Snake skeleton

bear a strong, curved ventral process or hypapophysis in

the vipers.
The prefrontal bone is situated, on each side, between the
frontal bone and the maxilla, and may or may not be in
contact with the nasal bone.
The postfrontal bone, usually present, borders the
orbit behind, rarely also above, and in the pythons a
supraorbital bone is intercalated between it and the prefrontal bone.
The premaxillary bone is single and small, and as a rule
connected with the maxillary only by ligament.

A snake skeleton consists primarily of the skull,

vertebrae, and ribs, with only vestigial remnants of the The paired vomer is narrow.
limbs.
The palatine bone and pterygoid are long and parallel to
the axis of the skull, the latter diverging behind and extending to the quadrate or to the articular extremity of
1 Skull
the mandible; the pterygoid is connected with the maxillary by the ectopterygoid or transverse bone, which may
be very long, and the maxillary often emits a process towards the palatine, the latter bone being usually produced
inwards and upwards towards the anterior extremity of
the basisphenoid.
The quadrate is usually large and elongate, and attached
to the cranium through the supratemporal (often regarded
as the squamosal).
In rare cases, (Miodon, Polemon) the transverse bone is
forked, and articulates with two branches of the maxilla.
The quadrate and the maxillary and palatopterygoid
arches are more or less movable to allow for the distension
required by the passage of prey, often much exceeding
the size of the mouth. For the same reason, the rami of
the lower jaw, which consist of dentary, splenial, angular,
and articular elements, with the addition of a coronoid in
the boas and a few other small families, are connected at
the symphysis by a very extensible elastic ligament.

The skull of Python reticulatus.

The skull of a snake is a very complex structure, with

numerous joints to allow the snake to swallow prey far The hyoid apparatus is reduced to a pair of cartilaginous
laments situated below the trachea, and united in front.
larger than its head.
The typical snake skull has a solidly ossied braincase, There are various modications according to the genera.
with the separate frontal bones and the united parietal A large hole may be present between the frontal bones and
bones extending downward to the basisphenoid, which the basisphenoid (Psammophis, Coelopeltis); the maxilis large and extends forward into a rostrum extending to lary may be much abbreviated and movable vertically, as
the ethmoidal region. The nose is less ossied, and the in the Viperidae; the pterygoids may taper and converge
paired nasal bones are often attached only at their base. posteriorly, without any connection with the quadrate,
The occipital condyle is either trilobate and formed by as in the Amblycephalidae; the supratemporal may be
the basioccipital and the exoccipitals, or a simple knob much reduced, and wedged in between the adjacent bones
formed by the basioccipital; the supraoccipital is ex- of the cranium; the quadrate may be short or extremely
cluded from the foramen magnum. The basioccipital may large; the prefrontals may join in a median suture in front
1

1 SKULL

of the frontals; the dentary may be freely movable, and are used to help walk the jaws over prey. While most
detached from the articular posteriorly.
snakes are not hazardous to humans, several lineages have
The deviation from the normal type is much greater still evolved venom which is typically delivered by specialized
when we consider the degraded wormlike members of teeth called fangs located on the maxilla.
the families Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, in which the
skull is very compact and the maxillary much reduced. In
the former this bone is loosely attached to the lower aspect of the cranium; in the latter it borders the mouth, and
is suturally joined to the premaxillary and the prefrontal.
In both the transverse bone and the supratemporal are absent, but the coronoid element is present in the mandible.

1.1

Most snakes can be placed into one of four groups, based

on their teeth, which correlate strongly with venom and
lineage.
1.2.1 Aglyph

Joints of the snake skull

An aglyphous snake. A Burmese python skull (Python bivittatus)

Lateral view of the skull of a Burmese python, with visible kinetic

joints labeled. Red = highly mobile, green = slightly mobile, blue
= immobile.

Red A: the joint between the mandible and quadrate. It

is analogous to the joint in mammal jaws.

Aglyphous snakes (lacking grooves) have no specialized teeth; each tooth is similar in shape and often
size. When teeth vary in size, as in some bird eaters,
they do not vary in shape. Most aglyphous snakes are
non-venomous; some, like Thamnophis, are considered
mildly venomous, but they are generally not harmful to
humans. The feature is not a synapomorphy.

Red B: the joint between the quadrate and the

supratemporal. It is highly mobile in most directions, al- 1.2.2 Opisthoglyph
lowing a wider gape (i.e., the snake can open its mouth
wider) and greater jaw exibility.
Red C: the joint between the prefrontal and maxilla. It
allows the maxilla to pivot in the plane of the photograph,
and while it does not increase gape, it does facilitate the
complex action by which the snake draws prey into its
mouth.
Green A: the joint between the frontal bone and nasal
bone. It allows the nose to upturn slightly, increasing gape
and assisting in swallowing.
Green B: allows the lower jaws to bow outwards, further
An opisthoglyphous snake. A hognose snake skull (Heterodon
increasing the gape.
nasicus)

Blue: the joint between the supratemporal and parietal.

Opisthoglyphous snakes (rearward grooves) possess
Immobile, except for Dasypeltis.
venom injected by a pair of enlarged teeth at the back
of the maxillae which normally angle backwards and are
1.2 Snake dentition
grooved to channel venom into the puncture. Since these
fangs are not located at the front of the mouth this arIn most snakes, teeth are located on the dentary of the rangement is vernacularly called rear-fanged. In order to
lower jaw, the maxilla, the palatine bone and the lateral envenomate prey, an opisthoglyphous snake must move
pterygoid plate. The latter form an inner row of teeth the prey into the rear of its mouth and then penetrate
that can move separately from the rest of the jaws and it with its fangs, presenting diculties with large prey

1.3

Taxonomic key of skull modications

although they can quickly move smaller prey (or a human handlers nger) into position. The opisthoglyphous dentition appears at least two times in the history
of snakes.[1] While the venom of most opisthoglyphous
snakes is too weak to harm humans, sometimes this is
not the case. Notably, herpetologists Karl Schmidt and
Robert Mertens were killed by a boomslang and twig
snake, respectively, after each underestimated the eects
of the bite and failed to seek medical help. Opisthoglyphous snakes are found in family Colubridae.
1.2.3

Proteroglyph

A solenoglyphous snake. A rattlesnake skull (Crotalus sp.)

them to deeply inject large quantities of venom. This

form of dentition is unique to vipers.

1.2.5 Exceptions

A proteroglyphous snake. A king cobra skull (Ophiophagus hannah)

Proteroglyphous snakes (forward grooved) have shortened maxillae bearing few teeth except for a substantially
enlarged fang pointing downwards and completely folded
around the venom channel, forming a hollow needle.
Because the fangs are only a fraction of an inch long in
even the largest species these snakes must hang on, at
least momentarily, as they inject their venom.[2] Some
spitting cobras have modied fang tips allowing them to
spray venom at an attackers eyes. This form of dentition
is unique to elapids.

1.2.4

Solenoglyph

Solenoglyphous snakes (pipe grooved) have the most

advanced venom delivery method of any snake. Each
maxilla is reduced to a nub supporting a single hollow
fang tooth. The fangs, which can be as long as half the
length of the head, are folded against the roof of the
mouth, pointing posteriorly. The skull has a series of
interacting elements which ensure that the fangs rotate
into biting position when the jaws open. Solenoglyphous
snakes open their mouths almost 180 degrees, and the
fangs swing into a position to allow them to penetrate
deep into the prey. While solenoglyph venom is typically
less toxic than that of proteroglyphs, this system allows

A few snakes do not conform to these categories.

Atractaspis is solenoglyphous but the fangs swing out
sideways, allowing it to strike without opening its
mouth, perhaps allowing it to hunt in small tunnels.
Scolecophidia (blind burrowing snakes) typically have
few teeth, often only in the upper jaw or lower jaw.

1.2.6 Informal or popular terminology

Common names for the various types of snake dentition
originate largely from older literature, but still are encountered in informal publications. Aglyphous snakes
are commonly called fangless; opisthoglyphous snakes
rear-fanged or back-fanged; and both Proteroglyphous
and Solenoglyphous snakes are referred to as frontfanged.[3][4]

1.3 Taxonomic key of skull modications

Modications of the skull in the European genera:
I. Quadrate articulating with the cranium, supratemporal absent; mandible much shorter than the skull,
with coronoid bone; maxillary small, on lower
aspect of cranium; pterygoids not extending to
quadrate; nasals forming long sutures with the premaxillary, prefrontals, and frontal: Typhlops.
II. Quadrate suspended from the supratemporal;
mandible at least as long as the skull; pterygoids extending to quadrate or mandible.

2
A. Mandible with coronoid bone; nasals
in sutural contact with frontals and prefrontals; transverse bone short, not projecting much beyond cranium; maxillary
not half as long as mandible, which is not
longer than skull (to occiput): Eryx.
B. No coronoid bone; nasals isolated.
1. Maxillary elongate, not
movable vertically.
a. Maxillary half as
long as mandible.
Supratemporal
half as long
as skull, projecting
far
beyond
cranium; mandible
much longer
than
skull:
Tropidonotus.
Supratemporal
not half as
long as skull,
projecting far
beyond
cranium; mandible
much longer
than
skull:
Zamenis.
Supratemporal
not half as
long as skull,
projecting but
slightly
beyond cranium;
mandible much
longer
than
skull: Coluber.
Supratemporal
not half as long
as skull, not
projecting beyond cranium;
mandible
not
longer
than
skull:
Coronella,
Contia.
b. Maxillary not half
as long as mandible,
which is longer than
skull; supratemporal
not half as long as
skull, projecting beyond cranium.

VERTEBRAE AND RIBS

Quadrate
longer
than
supratemporal; maxillary
much longer
than quadrate,
nearly straight
in front of
prefrontal;
a
large vacuity
between
the
frontal bones
and the basisphenoid:
Coelopeltis.
Quadrate not
longer
than
supratemporal; maxillary
little
longer
than quadrate,
strongly curved
in front of
prefrontal:Macroprotodon
Quadrate
longer
than
supratemporal; maxillary
little
longer
than quadrate,
nearly straight
in front of
prefrontal:
Tarbophis
2. Maxillary much abbreviated and erectile; supratemporal not half as long as
skull; mandible much longer
than skull; basioccipital with a
strong process.
Maxillary bone solid:
Vipera.
Maxillary bone hollow: Ancistrodon.
The vertebrae number 130 to 500 - in
the European forms
147 (Vipera ursinii)
to 330 (Coluber leopardinus).

2 Vertebrae and ribs

The vertebral column consists of an atlas (composed of
two vertebrae) without ribs; numerous precaudal vertebrae, all of which, except the rst or rst three, bear long,

5
movable, curved ribs with a small posterior tubercle at
the base, the last of these ribs sometimes forked; two to
ten so-called lumbar vertebrae without ribs, but with bifurcate transverse processes (lymphapophyses) enclosing
the lymphatic vessels; and a number of ribless caudal vertebrae with simple transverse processes. When bid, the
ribs or transverse processes have the branches regularly
superposed.
The centra have the usual ball and socket joint, with the
nearly hemispherical or transversely elliptic condyle at the
back (procoelous vertebrae), while the neural arch is provided with additional articular surfaces in the form of
pre- and post-zygapophyses, broad, attened, and overlapping, and of a pair of anterior wedge-shaped processes called zygosphene, tting into a pair of corresponding concavities, zygantrum, just below the base of
the neural spine. Thus the vertebrae of snakes articulate with each other by eight joints in addition to the
cup-and-ball on the centrum, and interlock by parts reciprocally receiving and entering one another, like the
mortise and tenon jointery. The precaudal vertebrae have
a more or less high neural spine which, as a rare exception
(Xenopholis), may be expanded and plate-like above, and
short or moderately long transverse processes to which
the ribs are attached by a single facet. The centra of the
anterior vertebrae emit more or less developed descending processes, or haemapophyses, which are sometimes
continued throughout, as in Tropidonotus, Vipera, and
Ancistrodon, among European genera.
In the caudal region, elongate transverse processes take
the place of ribs, and the haemapophyses are paired, one
on each side of the haemal canal. In the rattlesnakes the
seven or eight last vertebrae are enlarged and fused into
one.

Vestigial limbs

Skeleton of a Boelens python showing the bones inside the anal

spurs

No living snake shows any remains of the pectoral arch,

but remains of the pelvis are found in:

Boas and Pythons: a long ilium, attached to the

lower branch of the rst bifurcate transverse process of the lumbar vertebrae, bearing three short
bones, the longest of which, regarded as the femur,
terminates in a claw-like pelvic spur which usually
appears externally on each side of the cloaca.
Leptotyphlopidae: ilium, pubis, and ischium, and
rudimentary femur, the ischium forming a ventral
symphysis.
Aniliidae
Typhlopidae: a single bone on each side.

4 References
George Albert Boulenger. The Snakes Of Europe,
2nd edition. London: Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1913.
[1] Bruna Azara, C. 1995. Animales venenosos. Vertebrados terrestres venenosos peligrosos para el ser humano en
Espaa. Bol. SEA, 11: 32-40
[2] LD50 for various snakes
[3] Rose, Walter; The reptiles and amphibians of southern
Africa; Pub: Maskew Miller, 1950
[4] Engelmann, Wolf-Eberhard. Snakes (No. 05352). Publisher Bookthrift 1982. ISBN 978-0896731103

5 External links
Snake Anatomy External and Internal snake
anatomy with postmortem images.

6 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.1

Text

Snake skeleton Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake_skeleton?oldid=709012402 Contributors: The Anome, GTBacchus, Canterbury Tail, HCA, RJHall, Nickj, Wareh, Password~enwiki, Passw0rd, Anthony Appleyard, Melaen, Sciurin, Dismas, TotoBaggins,
BD2412, Bgwhite, RussBot, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Howcheng, Moe Epsilon, FelixReimann, SmackBot, Hux, Khazar, Sbmehta, Mgiganteus1, Ginkgo100, CmdrObot, AshLin, WinBot, Tapplek, R'n'B, M-le-mot-dit, Wikieditor06, Spotty11222, Sfan00 IMG, Jeayman,
Facts707, Addbot, Fyrael, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, TheAMmollusc, J04n, Craig Pemberton, Pinethicket, LittleWink, RedBot,
ZroBot, JonRicheld, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, MerscratianAce, Solomon7968, NotWith, EuroCarGT, Brtietz, Torry12, Sexybeastscotty and Anonymous: 28

6.2

Images

File:Boelens_python_anal_spurs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Boelens_python_anal_spurs.jpg

License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mokele
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File:Heterodon_nasicus_skull.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Heterodon_nasicus_skull.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Mokele (talk)
File:Ophiophagus_hannah_skull.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Ophiophagus_hannah_skull.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Mokele (talk)
File:Python_gab_fbi.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Python_gab_fbi.png License: Public domain
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File:Python_skull.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Python_skull.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Mokele (talk)
File:Snake_skeleton.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Snake_skeleton.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as 299_9983 Original artist: dbking
File:Snake_skull_joints_lateral_view.jpeg Source:
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lateral_view.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Mokele at English Wikipedia

6.3

Content license

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