CHPATER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1.
A power system consists of a few generating plants, situated close to resources, supplying
electric power to various types of loads spread out over large area, through large
complex
transmission
and
distribution
Distribution system supplies power to different loads. Thus power system network is large,
complex and very expensive.
Power Transmission
Power Distribution
Of course, we also need monitoring and control systems. So, monitoring and control systems
are essential components of a power system.
In the same year that Edisons steam-driven generators were inaugurated, a waterwheeldriven generator was installed in Appleton, Wisconsin. Since then, most electric energy has
been generated in steam-powered and in water-powered (called hydro) turbine plants. Today,
steam turbines account for more than 85% of U.S. electric energy generation, whereas hydroturbines account for about 7%. Gas turbines are used in some cases to meet peak loads.
Coal is the most widely used fuel in the United States due to its abundance in the country.
Although many of these coal-fueled power plants were converted to oil during the early 1970s,
that trend has been reversed back to coal since the 1973/74 oin embargo, which caused an
oil shortage and created a national desire to reduce dependency on foreign oil. In 2004,
approximately 50% of electricity in the United States was generated from coal.
The early ac systems operated at various frequencies including 25, 50, 60, and 133 Hz. In
1891, it was proposed that 60 Hz be the standard frequency in the United States. In 1983,
25-Hz systems were introduced with the synchronous converter. However, these systems
were used primarily for road electrification (and many are now retired), because they had
disadvantage of causing incandescent lights to flicker. In California, the Los Angeles
Department of Power and Water operated at 50 Hz, but converted to 60 Hz when power from
the Hoover Dam became operational in 1937. In 1949, Southern California Edison also
converted from 50 Hz to 60 Hz. Today, the two standard frequencies for generation,
transmission, and distribution of electric power in the world are 60 Hz (in the United States,
Canada, Japan, Brazil) and 50 Hz (in Europe, the former Soviet Republics, South America
except Brazil, India, and also Japan). The advantage of 60-Hz systems is that generators,
motors and transformers in these systems are generally smaller than 50-Hz equipment with
the same ratings. The advantage of 50-Hz systems is that transmission lines and transformers
have smaller reactances at 50 Hz than at 60 Hz.
Along with increases in load growth, there have been continuing increases in the size of
generating units. The principal incentive to build larger units has been economy of scale-that
is, a reduction in installed cost per kilowatt of capacity for larger units. However, there have
also been steady improvements in generation efficiency. For example, in 1934 the average
heat rate for steam generation in the U.S. electric industry was 17,950 BTU/kWh, which
corresponds to 19% efficiency. By the 1991, the average heat rate was 10,367 BTU/kWh,
which corresponds to 33%efficieny. These improvements in thermal efficiency due to
increases in unit size and in steam temperature and pressure, as well as to the use of steam
reheat, have resulted in savings in fuel costs and overall operating costs.
There have been continuing increases, too, in transmission voltages. From Edisons 220-V
three-wire dc grid to 4-kV single-phase and 2.3-kV three-phase transmission, ac transmission
voltages in the United \States have risen progressively to 150, 230, 345, 500, and now 765
kV. And ultra-high voltages (UHV) above 1000 kV are now being studied. The incentives for
increasing transmission voltages have been: (1) increases in transmission distance and
transmission capacity, (2) smaller line-voltage drops, (3) reduce line losses, (4) reduced
right-of-way requirements per MW transfer, and (5) lower capital and operating costs of
transmission. Today, one 765-kV three-phase line can transmit thousands of megawatts over
hundreds of kilometers.
In 1954, the first modern high-voltage dc (HVDC) transmission line was put into operation in
Sweden between Vastervik and the island of Gotland in the Baltic sea; it operated at 100 kV
for a distance of 100 km. The first HVDC line in the US was the 400-kV, 1360-km Pacific
Intertie line installed between Oregon and California in 1970. As of 2000, four other HVDC
lines up to 400 kV and five back-to-back ac-dc links had been installed in the United States,
and a total of 30 HVDC lines up to 533 kV had been installed worldwide.
For an HVDC line embedded in an ac system, solid-state converters at both ends ot the dc
line operate as rectifiers and inverters. Since the cost of an HVDC transmission line is less
than that of an ac line with the same capacity, the additional cost of converters for dc
transmission is offset when the line is long enough. Studies have shown that overhead HVDC
transmiision is economical in the United States for transmission distances longer than about
600 km.
In the United States, electric utilities grew first as isolated systems, with new ones continously
starting up throught the country. Gradually, however, neighbouring electric utilities began to
interconnect, to operate in parallel. This improved both reliability and economy. An
interconnected has has many agvantages. An interconnected utility can draw upon anothers
rotating generator reserves during a time of need (such as a sudden generator outage or load
increase), thereby maintaining continuity of service, increasing reliability, and reducing the
total generators that need to be kept running under no-load conditions. Also, interconnected
utilities can schedule power transfers during normal periods to take advantage of energy-cost
differences in respective areas, load diversity, time zone differences, and seasonal conditions.
For example, utilities whose generation is primarily hydro can supply low-cost power during
high-water periods in spring/summer, and can receive power from the interconnection during
low-water periods in fall/winter. Interconnection also allow shared ownership of larger, more
efficient generating units.
While sharing the benefits of interconneted operation, each utility is obliged to help neighbors
who are in trouble, to maintain scheduled intertie transfers during normal periods, and to
participate in system frequency regulation.
1.3.
As electric utilities have grown in size and the number of interconnections has increased,
planning
for future expansion has become increasingly complex. The increasing cost of
additions and modifications has made it imperative that utilities consider a r range of design
options, and perform detailed studies of the effects on the system of each option, based on a
number of assumptions: normal and abnormal operating conditions, peak and off-peak
loadings, and present and future years of operation. A large volume of network data must
also be collected and accurately handled. To assist the engineer in this power system planning,
digital computers and highly developed computer programs are used. Such programs include
power-flow, stability, short-circuit, and transient programs.
Power-flow programs compute the voltage magnitudes, phase angles, and transmission-line
power flows for a network under steady-state operating conditions. Other results including
transformer tap settings and generator reactive power outputs, are also computed. Todays
computers have sufficient storage and speed to efficiently compute power-flow solutions for
networks with 100,000 buses and 150,000 transmission lines. High-speed printers the print
out the complete solution in tabular form for analysis by the planning engineer. Also available
are interactive power flow programs, whereby power-flow results are displayed on computer
screens in the form of single line diagrams; the engineer use these to modify the network
with a mouse or from a keyboard and can readily visualize the results. The computers large
storage and high-speed capabilities allow the engineer to run the many different cases
necessary to analyze and design transmission and generation expansion options.
Stability programs are used to study power systems under disturbance conditions to
determine whether the synchronous generators and motors remain synchronism. System
disturbances can be caused by the sudden loss of a generator or transmission line, by sudden
load increases or decreases, and by short circuits and switching operations. The stability
program combines power-flow equations and machine-dynamic equations to compute the
angular swings of machines during disturbances. The program also computes critical clearing
times for network faults, and allows the engineer to investigate the effects of various machine
parameters, network modifications, disturbance types, and control schemes.
Short-circuits programs are used to compute three-phase and line-to-ground faults in power
system networks in order to select circuit breakers for fault interruption, select relays that
detect faults and control circuit breakers, and determine relay settings. Short-circuit currents
are computed for each relay and circuit breaker location, and for various system-operating
conditions such as lines or generating units out of service, in order to determine minimum
and maximum fault currents.
Transients programs compute the magnitudes and shapes of transient overvoltages and
currents that result from lightning strikes and line-switching operations. The planning
engineer uses the results of a transients program to determine insulation requirements for
lines, transformers, and other equipment, and to select surge arresters that protect
equipment against transient overvoltages.
The system control function traditionally used in electric utility operation consists of three
main integrated subsystems: the energy management system (EMS), the Supervisory control
10
and data acquisition (SCADA), and the communications interconnecting the EMS and the
SCADA (which is often thought of as part of the SCADA itself).
1.4.1.
SCADA
There are two parts to the term SCADA. Supervisory control indicates that the operator,
residing in the energy control center (ECC), has the ability to control remote equipment. Data
acquisition indicates that information is gathered characterizing the state of the remote
equipment and sent to the ECC for monitoring purposes.
The monitoring equipment is normally located in the substations and is consolidated in what
is known as the remote terminal unit (RTU). Generally, the RTUs are equipped with
microprocessors having memory and logic capability, together with some form of telemetry
to provide the communication link to the ECC.
Relays located within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open or close selected control
circuits to perform a supervisory action. Such actions may include, for example, opening or
closing of a circuit breaker or switch, modifying a transformer tap setting, raising or lowering
generator MW output or terminal voltage, switching in or out a shunt capacitor or inductor,
and the starting or stopping of a synchronous condenser.
Information gathered by the RTU and communicated to the ECC includes both analog
information and status indicators. Analog information includes, for example, frequency,
voltages, currents, and real and reactive power flows. Status indicators include alarm signals
(over-temperature, low relay battery voltage, illegal entry) and whether switches and circuit
breakers are open or closed. Such information is provided to the ECC through a periodic scan
of all RTUs. A 2 second scan cycle is typical.
1.4.2.
Communication technologies
The form of communication required for SCADA is telemetry. Telemetry is the measurement
of a quantity in such a way so as to allow interpretation of that measurement at a distance
from the primary detector. The distinctive feature of telemetry is the nature of the translating
means, which includes provision for converting the measure into a representative quantity of
another kind that can be transmitted conveniently for measurement at a distance. The actual
distance is irrelevant. Telemetry may be analog or digital. In analog telemetry, a voltage,
current, or frequency proportional to the quantity being measured is developed and
transmitted on a communication channel to the receiving location, where the received signal
11
is applied to a meter calibrated to indicate the quantity being measured, or it is applied directly
to a control device such as a ECC computer.
Forms of analog telemetry include variable current, pulse-amplitude, pulse-length, and
pulse-rate, with the latter two being the most common. In digital telemetry, the quantity
being measured is converted to a code in which the sequence of pulses transmitted indicates
the quantity. One of the advantages to digital telemetering is the fact that accuracy of data
is not lost in transmitting the data from one location to another. Digital telemetry requires
analog to digital (A/D) and possible digital to analog (D/A) converters, as illustrated in Fig. 4.
The earliest form of signal circuit used for SCADA telemetry consisted of twisted pair wires;
although simple and economic for short distances, it suffers from reliability problems due to
breakage, water ingress, and ground potential risk during faults.
Improvements over twisted pair wires came in the form of what is now the most common,
traditional type of telemetry mediums based on leased-wire, power-line carrier, or microwave.
These are voice grade forms of telemetry, meaning they represent communication channels
suitable for the transmission of speech, either digital or analog, generally with a frequency
range of about 300 to 3000 Hz.
Leased-wire means use of a standard telephone circuit; this is a convenient and
straightforward means of telemetry when it is available, although it can be unreliable, and it
requires a continual outlay of leasing expenditures. In addition, it is not under user control
and requires careful coordination between the user and the telephone company. Power-line
carrier (PLC) offers an inexpensive and typically more reliable alternative to leased-wire. Here,
the transmission circuit itself is used to modulate a communication signal at a frequency much
greater than the 60/50 Hz power frequency. Most PLC occurs at frequencies in the range of
30-500 kHz. The security of PLC is very high since the communication equipment is located
12
inside the substations. One disadvantage of PLC is that the communication cannot be made
through open disconnects, i.e., when the transmission line is outaged. Often, this is precisely
the time when the communication signal is needed most. In addition, PLC is susceptible to
line noise and requires careful signal-to-noise ratio analysis. Most PLC is strictly analog
although digital PLC has become available from a few suppliers during the last few years.
Microwave radio refers to ultra-high-frequency (UHF) radio systems operating above 1 GHz.
The earliest microwave telemetry was strictly analog, but digital microwave communication
is now quite common for EMS/SCADA applications. This form of communication has
obvious advantages over PLC and leased wire since it requires no physical conducting medium
and therefore no right-of-way. However, line of sight clearance is required in order to ensure
reliable communication, and therefore it is not applicable in some cases.
A more recent development has concerned the use of fiber optic cable, a technology capable
of extremely fast communication speeds. Although cost was originally prohibitive, it has now
decreased to the point where it is viable. Fiber optics may be either run inside underground
power cables or they may be fastened to overhead transmission line towers just below the
lines. They may also be run within the shield wire suspended above the transmission lines.
Additional communication technologies include use of satellites, VHF and UHF radio, spread
spectrum radio, and internet/intranet systems.
One easily sees that communication engineering is very important to power system control.
Students specializing in power and energy systems should strongly consider taking
communications courses to have this background. Students specializing in communication
should consider taking power systems courses as an application area.
1.4.3.
The EMS is a software system. Most utility companies purchase their EMS from one or
more EMS vendors. These EMS vendors are companies specializing in design, development,
installation, and maintenance of EMS within ECCs. There are a number of EMS vendors in
the U.S., and they hire many power system engineers with good software development
capabilities.
During the time period of the 1970s through about 2000, almost all EMS software
applications were developed for installation on the control centers computers. An attractive
alternative today is, however, the application service provider, where the software resides on
the vendors computer and control center personnel access it from the Internet. Benefits
13
from this arrangement include application flexibility and reliability in the software system and
reduced installation cost.
The EMS consists of 4 major functions: network model building (including topology processing
and state estimation), security assessment, automatic generation control, and dispatch.
These functions are described in more detail in the following subsections.
connections
between
substations,
rather
than
the
precise
bus-section
14
The impedances of all network elements are stored in an EMS database, and this information,
when combined with the output of the topology processor, is enough to establish the system
topology.
State Estimation: Given the topology of the system, it still remains to determine the operating
conditions, i.e., the bus voltages, load levels, and generation levels. At first glance, this
appears to be an easy problem just take the corresponding information from the SCADA.
However, one must recognize the reality of data unavailability and of data error.
Data unavailability comes from two sources. First, there may be some substations that have
no SCADA. Second, there may be some substation RTUs or telemetry systems that are
unavailable due to maintenance or unexpected trouble.
Data error comes from the fact that all analog measurement devices contain some
measurement error. Typically this error is small for any single device, but the use of many
thousands of devices, each having small error, can result in significant inaccuracy in regards
to the overall system analysis. The state estimator is a program that receives the SCADA
measurement information and then uses statistical procedures to obtain the very best
estimate of the actual state of the system. The result of state estimation is a power flow model
that can be used for security assessment.
15
16
power flowing out of each bus and therefore, its optimal solutions are more realistic. More
important, it offers the capability
electrical
constraints on the system economic operation. The security constrained aspect of the SCED
accounts for flow constraints imposed by security considerations identified through
contingency analysis.
17
Stability Studies
Transient Studies
18
1. Power Generation
These are the station responsible for power generation and most of the time the are located
near the resources. We can classify them into two:
i.
ii.
19
Non-renewable: Thermal power plants that use fossil fuel (coal, oil natural gas) and
nuclear power plants
20
Subtransmission
Subtransmission is part of an electric power transmission system that runs at relatively
lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to the high main
transmission voltage, because the equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only
21
larger substations connect with this high voltage. It is stepped down and sent to smaller
substations in towns and neighborhoods.
There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and
distribution. The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV and 138 kV
are often used for subtransmission in North America.
N.B: Most of the time voltages from 66 to 132 kV are classified as subtransmission voltage
levels.
3. Distribution network
An electric power distribution system is the final stage in the delivery of electric
power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers.
The distribution system is responsible for the conveyance of the bulk power in the
transmission to the consumers with lower voltage networks.
To distribute the electric power among the consumers (usually using MV overhead
lines)
Distribution substations step-down the transmission voltage level to lower voltage
levels (suitable for the loads/consumers.
Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the
transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV (e.g. 12
kV, 13.8 kV, 15 kV, 6.6 kV, etc) with the use of transformers. Primary distribution
lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the
customer's premises.
Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage of
household appliances, shopping centers, and other local loads and typically feed
several customers through secondary distribution lines at this voltage (380 or 400
V). Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary
distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger
amount of power (like large industrial plants) may be connected directly to the
primary distribution level or the sub-transmission (secondary transmission) level.
For example Messobo Cement factory is supplied by the 132 kV sub-transmission
like.
Most of the distribution networks operate radially for less short circuit current and
better protective coordination.
22
23
General layout of electricity networks. The voltages and loadings are typical of a European
network.
24
25
4. Power Consumption
Electrical substation
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system.
Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several
other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may
flow through several substations at different voltage levels.
Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be owned by a large
industrial or commercial customer.
Elements of a substation
Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment, and transformers.
In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short circuits or overload
currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use recloser circuit
breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits. Substations themselves do not usually
have generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby. Other devices such
26
Prepared by G/Tsadik Teklay (M.Sc. in Electrical Power Engineering, Adigrat University), September 2015
as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation (Voltage regulators
to raise or lower the distribution voltage as required).
.
Elements of a substation A:Primary power lines' side B:Secondary power lines' side
1.Primary power lines 2.Ground wire 3.Overhead lines 4.Transformer for measurement of
electric voltage 5.Disconnect switch 6.Circuit breaker 7.Current transformer 8.Lightning
arrester 9.Main transformer 10.Control building 11.Security fence 12.Secondary power lines
Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in specialpurpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor
substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from the transformers, for
reasons of appearance, or to protect switchgear from extreme climate or pollution conditions.
Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded to protect people from
high voltages that may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can
cause a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earth's surface during a fault can cause
metal objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground under a person's feet;
this touch potential presents a hazard of electrocution.
Types
Substations may be described by their voltage class, their applications within the power
system, the method used to insulate most connections, and by the style and materials of the
structures used. These categories are not disjointed; to solve a particular problem, a
transmission substation may include significant distribution functions, for example.
Transmission substation
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest
case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation
contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault
27
Distribution substation
A distribution substation are used to reduce voltage levels of transmission and subtransmission systems to distribution level. This allows power to be delivered by
distribution lines/feeders to distribution transformers that further reduce the voltage
to a level useable by the customer. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity
consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power,
so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub
transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV or 132 kV, or whatever
is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are
typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV depending on the size of the area
served and the practices of the local utility. The feeders run along streets overhead
(or underground, in some cases) and power the distribution transformers at or near
the customer premises (industrial, commercial, and residential customers).
Figure IV-6 shows a relatively small electric distribution substation that reduces Unitils
34.5 kV sub-transmission voltage to 13.8 kV, which is then distributed to industrial,
commercial, and residential customers).
28
29
30
31
Consider
The generator voltage is around 11 to 33 kV. This relatively low voltage is not appropriate for
the transmission of energy over long distances. At the generating station a transformer is
used to increase the voltage and reduce the current. In Fig. above the voltage is increased to
500 kV and an extra-high -voltage (EHV) line transmits the generator-produced energy to a
32
distant substation. Such substations are located on the outskirts of large cities or in the center
of several large loads. As an example, in Arizona, a 500-kV transmission line connects the
Palo Verde Nuclear Station to the Kyrene and West wing substations, which supply a large
part of the city of Phoenix.
The voltage is reduced at the 500 kV/220 kV EHV substation to the high-voltage level and hig
h-voltage lines transmit the energy to high-voltage substations located within cities. At the
high-voltage substation the voltage is reduced to 69 kV. Sub-transmission lines connect the
high-voltage substation to many local distribution stations located within cities. Subtransmission lines are frequently located along major streets.
The voltage is reduced to 12 kV at the distribution substation. Several distribution lines
emanate from each distribution substation as overhead or underground lines. Distribution
lines distribute the energy along streets and alleys. Each line supplies several step-down
transformers distributed along the line. The distribution transformer reduces the voltage to
230/115 V, which supplies houses, shopping centers, and other local loads. The large
industrial plants and factories are supplied directly by a sub-transmission line or a dedicated
distribution line as shown in the Fig. above.
The overhead transmission lines are used in open areas such as interconnections between
cities or along w ide roads within the city. In congested areas within cities, underground cables
are used for electric energy transmission. The underground transmission system is
environmentally preferable but has a signicantly higher cost. In Fig .above the 12-kV line is
connected to a 12-kV cable which supplies commercial or industrial customers. The gure also
shows 12-kV cable networks supplying downtown areas in a large city. Most newly developed
residential areas are supplied by 12-kV cables through pad-mounted step-down transformers
as shown in the Figure.
33
equipment, but it is a common convention to organize the diagram with the same left-to-right,
top-to-bottom sequence as the switchgear or other apparatus represented. A one-line
diagram can also be used to show a high level view of conduit runs for a PLC control systems.
34
35
36
The power distribution in both ICS and SCS is effected at primary voltage of 33 kV and 15
kV lines and step down to 380 V and 220 V of customer's level.
Electricity Generation
System
installed capacity4,130.7 MW
Hydropower
3,909.4 MW ((94%)
Wind
171 MW (4%)
Geothermal
7.3 MW (0.177%)
Diesel stand by
43 MW (1%)
37
38
Hydropower Plants
Capacity (MW)
Koka
42.00
Awash II
32.00
Awash III
32.00
39
Finchaa
134.00
97.00
Melka Wakena
153.00
Tis Abay I
11.40
Tis Abay II
73.00
Gilegel Gibe I
210.00
11
Dire Dawa
40.00
12
Awash 7 killo
35.00
13
Tekeze
300.00
14
Gilgel Gibe II
420.00
15
Beles
460.00
16
1870 (completed by
june 18, 2015)
Hydro plants
1
2
Genale III
Grand Renaissance
Wind Farms
Adama II
Installed
Capacity (MW)
Average Energy
(GWh/yr)
254
6000
1,200
15,700
153
479
40
41
Gilgel Gibe II
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Intake:
50
Power House
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
Transmission Line
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
The corporation has two electric energy supply systems: the Interconnected
System (ICS) and the Self Contained System (SCS). The main energy source of ICS is
Hydro power plants and for the SCS mini hydro's and diesel power generators
allocated in various areas of the country.
Tekeze
The powerhouse contains four 75 MW (101,000 hp) turbines,[2] generating 300 MW (400,000 hp) of
electricity. A 105 kilometres (65 mi) transmission line connects it to the national grid at Mek'ele.
At the time of its completion, the 188 metres (617 ft) Tekez Dam was Africa's largest arch
dam.
[1]
65
An energy management system (EMS) is a system of computer-aided tools used by operators of electric
utility grids to monitor, control, and optimize the performance of the generation and/or transmission
system. This monitor and control functions are known as SCADA; the optimization packages are often
referred to as "advanced applications".
Distribution System
In this report, the distribution system will be defined as that portion of the
electric system extending from the distribution substation to the end
customer, including the customers meter. The portion of the electric system
from the secondary (low voltage) side of the distribution transformer to the
customer meter is normally referred to as a service or service drop.
Distribution poles in New Hampshire are typically jointly owned by
the local electric utility and the local telephone company to minimize the
number of poles needed to provide both services. Distribution poles may also
be used to support electric equipment, street lighting, cable TV lines, fiber
optic lines, and municipal alarm and communication lines. A considerable
amount of electric and communications material may be attached to a single
66
pole.