1c Compartment Fire Development

1.
Fundamentals of fire and fire safety
Compartment fire development

Fire: combustion characterised by production of heat, smoke and light. It is extensively
used by mankind.
Compartment fire: fire that develops uncontroled in a building compartment. It is a
serious hazard.
In most compartment fires, 4 phases can be observed, sometimes less:
1. Initial phase: A heat source set some combustible material on fire. The size of the
fire increases gently. The average temperature in the compartment remains low.
The structure is not challenged.
2. Flash-over: the whole compartment becomes suddently engulfed in flames. The
temperature increases very rapidly. The conditions become untenable.
3. Stabilised phase. The combustion of all combustible materials develops. The

temperature increases slightly.
4. Cooling down phase. As most of the material has been consumed, the intensity of
the fire decreases and the temperature progressively drops down to ambiant.
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J-M Franssen & T. Gernay
1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety
(*)
Phase 1
Phase 1
Phases 2 and 3
TEMPERATURE
Initial
phase
(*)
Fully engulfed
compartent
Cooling down phase
(*) Flash-over
TIME
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Back from the beginning.
Except in rare cases (arson, explosion, liquid fires), a fire in a compartment is

normally localised (it is of small size).
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By the process described for solid combustion, the initial flame heats the materials
located nearby, these start to pyrolyse, then to burn themselves. The fire propagates as if
there is a need for the flame to touch adjacent material to set it on fire.
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Fire plume: Because of buoyancy, the hot combustion products rise in the
surrounding cold air forming what is called the plume. This mass flow is not linear; it
is turbulent. Because of that, cold air in progressively entrained in the plume. At a
given moment, the mass flow is more and more diluted with increasing elevation,
which makes the temperature lower and lower. The velocity profile is maximum
along the centreline of the plume.
The model of Heskestad allows calculating
the length of the visible flame as well as
the temperature along the centreline of
the plume,
see Eq. C.1 to C.3 of EN 1991-1-2:
T = f(z, Q, D)
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The gases in the plume rise to the ceiling where they can be evacuated immediately if
there is an exhaust system (active or passive) and the plume is in a compartment with
vertical extension (atrium, staircase, elevator shaft)
In horizontally developed compartments, the plume hits the ceiling and the mass
flow is horizontal and radial, underneath the ceiling, with limited thickness, forming
what is called the ceiling jet.
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This ceiling jet is responsible for the activation of the heat and/or smoke detectors
that are, for this reason, located underneath the ceiling.
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The model of Hasemi allows calculating the length of the horizontal flame
underneath the ceiling as well as the heat flux received by the ceiling as a
function of the distance r from the centreline of the plume,
see Eq. C.4 to C.9 of EN 1991-1-2: hnet = f(H, Q, D, r)
r
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The ceiling jet hits the walls of the compartment and the combustion products accumulate
underneath the ceiling.
A clear distinction is visible in the compartment between 2 zones:
1) The upper zone, containing combustion products (elevated temperature, low visibility
and high toxicity);
2) The lower zone, containing air (low temperature, good visibility, breathable).
In simple models (zone models), the temperature is considered as uniform in each zone.
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Two zones situation developed in the fire resistance lab of ULg during a fire resistance test
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From here, the evolution of the situation can follow different path depending on the
amount of openings and the type of fuel.
1) There is no significant opening in the compartment

The hot zone fills the compartment completely, while the localised fire consumes the
oxygen that is present in the compartment.
When all oxygen has been consumed, combustion stops.
But, because the temperature of burning items is still high, pyrolysis continues in these
items, releasing significant amount of combustible gases.
1) a.
No new opening is created in the compartment.
The temperature slowly decreases, from heat loss to and through the boundaries of the
compartment and the fire eventually dies down.
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1) a.
No new opening is created in the compartment.
1) b.
A new opening is created in the compartment (a door is opened)
Fresh air enters in the compartment, flowing on the floor (gravity current) while, at the
same time, the same volume of combustible gases is expulsed outside the
compartment.
The gravity current has a turbulent front. Fresh air and combustible gases mix at the
front.
The flammable mix reaches an amber present in the compartment.
A deflagration occurs, with expansion of the burnt gases, mixing of air and combustible
gases in the compartment, the deflagration involves the whole compartment and
extends outside of it, creating a lethal hazard for fire fighters present in the vicinity
(destabilizing fast gas current + burns). This deflagration is called a backdraft.
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Schmatic illustration of a backdraft

Sapeur Pompiers dIll et Gresbach, Formation de base FIA des Sapeurs Pompiers
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Video of backdrafts to be shown.
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Initial, localized fire

2 zones situation
NO
Significant openings
Compartment filled with

combustible products
NO
New opening
created
Fire dies down
2 zones situation
YES
NO
Large openings
Air controlled fire

2016/2017
Localised fire
source
YES
Localized, fuel
controlled fire
Flash over
BACKDRAFT
NO
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YES
YES
Fuel controlled fire

University of Liege

2) There are significant openings in the compartment.
The two zone situation will remain for a certain duration. The thickness of the hot zone
increases until a mass equilibrium is established between outgoing hot gases and incoming
fresh air.
Because of the difference in density, outhoing hot gases occupy approximately 2/3 of the
surface of the openings.
The temperature in the hot zone increases progressively because:
1. The temperature at the surface of the boundaries (ceiling, walls) increases, which
reduces the heat transfer to these boundaries.
2. Less cold air is entrained in the plume as the distance from the fire source to the
hot zone reduces.
The property of the boundaries that drives the heat transfer

at the surface is =
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a. The fire source is localised (one car in a car park)
The most likely development is that the fire will remain localised, with the severity of the
fire depending on the type and arrangement of the combustible materials involved. The
fire is said to be fuel controlled.
In some cases, flash over can occur involving other goods that are not in the vicinity of the
fire source, see 2 b.
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a. The fire source is localized (one car in a car park)
b. The combustible material is distributed
The hot zone radiates to combustible goods, even if they are not in the vicinity of the
fire source.
As the interface between the hot and the cold zone descends and as the temperature
of the hot zone increases, the intensity of this radiation increases.
The temperature at the surface of the combustible goods increases.
Pyrolysis begins.
Combustible gases released from these goods start burning, adding more energy in the
compartment, the temperature of the hot gas increases, and all combustible materials
in the compartment are involved within a few seconds. The compartment is said to be
fully engulfed (1 zone with a temperature considered as uniform). This rapid transition
to a completely untenable condition is called flash over.
The order of magnitude of the temperature of the hot zone that
leads to flash over is around 500C
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Video of flash over to be shown.
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flash over has occurred.

i) enough air is entering through the openings. Each molecule of combustible gas
produced can find the required number of molecules of oxygen to burn in the
compartment. The fire is said to be fuel controlled.
ii) not enough air is entering the compartment. The amount of molecules that can
burn in the compartment depend on the amount of air that enters the
compartment through the openings. The fire is said to be air controlled.
- Some combustible gases find oxygen and burn outside the compartment (external
flaming).
- The pyrolysis is slowed down (extended fire duration)
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The most intense and severe fires are for stoichiometric conditions.
The parameter representing the efficiency of one vertical opening

for venting a fire is
The parameter representing the efficient of all vertical openings
of a compartment for venting a is = / At
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Combustible goods in the compartment are progressively being consumed and the
fire decreases in intensity to eventually die down when there is no combustible
material left.
It is considered that the decreasing phase of a fire starts when

approximately 70% of combustible material has been consumed
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1c Compartment Fire Development

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1.

Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

3. Stabilised phase. The combustion of all combustible materials develops. The

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

Cooling down phase

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

Except in rare cases (arson, explosion, liquid fires), a fire in a compartment is

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

1) There is no significant opening in the compartment

No new opening is created in the compartment.

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

No new opening is created in the compartment.

A new opening is created in the compartment (a door is opened)

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

Schmatic illustration of a backdraft

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Initial, localized fire

Compartment filled with

Fire dies down

Air controlled fire

Fuel controlled fire

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

The property of the boundaries that drives the heat transfer

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development

J-M Franssen & T. Gernay

1. Fundamentals of fire and fire safety

Compartment fire development