captain
described, was literally choked to death.* [70] Dalton had previously voiced concerns regarding his treatment.* [71] By order of Gen. Wineld Scott, thirty San
Patricios were to be executed at Chapultepec in full view
of the two armies while they fought the Battle of Chapultepec, at the precise moment that the ag of the U.S.
replaced the ag of Mexico atop the citadel. This order was carried out by Col. William Harney.* [42] Harney was taunted and jeered by the condemned men.* [72]
While overseeing the hangings, Harney ordered Francis
O'Connor hanged even though he had had both legs amputated the previous day. When the army surgeon informed the colonel that the absent soldier had lost both
his legs in battle, Harney replied:

CHAPTER 55. SAINT PATRICK'S BATTALION

City. The Mexican government described the hangings
asa cruel death or horrible torments, improper in a civilized age, and [ironic] for a people who aspire to the title
of illustrious and humane,* [12] and by a writer covering the war as a renement of cruelty and ... endish
.* [77] George Ballentine remarked in his account of his
American military service in Mexico thatThe desertion
of our soldiers to the Mexican army ... were still numerous, in spite of the fearful example of the executions at
Churubusco, [and] also served to inspire that party with
hope.* [78]

55.5 Legacy
Those who survived either made lives for themselves in
Mexico or returned to their home nations such as Ireland.
Some former San Patricios found work at the arsenal in
Guadalajara making gun stocks.* [79] One former San
Patricio, an Irishman, started a military academy teachingthe sword exercise, also in Guadalajara.* [80] Others were reportedly killed while travelling through Mexico,* [81] while others were reduced to living on handouts.* [82] A handful are on record as having made use
of the land claims promised them by the Mexican government. Americans in Mexico who had been taken prisoner by Mexico or who were common deserters known
to falsely present themselves as members of the Saint
Patrick's Battalion; American William W. Carpenter,
who found himself in this predicament, stated that: the
reputation of the San Patricio battalion was spread from
ocean to ocean, and to that, more than any thing else, do
I owe my present safety.* [83]
The men have continued to be honored and revered as
heroes in Mexico.* [84] The Batalln de San Patricio is
memorialised on two separate days; 12 September, the
generally accepted anniversary of the executions of those
battalion members captured by the U.S. Army, and 17
March, Saint Patrick's Day. Numerous schools, churches
and other landmarks in Mexico take their name from the
battalion, including:

The mass hanging of San Patricios, as portrayed by Samuel

Chamberlain, c. 1867

The U.S. ag appeared on the agpole at 9.30 a.m. The

Mexican ag had been taken by cadet Juan Escutia of
the Nios Hroes to his death after leaping with it from
Chapultepec Castle to deny the Americans the honor of
capturing it. In a nal act of deance, the men about to
be hanged cheered the Mexican ag, as one onlooker remarked; Hands tied, feet tied, their voices still free
.* [74] At Harney's signal, the carts holding the tied and
noosed men pulled away.* [75] Harney refused to cut the
bodies down, stating that I was ordered to have them
hanged, and have no orders to unhang them";* [76] Harney was subsequently promoted to brigadier general, a
post which he held while the U.S. Army occupied Mexico

Monterrey The street in front of the Irish School

is named Batalln de San Patricio (Battalion of
Saint Patrick).
Mexico City The street in front of the Santa Mara
de Churubusco convent was named Mrtires Irlandeses (the Irish martyrs).
The Wall of Honor in Mexico's Chamber of
Deputies On Thursday, October 28, 2002 the
LVII Mexican Congress held a ceremony where the
inscription Defensores de la Patria 1846-1848 y
Batalln de San Patricio" [Defenders of the Motherland 1846-1848 and the San Patricio Battalion] was
inscribed in gold letters.* [41]* [85]

55.5. LEGACY
Banda de Gaitas del Batallon de San Patricio [The
St. Patrick's Battalion Pipes & Drums] The only
Bagpipe Band in Mexico is named after the battalion. The band is based at the former Convent
of Churubusco in Mexico City, which now houses
the Museum of Foreign Interventions or "Museo
Nacional de las Intervenciones". The band was
inducted into the Irish America Hall of Fame in
2013.* [86]
San Patricio station Metro Zapata was renamed
for one day to San Patricioon 17 March 2015
to commemorate Saint Patrick's day and the Saint
Patrick's battalion. This was the rst time a metro
had been renamed in such a manner.* [87]
In the U.S. the memory of the battalion has been different. In Wineld Scott's 1852 run for president of
the United States, his treatment of the San Patricios was
brought up by his opponents to sway Irish American voters.* [88] The U.S. Army long denied the existence of the
Saint Patrick's battalion as a cover-up and attempt to discourage other deserters. In 1915 an inquiry was initiated
by U.S. congressmen William Henry Coleman and Frank
L. Greene. This resulted in the U.S. Army's admitting
its denial of the matter. The U.S. Congress ordered the
army to turn over its records on the battalion to the National Archives.* [89] In 1999, MGM cancelled the U.S.
distribution of a lm depicting the battalion, One Man's
Hero.* [9]

257
Patrick's Day message from Subcomandante Marcos of
the Zapatista Army of National Liberation,* [92] and has
been remembered as a symbol of international solidarity
with Mexico.* [93]* [94]

55.5.1 Music
Saint Patrick's Battalionby The Elders (band)
(Story Road)
St Patrick's Brave Brigadeby Damien Dempsey
St Patrick's Battalionby David Rovics
San Patricio Brigadeby Black 47
The San Patriciosby The Fenians
San Patriciosby Street Dogs (State of Grace)
San Patriciosby Ollin (song and EP)
Pa Los Del San Patricioby Charlie O'Brien
The Men That God Made Madby Niamh Parsons with Graham Dunne
San Patriciosby The Plankrunners
St Patrick's Battalionby The Wakes
San Patricioby The Chieftains
John Rileyby Tim O'Brien

Preferring to ght with the Catholic Mexicans against

the Protestant Americans, the San Patricios were the only 55.5.2 Films and ction
group of deserters in American history to band together
1962 Saint Patrick's Battalion by Carl Krueger
in the service of a foreign enemy.
Peter Quinn, Looking for Jimmy: A Search for Irish
America* [90]
In 1997, President Ernesto Zedillo commemorated the
150th anniversary of the execution of the San Patricios
at a ceremony in Mexico City's San Jacinto Plaza. This
is where the U.S. Army conducted the rst 16 hangings
after the men were convicted of desertion at court martial. Ireland and Mexico jointly issued commemorative
postage stamps to mark the anniversary.
In 2004, at an ocial ceremony attended by numerous international dignitaries including directors Lance and Jason Hool, as well as several actors from the lm One
Man's Hero (1999), the Mexican government gave a commemorative statue to the Irish government in perpetual
thanks for the bravery, honor and sacrice of the Saint
Patrick's Battalion. The statue was erected in Clifden,
Connemara, Ireland, where leader John Riley was born.
In honor of John Riley, on 12 September the town of
Clifden ies the Mexican ag. In 2014, Sinn Fin named
a cumann in Clifden in honor of John O'Reilly.* [91]
The battalion has inspired numerous responses: it is
the name of a soccer team Club Deportivo Chivas
USA's Supporters Association, was evoked in a Saint

1996 The San Patricios, Directed by Mark R. Day

1985 A ag to y: Based on true story of the
St. Patrick's Battalion in Mexico 1847 by Chris
Matthews
1997 In the Rogue Blood, Winner of Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Fiction, by James Carlos
Blake
1999 One Man's Hero, lm directed by Lance
Hool, written by Milton S. Gelman* [95]
1999 St. Patrick's Battalion, Directed by Jason
Hool
2001 Gone for Soldiers, novel by Je Shaara
2006 Saint Patrick's Battalion, novel by James
Alexander Thom published by Blue River Press of
Indianapolis
2011 Saol John Riley, TG4 (Ireland) documentary, directed by Kieran Concannon
2012 Country of the Bad Wolfes, novel by James
Carlos Blake published by Cinco Puntos Press, El
Paso

258

55.6 Notes

CHAPTER 55. SAINT PATRICK'S BATTALION

[22] Kendall 1999, p. 350.

[23] Miller 1989, p. 38.

a. * ^ The coats were Turkish-blue with yellow lapels and

crimson-red cus as well as piping. The trousers were [24] Miller 1989, p. 52.
sky-blue with red piping. Ocers wore black or blue [25] Ferrigan III 2000.
Kepis and privates wore dark-blue cloth barracks caps,
with red tassels similar to a Fez, also with red piping.* [96] [26] Stevens 1999, p. 291.
b. 1 2 Variably spelled in English as John Reily, Riely,
Reilly, O'Reily and O'Reilly. His name is given as Juan
Reyle, Reley, Reely and Reiley in Mexican army documents written in Spanish. Regardless of other variant
spellings, the name was Sen Raghailligh in the original Irish Gaelic.* [97]

[27] Wallace 1950, p. 85.

c. * ^ See articles 1st Venezuelan Ries, Bernardo

O'Higgins, Daniel Florencio O'Leary, Juan O'Donoj,
Morgan O'Connell, & William Lamport.

[31] Hopkins 1913, p. 280.

d. * ^ Monterrey is here spelledMontereyas it appears

in the Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant (Not to be
confused with Monterey of the Battle of Monterey, also
in the MexicanAmerican War).* [47]

[33] Stevens 1999, pp. 150 & 172173.

[28] Bauer 1992, p. 42.

[29] Miller 1989, p. 27.
[30] Hogan 1998, p. 42.

[32] Howes 2003, p. 181.

[34] Chamberlain 1853, p. 226.

[35] Cave 2013.
[36] Smith 1919a, p. 391.

55.7 Footnotes

[37] Stevens 1999, p. 195.

[38] Stevens 1999, p. 193.

[1] Grant 1885, p. 115.

[2] Miller 1989, pp. 188192.
[3] Callaghan 1995.
[4] Hopkins 1913, pp. 283284.
[5] Hogan 1998, p. 223.
[6] Connaughton 2005.
[7] Fogarty 2005.

[39] Smith 1919a, p. 393.

[40] Smith 1919a, p. 395.
[41] Paredes 2010.
[42] Hogan 2006.
[43] Zinn & Arnove 2004, pp. 157158.
[44] Ramsey 1850, p. 283.
[45] Ramsey 1850, p. 284.

[8] Mermann-Jozwiak 2001, p. 150.

[46] Smith 1919b, p. 111.

[9] Rollins 2008, pp. 9192.

[47] Grant 1885, p. 114.

[10] Ballentine 1860, pp. 3435 & 281282.

[48] Smith 1919b, p. 115.

[11] Radford Ruether 2007, p. 81.

[49] Smith 1919b, p. 114.

[12] Downey 1955.

[50] Ramsey 1850, p. 286.

[13] Woolf 2015.

[51] Smith 1919b, p. 116.

[14] Lloyd 2000, p. 104.

[52] Ramsey 1850, p. 295.

[15] Hogan 1998, p. 152.

[53] Ramsey 1850, p. 296.

[16] Ballentine 1860, p. 281282.

[54] Ballentine 1860, p. 256.

[17] Ramold 2010, p. 39.

[55] McCaery 1994, p. 179.

[18] McCornack 1958, p. 255.

[56] Meltzer 1974, p. 197.

[19] Super 1992, p. 136.

[57] Nordstrom 2008.

[20] Hogan 1998, p. 228.

[58] Ramsey 1850, p. 299.

[21] Stevens 1999, p. 285.

[59] Miller 1989, p. 89.

55.8. SEE ALSO

[60] Carpenter 1851, p. 102.

[61] Foos 2002, p. 110.
[62] Stevens 1999, p. 286.
[63] Stevens 1999, pp. 290291.
[64] The United States in Latin America: A Historical Dictionary, S, p. 311. questiaschool.com. Questia Online
Library. Retrieved 2 August 2008.
[65] Foos 2002, p. 112.
[66] Hogan 1998, p. 19.
[67] Fras 1984, p. 173.
[68] McCaery 1994, p. 196; Eisenhower 1999, p. 297.
[69] McCaery 1994, p. 181.
[70] Miller 1989, p. 105.

259

[94] CL Aniversario del batalln de San patricio(in Spanish). Presidency of the Republic of Mexico. 12 September 1997. Retrieved 20 March 2015. "Al conmemorar
la gesta heroica del Batalln de San Patricio honramos la
memoria de todos los hombres y de todas las mujeres que
han luchado y siguen luchando por construir un mundo
ms justo, ms incluyente y ms democrtico, independientemente de su origen tnico, su condicin social, su herencia
cultural y su losofa de vida." [As we commemorate the
heroic gesture of the St. Patrick's Battalion, we honor the
memory of all men and all women who have fought and
are still struggling to build a world more just, more democratic and inclusive, regardless of their ethnic origin, social status, cultural heritage and philosophy of life]
[95] Wagenen 2012, pp. 230232.
[96] Miller 1989, pp. 38 & 71; Stevens 1999, p. 231.
[97] Wallace 1950, p. 85; Miller 1989, p. 26; Stevens 1999,
p. 293.

[71] Miller 1989, p. 93.

[72] Eisenhower 1999, p. 297.
[73] Wunn 1985, p. 14.
[74] Stevens 1999, p. 275.
[75] Hogan 1998, p. 287.

55.8 See also

Battles of the Mexican-American War
Irish Brigade (Spanish Civil War)

[76] McCaery 1994, p. 197.

Fenian Raids

[77] Fast 1993.

Irish Brigade (French)

[78] Ballentine 1860, p. 281.

Irish Brigade (US)

[79] Carpenter 1851, p. 212.

Nios Hroes

[80] Carpenter 1851, pp. 207208.

John Murphy (Saint Patrick's Battalion)

[81] Carpenter 1851, p. 201.

[82] Foos 2002, p. 111.

55.9 References

[83] Carpenter 1851, p. 135.

[84] Gonzales 2000, pp. 8687.
[85] Hawley 2008.
[86] Looby 2015.
[87] Mexico City renames Metro Station after St Patrick for
one day. Merrionstreet.com. Irish Government News
Service. 17 March 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
[88] Eisenhower 1999, p. 329.
[89] Stevens 1999, pp. 300301.
[90] Quinn 2007, p. 49.
[91] Mexican-Irish hero to be honoured in Clifden. Galway
Advertiser. 6 November 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
[92] Boyer 2010.
[93] Leahy 2002.

55.9.1 Primary sources

Ballentine, George (1860). The Mexican War, by
an English Soldier: Comprising Incidents and Adventures in the United States and Mexico with the American Army. New York: W. A. Townsend & Company. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Carpenter, William W. (1851). Travels and adventures in Mexico : in the course of journeys of upward
of 2500 miles, performed on foot ; giving an account
of the manners and customs of the people, and the
agricultural and mineral resources of that country.
New York: Harper & Brothers. Retrieved 24 March
2015.
Chamberlain, Samuel (1853). My Confession: Recollections of a Rogue. New York: Harper and Brothers.

260

CHAPTER 55. SAINT PATRICK'S BATTALION

Grant, Ulysses S. (1998) [1885]. Personal memoirs

of Ulysses S. Grant, Volume I. Scituate, MA: Digital
Scanning Inc. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
Kendall, George Wilkins (1999). Cress, Lawrence
Delbert, ed. Dispatches from the Mexican-American
War. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-80613121-7.
Ramsey, Albert C., ed. (1850). The other side; or,
notes for the history of the war between Mexico and
the United States. New York: John Wiley. Retrieved
24 March 2015.

55.9.2

Secondary sources

Bauer, K. Jack (1992). The Mexican War, 184648.

University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-61071.
Boyer, Sandy (19 March 2010). Defying a war of
conquest. socialistworker.org. Retrieved 25 March
2015.
Callaghan, James (November 1995). The San
Patricios. American Heritage Magazine (American
Heritage Publishing Company) 46 (7). Retrieved 20
March 2015.
Cave, Damien (30 October 2013). A Reminder
of a Conict That Faded Into History. The New
York Times. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Connaughton, Michael G. (September 2005). Beneath an Emerald Green Flag: The Story of Irish
Soldiers in Mexico. irlandeses.org. The Society for Irish Latin American Studies. Retrieved 20
March 2015.
Downey, Fairfax (June 1955). Tragic Story of the
San Patricio Batallion. American Heritage Magazine (American Heritage Publishing Company) 6
(4). Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Eisenhower, John S. D. (1999). Agent of Destiny:
The Life and Times of General Wineld Scott. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806131283.
Fast, Howard (February 1993). Inglorious Tale
from the Mexican War. trussel.com. Retrieved 20
March 2015.
Ferrigan III, James J. (8 February 2000). Three
ags for the Batalln de San Patricio?". FOTW Flags
Of The World website. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Fogarty, James (September 2005). The St. Patricio Battalion: The Irish Soldiers of Mexico. The
Society for Irish Latin American Studies. Retrieved
20 March 2015.

Foos, Paul (2002). A Short, Ohand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conict during the MexicanAmerican War. University of North Carolina
Press. ISBN 978-0807854051.
Fras, Heriberto (1984). La guerra contra los gringos [The war against the gringos] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Ediciones Leega/Jucar. ISBN 968-495011-X.
Gonzales, Manuel G. (2000). Mexicanos: A history
of Mexicans in the United States. Indiana University
Press. ISBN 0-253-33520-5.
Hawley, Chris (10 March 2008).Bagpipers honor
Irish who fought for Mexico. USA Today. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
Hogan, Michael (1998). Irish Soldiers of Mexico.
Guadalajara: Fondo Editorial Universitario. ISBN
978-968-7846-00-2.
Hogan, Michael (15 September 2006). Los
San Patricios: The Irish Soldiers of Mexico.
Indymedia. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Hopkins, G. T. (September 1913). The San Patricio Battalion in the Mexican War. Cavalry Journal
XXIV: 279284.
Howes, Kelly King (2003). Mexican American war.
UXL. ISBN 0-7876-6537-1.
Leahy, Dan; et al. (June 2002). Students Seek
To Have Expulsion Order Annulled. Mexican Labor News and Analysis (UE International) 7 (5). Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Lloyd, David (2000).
Ireland After History.
University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-26801218-0.
Looby, David (13 August 2015). Mexican-Irish
historical link celebrated. independent.ie. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
McCaery, James M. (1994). Army of Manifest
Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War,
18461848. New York University Press. ISBN
978-0814755051.
McCornack, Richard (1958). The San Patricio
Deserters in the Mexican War, 1847. The Irish
Sword 3.
Mermann-Jozwiak, Elisabeth (Fall 2001). An interview with Montserrat Fontes. MELUS (The
Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States) 26 (3): 145161.
doi:10.2307/3185561. Retrieved 20 March 2015.

55.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

Miller, Robert Ryal (1989). Shamrock and Sword,
The Saint Patrick's Battalion in the US Mexican
War. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma
Press. ISBN 0-8061-2964-6.

261
Wagenen, Michael Van (2012). Remembering
the Forgotten War: The Enduring Legacies of the
U.S./Mexican War. Massachusetts: University of
Massachusetts Press. ISBN 1-55849-930-X.

Meltzer, Milton (1974). Bound for the Rio Grande;

the Mexican Struggle, 1845-1850. New York: 55.9.3 Further reading
Knopf. ISBN 0-394-82440-7.
Murray, Edmundo (2006). The San Patricio Bat Nordstrom, Pat (18 January 2008). San Patritalion: A Bibliography. irlandeses.org. Society for
cio Battalion. Handbook of Texas. Retrieved 20
Irish Latin American Studies. Retrieved 19 March
March 2015.
2015.
Paredes, Martn (4 December 2010). The Irish
Heroes of Mexico. Clifden And Connemara Heritage Society. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Quinn, Peter (2007). Looking for Jimmy: A Search
for Irish America. New York: The Overlook Press.
ISBN 1590200233.
Rollins, Peter C. (2008). Why We Fought: America's Wars in Film and History. University Press of
Kentucky. ISBN 978-0813191911.
Radford Ruether, Rosemary (2007). America,
Amerikkka: Elect Nation and Imperial Violence.
Routledge. ISBN 978-1845531584.

55.10 External links

Works about Saint Patrick's Battalion in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)
Commemoration of the Saint Patricks Battalion,
Embassy of Ireland Mexico, Department of Foreign
Aairs and Trade
Freedom Denied: the St Patrick's Battalion
Australian Broadcasting Corporation interview
The San Patricios: the Irish Heroes of Mexico,
Library of Congress blog post

Ramold, Steven (2010). Baring the Iron Hand: Discipline in the Union Army. Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0875804088.

Martin Paredes,Batalln de San Patricio: the Irish

Heroes of Mexico, Website of leading author on
the Saint Patrick's battalion

Smith, Justin H. (1919a). The War with Mexico, vol

1. New York: The Macmillan Company.

Dr. Michael Hogan, Website of leading author on

the Saint Patrick's battalion

Smith, Justin H. (1919b). The War with Mexico, vol

2. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Stevens, Peter F. (1999). The Rogue's March: John
Riley and the St. Patrick's Battalion. Washington,
DC: Brassey's. ISBN 1-57488-738-6.
Super, John C. (1992). The United States at War.
Salem Press Inc. ISBN 978-1587652363.
Wallace, Edward S (Summer 1950). The Battalion of Saint Patrick in the Mexican War (PDF).
Military Aairs 14 (2): 8491.
Woolf, Christopher (17 March 2015). On St.
Patricks Day, Mexico remembers the Irishmen
who fought for Mexico against the US. PRI. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
Wunn, Dennis J (1984). San Patricio Soldiers: Mexico's Foreign Legion. Texas Western Press. ISBN
0-87404-150-3.
Zinn, Howard; Arnove, Anthony (2004). A People's History of the United States (1 ed.). New York:
Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1-58322-628-1.

Chapter 56

Serbs and Montenegrins in the Greek War

of Independence
Several people of Serb and Montenegrin descent partic- and Russia, politicians, merchants etc. assisted the Seripated in the Greek War of Independence (18211829) bian Revolution in many ways. For example, Constantine
on the side of the Greek rebels.
Ypsilantis, father of the Eteria leader Alexandros Ypsilantis, had, as voivode of Wallachia, helped the revolutionaries of Karaore, while Ioannis Kapodistrias as
56.1 Background:
Greeks and Russian Minister of External Aairs oered diplomatic
support to the Serbian cause in international meetings like
Serbs in the early 19th cen- the Congress of Vienna.

tury
During the rst decades of the 19th century, the First
Serbian Uprising and the secret preparations for a Greek
revolution coincided. The news of the Serbian revolt of
1804 were received with great joy by the Greeks, who
viewed it as a paradigm for a Greek national revolution.
The ground for a common action had been prepared already from the end of 18th century, when the Greek intellectual and revolutionary Rigas Feraios, inspired by the
French Revolution, envisioned a common revolution of
all the Balkan nations against the Ottoman Empire and
the formation of a Balkan federation.
Military cooperation between the two nations was forged
in the semi-autonomous Danubian Principalities, which
were governed mostly by Phanariote Greek voivodes.
There are indications that communication and cooperation between Serbs and Greeks of the Greek mainland
had also been established early. For example, in 1806 the
French consul in Thessaloniki reported that the Turks
are very furious against the Greeks because of their communications with the Serbs.* [1]
Several distinguished Serbs had been accepted as members (brothers) in the Filiki Eteria, the secret organization that prepared the Greek Revolution, although it
was ocially enlisting only ethnic Greeks. Symbolic of
the Greek-Serbian brotherhood was the traditional ritual
brotherhood between Giorgakis Olympios and the Serb
revolutionary leader Karaore Velko Petrovic in the
ranks of the Eteria. Olympios had fought with Karaore
in Serbia and was married to the widow of hajduk Veljko
Petrovi (Trikoupis, p. 24).

Apart from R. Feraios, other leading Greek revolutionaries conceived a common Greek-Serbian-Montenegrin
revolution, but due to diverging political strategies of the
two nations this did not happen. The Eteria had suggested
collaboration to Milo Obrenovi I, Prince of Serbia, but
the latter preferred political arbitrations rather than a military confrontation with the Ottoman Empire.* [2] Consequently, the Greco-Serbian military cooperation was limited. From the Greek side there were isolated acts, like
the attempt of the Greek armatolos Nikotsaras, captain
of few hundred ghters, to march in 1807 from Greece
to Serbia in order to join the army of Karaore.

56.2 Serbs in the Greek Revolution

The rst Serbian presence in the Greek Revolution occurred during the revolt's outbreak in Wallachia (1821).
The political and military leader of the revolution,
Alexandros Ypsilantis, apart from Greeks and other ethnicities, had a number of Serbian ghters under his command, known collectively as Arvanites.* [3] Some
of the notable Arvaniteswere: Captains Milenko
Stoikovic, Petar Dobrniak, Chatzi Prontan Gregorievic,
Mlanten Milovanovic and Archimandrite Servos,* [4]
head of 300 Greeks and Serbians, who was killed in the
battle. All the above were the leaders of mixed units of
Greeks and Serbians .* [5]

After the failure of revolution in Wallachia, many of them

moved south to Greece to continue ghting against Ottoman forces. Other Serbs were already in Greece enlisted in the Ottoman army, who defected to the Greek
On the other hand, many eminent Greeks in Wallachia side after the outbreak of the revolution.
262

56.3. NOTES
A group of 105 Serbs under the Serbian philhellene Anastasi Dmitrevic moved to Greece with the beginning of the
Revolution and participated in many battles till the end of
the Revolution. Several of those men were killed in battle.

263
bian Stefanos or Stefos Nivitsa, part of a tactical army under the commandment of the French philhellene Charles
Nicolas Fabvier (Loukatos, pp 105107).

After 1824 many Serbs and Montenegrins ascended the

hierarchy of the Greek army, such as the generals Chatzi
Other Serbian leaders who participated in the Revolution Christos Dagovic and Vasos Mavrovouniotis, the battalof 1821 were:
ion commanders (chiliarchs) Stefos and Anastasi Dmitrevic, vice-chiliarch Jovo Mavrovouniotis, Captains Ioannis
Chatzi Christos Dagobic ( and Nikolaos Radovic from Montenegro and the Serbians
). In 1821 he defected from the Nikolzo, Kotzo, Helias, Spyros, Sterios Pitolites (from
Ottoman army and joined the forces of Theodoros Bitola) and Karagiorgos.
Kolokotronis during the siege of Tripolitsa. He Many changed their original name for the safety of their
ascended up to the rank of General in the Greek relatives or for other reasons. Thus, in the archives
revolutionary army. He was taken as prisoner by are mentioned with their Christian name and the epithet
the Egyptians and was liberated in 1828. He was ServosorSerbes(Serb),Mavrovouniotis(Monhellenized and is also known with the surname tenegrin), Bosnakos(Bosnian) or the name of their
Voulgaris(Bulgarian).
home-town (e.g. KatzosMonastirlisi.e. from Monasterion/Bitola). Greeks confused some of them with Bul George Papazoglou ( ).
garians and eventually named themVoulgariin various
Cavalry ocer under Chatzi Christos, killed in the
documents. Most were under the age of 25 at the bebattle.
ginning of the Revolution. The Montenegrins originated
Constantin Nemania. He was signing asPrince of mostly from the Montenegrin tribe of Bjelopavlic and the
Serbiaand was using a seal with the double-headed Serbs from Monasterion (Bitola), Belgrade, Nivitsa, Ni
eagle. Having fallen in great poverty he was granted and Skopje.
a small nancial assistance andve breads per day Some the Serbians remained in Greece after the Revoby the Greek Revolutionary Government for some lution and became fully hellenized, like Chatzi Christos
time. He left from Greece to Russia in 1823.
Dagovic and Vasos Mavrovouniotis.
Other Serbs encountered in the history of the
revolution are Thomas Servos, Lambros Servos,
Lambros Christou Servos and Thanassis Servos in
Messolongi, Giovanis Servos (cavalry sergeant under Chatzi Christos), Kotsos (Constantine) Servos
et al.
Some ghters from Montenegro were known as
Mavrovouniotis(Greek for Montenegrin), such
as Joannos Slavanos Mavrovouniotis, Joannos Montenegrinos (participated in the siege of Tripolitsa), Gregory
Jurovic Mavrovouniotis and Vasos Mavrovouniotis from
Bjelopavlic. The latter came from Smyrna to Greece in
1820 and became the leader of a group of Montenegrins,
many of them being his brothers and relatives.* [6] A
notable Montenegrin philhellene was General De Wintz,
who had also fought under Napoleon. He attempted
to assemble a unit of 2,000 European volunteers or
mercenaries to ght in Greece and Cyprus but he did not
manage to get any nancial assistance. Another group
of 25 Serbs under the leadership of the Greek George
Kontopoulos is known for their participation in the sieges
of Messolonghi.
At the beginning of the revolution the Serbian units were
ethnically homogeneous, but gradually, a mutual trust and
a sense of brotherhood with the Greeks was developed.
Thus, after 1823 Greeks enlisted in Serbian units and vice
versa. Most of these troops were irregulars, with the exception of a corps of 250 Greeks and Serbs led by the Ser-

56.3 Notes
[1] Ministre des Aaires Etrangres, Correspondance Consulaire, Salonique, vol. 15 bis (1795-1809) 312a. Cited
by Vakalopoulos, p. 11.
[2] Protopsaltis E.G., p. 271 (English abstract):
"... the heads of the Filiki Eteria and later its leader Al.
Ypsilantis made laborious attempts through capable delegates (...) to Prince Milos Obrenovitz, suggesting plans for
collaboration, proposing treaties of unlimited duration. But
Milos, more a politician and a diplomat than a soldier, preferred to arbitrate with the Sublime Port, rather than a military confrontation in cooperating with the Greeks. ...
During the Revolution, and more so after 1823, the attempts for cooperation and alliance were revitalized, especially with the Montenegrins ... The wise Athanasios
Psalidas from Corfu and others persistently insisted that
the Greek government attempt to form an alliance with
the neighboring christian nations and a revolt against the
Turks, an idea of the Montenegrins. The Greek government, with the initiative of Alexandros Mavrocordatos, sent
secret delegates to the Archbishop (Vladikos) of Montenegrin at Cetinje and to Milos Obrenovitz (Zacharias Vlastos).
[3] Trikoupis Spyridon, History of the Greek Revolution, 2nd
edition, London, 1860 volume A', page 24 (in Greek):
Arvanites were called in the two hegemonies (Moldavia,
Wallachia, early 19th c.) the mixed Greeks, Bulgarians

264

CHAPTER 56. SERBS AND MONTENEGRINS IN THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

and Serbians, connected by the same dogma and living by

mercenarism
[4] Many Serbs are referred in Greek sources with the
ethnonym Servos()
[5] Protopsaltis G. E., Serbian and Montenegrin Philhellenes
during the Greek Revolution, 1821 (Diplomatic arbitrations Military area), p. 77. In: Cooperation between
Greeks and Serbs ..., pp. 65-81. English abstract in pp.
270-272
[6] Loukatos D. Spyros, Serbs, Montenegrins and Bosnian
ghters of the Greek Independence. In: Cooperation
between Greeks and Serbs ..., pp. 101 120, English
abstract pp. 276, 277

56.4 Bibliography
Cooperation between Greeks and Serbs during their
struggles for liberation 1804-1830. 1st GreekSerbian Symposium, Kavala (Greece), 7-10 Nov.
1976. Published by the Institute for Balkan Studies, No. 187, Thessaloniki, 1979. In Greek with
English abstracts.
Vakalopoulos A. The National uprising of the Serbs
as a paradigm for the Greek Revolution of 1821. In
Greek with English abstract. In: Cooperation between Greeks and Serbs ..., pp. 917

Chapter 57

Soviet Volunteer Group

Group Flying Tigers.* [4]

57.2 Monuments

I-16 with Chinese insignia. I-16 was the main ghter plane used
by the Chinese Air Force and Soviet volunteers.

The Soviet Volunteer Group was the volunteer part of

the Soviet Air Forces sent to support the Republic of
China during the Second Sino-Japanese War between
1937 and 1941. After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was signed
and strong Soviet support was given to China by the Soviet Union, including the volunteer squadrons. China
paid for the support in the form of raw materials.
Monument to the Soviet aviators in Wuhan

There are several monuments to the Soviet aviators in

China, including one in Jiefang Gongyuan (Liberation
Park) in Wuhan, which was built in 1956.

57.1 Creation and withdrawal

In October 1937, some 450 Soviet pilots and technicians
assembled at Alma Ata in the USSR to bring 155 ghter
aircraft, 62 bombers, and 8 trainers into China. By 1941,
the Soviet-built aircraft sent to China would amount
to 885, including two-engine and four-engine bombers,
though the latter were never used in combat.* [1] Of the
aircraft supplied, half were turned over to the Chinese
Air Force and half were own and maintained by personnel from the USSR. The Soviet air units were stationed at
bases near the cities of Nanjing, Hankou, and Chongqing,
and at Lanzhou in China's northwest at the terminus of the
Russian supply route. The Russian commander is identied in most histories as a General Asanov.* [2] By the
time of their withdrawal, the group's casualties amounted
to 227 pilots killed in action.* [3]

57.3 See also

Flying Tigers

57.4 Notes

The Soviet squadrons were withdrawn after the Nonaggression pact between the Soviet Union and Japan in
1941. As a result, the Chinese turned to the United States,
which authorized the creation of the American Volunteer
265

[1] Wagner, p.23

[2] Erickson, p.491
[3] http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter4_4.
html
[4] Ford, p.28

266

57.5 Bibliography
Erickson, John (2001). The Soviet High Command:
A Military-Political History, 19181941 (3rd ed.).
London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-5178-8.
Ford, Daniel (2007). Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 19411942.
HarperCollins-Smithsonian Books. ISBN 0-06124655-7.
Wagner, Ray (1991). Prelude to Pearl Harbor:
The Air War in China, 19371941. San Diego
Aerospace Museum. OCLC 28440168.

57.6 External links

Soviet Fighters in the Sky of China

CHAPTER 57. SOVIET VOLUNTEER GROUP

Chapter 58

Spanish Legion

Ceuta Garrison of the legion

The legion on parade

105mm L118 light gun of the Legion Artillery Group

Ceuta Garrison of the legion

The Spanish ag

The Spanish Legion (Spanish: Legin Espaola, La Legin), informally known as the Tercio or the Tercios, is
267

268
a unit of the Spanish Army and Spain's Rapid Reaction
Force. It was raised in the 1920s to serve as part of
Spain's Army of Africa. The unit, which was established
in January 1920 as the Spanish equivalent of the French
Foreign Legion, was initially known as the Tercio de Extranjeros ("Tercio of foreigners), the name under which
it began ghting in the Rif War of 1920-6. Although it recruited some foreigners from Spanish-speaking nations, it
recruited predominantly from Spaniards. As a result, and
since it existed to serve in Spanish Morocco, it was soon
renamed Tercio de Marruecos Tercio
(
of Morocco"). By
the end of the Rif War it had expanded and again changed
its name, to theSpanish Legion, with severaltercios
as sub-units.
The Legion played a major role in the Nationalist forces
in the Spanish Civil War. In post-Franco Spain, the modern Legion has undertaken tours of duty in the Yugoslav
Wars, Afghanistan, Iraq and Operation Libre Hidalgo
UNIFIL

CHAPTER 58. SPANISH LEGION

North Africa, in place of conscript units that were proving ineective. The rst commanding ocer, Lieutenant
Colonel Jos Milln-Astray Terreros, referred to his unit
as La Leginfrom the start but this only became part
of the units title from 1937.* [2]
In the original Tercio de Extranjeros there were, amongst
others, one Chinese, three Japanese, one Maltese, one
Russian, and one black American.* [3] However, soon the
majority of its members were Spaniards who joined to
ght outside of European Spain.
Tercio (lit. 'a third') is an old Spanish military term that
roughly translates asregiment' (originally it had enough
manpower to be considered a half-brigade). In the XVIIIth century tercios were replaced by regiments. There
is no equivalent word in English. Dating from the 16th
century, the name was chosen to evoke the era of Spain's
military supremacy as the leading Catholic power in Europe under the Habsburg Emperors. Organised into tercios in 1534, the Spanish infantry gained a reputation for
invincibility.(See- Esprit de Corps below)

In 1925, the unit title was changed to Tercio de Marruecos

(The Tercio of Morocco). This was soon abbreviated
to The Tercio. In 1937 at the height of the SpanThe Spanish Legion was formed by royal decree of King ish Civil War, the Tercio de Marruecos was renamed La
Alfonso XIII on 28 January 1920, with the Minister of Legion, the name by which it is still known today.
War Jos Villalba Riquelme stating, With the designation of Foreigners Regiment there will be created an
armed military unit, whose recruits, uniform and regu- 58.1.3 Early campaigns
lations by which they should be governed will be set by
the minister of war.In the 1920s the Spanish Legion's
The Spanish Legion's rst major campaign was in Spanve battalions were lled primarily by native Spaniards
ish North Africa. In 1920 Spain was facing a major rebel(since foreigners were not easy to recruit) with most of
lion in the Protectorate of Spanish Morocco, led by the
its foreign members coming from the Republic of Cuba.
able Rif leader Abdel Krim. On 2 September 1920, King
Alfonso XIII conferred command of the new regiment on
Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry Jos Milln-Astray, chief
58.1.1 Predecessor
proponent of its establishment. Milln-Astray was an
able soldier but an eccentric and extreme personality. His
Historically there had been a Spanish Foreign Legion style and attitude would become part of the mystique of
which preceded the modern Legion's formation in 1920. the legion.
On 28 June 1835, the French government had decided to
hand over to the Spanish government the French Foreign On 20 September 1920 the rst recruit joined the new
Legion in support of Queen Isabella's claim to the Spanish legion, a date which is now celebrated annually. The inithrone during the First Carlist War. The French Foreign tial make-up of the regiment was that of a headquarters
Legion, with around 4,000 men, landed at Tarragona on unit and three battalions (known as Banderas, lit. ban17 August 1835. This became the rst Spanish Legion ners"- another archaic 16th century term). Each battaluntil it was dissolved on 8 December 1838, when it had ion was in turn made up of a headquarters company, two
dropped to only 500 men. The British Legion (La Legin rie companies and a machine gun company. The regiBritnica) of the Spanish Legion also fought during the ment's initial location was at the Cuartel del Rey en Ceuta
First Carlist War. This Legion fought for the fortied on the Plaza de Coln. At its height, during the Spanish
Civil War, the legion consisted of 18 banderas, plus a
bridge of Arrigorriaga on 11 September 1835
tank bandera, an assault engineer bandera and a Special
Operations Group. Banderas 12 to 18 were considered
independent units and never served as part of the addi58.1.2 The Title of Spanish Legion
tional tercios into which the legion was organised.

58.1 History

The Spanish Legion was modelled on the French For- Francisco Franco was one of the leaders of the legion
eign Legion. Its purpose was to provide a corps of pro- and the unit's second-in-command, concurrently comfessional troops to ght in Spain's colonial campaigns in manding the 1st Legion Bandera. The legion fought in

58.2. MODERN LEGION

269

Morocco in the War of the Rif (to 1926). Together with

the Regulares (Moorish colonial troops), the legion made
up the Spanish Army of Africa. In October 1934 units of
both the legion and the Regulares were brought to Spain
by the Republican Government to help put down a workers revolt in the area of Asturias.* [4]
nese, Duke of Parma"

4th Tercio "Alexander Far-

When Morocco gained its independence in 1956 the legion continued in existence as part of the garrison of
the remaining Spanish enclaves and territories in North
Africa. The legion fought Arab irregulars in the Ifni War
in 1957-58.
On 17 June 1970, Legion units opened re and killed
between two and eleven demonstrators at the Zemla
neighbourhood in El Aaiun, Spanish Sahara, modern day
Western Sahara. The incident, which came known as
the Zemla Intifada, had a signicant inuence on pushing the Sahrawi anticolonial movement into embarking
on an armed struggle which continues, though Spain has
long since abandoned the territory and handed it over to
Morocco.
Colors of the Spanish Legion.

Through the course of the legion's history Spaniards (including natives of the colony of Spanish Guinea) have
made up the majority of its members, with foreigners acUnder the leadership of Lieutenant Colonel Juan Yage counting for 25 percent or less. During the Rif War of
the Army of Africa played an important part in the the 1920s most of the Foreigners serving with the legion
Spanish Civil War on the rebel side. The professional- were Spanish speaking Latin Americans.
ism of both the legion and the Regulares gave Franco's
rebel troops a signicant initial advantage over the less
well trained Spanish Republican forces. The Army of
Africa remained an elite spearhead, until the expansion 58.2 Modern legion
of the rebel armies after April 1937 led to the legion and
Moroccan units being distributed across several fronts.
Following the Francoist victory in 1939, the legion was
reduced in size and returned to its bases in Spanish Morocco. It was only after then that the legion attained its
present composition of 4 Tercios, and the names given to
them, the 4th Tercio of the legion was established later in
1950:

1st Tercio Great Captain

Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba"

Legionnaires with egy of Christ

In the 2000s (decade), after the abandonment of

conscription, the Spanish Legion once again accepted
foreigners into service. Male and female native Span2nd Tercio "Fernando Alvarez
ish speakers, mostly from Central American and South
de Toledo, Duke of Alba"
American states, were included.
Today, acceptance to the Spanish Legion is based on the
following criteria:* [5]
3rd Tercio "Don Juan de Austria"

Be a Spanish citizen; although citizens from former Spanish colonies also can join (foreign recruits

270

CHAPTER 58. SPANISH LEGION

are required to have a valid Spanish residence per- the 1920s. It also has its own confraternity with its home
mit).* [6]
chapel located in this historic city, where veterans who
served in this unit are counted among its membership.
Be a citizen in good legal standing
The Legion's detachments also take part in various Holy
Week events nationwide, including its military band.
Not be deprived of civil rights
The Legion remains a disciplined elite unit.
Be at least 18 years of age and not be 29 on the day
of joining boot camp.
Be able to pass psychological, physical and medical
evaluations

Legionnaires in Iraq.

58.2.2 Units constituting modern Spanish

Legion
The Spanish Legion on the Bastille Day Military Parade in Paris
(2007)

In recent years, the Spanish Legion was involved in

Bosnia as part of the SFOR. It also took part in the Iraq
War, deploying in Najaf alongside Salvadoran troops, until the new Spanish government of Jos Luis Rodrguez
Zapatero fullled its electoral promises by withdrawing Spanish troops from Iraq. The legion units deployed in Iraq were involved in several operations against
the insurgency. In 2005, the legion was deployed in
Afghanistan as part of the NATO-led International Stabilisation Force (ISAF). In 2006, the 10th Bandera was
sent to Southern Lebanon as part of United Nations' Operation UNIFIL.* [7]

58.2.1

Present role and deployment

The currently active units of the Spanish Legion are:

II Spanish Legion Brigade "Rey Alfonso XIII"
in Viator
2nd Spanish Legion Headquarters Bandera
2nd Spanish Legion Light Armored Cavalry
Group "Reyes Catlicos"
3rd Spanish Legion Tercio "Don Juan de Austria"
VII Spanish Legion Bandera Valenzuela
VIII Spanish Legion Bandera "Coln"
4th Spanish Legion Tercio "Alejandro Farnesio"
X Spanish Legion Bandera "Milln
Astray"

2nd Spanish Legion Field Artillery Group

The Spanish Legion is now mostly used in NATO peacekeeping missions. It has 5,000 soldiers in a Brigade of
2nd Spanish Legion Engineer Battalion
two Tercios (regiments) based in Ronda, Mlaga and
2nd Spanish Legion Logistic Group
Viator, Almera (Andalusia). Two other independent
tercios are deployed in the Spanish African enclaves of
In other commands:
Ceuta and Melilla as part of their respective garrisons.
The legion is directly controlled by the Spanish General
1st Spanish Legion Tercio "Gran Capitn"
Sta.
I Spanish Legion Bandera
Although the detachment at Mlaga was transferred away,
each year a company of legionaries from one of the Ter 2nd Spanish Legion Tercio "Duque de Alba"
cios (regiments) returns to march in the Holy Week pro IV Spanish Legion Bandera Cristo de
cession with the Christ of the Good Death, a life-size efLepanto"
gy of Christ Crucied, adopted by the legion as Patron in

58.6. ESPRIT DE CORPS

58.2.3

271

Special Forces of the Spanish Le- was part of the cult of austerity favoured by a unit that
considered itself on more or less continual active service.
gion

The legion used to have a special operations unit

known as the Bandera de operaciones especiales de
la legin (Legion Special Operations Company or
BOEL). The members of this unit, who were volunteers from other banderas of the legion, received training in: SCUBA/Maritime Warfare, Arctic and Mountain Warfare, Sabotage and Demolitions, Parachute
and HALO techniques, Long Range Reconnaissance,
Counter-terrorism and CQB, Vehicle insertion, Sniping
and SERE (Survival, Escape, Resistance and Evasion).
Much of the training was undertaken at Fort Bragg
(USA). In 2002 the BOEL was renamed 19th Special Operations GroupMaderal Oleaga(GOE-XIX) and was
moved to Alicante. GOE-XIX accepts applicants from
other light infantry units and no longer forms part of the
legion, nowadays it is subordinated to Special Operations
Groups.

The modern legion has the same camouage dress for active service and ordinary duties as the rest of the Spanish
Army but retains the unique, sage green Tropical uniform
for semi-formal barrack dress and as the basis of Legion
parade uniform. Perhaps the most distinctive feature of
the modern legion uniform is the khaki gorrillocap
or "chapiri", with red hanging tassel and piping.
Contrary to usual military practice, Legionaries are allowed to sport beards and are permitted to wear their uniforms, both traditional and service, open at the chest.

58.5.2 Equipment

58.3 Ranks
The military ranks and promotion conditions of the Spanish Legion are the same as those applicable to the remainder of the Spanish Army. Formerly the Legion had
its own rank system for non-commissioned ocers. The
only modern dierence is that soldiers (OR-1) in the Legion are referred to as Caballeros Legonarios(Gentlemen Legionnaires). Legionnaires consider this title as
a distinction, earned through rigorous training and initiation tests.

58.4 Basic training

G36-E assault rie.

The basic weapons used by the Legion are the same as

those used by the rest of the Spanish Army. These include the G36-E rie, its 40mm grenade launcher modular attachment the AG36, the HK MG4 and MG42 A3
machine guns, and the HK USP 9mm pistol.
Like the rest of the Army, the Legion makes use of crew
served weapons such as the M2 Browning machine gun
and the SB LAG 40 automatic grenade launcher on their
armoured vehicles.
The Legions eld artillery group mans L118 105mm
Light Guns

Basic training lasts four months and takes place in The Legion uses Land Rovers, BMR, VAMTAC, URO
Cceres or Cdiz. It includes basic military skills, forced trucks and other vehicles like LMV or RG31.
marches and a stringent assault course. After the second
month, the recruit signs a 2 or 3-year contract. After nishing basic training the recruit joins one of the tercios,
in there he receives further training, mostly focused on 58.6 Esprit de corps
parading and legionnare tradition. This is the same process as in the rest of units in the Spanish army.
Milln-Astray provided the Legion with a distinctive
spirit and symbolism intended to evoke Spain's Imperial
and Christian traditions. For instance, the Legion
58.5 Uniforms and equipment of adopted the regimental designation of tercio in memory
of the 16th-century Spanish infantry formations that had
the legion
toppled nations and terrorized the battleelds of Europe
in the days of Charles V. Milln-Astray also revived the
Spaniards' ancient feud with the Moors and portrayed
58.5.1 Uniforms
his men rst as crusaders on an extended Reconquista
From its establishment the legion was noted for its plain against the Islamic civilization, and later as the saviours
and simple style of dress, in contrast to the colourful dress of Spain warding o the twin evils of Communism and
uniforms worn by the Peninsular regiments of the Spanish democratic liberalism defeating the dangerous spectre of
Army until the overthrow of the Monarchy in 1931. This 'Eastern Atheism'.

272

CHAPTER 58. SPANISH LEGION

As a tribute to the old Tercios the Legion coat of arms

features, besides the crown, weapons used by the soldiers
of these units - the musket, halberd and crossbow.

58.6.1

Traditions

The Legion's customs and traditions include the following:

Mascot of the Spanish Legion (goat)

The Legion had several mascots during its history,

such as monkeys, chickens, capercaillies, wild boars,
barbary sheep (Spanish, arruis), bears or parrots.
The modern Legion however has a goat as mascot
of the unit. It usually appears at parades, wearing a
Legion cap and accompanied by a Legionary, alongside the legion's marker guard (gastadores) at parades and ceremonies, leading the marching troops.
Legionaries on parade.

Its members, regardless of rank, are titled Caballero

Legionario (Legionary Knight). When women
are admitted, they are titled Dama Legionaria
( Legionary Lady).
A Mstica Legionaria (Legionary Spirit) (condensed in a twelve-point "es:Credo Legionario" Legionary creed-)* [8]
Legionaries consider themselves novios de la muerte
(bridegrooms of death). The nickname is also
the title of one of the two ocial hymns of the Spanish Legion, the other one being La Cancion del Legionario (The Legionary's Song). The nickname
hails from the rst years of the corps, when it only
admitted men during those times.
When in trouble, a legionary shouts A m la Legin!
(To me the Legion!"). Those within earshot are
bound to help him regardless of the circumstances.
In practice, Legionaries are never supposed to abandon a comrade on the battleeld.
The legion's march step is faster than the Spanish
military standard, being 160-180 steps per minute
in contrast to the standard 90 steps per minute.
During the Holy Week processions, the paso carried
by legionaries is held not on the shoulders but on
their extended arms to show their faith, toughness,
strength, and endurance.
The legion's motto was Viva la muerte! (Long
live death!")* [9] It fell into disuse after the death of
Francisco Franco.

While throughout its history the legion has been

an essentially infantry force it has also included
armoured, artillery and engineer units. During
the 1920s and early 1930s a squadron of mounted
lanceros (lancers) formed part of the legion and in
1982 a mounted section of the Policia Militar de la
Legion was formed to carry the traditional lances
and pennants during the Holy Week Procession in
Malaga to continue the practice.
The Military bands and Bugle bands of the legion continue the musical traditions it has since the
1920s. The bugle bands of the Legion, together with
the Regulares, are the only such bands in the Spanish Armed Forces to never use the valved bugle but
use the plain bugle instead, and together with the
Parachute Light Infantry Brigade are the only ones
to use the small cornetin or the piccolo bugle, used
in ordering commands and leading the bugle band
in playing bugle calls, fanfares or marches. The
medium cornetin is used by other Spanish Armed
Forces branches.
Formerly the Legion did its unique marchpasts in the
same way as the rest of the Spanish Armed Forces,
today, all ocers and the colour guards only do
a hand salute and eyes right when marching past.
When on the halt and giving full salutes, they only
do a hand salute.

58.7 Anthems and marches of the

legion

58.10. NOTES

58.7.1

Slow march

El Novio de la Muerte (Bridegroom of Death) is the unocial hymn and regimental slow march of the Spanish
Legion, composed in 1921 with words by Juan Costa set
to music by Fidel Prado.

58.7.2

273
Foreign legion
Israeli Mahal program
List of Spanish Legionnaires
Regulares

Regimental quick marches and o- 58.10

cial anthem

Composed in 1920, La Cancion del Legionario (The Legionnare's Song) is the ocial quick march and anthem
of the Legion. It was composed by Modesto Romero
and Infantry Commandant Emilio Guilln Pedemonti.
It is played by the military bands and bugle bands of
the Legion at the regulation 190 beats that it exclusively
uses.* [10]
Before it became the legion's ocial march, Le Madelon
and Tercios Heroicos (Heroic Tercios) by Francisco Calles
and Antonio Soler were its ocial march past tunes.

58.8 Some notable Legionaries

The following is a list of Legionaries who have gained
fame or notoriety inside or outside of the legion.
Francisco Franco - Dictator and head of state of
Spain from 1939 to 1975. Founding deputy commander of the Spanish Legion in 1920, and later
commander of the legion from 1923 to 1935.
Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma (Spanish:
Don Sixto Enrique de Borbn-Parma y BorbnBusset), as Enrique Aranjuez in 1965. Carlist
pretender to the Spanish throne.
Jos Milln-Astray, founder and rst commander of
the Spanish Legion, served until 1923.
Enrique San Francisco, actor.
Jos Manuel Lara,

Notes

[1] http://www.defense.gov/home/features/2014/0814_iraq/
20150403_1_Coaltion%20Build_Partner_Capacity_
Operations_continue_in_Iraq.pdf
[2] MB van Roode. La Legin Espaola - HISTORIA]".
Lalegion.es. Retrieved 2011-11-13.
[3] Combat Information Center analysis, facts and gures
about military conicts and leaders - Military History.
StrategyPage.com. Retrieved 2011-11-13.
[4] Paul Preston, pp. 103-105Franco, ISBN 0 00 686210
1
[5] Ministerio de Defensa.
Nodo de Internet.
Ejercito.mde.es. Retrieved 2011-11-13.
[6] Fuerzas Armadas Espaolas. soldados.com. Retrieved
2011-11-13.
[7] La Legin asume el mando en Lbano tras culminar Infantera de Marina su misin, 31 October 2006, 20 Minutos.
[8]
[9] Special Units For the Spanish Civil War.
tacruzchronicles.com. Retrieved 2011-11-13.
[10] http://www.lalegion.es/himnos.htm
[11] pedro marangoni (Author) (2012-11-17). A opo
pela espada: Um brasileiro na linha de frente, em defesa do Ocidente (Portuguese Edition): pedro marangoni:
9781481031240: Amazon.com: Books. Amazon.com.
Retrieved 2014-08-06.

58.11 External links

Pedro Marangoni, writer and pilot* [11]

(Spanish) Ocial website

Peter Kemp (writer) British Special Operations Executive agent, MI6 agent and writer.

(Spanish) Spanish Legion

Pino Rauti, Italian far-right politician

Nacho Vidal, pornographic actor and director.

58.9 See also

Army of Africa (Spain)
FAMET

San-

(English) Specwarnet report - dated information

La Bandera - 1935 lm on the Spanish Foreign Legion

Chapter 59

Swedish Volunteer Corps (Winter War)

brother hands, representing Finland, Sweden, Norway
and Denmark.

59.1 Commanders
1940: General Ernst Linder

59.2 Organization
Osasto Roininen and Swedish Volunteer Corps at Salla.

Swedish Volunteer Corps - Svenska Frivilligkren

I.
stridsgruppen
(Lieutenant-Colonel
Magnus Dyrssen, Captain Carl Bonde,
Lieutenant-Colonel Carl-Oscar Agell)

The Commander of Swedish volunteers General Ernst Linder

(right) and his Chief of Sta Carl August Ehrensvrd in Tornio.

The Swedish Volunteer Corps (Swedish: Svenska frivilligkren) during the Winter War numbered 9,640.
Sweden was ocially non-belligerent during the course
of the war, so only volunteers could be used by Finland.
The volunteers were in the front lines in northern Salla
area starting on February 28, 1940. Losses included 33
dead, 10 missing, 50 wounded and 130 disabled due to
frostbite.* [1] There were 25 planes in the Swedish Voluntary Air Force, F19. The Swedish volunteers also defended Turku with an anti-aircraft battery.
By the end of the war, the Volunteer Corps consisted
of 8,260 Swedes, along with 725 Norwegians and 600
Danes.* [1] The volunteers demonstrated a strong Nordic
unity that was symbolized in their insignia of the four
274

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
1.
1.

skyttekompaniet
skyttekompaniet
skyttekompaniet
jgarkompaniet
tunga kompaniet
batteriet
plogplutonen
signalplutonen

II.
stridsgruppen
Viking Tamm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2.
2.
2.

skyttekompaniet
skyttekompaniet
skyttekompaniet
jgarkompaniet
tunga kompaniet
batteriet
plogplutonen
signalplutonen

III. stridsgruppen
Martin Ekstrm)

1.
2.
3.
4.

(Lieutenant-Colonel

skyttekompaniet
skyttekompaniet
skyttekompaniet
jgarkompaniet

(Lieutenant-Colonel

59.6. REFERENCES

5.
3.
3.
3.

tunga kompaniet
batteriet
plogplutonen
signalplutonen

275

59.6 References
[1] Dahlberg, Hans (1983). I Sverige under 2:a vrldskriget
[In Sweden during World War II] (in Swedish). Stockholm: Bonnier fakta. p. 269. ISBN 91-34-50308-0.

Other units:

1. pansarvrnsplutonen
2. pansarvrnsplutonen
Luftvrnskompaniet
Ingenjrkompaniet
16. sjlvstndiga jgarkompaniet
(17. sjlvstndiga jgarkompaniet)
Intendenturkompaniet
Vgkompaniet
1. bilkompaniet
2. bilkompaniet
Anspannskompaniet
1. sjukvrdsplutonen
2. sjukvrdsplutonen
Hstambulans
Ambulans
F 19

59.3 Weapons
7.5 cm Guns M/02
40mm Anti Aircraft Guns M/36
7.5 cm Anti Aircraft guns
20mm Automatic Cannons
3.7 cm Anti Tank guns M/38
8 cm Mortars M/29
13mm Anti Tank Ries

59.4 Vehicles
83 Motorcycles
83 Cars
350 Trucks
13 Tractors

59.5 See also

Sweden and the Winter War
Swedish Volunteer Battalion

59.7 External links

Volunteers in the Winter War
Volunteer Swedish aviators in the Winter War
Swedish language site of the Swedish Volunteer organization

Chapter 60

Volunteer Regiment of Buda

The Volunteer Regiment of Buda (Hungarian: Budai
nkntes Ezred), was a World War II military force made
up of prisoner of war (POW) volunteers from Hungary
serving in the Soviet Red Army at the Battle of Budapest. They were organized into tank, artillery, and, presumedly, infantry troops. A division was organized but
was not ready in time to participate in the siege. Approximately 600 men from this regiment were killed in action
at Budapest. After the war the surviving members were
again made prisoners, sent to the camp at Jszberny, and
treated as POWs.* [1]
Another Hungarian regiment organized by the Soviets,
the Kossuth Lajos Regiment, trained at the Talizi camp
but was also ultimately disbanded and made POW in
Ivanovo.

60.1 References
[1] Stalins Fremde Heere, p. 197.

60.2 Sources
Gosztony, Peter. Stalins Fremde Heere, Bernard &
Graefe Verlag, 1991. ISBN 3-7637-5889-5.

60.3 External links

276

60.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

277

60.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

60.4.1

Text

Foreign volunteers Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_volunteers?oldid=711846371 Contributors: Error, GCarty, CanisRufus, Dpaajones, Giraedata, RHaworth, Zzyzx11, Mandarax, Angusmclellan, Ground Zero, Bgwhite, Hellbus, Manxruler, Capt Jim, Yvwv,
SmackBot, LeonidasSpartan, Bellerophon5685, Alaibot, Erechtheus, Isilanes, DagosNavy, Fennessy, Magioladitis, Buckshot06, Kylebement, Mrg3105, Arms & Hearts, Una Smith, Ng.j, Kingbird1, Zalktis, Mesoso2, Neve Dan, Peltimikko, Foofbun, Auntof6, SchreiberBike, Cmr08, Addbot, Diuturno, Debresser, Tide rolls, Lightbot, QueenCake, Cliftonian, Wstenfuchs, Brutaldeluxe, DDSailor, I dream
of horses, Degen Earthfast, Monstrelet, Mediatech492, Lotje, Samsamcat, John of Reading, AvicBot, Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, Helpful
Pixie Bot, BG19bot, taki000, Katangais, LoneWolf1992, Peacemaker67, BattyBot, SteenthIWbot, Crispulop, SarahPML, Shil1988 and
Anonymous: 49
1st Canadian Regiment Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Canadian_Regiment?oldid=721749374 Contributors: Dimadick,
Kevin Myers, PaulHanson, Derumi, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, M3taphysical, Denis C., Marc29th, Sadads, Kevlar67, Ohconfucius, Spacini,
Oldwildbill, JimCubb, Hogie75, Etienne2007, Student7, WereSpielChequers, Tfhentz, Lucasbfrbot, Hutcher, Addbot, Favonian, Luckasbot, Magicpiano, Citation bot, RjwilmsiBot, Frietjes, Mont-Joli, Mcenaneyj, ProudIrishAspie, Noyster and Anonymous: 10
1st Infantry Brigade (South Africa) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Infantry_Brigade_(South_Africa)?oldid=720185321
Contributors: Tabletop, Rjwilmsi, Sus scrofa, Dirk L, Grafen, Htonl, David Underdown, SmackBot, Hmains, Betacommand, LanternLight, Ohconfucius, Keith-264, Bellerophon5685, Tec15, Alaibot, PhilKnight, Buckshot06, NJR ZA, R'n'B, Mrg3105, DH85868993,
Hugo999, Yorkist, Gbawden, Dodger67, Fribbler, TheOldJacobite, Auntof6, Whoosis, John Nevard, Certes, DougsTech, Farawayman,
Llakais, Yobot, Eumolpo, AustralianRupert, WebCiteBOT, DrilBot, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Snotbot, Frietjes, BG19bot, Voltacus,
Hamish59, Royalcourtier and Anonymous: 5
1st Regiment Greek Light Infantry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Regiment_Greek_Light_Infantry?oldid=709604668 Contributors: Jpbrenna, Giraedata, Bgwhite, Doncram, FocalPoint, Cplakidas, Fayenatic london, Bwtranch, Alansplodge, John of Reading
and BG19bot
2nd Canadian Regiment Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Canadian_Regiment?oldid=666898577 Contributors: SebastianHelm, Adam Bishop, Dimadick, PBS, Mathieugp, Phe, Rich Farmbrough, Martpol, Bastique, Kevin Myers, Biochemza, Vegaswikian, Bgwhite, Epolk, Gaius Cornelius, Marc29th, ABehrens, Crystallina, SmackBot, Verne Equinox, Steam5, Chris the speller, Sadads, Phaedriel,
Kevlar67, Wizardman, Ohconfucius, JohnCub, TwinsMetsFan, Ken Gallager, Red Director, Oldwildbill, Mmortal03, Oreo Priest, Jayron32, Tommyborsh, NE2, JimCubb, Hogie75, Etienne2007, Pomte, Armycaptain, Clerks, Student7, Safemariner, Tesscass, Optigan13,
Flyingw, Youshouldask, Arbil44, Dough4872, Tfhentz, Lucasbfrbot, Aspects, Lightmouse, Dabomb87, Strongsauce, Iohannes Animosus,
PRQuintin, SchreiberBike, LeheckaG, Addbot, Reedmalloy, Favonian, Tassedethe, Magicpiano, Gunjones, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Citation bot, Samwb123, Jonathansuh, Plucas58, RedBot, DocYako, Trappist the monk, Hobbes Goodyear, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, GA bot,
Frietjes, Khazar2, Stamptrader and Anonymous: 18
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DocWatson42, Elf-friend, Alexf, Jcw69, Darren Olivier, RAM, Alai, Bobrayner, Ground Zero, Ours, Chobot, Jaraalbe, Sus scrofa, Gaius
Cornelius, Htonl, BoonDock, SmackBot, Incnis Mrsi, Deon Steyn, Mairibot, Lapsus Linguae, OrphanBot, Yorick8080, Pen of bushido,
PEiP, Norm mit, Yosy, Cydebot, Mattisse, Nick Number, TAnthony, Buckshot06, Bloovee, AfricaEditor, NJR ZA, FlieGerFaUstMe262,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, TKmaxi, Pnoble805, Gbawden, Mesoso2, 61mei31, Babakathy, Timeineurope, Foofbun, NuclearWarfare,
Rui Gabriel Correia, Nicovw, Addbot, Tassedethe, Farawayman, Yobot, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Wikieditoroftoday, Citation bot,
LouriePieterse, Cliftonian, Xqbot, Uscbino, AustralianRupert, MenoBot II, Yancyd, Trappist the monk, Tkn75, RjwilmsiBot, Dewritech,
ZroBot, H3llBot, SporkBot, RaptureBot, Conlinp, Gob Lofa, MrPenguin20, Charlie Paxton, Katangais, Cyberbot II, Aliwal2012, Tiredcleangate2, Stamptrader, Monopoly31121993, Caracal Rooikat, Alexescriba, Thomasnetrpm and Anonymous: 46
7 Independent Company (Rhodesia) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_Independent_Company_(Rhodesia)?oldid=724689361
Contributors: Mark.murphy, Nick-D, Kaobear, CommonsDelinker, Jim Sweeney, Addbot, Cliftonian, Grandiose, Trappist the monk, GA
bot, Dewritech, Helpful Pixie Bot, Khazar2 and Builtiger
Arab Liberation Army Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army?oldid=724772783 Contributors: BL~enwiki,
IZAK, John K, Uriber, Zero0000, AnonMoos, Joshua Landis, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, El C, RoyBoy, Remuel, Rd232, Ynhockey, Je3000, Jbarta, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Biederman, Ian Pitchford, RussBot, NawlinWiki, Little Savage, Rathfelder, robot,
SmackBot, Eskimbot, Shaolin128, Kendrick7, Cydebot, DumbBOT, Thijs!bot, BokicaK, Fayenatic london, Epeeeche, L3th4l, TrickyH,
Synthebot, Al Ameer son, Polon11, Sean.hoyland, Niceguyedc, Solar-Wind, Alexbot, Nableezy, DO56, Addbot, Zozo2kx, LaaknorBot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Valleyofdawn, LilHelpa, Savasorda, Padres Hana, Omnipaedista, AndresHerutJaim, Degen Earthfast, Supreme Deliciousness, Full-date unlinking bot, IRISZOOM, Phoenix and Winslow, Alfons2, EmausBot,
John of Reading, Ykantor, Uishaki, Noisetier, Masssly, Gob Lofa, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, MrPenguin20, REmmet1984, MeanMotherJr, StarryGrandma, Charles Essie, Steinsplitter, Pluto2012, Sonntagsbraten, Stuck in SD with Yaming, IranitGreenberg, Mattiaati,
Bolter21, The kyle 3, Averysoda and Anonymous: 28
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Gazkthul, DylanLacey, Charles Essie, Daydreamers, SkoraPobeda, LogFTW, Bohemian Baltimore, Opdire657 and Anonymous: 1
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BD2412, Jaraalbe, Eupator, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Romanc19s, Fram, Herostratus, Aivazovsky, Khoikhoi, Nobunaga24, OttomanReference, CmdrObot, Bellerophon5685, BetacommandBot, Artaxiad, Hugo999, Rosiestep, Addbot, Vyom25, ErdoTimber, SusikMkr and
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278

CHAPTER 60. VOLUNTEER REGIMENT OF BUDA

Battaglione Azad Hindoustan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battaglione_Azad_Hindoustan?oldid=724804278 Contributors:

GreatWhiteNortherner, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Polylerus, Andrew Gray, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Firsfron, robot,
Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Oatmeal batman, Sinaloa, WolfgangFaber, Bellerophon5685, Kaobear, Rueben lys, Sannita, Mkpumphrey, Lalmohan Babu, WereSpielChequers, Tigerassault, RobertLunaIII, Addbot, Shakescene, Lightbot, Yobot, Marco Plassio, Xqbot, FrescoBot,
Surv1v4l1st, Cunibertus, PigFlu Oink, Jandalhandler, Madmonk11, Aieieprazu, YFdyh-bot, Riottoso, Ibrahim Husain Meraj and Anonymous: 8
Belgian Legion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Legion?oldid=721367084 Contributors: Varlaam, Julius.kusuma, Ketiltrout, RadioFan, Capt Jim, Neddyseagoon, ShelfSkewed, Buistr, Oreo Priest, Magioladitis, Station1, Nedrutland, XPTO, Picture Master,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, DrilBot, Jonesey95, DB 103245, EmausBot, Dewritech, Brigade Piron, Belgians Are Cool, Monkbot and
Anonymous: 4
Blue Division Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Division?oldid=725161916 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Montrealais, Bobby D.
Bryant, Skysmith, Error, WhisperToMe, Itai, Jmartinezot, Louis-H. Campagna, Altenmann, Pillsbur, Henrygb, Profoss, Tom harrison, Everyking, DO'Neil, Ezhiki, Grant65, Geni, Albrecht, Jayjg, Rich Farmbrough, Rupertslander, Bender235, CanisRufus, Reuben, Orangemarlin, Wendell, Joshbaumgartner, Hendrix~enwiki, Andrew Gray, JoseFMartindelPozo, Tobyc75, Mindmatrix, Pol098, Tabletop, MarkusHagenlocher, Deansfa, Lawrence King, BD2412, Leo44, Ansbachdragoner, Russavia, Fixifex, Jaraalbe, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Brandmeister
(old), Dannycas, RussBot, Voyevoda, Awiseman, BOT-Superzerocool, Capt Jim, Nick-D, Yvwv, Attilios, SmackBot, Kintetsubualo,
Hmains, Ingsoc, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jprg1966, Hibernian, Colonies Chris, OrphanBot, Bigturtle, Tomtom9041, Cartera, Holocron,
Marko M, Aguilarm, Andypandy.UK, Volker89, Andrwsc, Billy Hathorn, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, Travelbird, R-41, Tec15, Extramural, BetacommandBot, Thijs!bot, Barnej, Nick Number, Dalliance, Smith2006, DagosNavy, Dodo19~enwiki, Buckshot06, Nick Cooper,
Alferez, Caranorn, Semper-Fi 2006, Mercewiki en, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, David schouten12345, Rrostrom, Mrg3105, DadaNeem,
MisterBee1966, STBotD, DH85868993, Firstorm, Fertejol~enwiki, ^demonBot2, Mkpumphrey, Nedrutland, Y, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, ImageRemovalBot, Sgt. bender, Vini 175, P. S. Burton, DragonBot, IAMTrust, Addbot, Masa2, Favonian, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot,
Paul Siebert, AnomieBOT, Baraqa1, Roesselsprung, Maiella, Xqbot, Anotherclown, Fredy.00, Hyperboreer, Surv1v4l1st, Capitn Simio,
RedBot, Pietje96, Popoto, Dinamik-bot, EmausBot, Makingedits, Morgan Hauser, , FeatherPluma, WorldWarTwoEditor, Bazuz, Tomseattle, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, Gob Lofa, Justin Tamerlane, Ymblanter, Articseahorse, PhnomPencil, MusikAnimal, Dmanrock29,
Aranea Mortem, Rahulmothiya, G1990, Chamarasca, DA - DP, Seedisilver, LahmacunKebab, Zozs, Epdoedd, K.e.coman, KasparBot, Braganza, Dchris1990, Omni Flames and Anonymous: 114
Blue Legion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Legion?oldid=716692682 Contributors: Skysmith, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi,
Asterion, Tomtom9041, Volker89, Darz Mol~enwiki, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, Tec15, Aldis90, Smith2006, Dodo19~enwiki, R'n'B,
Olegwiki, DaddyWarlock, MystBot, Addbot, Favonian, Guy1890, Surv1v4l1st, Gob Lofa, BG19bot, Justin Tamerlane, Juanmurillo76 and
Anonymous: 11
Boer foreign volunteers Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boer_foreign_volunteers?oldid=723667326 Contributors: Cjrother, Gidonb, Varlaam, Grant65, Kuralyov, SmackBot, Gerogia, CmdrObot, Bolayi, Bellerophon5685, Philippe, HeervanMalpertuis, MattNZ, Vanished user ikjefknm34, T@nn, NJR ZA, DH85868993, Tonyob, Hugo999, Steven J. Anderson, Kingbird1, EoGuy, TheOldJacobite, Uncle
Milty, DumZiBoT, Rockybiggs, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, Cliftonian, Brutaldeluxe, Imonoz, WikitanvirBot, I124123367890,
I90Christian, NBDA, Gob Lofa, Murry1975, BattyBot, Bgorelik, 1982vdven, Amerijuanican, TheLionKid and Anonymous: 18
Brazilian Expeditionary Force Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force?oldid=725205297 Contributors:
Gsl, Rmhermen, Deb, SimonP, Rsabbatini, Leandrod, GABaker, Llywrch, GCarty, PaulinSaudi, David Newton, Wik, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Itai, , Robbot, RedWolf, Dukeofomnium, Straczynski, SoLando, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Zigger, Varlaam, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Gugganij, Pinnecco, Comatose51, Pat Berry, Neutrality, Acad Ronin, Klemen Kocjancic, EagleOne, Kross, CDN99, Giraedata,
Nk, Pearle, A2Kar, Andrew Gray, H27kim, Bart133, Ronark, Dalillama, Axeman89, Woohookitty, Bellhalla, Tabletop, David Levy,
Rjwilmsi, Carl Logan, Leithp, Ian Pitchford, Ssrose, Catsmeat, Jaraalbe, Chwyatt, Whosasking, Ravenswing, Sus scrofa, Noclador, Hairy
Dude, Cyberherbalist, RussBot, Wbfergus, Gaius Cornelius, Welsh, Ivancasel, BirgitteSB, Neil Hooey, Lockesdonkey, Jth299, Capt Jim,
Juliomoc, Closedmouth, Little Savage, DisambigBot, Attilios, SmackBot, Herostratus, McGeddon, KocjoBot~enwiki, Hmains, Chris the
speller, Trekphiler, OrphanBot, Bolivian Unicyclist, Only, Thomaskorp, Uri R, Ged UK, RASAM, Pat Payne, Dumelow, Goodnightmush, Nobunaga24, Iridescent, Courcelles, Fernando K, J Milburn, DangerousPanda, CmdrObot, The ed17, Naomhain, Drinibot, Neelix,
Jac16888, Cydebot, Jackyd101, Bellerophon5685, Dynaow, DumbBOT, Nabokov, PKT, BetacommandBot, David from Downunder,
Astynax, Dawkeye, Escarbot, Cyclonenim, Ste4k, DagosNavy, Kaobear, Ecphora, Kirrages, Billmckern, Puddhe, Buckshot06, Christian
Witka, Nyttend, LorenzoB, Businessman332211, NMaia, Sonlui, CommonsDelinker, Limongi, Lophoole, Willie the Walrein, Lwvargas,
Mrg3105, Boothferry, Shoessss, KylieTastic, DH85868993, Hugo999, Bry9000, Dhanig, Darel Hall, SteveStrummer, Aymatth2, SpartanPhalanx8588, Y, Farraponyc, Drutt, Struway, Slatersteven, Dirk P Broer, Wilson44691, Cyfal, ImageRemovalBot, Hutcher, Drmies,
Sun Creator, Gundersen53, Cybershore, BOTarate, Bagunceiro, DumZiBoT, Mb14uk, Redhill54, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Hubschrauber729,
Download, Blaylockjam10, Tassedethe, QZip, Yobot, Dodgerblue777, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, AnomieBOT, Rex Momo, Durval Jr., Cliftonian, EatsShootsAndLeaves, Coltsfan, Alfadelta1525, Jean-Jacques Georges, AustralianRupert, Guilmann, Eugene-elgato,
FrescoBot, Superdeleter43, Redrose64, Winterst, Full-date unlinking bot, Carolina cotton, Comnenus, Rr parker, Phoenix and Winslow,
Dewritech, Faceless Enemy, Italia2006, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Schwabc1, SporkBot, EkoGraf, Vzomg, Lapaazul, Brigade Piron,
WorldWarTwoEditor, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Delusion23, Primergrey, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Wiki13, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, DA
- DP, FoCuSandLeArN, Mogism, Makecat-bot, Snowball359~enwiki, NemesisFY, Bowwow828, American In Brazil, Finnusertop,
Machho, Filedelinkerbot, Vincius94, DissidentAggressor, ContentKing01, Berserker276, Williaps and Anonymous: 205
British Free Corps Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Free_Corps?oldid=723844052 Contributors: The Anome, Berek, Roadrunner, Mintguy, Llywrch, Bobby D. Bryant, GCarty, VeryVerily, Topbanana, Cjrother, Oaktree b, AnonMoos, Qertis, Pigsonthewing, PBS,
Altenmann, Stewartadcock, Auric, Timrollpickering, Hadal, Profoss, Jooler, Oberiko, Varlaam, DO'Neil, Xinoph, Grant65, Gzornenplatz,
Bobblewik, Kudz75, Formeruser-81, SimonArlott, Mzajac, OwenBlacker, Rlquall, Hammersfan, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Avihu, Klemen
Kocjancic, Vanesio, Esperant, Bornintheguz, Rich Farmbrough, MeltBanana, Quiensabe, Pavel Vozenilek, Bunny Angel13, Violetriga,
Aranel, Kwamikagami, Sietse Snel, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, OmmadDawn, Wendell, Patsw, LtNOWIS, Binabik80, SteinbDJ, Alai,
Woohookitty, BillC, Lapsed Pacist, GraemeLeggett, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Alaney2k, Craig Sunderland, Ansbachdragoner, FlaBot, Catsmeat,
MacRusgail, Cgetti, YurikBot, Spartiate, RussBot, Grubber, Pagrashtak, Equilibrial, Formeruser-82, Scope creep, Trojanavenger, Deville,
Red Jay, Fram, Tyrenius, Curpsbot-unicodify, Kingboyk, Nick-D, Hide&Reason, SmackBot, Polemarch, Roger Davies, Eskimbot, Hmains,
AKMask, OrphanBot, EddieWalters, Legaleagle86, TGC55, Badgerpatrol, S@bre, Bejnar, William conway bcc, Lambiam, John, Ergative
rlt, Naerhu, Pfold, Hvn0413, TastyPoutine, RodCrosby, Agent 86, Horis, Eassin, GiantSnowman, Paraparamedic, CmdrObot, Stephenjh,
Drinibot, Penbat, Cydebot, Achangeisasgoodasa, Bellerophon5685, Fluy999, Nabokov, Kingstowngalway, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Vidor, Al Lemos, HardDisk, PaulVIF, ARTEST4ECHO, Sammyrice, DagosNavy, HanzoHattori, Severo, Froid, Johnbibby, Frotz, Philg88,

60.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

279

Semper-Fi 2006, Rossh1, Ekki01, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Kiore, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, RobertsonG, Skier Dude, Griz999, Mrg3105,
RoboMaxCyberSem, Boothferry, UnicornTapestry, DOHC Holiday, Gab.popp, D92, RangerJ, Technopat, Mkpumphrey, StAnselm,
Slatersteven, OberRanks, Moonriddengirl, WereSpielChequers, Albanman, Lightmouse, Tony1911, Jestax, Richard David Ramsey, DaddyWarlock, ImageRemovalBot, Fredmdbud, CheepnisAroma, Ecjmartin, Shiker2, TheOldJacobite, Mr. Laser Beam, Duck of Luke, Asfordby, Yorkshirian, SoxBot, Audaciter, Polly, Thingg, Jnala, DumZiBoT, Mountdrayton, Addbot, IsaacMorrison, Mootros, Mr Hall of
England, Favonian, Tassedethe, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, Nisf, Alekksandr, James500,
Cliftonian, Oafc1990, Brutaldeluxe, Richard BB, Kierzek, Streetstyle~enwiki, Strangways, DrilBot, Degen Earthfast, Trevorsem, AustralianMelodrama, DocYako, SuNotsima, DexDor, VernoWhitney, ZroBot, Morgan Hauser, FeatherPluma, WorldWarTwoEditor, Liuthar, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, SidKemp, Justin Tamerlane, Peacemaker67, Iryna Harpy, Kromozon, BattyBot, FyrnUK, Blackmetalskinhead, The Plodder, Cgschmidt3169, Researcher1944 and Anonymous: 107
Bulgarian Legion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Legion?oldid=724978587 Contributors: Klemen Kocjancic, Exonie,
Aarghdvaark, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Vladko, TodorBozhinov, Jpbowen, SmackBot, Apcbg, BokicaK, Kaobear, Balloonguy, Baristarim, Johnpacklambert, Elkost, BrokenSphere, Laveol, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Citation bot, Gareth544, Full-date unlinking bot, Assayas, Antidiskriminator, EmausBot, ZroBot, Zoupan, Kreuzkmmel, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Tonimicho, Monkbot and Anonymous: 6
Chinese in the Russian Revolution and in the Russian Civil War Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_in_the_Russian_
Revolution_and_in_the_Russian_Civil_War?oldid=710419887 Contributors: Banno, Altenmann, Watcher, Kuralyov, Irpen, Bishonen,
Reinoutr, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Vmenkov, Manxruler, Leutha, Badagnani, Grakm fr, SmackBot, Writtenright, LanternLight, Mukadderat, Dl2000, J Milburn, Pseudo-Richard, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Biruitorul, Ludvikus, KTo288, TallNapoleon,
Bearian, Ostap R, HighInBC, JL-Bot, Auntof6, Yemal, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Jncraton, Download, Xqbot, Gilo1969, ProtectionTaggingBot, Vihelik, Citation bot 1, DocYako, Trappist the monk, John of Reading, Klbrain, Labnoor, Mcc1789, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot,
BG19bot, Nufaiyrs, Thusz, Makuza7 and Anonymous: 8
Condor Legion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condor_Legion?oldid=724207316 Contributors: Hephaestos, Error, Nikai, Reddi,
Magnus.de, Cjrother, RedWolf, Pillsbur, Marcus Wendel, Centrx, DocWatson42, BigBen212, Deus Ex, OldakQuill, Piotrus, Mikko Paananen, Rama, Roo72, Bender235, Gershwinrb, Russ3Z, La goutte de pluie, Darwinek, Mareino, Abe Lincoln, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss,
Oneliner, Joriki, Weisbrod, Lapsed Pacist, Isnow, Jdorney, Smug Irony, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, DeltaSigma, FlaBot, Ground Zero, YurikBot,
Kinneyboy90, RussBot, DanMS, Hellbus, Rjensen, De Administrando Imperio, Appleseed, CIreland, SmackBot, Emoscopes, Politono,
Hanchi, KocjoBot~enwiki, Eskimbot, Onda, Hmains, Chris the speller, MalafayaBot, Colonies Chris, Jwillbur, Greenshed, Latre, The
PIPE, SashatoBot, ShiningEyes, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Gang65, Peterlewis, Bytwerk, TastyPoutine, GrahamBould, Mostergr,
Danrok, Fluy999, Kingstowngalway, Thijs!bot, Ning-ning, CopperKettle, Jonathan Headland, Dawkeye, Oosh, Smith2006, IrishPete,
Coyets, Golf Bravo, Salgueiro~enwiki, DagosNavy, Poss, Medovar, Dodo19~enwiki, BilCat, Dapi89, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Rrostrom,
MisterBee1966, Nigel Ish, VolkovBot, Bovineboy2008, Magnet For Knowledge, A4bot, Mkpumphrey, Drappel, Billinghurst, Aps2007,
Dreamafter, Tdatnguyen, Sphilbrick, Ahuitzotl, DaddyWarlock, ImageRemovalBot, MBK004, Traveler100, Lolinnernets, AusTerrapin,
Niceguyedc, Piledhigheranddeeper, Tnxman307, SoxBot, El bot de la dieta, Carlson288, Wertuose, Addbot, Favonian, ChenzwBot,
Perseus71, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Xufanc, Tbvdm, 4twenty42o, GrouchoBot, Themeparkgc, PaulBommel, D'ohBot, Grandiose,
Full-date unlinking bot, VernoWhitney, ZroBot, Neun-x, Prm, ChuispastonBot, Sven Manguard, Ujax, Condorlegion, Helpful Pixie Bot,
AdAstra reloaded, Denis19, DA - DP, P4K1T0, Hardtondausername, LahmacunKebab, Prinsgezinde, KasparBot, Widgetdog, Yamatosen and Anonymous: 96
Corpo Truppe Volontarie Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpo_Truppe_Volontarie?oldid=705921447 Contributors: SimonP,
Llywrch, Zeno Gantner, Error, JidGom, Hauser, Maximus Rex, Marcus Wendel, Mfc, Varlaam, Carlo.Ierna, Piotr13, PACO~enwiki,
Klemen Kocjancic, Artemiogl, Scottbell, Pekinensis, Carcharoth, Kosher Fan, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacist, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Valentinejoesmith, Ghepeu, Rjensen, BirgitteSB, Diyetre, Deville, Attilios, Amalthea, SmackBot, DMS, Jwillbur, Neddyseagoon, Ketamino,
Fluy999, R-41, Asiaticus, PKT, Thijs!bot, Dawkeye, PaulVIF, Coyets, DagosNavy, Ittan, Nono64, Clerks, VolkovBot, EH101, Reibot, Mkpumphrey, Vituzzu, Mild Bill Hiccup, Carlson288, Bernardoni, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, JackieBot, Xufanc, Citation bot,
Potonik, Xqbot, D'ohBot, MastiBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Auledas, Lotje, EmausBot, ZroBot, Prm, Agilulf2007 and Anonymous:
17
The Crippled Eagles Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crippled_Eagles?oldid=701363290 Contributors: GCarty, Woohookitty,
Ground Zero, Manxruler, Jsnx, SmackBot, Hmains, Canuck85, Ohconfucius, Phinn, Iglew, Dl2000, Pseudo-Richard, Bellerophon5685,
Esemono, Buckshot06, Skarioszky, R'n'B, GrahamHardy, Texastek76, Foofbun, PMDrive1061, Leonard^Bloom, Yobot, Cliftonian, LilHelpa, Brad101AWB, Korvinag, FrescoBot, Full-date unlinking bot, DocYako, H3llBot, , ClueBot NG, Primergrey, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Katangais, Cyberbot II, Dexbot, Monkbot and Anonymous: 10
Dodecanese Regiment Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodecanese_Regiment?oldid=709694926 Contributors: Bgwhite, Cplakidas, BG19bot, Gronk Oz, Hagesias and Allthefoxes
Eagle Squadrons Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Squadrons?oldid=725316064 Contributors: Rlandmann, DJ Clayworth,
Mackensen, Cjrother, PBS, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Ylee, Mailer diablo, Denniss, Privacy, GraemeLeggett, Allen3, Rjwilmsi,
Eubot, Sus scrofa, RussBot, Fnorp, Welsh, Kungfuadam, Thomas Blomberg, Anagnorisis, JPH-FM, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Bluebot, EagleWSO, OrphanBot, Greenshed, Fuhghettaboutit, Bigturtle, Harryurz, Buckboard, Phantasee, Clarityend, Ehistory, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, Tec15, Dawkeye, Nick Number, Signaleer, Mutt Lunker, RebelRobot, David Eppstein, Elite59, Wayne Miller,
Wyrdlight, Sturunner, Flyingw, Dirk P Broer, Lightmouse, Wo st 01, Patco2, TabooTikiGod, AVGbu, 718 Bot, Ktr101, Shem1805, Protozoon, Lord Cornwallis, DumZiBoT, Jhinnant, Addbot, Bob K31416, Tassedethe, Yobot, Magical Page Creator, Srich32977, COLONEL77,
FrescoBot, DocYako, Janestef, Merlin48, ZroBot, Gavbadger, , Jacky Smythe, FeatherPluma, C172driver, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot,
, F111ECM, Fleeming, NimRenouf and Anonymous: 42
Flying Regiment 19, Finnish Air Force Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Regiment_19%2C_Finnish_Air_Force?oldid=
712736257 Contributors: Davidcannon, TheParanoidOne, Towpilot, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, MoRsE, Manxruler, Caerwine, SmackBot, Chris
the speller, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Tec15, Ning-ning, Buckshot06, KCX, Hugo999, Broadbot, Dirk P Broer, Khilon, Addbot, Full-date
unlinking bot, Samuel Salzman, EmausBot, Kges1901 and Anonymous: 8
Flying Tigers Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Tigers?oldid=724565132 Contributors: Olivier, Leandrod, Isomorphic, Skysmith, Bassington, Darkonc, Oaktree b, AnonMoos, Jeq, PBS, Donreed, Pibwl, Sekicho, Kamakura, Kent Wang, Pabouk, DocWatson42, Jmcclean, Greyengine5, Grant65, Pamri, R.L, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Poo-T~enwiki, Fg2, Klemen Kocjancic, Esperant, D6,

280

CHAPTER 60. VOLUNTEER REGIMENT OF BUDA

N328KF, Miborovsky, Adambondy, Rich Farmbrough, Pmsyyz, Rama, Roo72, Loren36, Ylee, CanisRufus, PPGMD, Warpozio, Darwinek, Rolfmueller, Kazuaki Shimazaki, Eleland, Phyllis1753, Dhartung, TheAznSensation, Deathphoenix, Instantnood, Woohookitty, Before My Ken, WadeSimMiser, Tabletop, GregorB, Silverleaftree, GraemeLeggett, Jbarta, Marudubshinki, BD2412, Dpr, Rogerd, Bruce1ee,
Wiarthurhu, Vegaswikian, Ground Zero, Cubdriver, Pete.Hurd, Ahunt, Theaznlaw, Imnotminkus, YurikBot, RussBot, Epolk, Ksyrie, Daveswagon, David R. Ingham, Mipadi, SigPig, Howcheng, Mieciu K, Jep2000316, Pawyilee, Mikael GRizzly, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili,
GraemeL, Curpsbot-unicodify, Ryoske, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Looper5920, Hanchi, Stie, Mauls, Hmains, Bluebot, GoldDragon,
JackyR, Exprexxo, Pjorg, Badger151, Trekphiler, EagleWSO, General Grievous, Snowmanradio, Greenshed, Greg5030, Jmlk17, Rolinator, The PIPE, Ohconfucius, Guroadrunner, JohnI, MilborneOne, Valkotukka, CredoFromStart, Harryurz, Bkd, Jackhammer111, Buckboard, TastyPoutine, Dl2000, Phantasee, Nehrams2020, Clarityend, Drogo Underburrow, Sky Captain, Lahiru k, CmdrObot, Paulc206,
Dierence engine, Drifter bob, Pseudo-Richard, Kalaong, Kribbeh, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, Crowish, Tec15, A Softer Answer, Kuaile
Long, Skeet Shooter, Dynaow, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, TAIWAN, Ironass, Glennfcowan, Esemono, JustAGal, Signaleer, AntiVandalBot, Dbrodbeck, Jj137, Tillman, Glennwells, Adeptitus, J.P. Sloane, Winterline, NapoliRoma, JeltLuthor, Dguertin, Flying tiger, Bzuk,
The4sword, Naval Scene, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Djkeddie, EdwardG, Cobrachen, Steven Walling, Hue White, BilCat, Aeroweanie,
SPD, Gwern, Yhinz17, Mschel, CommonsDelinker, Johnboytx3, Rrostrom, DomBot, Boombatower, Tdadamemd, Monkeyzpop, Antarctica moon, Trumpet marietta 45750, Patriotismecn, Punkguynumber, DH85868993, JustAnMD, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, JGHowes,
HJ32, JayEsJay, TXiKiBoT, EricSerge, Usertay3, SteveStrummer, Wordsmith, Broadbot, Patmontg, Timotheo, Oldpilot, Lucasbfrbot,
Cb77305, Erik the Pale, JetLover, Petermill, Beastvince, Tigerbu, Daniel Ford, Assbackward, WikiLaurent, Escape Orbit, AVG Tiger,
ImageRemovalBot, TabooTikiGod, AVGbu, Cuprum17, ClueBot, Statalyzer, Binksternet, Hutcher, Trfasulo, WikiSkeptic, Foxj, ShirEl too, NYerkes, Mild Bill Hiccup, Piledhigheranddeeper, Takeaway, Alexbot, Rapidre22, Lineagegeek, Kding, Eastcote, Staygyro,
NERIC-Security, Miami33139, Kintaro, AndreNatas, Addbot, Reedmalloy, Yobot, , SSGB, Amirobot, AnomieBOT,
Arilang1234, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Tagryn, Timmyshin, Mlpearc, AbigailAbernathy, Armbrust, Eeeeeewtw, Anotherclown, RibotBOT,
SassoBot, Brutaldeluxe, FrescoBot, Lacoe25, D'ohBot, Aristofane di bisanzio, Pinethicket, Degen Earthfast, Vfdlq, LittleWink, Sciacchitano, Weedle McHairybug, Full-date unlinking bot, Carolina cotton, Slb nsk, Orenburg1, Novelwriter10, MidgleyC, Between My
Ken, Yaush, EmausBot, The6hornedbull, Germn E. Macas Valadez, Dewritech, TuHan-Bot, Dcirovic, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Wingman4l7, TyA, Donner60, Bradford Smith, Graeme374, Mcc1789, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Frietjes, Thorstan, Helpful Pixie Bot,
BG19bot, Bakerbrett, Bondaruk85, Icetoad001, , Zackmann08, BattyBot, Mirrorspider, Fatboy123455678, Shwangtianyuan, Mogism, XXzoonamiXX, Michaelh78, Hiro931126, 93, TeriEmbrey, VictorDiaz619, Ricky yy2, Lydia Rossi, AVG Flying Tiger HIstorian,
AmirSurfLera, KingCaxt, Asdklf;, ZekeMM25, Mhdada, Bye for now, StewdioMACK, Chuck.adolph, ViktoryRevolt, Ceannlann gorm,
Karda83097, SirLordBrit, Pmichaels16 and Anonymous: 244
Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_enlistment_in_the_American_Civil_
War?oldid=716049514 Contributors: Jengod, SoLando, Marine 69-71, Fdewaele, Scott Mingus, MadMax, SmackBot, Noah Salzman, Nick
Number, Froid, KConWiki, BigrTex, RSStockdale, Bagworm, SchreiberBike, Addbot, Lightbot, AnomieBOT, Serols, Hawkins Brooks,
28bot, J R Gainey, Youthought1984 and Anonymous: 8
Mexican Expeditionary Air Force Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Expeditionary_Air_Force?oldid=709042049 Contributors: Pavel Vozenilek, Hmains, Neddyseagoon, Buckshot06, Kronnang Dunn, Ktr101, Addbot, Magus732, Yobot, Xufanc, Innotata,
Articseahorse, Ucorrea4 and Anonymous: 1
Greek Volunteer Guard Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Volunteer_Guard?oldid=704750160 Contributors: Joy,
Woohookitty, Lapsed Pacist, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, SmackBot, Timbouctou, Cplakidas, Dl2000, Opbeith, KTo288, AdmkplsTh, Nikosgreencookie, Imbris, WikHead, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Shadowmorph, Potonik, Estlandia~enwiki, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Abductive, EmausBot, Radical Agitator, Alan.Ford.Jn, Zoupan, Catlemur, Gob Lofa, Nenadkgkg, Cyberbot II, NikolasTzimoulis, Pincrete,
Crispulop, WordSeventeen, Oranges Juicy and Anonymous: 23
Hungarian volunteers in the Winter War Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_volunteers_in_the_Winter_War?oldid=
687222176 Contributors: CatherineMunro, Varlaam, Axeman89, Woohookitty, Je3000, MZMcBride, RussBot, Pigman, Manxruler,
Crystallina, Istvan, Srnec, Chris the speller, TimBentley, EdGl, Clicketyclack, Twalls, CharlesMartel, Haus, WolfgangFaber,
Themightyquill, Cydebot, Tec15, Alaibot, Heidijane, Barticus88, Bobblehead, Milton Stanley, Dbrodbeck, Skomorokh, Dodo19~enwiki,
Askari Mark, Kuruc, R'n'B, Reedy Bot, Hugo999, Mkpumphrey, Nedrutland, CsikosLo, Baxter9, Fratrep, Peltimikko, Addbot, Download,
Mbinebri, Lightbot, J04n, LucienBOT, Paavo273, Enqueror, Wbm1058, Pwdob, Snowsuit Wearer and Anonymous: 6
International Brigades Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Brigades?oldid=724135326 Contributors: Timo Honkasalo,
The Anome, GrahamN, KF, Llywrch, Gabbe, Yann, Arwel Parry, Deisenbe, Ineuw, Tobias Conradi, Adam Bishop, Selket, Topbanana,
Jerzy, JorgeGG, Carlossuarez46, Pibwl, AaronS, Jooler, Gamaliel, Mboverload, Grant65, Bobblewik, Peter Ellis, Neilc, Formeruser-81,
Albrecht, Piotrus, Danny Yee, Balcer, Tothebarricades.tk, Necrothesp, Soman, Marine 69-71, Klemen Kocjancic, Miborovsky, KNewman, CannedLizard, Rama, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Technomad, CanisRufus, Zscout370, Tom, Mentatus, Thuresson, C S, Palmiro,
, Darwinek, A2Kar, Friviere, Linuxlad, Jumbuck, El Raki, Bamber Gascoigne, Geo Swan, Carbon Caryatid, Hu, Katefan0, Mavros, Evil Monkey, Axeman89, Czolgolz, Pramoedya, Japanese Searobin, Bastin, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Pekinensis, Woohookitty, Je3000, Lapsed Pacist, SDC, Plrk, Jdorney, Obersachse, Graham87, Descendall, BD2412, JIP, Mancunius,
Sherpa~enwiki, Koavf, NatusRoma, Red King, Navisliburnia, Naraht, Ground Zero, CR85747, Vladko, Pinkville, Fledgist, Guliolopez,
Damac, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Ismail, Mongol, TodorBozhinov, RussBot, Nobs01, SpuriousQ, Gaius Cornelius, Magicmonster, Rbarreira, Bengalski, Dahveed323, Geraldkelly, Lockesdonkey, Bronks, Diyetre, Sandstein, Open2universe, Anarkitekt, Covington, Jogers,
JLaTondre, Miguelin, Curpsbot-unicodify, Jonathan.s.kt, Thomas Blomberg, Nick-D, Lserni, SmackBot, John Lunney, Roger Davies,
Brunislav~enwiki, Reedy, Argyll Lassie, Masonpatriot, DMorpheus, Unyoyega, Vald, Stie, Eskimbot, Srnec, Hmains, NikolaM, Nzd,
Cavie78, Chris the speller, MalafayaBot, Apeloverage, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, RamBow, Colonies Chris, A Geek
Tragedy, Jwillbur, OrphanBot, OneEuropeanHeart, Catherine Huebscher, RoyalBlueStuey, Paul haynes, Aoas, Zdravko mk, Tomtom9041,
Foxhunt king, Badgerpatrol, Xdamr, NotMuchToSay, Hestemand, Tazmaniacs, JoshuaZ, -js-, Emceesquared, Joseph Solis in Australia,
Shoeofdeath, GiantSnowman, Mistereamonn, Billy Hathorn, TriniSocialist, Whoneedspants, Ehistory, WolfgangFaber, Ohthelameness,
Adam Keller, CmdrObot, Bobfrombrockley, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Ccairns, Bellerophon5685, Travelbird, R-41, Pc wall, Gusweill, Ejte,
Aldis90, Mamalujo, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Coelacan, Calvinballing, Qwarto, Nick Number, BokicaK, Glicul, Darklilac, Gdo01,
Ccasey1, Ingolfson, MER-C, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Magioladitis, Rider1819, Dodo19~enwiki, KConWiki, Clich Online, Edward321,
Thomas W. Richardson, Rettetast, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Leyo, Sideshow Bob, Sundar1, Stavros1, Arms & Hearts, Boothferry,
KylieTastic, Greatestrowerever, Remember the dot, HenryLarsen, Squids and Chips, VolkovBot, Tourbillon, WOSlinker, TXiKiBoT,
Mwyler, Technopat, Aymatth2, Ocolon, Nazgul02, Broadbot, VanBuren, Bluedenim, SalJyDieBoereKomLei, Akamuski, BotMultichill,
Erik Jesse, Mewasul, Hxhbot, Fratrep, Fullobeans, Ritmeester, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Mastersun, TheOldJacobite, Niceguyedc,
Gentle ri, Flamingkilt88, Arjayay, Sq178pv, 7&6=thirteen, Sn3 person, Mlas, Rui Gabriel Correia, Arturolorioli, XLinkBot, Addbot,

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Tomas62, Anotherclown, Vihelik, Baldeadly, Cardiorm, Mrbuddhafreak, Renewolf, Trust Is All You Need, Gc214, Grandiose, Degen
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SingleDay66998, Josve05a, Eyadhamid, MAINEiac4434, Heralder, Luresedoc, Brigade Piron, Will Beback Auto, Catlemur, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Matejnov, Fillthemill, Frze, Joe Kaniini, Tfc, Iakinerea, Freemdrive, Mogism, Arespon, PC-XT, Cheeseladder, Twiki9, Sol1, Marshall Mateer, Josephsbarrett, Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi, Marchjuly, Pavell de la Repblica, QSpirit, Xx234~enwiki, Dash9Z, Srednuas
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Bobfrombrockley, Bellerophon5685, Alaibot, JustAGal, DOSGuy, KConWiki, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, RockMFR, Natty4bumpo, Jevansen, Technopat, SchreiberBike, MatthewVanitas, Shattered Wikiglass, Yobot, Xufanc, El noi de la garriga, Guiri roig, FrescoBot, Degen
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Irish commandos Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_commandos?oldid=694899570 Contributors: PBS, Seabhcan, Varlaam,
Klemen Kocjancic, Lapsed Pacist, Valentinejoesmith, Robert Hand, Osioni, Grafen, Megapixie, John Lunney, Hmains, Chris the speller,
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EmausBot, Catlemur, Bridini, Helpful Pixie Bot, Angusta and Anonymous: 4
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Number, Desmoh, MarshBot, Skomorokh, Dentren, Faizhaider, R'n'B, Natty4bumpo, Paris1127, Xyl 54, HighKing, Hugo999, Dormskirk, Richard Doherty, ViennaUK, EmanWilm, Mild Bill Hiccup, TheOldJacobite, Lord Cornwallis, Doyle1876, Reedmalloy, Dany,
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Islamic Legion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Legion?oldid=725461455 Contributors: Llywrch, AnonMoos, Klemen
Kocjancic, BanyanTree, Woohookitty, BD2412, Jaraalbe, Aldux, SmackBot, Persian Poet Gal, Hibernian, Bazonka, CWY2190, Aldis90,
Buistr, Buckshot06, Strikehold, JaGa, R'n'B, Aagtbdfoua, Andrewrost3241981, NuclearWarfare, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT,
Citation bot, LilHelpa, Psalamander, LucienBOT, HCPUNXKID, Degen Earthfast, WikitanvirBot, Alaxdar, Sentinel R, Dcirovic, Gougnaer, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeancey, Katangais, Cyberbot II, Charles Essie, BD2412bot and Anonymous: 7
Italian Volunteer Legion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Volunteer_Legion?oldid=718681343 Contributors: Klemen Kocjancic, Htonl, SmackBot, Hmains, Derek R Bullamore, Ohconfucius, Caravela23, NJR ZA, XPTO, Niceguyedc, Addbot, Yobot, Xqbot,
Brutaldeluxe, Lotje, The Hollow Man2010, SporkBot, ChrisGualtieri, Civa61 and Anonymous: 2
Military history of Jewish Americans Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Jewish_Americans?oldid=721140802
Contributors: IZAK, Gidonb, Bcameron54, TiMike, Neutrality, Discospinster, Woohookitty, Tabletop, BD2412, Wavelength, Fnorp, Yoninah, Evrik, Hmains, Chris the speller, Sadads, Bdushaw, Ohconfucius, Dave314159, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Iridescent, Cydebot, Nick
Number, Magioladitis, Paris1127, Geekdiva, DesmondRavenstone, Jrryjude, CasualObserver'48, Parkwells, Durindaljb, MatthewVanitas,
Felix Folio Secundus, Download, LarryJe, Drpickem, Yobot, AnomieBOT, La comadreja, Bob Burkhardt, Ruby2010, MerlLinkBot,
Joe407, Eagle4000, OreL.D, Jonesey95, Bmclaughlin9, Trappist the monk, Palmeira, John of Reading, Dewritech, NearTheZoo, ClueBot NG, Sumanah, Helpful Pixie Bot, Addihockey10 (automated), J R Gainey, BattyBot, Quant18, Jodosma, , Monkbot, Jsuts12,
Monopoly31121993, Thewizardsgirl, Srednuas Lenoroc and Anonymous: 16
Lafayette Flying Corps Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafayette_Flying_Corps?oldid=723593516 Contributors: Mulad, Saga
City, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rwalker, Cydebot, Epeeeche, Morrillonline, Magioladitis, FJM, Scanlan, Wikimandia, Solicitr, Cbl62, William spurlin, Canglesea, Jim Sweeney, Tassedethe, Brian in denver, Georgejdorner, RjwilmsiBot, BG19bot, Palisadeblu,
Ethnic laundry, Hppalm, Connor7617, Ldcummings, Lcmcquaid, Buhistory101 and Anonymous: 4
List of members of the British Free Corps Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_British_Free_Corps?oldid=
697772810 Contributors: Davidcannon, Bgwhite, Dl2000, Kraxler, Alekksandr and BG19bot
Lodge-Philbin Act Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodge-Philbin_Act?oldid=720701193 Contributors: Varlaam, Xezbeth, Yury
Tarasievich, Ground Zero, MoRsE, SmackBot, Hmains, Colonies Chris, MARK S., Eastlaw, Crowish, Instinct, Calbookaddict, JL-Bot,
Dthomsen8, Addbot, Fred927, AnomieBOT, Srich32977, OhhOthO, Surv1v4l1st, Helpful Pixie Bot, Joe Kaniini, Quant18, XXzoonamiXX, Tigercompanion25 and Anonymous: 4
Mahal (Israel) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahal_(Israel)?oldid=700733080 Contributors: IZAK, Ijon, PaulinSaudi, Gidonb,
Thv, Varlaam, N328KF, Leifern, Tiger Khan, Mel Etitis, FeanorStar7, Dovid, BD2412, DePiep, Ian Pitchford, Bgwhite, RussBot, Aeusoes1, Welsh, Aldux, Number 57, Lockesdonkey, SmackBot, Hibernian, Droll, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colonies Chris,
Tewk, JesseRafe, RolandR, Nslonim, JzG, Kschlot1, Ceedjee~enwiki, Zschaps, Cydebot, Hydraton31, Bellerophon5685, DumbBOT,
QuiteUnusual, Pax:Vobiscum, Wayne Miller, Counterboint, Keallu, Shawn in Montreal, Notreallydavid, Tushyk, DH85868993, 07dpg,
World Machal, RobertLunaIII, Takendays12, Nableezy, Igrahamscotti, XLinkBot, Avi1111, Chaiim, Addbot, Dikkid, Laurinavicius, Cambalachero, Lihaas, Solo2wings, , Zacke82, AnomieBOT, Mahal-idf-volunteers, APh8ohph, Cliftonian, LilHelpa, Capricorn42,
XZeroBot, AndresHerutJaim, Elockid, Poliocretes, Full-date unlinking bot, Kammback, Lotje, Frankfarb, Backs2thewall, Zeev59, Sreifa,
, Je Song, Lowercase sigmabot, IluvatarBot, Jabotito48, 8HGasma, Taurniul, Baruch613, MichaelMontazeuma, Samo.head, VoRo1ze,
Sonntagsbraten, Wlglunight93, Lily melumid, Kundera101, KasparBot and Anonymous: 46
Matteotti Battalion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteotti_Battalion?oldid=635564708 Contributors: Klemen Kocjancic,
Ground Zero, Canley, SmackBot, Jwillbur, ShakingSpirit, DangerousPanda, Skomorokh, T L Miles, Ottershrew, Murderbike, Addbot,
Binary TSO, ZroBot, Luresedoc, BabbaQ and Anonymous: 2
Mickiewicz Legion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickiewicz_Legion?oldid=691145714 Contributors: Niteowlneils, Piotrus,
Alai, MacRusgail, Witkacy, Jaraalbe, Leutha, Caerwine, Curpsbot-unicodify, Appleseed, SmackBot, Mathiasrex, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, BetacommandBot, TonyTheTiger, R'n'B, Dans, Iohannes Animosus, Addbot, iedas, Elblair, EmausBot, KLBot2, Hmainsbot1 and
Brookepasic

282

CHAPTER 60. VOLUNTEER REGIMENT OF BUDA

List of militaries that recruit foreigners Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_militaries_that_recruit_foreigners?oldid=

725948952 Contributors: Zeno Gantner, Klemen Kocjancic, Choess, Brooza, MosheA, The Ogre, Saberwyn, Pegship, SmackBot, Egsan Bacon, Derek R Bullamore, Marcus Brute, Carnby, Kurtle, Andrwsc, Buistr, Brendandh, Magioladitis, Mclay1, Buckshot06, Nidator, A3nm,
Dinkytown, DrKay, That-Vela-Fella, Milselrahc, Farolif, Niceguyedc, XLinkBot, Airplaneman, Lihaas, Yobot, Reenem, AnomieBOT,
Cliftonian, FrescoBot, GiW, Lothar von Richthofen, LittleWink, Moonraker, Tom991, Jusq, Cnwilliams, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, Rexnhongo, Rcsprinter123, Evilninja126, Hind meri jaan, BG19bot, Murry1975, Katangais, Achowat, Millennium bug,
Buzzards-Watch Me Work, Michael Isaiah Schmidt, Soni, Mogism, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs785, Daydreamers, K.K. Slider, Praemonitus, Dorten88, Crow, Sfolksss, SantiLak, Hopper1010, Harocs, LordHello1, Lyrebird101, Pmcrory, Esquivalience, Warrior Covert and
Anonymous: 78
No. 164 Squadron RAF Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._164_Squadron_RAF?oldid=725913855 Contributors: Arwel Parry,
Chrism, Davidcannon, Varlaam, Jor70, SmackBot, Hmains, Rcbutcher, Dl2000, Cydebot, HappyInGeneral, DPdH, GDonato, Lightmouse,
Cory Donnelly, Addbot, Cambalachero, J04n, RedBot, Wikielwikingo, EmausBot, Dewritech, Germn E. Macas, SporkBot, Brigade
Piron, , Delotrooladoo, Mogism, Monkbot and Anonymous: 5
Non-British personnel in the RAF during the Battle of Britain Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-British_personnel_in_the_
RAF_during_the_Battle_of_Britain?oldid=725232224 Contributors: Leandrod, LMB, AnonMoos, Qertis, Pibwl, Altenmann, Radomil,
Davidcannon, Everyking, Grant65, StalwartUK, Sf, McMu, LukeSurl, Woohookitty, Abel29a, GraemeLeggett, Shimbo, XLerate, JanSuchy, Pyroclastic, Winstonwolfe, Cromag, Nick-D, Wallie, SmackBot, Bluebot, JackyR, Colonies Chris, Pettefar, Greenshed, RASAM,
MilborneOne, Harryurz, Yunzhong Hou~enwiki, Dl2000, FairuseBot, Ehistory, Bolayi, Bellerophon5685, Trident13, RobotEater, Tony
Spencer, AWN2, Bzuk, Nick Cooper, EyeSerene, KTo288, Tulkolahten, Keesiewonder, Jevansen, Hugo999, Headphonos, Drutt, Joelhowells, GavinTing, Gbawden, M.V.E.i., Minorhistorian, Slatersteven, Dominik92, Brendiano, Thorek329, De728631, Jacurek, Niceguyedc,
KizzyB, EnigmaMcmxc, Londonclanger, DumZiBoT, Kaiwhakahaere, Dave1185, Bartledan, Legobot II, AnomieBOT, Cossde, Cliftonian,
LilHelpa, The Banner, Davshul, 15sqnadj, Anotherclown, Brutaldeluxe, AustralianRupert, Maberyroad, Abductive, DocYako, MFIreland,
John of Reading, Brookesward, Brigade Piron, Jrdan, LukaszKatlewa, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Mark Arsten, , Amyntas123,
Mogism, Ecthelion2, Askave, Monkbot and Anonymous: 52
Ohrana Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohrana?oldid=683795823 Contributors: Joy, Davidcannon, Rich Farmbrough, Kostja,
Tabletop, Ruziklan, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, Bgwhite, RussBot, Brandon, Koppany, Tom Morris, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Hmains,
MaxSem, Cplakidas, OrphanBot, AnonEMouse, JSimin, , KostasG, Apcbg, CmdrObot, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Future
Perfect at Sunrise, Gogo Dodo, Thijs!bot, Jopo, DagosNavy, , Jacobko, DerHexer, VirtualDelight, RockMFR, Gligan, Komita,
Lantonov, Euthymios, VolkovBot, Laveol, Revizionist, Nedrutland, Xenovatis, Jingiby, ClueBot, Place Clichy, Ioannes Tzimiskes, Sun
Creator, JamieS93, Catalographer, Balkanfreezer, XLinkBot, Addbot, Download, Mpb eu, AnomieBOT, Alexikoua, Kostolata, LilHelpa,
Estlandia~enwiki, FrescoBot, BTH87, Jonesey95, MastiBot, Orenburg1, EmausBot, John of Reading, ZroBot, Staszek Lem, Kreuzkmmel, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Dnlhl, Khazar2, Tonimicho, Johnsoniensis and Anonymous: 24
People's Volunteer Army Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People'{}s_Volunteer_Army?oldid=722102931 Contributors: Colipon,
Ran, Crazyeddie, Klemen Kocjancic, Miborovsky, Unugy~enwiki, MisterSheik, Aecis, Art LaPella, Rrreese, Reuben, La goutte de pluie,
Sukiari, Gary123, Galaxiaad, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacist, Mimiian, Xcuref1endx, Graham87, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, XLerate,
Ground Zero, Vclaw, Benlisquare, Beltz, RussBot, John Smith's, Wbfergus, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Welsh, Yiyun, Sumple, Caerwine,
robot, Children of the dragon, SmackBot, Hanchi, Srnec, Actricalian, Hmains, Chris the speller, Cattus, Bazonka, Neo-Jay,
Sadads, Tomtom9041, A10203040, Pen of bushido, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Skinnyweed, Chymicus, Euchiasmus, Nobunaga24, Hvn0413,
Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, FairuseBot, TriniSocialist, Duduong, CmdrObot, Jim101, Ken Gallager, Sinolonghai, Sxeraverx,
Aldis90, RevolverOcelotX, Howard61313, PCPP, DuncanHill, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Yakushima, Puddhe, Ling.Nut, Buckshot06,
Bleh999, FlieGerFaUstMe262, CommonsDelinker, It Is Me Here, BrokenSphere, Group29, KylieTastic, Apocalyptic Destroyer, Hugo999,
Guardian Tiger, Andres rojas22, Agent of the Reds, Master of the Orchalcos, EunseokLee, Kobalt64, Int21h, Ahuitzotl, Seektruthfromfacts, Niceguyedc, K kc chan, DOR (HK), Herunar, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Yobot, Arilang1234, Julnap, LilHelpa,
Srich32977, Nicecaren, Jun Kayama, Anotherclown, KVLG, Tobby72, Degen Earthfast, Full-date unlinking bot, DocYako, Slb nsk, Zanhe,
ZhBot, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Wikipelli, AManWithNoPlan, L1A1 FAL, Gray eyes, Brigade Piron, Botswanafury, ColdWarCharlie, Frietjes, Spin666, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Kobalt064, BG19bot, The Banner Turbo, PhnomPencil, SeljukEmpire, BattyBot,
Choy4311, Mogism and Anonymous: 53
Polish 7th Air Escadrille Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_7th_Air_Escadrille?oldid=719305555 Contributors: PBS, Pibwl,
Halibutt, MistToys, Piotrus, Kross, Logologist, Zoz, Witkacy, Jaraalbe, RussBot, Curpsbot-unicodify, SmackBot, Ohconfucius, Kocoum,
Mathiasrex, Kerdick, Umedard, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, Tec15, Halibott, GDonato, AlleborgoBot, Sjam2004, XLinkBot, Tassedethe,
Yobot, LilHelpa, FrescoBot, DexDor, EmausBot, , DexSin and Anonymous: 12
Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Air_Forces_in_France_and_Great_
Britain?oldid=725943354 Contributors: William Avery, Isomorphic, Tpbradbury, Topbanana, AnonMoos, Camerong, Pibwl, Halibutt,
Radomil, Grant65, Chowbok, Geni, Piotrus, Rich Farmbrough, WegianWarrior, Ylee, Art LaPella, Cmdrjameson, Ferrierd, BDD,
Woohookitty, GraemeLeggett, Angusmclellan, Ian Dunster, Mark83, Witkacy, DBD, Gaius Cornelius, Czyrko, Welsh, PpPachy, Curpsbotunicodify, Appleseed, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Zyxw, Hmains, Thumperward, Jadger, OrphanBot, Radagast83, Antheii, Sambot,
Vumba, Regan123, Harryurz, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Trident13, Piotr Mikoajski, Gustavo Szwedowski de Korwin, Alphachimpbot, Buckshot06, CS46, Littlerussell, Halibott, CommonsDelinker, Ringwayobserver, DomBot, KylieTastic, Motacilla, GDonato, Martin451, Sealman, Dirk P Broer, Alethe, ImageRemovalBot, 718 Bot, Lidabet, Pernambuko, Peteste, Loosmark, Alansplodge, Jadtnr1, Kbdankbot,
Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, TechBot, Brutaldeluxe, Chumchum7, Uberhill, EmausBot, Dewritech, John C Willis, Gavbadger, Gnesener1900, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Articseahorse and Anonymous: 29
Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrison_Cemetery%2C_Seringapatam?oldid=713361287
Contributors: Davidcannon, Nick Number, The Anomebot2, Roland zh, WestCoastMusketeer, AnomieBOT, Wgolf, BG19bot, Meatsgains, Comatmebro and Robevans123
Regiment de Meuron Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiment_de_Meuron?oldid=716584710 Contributors: Shyamal, Dimadick,
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nN{\textquotedbl}{"}{}Legion_Condor.jpg
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part of a cooperation project.

The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist:
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Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
c/ca/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25224%2C_Guernica%2C_Ruinen.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors:
This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a
cooperation project.
The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp.
the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original
artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P0214-516,_Spanien,_Schlacht_um_Guadalajara.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/8/83/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-P0214-516%2C_Spanien%2C_Schlacht_um_Guadalajara.jpg
License:
CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:CAP_BADGE_1ST_SA_INFANTRY_BRIGADE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/CAP_
BADGE_1ST_SA_INFANTRY_BRIGADE.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: I scanned the badge
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File:CVR_la_Darnia.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/CVR_la_Darni%C5%A3a.JPG License:
Public domain Contributors: Ioan Prean, Soldai ai Romniei Mari. Din prizonieratul rusesc n Corpul Voluntarilor transilvneni i
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Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x,
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Public domain Contributors:
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Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
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commons/8/8e/Chinese_POWs_south_of_Koto-ri_in_Korea_HM-SN-98-06779.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: Downhttp://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/DVIC_View/Still_Details.cfm?SDAN=HMSN9806779&JPGPath=/Assets/Still/1998/
loaded
from
Marines/HM-SN-98-06779.JPG Original artist: Sgt. F. C. Kerr (USMC)
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src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/30px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png' width='30'
height='14' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/45px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/60px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='400' data-le-height='180' /></a> [1] Original artist: Heralder
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Contributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ISO_639_Icon_es.svg' class='image' title='espaol'><img alt='espaol'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/30px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png' width='30'
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commons/1/1e/Count_Franz_Moritz_von_Lacy_%28oil_on_canvas_portrait_HGM%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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width='20'
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Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Emax at English
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domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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288

CHAPTER 60. VOLUNTEER REGIMENT OF BUDA

File:Edward_Teller_and_Ronald_Reagan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Edward_Teller_and_

Ronald_Reagan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Einstein_oppenheimer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Einstein_oppenheimer.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.dtra.mil/press_resources/photo_library/CS/CS-1.cfm Original artist: Image courtesy of US Govt.
Defense Threat Reduction Agency
File:Emblem_1st_Spanish_Legion_Tercio_Gran_Capitan.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
1/14/Emblem_1st_Spanish_Legion_Tercio_Gran_Capitan.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
<a href='//commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ISO_639_Icon_es.svg' class='image' title='espaol'><img alt='espaol' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/30px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png'
width='30'
height='14'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/45px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/60px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='400' data-le-height='180' /></a> [1] Original artist: Heralder
File:Emblem_of_the_2nd_Spanish_Legion_Tercio_Duke_of_Alba.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/
88/Emblem_of_the_2nd_Spanish_Legion_Tercio_Duke_of_Alba.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
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File:Emblem_of_the_3rd_Spanish_Legion_Tercio_Don_Juan_de_Austria.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Emblem_of_the_3rd_Spanish_Legion_Tercio_Don_Juan_de_Austria.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ISO_639_Icon_es.svg' class='image' title='espaol'><img alt='espaol'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/30px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png' width='30'
height='14' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/45px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/60px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='400' data-le-height='180' /></a> Embelms occupying shield as common at uniforms.
Original artist: Heralder
File:Emblem_of_the_4th_Spanish_Legion_Tercio_Alexander_Farnese.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/d/d1/Emblem_of_the_4th_Spanish_Legion_Tercio_Alexander_Farnese.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ISO_639_Icon_es.svg' class='image' title='espaol'><img alt='espaol'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/30px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png' width='30'
height='14' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/45px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/60px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='400' data-le-height='180' /></a> Embelms occupying shield as common at uniforms.
Original artist: Heralder
File:Emblem_of_the_Arab_National_Guard.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Emblem_of_the_
Arab_National_Guard.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: MrPenguin20
File:Emblem_of_the_International_Brigades.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Emblem_of_the_
International_Brigades.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MyName (Roger Davies)
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File:Ensign_of_the_Royal_Air_Force.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Ensign_of_the_Royal_Air_
Force.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ensign_of_the_South_African_Defence_Force_(1981-1994).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
e/e5/Ensign_of_the_South_African_Defence_Force_%281981-1994%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This le
was derived from Ensign of the South African Air Force 1981-1982.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
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1981-1982.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Ensign_of_the_South_African_Air_Force_
1981-1982.svg/50px-Ensign_of_the_South_African_Air_Force_1981-1982.svg.png'
width='50'
height='34'
srcset='https:
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of_the_South_African_Air_Force_1981-1982.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Ensign_
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Original artist: Ensign_of_the_South_African_Air_Force_1981-1982.svg: *Ensign_of_the_South_African_Air_Force_1982-1994.svg:
*Flag_of_South_Africa_1928-1994.svg:
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Public domain Contributors: The Flag Book of the United States by Whitney Smith; Page 272 (Other American Flags) March
1976; William Morrow & Co; Edition: Revised; ISBN-10: 0688029779; ISBN-13: 978-0688029777 http://www.amazon.com/
Flag-Book-United-States/dp/0688029779 Original artist: John Patrick O'Riley (Brevet Major)
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http://www.stljewishlight.com/features/arts_culture/article_6a04b1d0-3704-11e1-8ddb-001871e3ce6c.html?mode=image
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
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Eskadra_w_Polsce.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:
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File:Flag_of_Albania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Here, based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: Government
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File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.moci.gov.bh/en/KingdomofBahrain/BahrainFlag/ Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by
User:Zscout370
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%281870%E2%80%931966%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: Flags of the World Barbados - Colonial Flag Original artist:
Unknown, redrwan 2009 by Martin Grieve
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License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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File:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_
Herzegovina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kseferovic
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_%281992-1998%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, from other free images. Original
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n=000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
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<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:MaGa' title='User:MaGa'>Ma</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png' class='image'><img alt='Croatian squares Ljubicic.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/15px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png' width='15' height='15' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/23px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/30px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
2x' data-le-width='202' data-le-height='202' /></a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:MaGa' title='User
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thumb/7/74/ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg/45px-ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/
ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg/60px-ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='400' data-le-height='180' /></a> [1] Original artist: Nanin7
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svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ningyou.
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Vzb83
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Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP
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File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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%281940-1944%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Reich_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fornax
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svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: R-41
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29.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://www.regiamarina.net/ref/flags/flags_it.htm Original artist: F l a n k e r
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src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Flag-of-Manitoba.jpg/250px-Flag-of-Manitoba.jpg'
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src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Syria_
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srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Syria_%281932-1958%3B_1961-1963%29.svg/
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domain Contributors: Own work after www.flag.de Original artist: User:Madden
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src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg/30px-ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg.png' width='30'
height='14' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg/45px-ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg.
png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg/60px-ISO_639_Icon_hr.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='400' data-le-height='180' /></a> [1] Original artist: Nanin7
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National_Guard.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: MrPenguin20
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-x-'s le
-x-'s code
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CHAPTER 60. VOLUNTEER REGIMENT OF BUDA

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