1)

Satyagraha
Truth (satya) implies love, and firmness (agraha) engenders and therefore serves as a synonym
for force. I thus began to call the Indian movement Satyagraha, that is to say, the Force which is
born of Truth and Love or non-violence, and gave up the use of the phrase passive resistance,
in connection with it, so much so that even in English writing we often avoided it and used
instead the word satyagraha itself or some other equivalent English phrase.[7]
Gandhiji said Satyagraha was not passive resistance but it called for intensive activity. Physical
force was not used against the oppressor, nor vengeance was sought. Only through the power of
truth and non-violence, an appeal was made to the conscience of the oppressor. Persuasion, not
force, would make the oppressor realise the truth. This dharma of non-violence and truth united
people against the oppressor and made them realise the truth.
(a) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Ans. April 13, 1919 will be a date never forgotten by Indians those who were present and
those who will come later. Generations will talk about the infamous, brutal massacre at
Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. Hundreds of villagers had come to Amritsar to celebrate Baisakhi
and attend a fair. They were totally unaware of the martial law, which General Dyer had imposed
on the city because of the hartal observed on April 6 against the Rowlatt Act. On 10 April the
police had fired upon a peaceful procession, which had provoked widespread attacks on banks,
post offices and railway stations.
General Dyer entered the area where a peaceful meeting was going on in Jallianwalla Bagh. He
blocked all the exit points and ordered his troops to fire upon the unarmed people. His object was
to create terror and awe in the minds of the satyagrahis and produce a moral effect. Hundreds
of innocent people were killed, some were drowned as they jumped into a well to escape bullets.
The mass murder was not enough; the government used brutal repression to crush people who
rose in anger after this massacre. The satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses in the dirt, crawl
on the streets and Salaam all Sahibs. People were mercilessly flogged and in some villages
bombs were also used (Gujranwala in Punjab). It was the most shameful act in the history of
British rule in India.
b) Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha
The first Satyagraha movements inspired by Mahatma Gandhi occurred in Champaran district
of Bihar and the Kheda district ofGujarat on 1917 to 1918. Champaran Satyagraha was the first
to be started, but the word Satyagraha was used for the first time in Anti Rowlatt Act agitation.
Champaran, is a district in the state of Bihar, tens of thousands of landless serfs, indentured
labourers and poor farmers were forced to grow indigo (poppy/opium) and similar cash crops by
the British East India company and subsequently, the British government in colonized India. The
farmers and labourers were forced to grow indigo instead of food crops which were necessary for
their survival. This indigo was bought from them at a very low price to export to China as opium.
[1]

Suppressed by the ruthless militias of the landlords (mostly British), they were given measly
compensation, leaving them in extreme poverty. Now in the throes of a devastating famine, the
British levied a harsh tax which they insisted on increasing the rate. Without food and without
money, the situation was growing progressively unlivable and the peasants in Champaran
revolted against conditions in indigo plant cultivation in 1914 (at Pipra) and in 1916 at
(Turkaulia). Raj Kumar Shukla, an indigo cultivator, persuaded Mahatma Gandhi to go
to Champaran and thus, the Champaran Satyagraha began. Gandhi ji arrived in Champaran 10
April 1917 with a team of [2] eminent lawyers:[3] Brajkishore Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah
Narayan Sinha [4] and others including Acharya Kripalani.[5]
Gandhi proposed satyagraha - non-violence, mass civil disobedience. Gandhi also insisted that
neither the protestors in Bihar nor in Gujarat allude to or try to propagate the concept of Swaraj
(freedom)or Independence. This was not about political independence, but a revolt against harsh
conditions amidst a humanitarian disaster. While accepting participants and help from other parts
of India, Gandhi insisted that no other district or province revolt against the Government, and
that the Indian National Congress not get involved apart from issuing resolutions of support, to
prevent the British from giving it cause to use extensive suppressive measures and brand the
revolts as treason.[citation needed]
In Champaran[edit]
Gandhi established an ashram in Champaran (Bihar), organising scores of his veteran supporters
and fresh volunteers from the region. His handpicked team of eminent lawyers
comprising [6] Dr.Rajendra Prasad, Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha & Babu Brajkishore Prasad
organised a detailed study and survey of the villages, accounting the atrocities and terrible
episodes of suffering, including the general state of degenerate living.
Building on the confidence of villagers, he began leading the clean-up of villages, building of
schools and hospitals and encouraging the village leadership to undo purdah, untouchability and
the suppression of women. He was joined by many young nationalists from all over India,
including Brajkishore Prasad, Rajendra Prasad,Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Acharya Kriplani,Ram
Navami Prasad and later Jawaharlal Nehru.
But his main assault came as he was arrested by police on the charge of creating unrest and was
ordered to leave the province. Hundreds of thousands of people protested and rallied outside the
jail, police stations and courts demanding his release, which the court unwillingly did. Gandhi
led organised protests and strike against the landlords, who with the guidance of the British
government, signed an agreement granting more compensation and control over farming for the
poor farmers of the region, and cancellation of revenue hikes and collection until the famine
ended. It was during this agitation, that Gandhi was addressed by the people as Bapu (Father)
and Mahatma (Great Soul).

In Kheda[edit]

Gandhi in 1918, when he led the Kheda Satyagraha.

In Gujarat, Gandhi was chiefly the spiritual head of the struggle. His chief lieutenant, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel and a close coterie of devoted Gandhians, namely Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal
Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas toured the countryside, organised the villagers and gave them
political leadership and direction. Many aroused Gujaratis from the cities
of Ahmedabadand Vadodara joined the organizers of the revolt, but Gandhi and Patel resisted the
involvement of Indians from other provinces, seeking to keep it a purely Gujarati struggle.
Patel and his colleagues organised a major tax revolt, and all the different ethnic and caste
communities of Kheda rallied around it. The peasants of Kheda signed a petition calling for the
tax for this year to be scrapped in wake of the famine. The government in Bombay rejected the
charter. They warned that if the peasants did not pay, the lands and property would be
confiscated and many arrested. And once confiscated, they would not be returned even if most
complied. None of the villages flinched.
The tax withheld, the government's collectors and inspectors sent in thugs to seize property and
cattle, while the police forfeited the lands and all agrarian property. The farmers did not resist
arrest, nor retaliate to the force employed with violence. Instead, they used their cash and
valuables to donate to the Gujarat Sabha which was officially organising the protest.
The revolt was astounding in terms of discipline and unity. Even when all their personal property,
land and livelihood were seized, a vast majority of Kheda's farmers remained firmly united in the
support of Patel. Gujaratis sympathetic to the revolt in other parts resisted the government
machinery, and helped to shelter the relatives and property of the protesting peasants. Those

Indians who sought to buy the confiscated lands were ostracised from society. Although
nationalists like Sardul Singh Caveeshar called for sympathetic revolts in other parts, Gandhi and
Patel firmly rejected the idea.
The Government finally sought to foster an honourable agreement for both parties. The tax for
the year in question, and the next would be suspended, and the increase in rate reduced, while all
confiscated property would be returned.
People also worked in cohesion to return the confiscated lands to their rightful owners. The ones
who had bought the lands seized were influenced to return them, even though the British had
officially said it would stand by the buyers.

Ahmedabad Mill strike :

heavy monsoon season had destroyed agricultural crops and led to a plague epidemic claiming
nearly 10 percent of the population of Ahmedabad in 1917. During the period of intense plague
outbreak from August 1917 to January 1918, the workers of the textile mills in Ahmedabad were
given plague bonuses (some of which were as much as 80 percent of the workers wage) in an
attempt to dissuade the workers from fleeing during an outbreak of a plague. However, when the
employers announced their intent to discontinue the plague bonuses as the plague epidemic
subsided in January 1918, workers demanded dearness (cost of living) allowances of 50
percent of their wages on the July salaries in order to sustain their livelihood during the times of
wartime inflation (which doubled the prices of food-grains, cloth, and other necessities) caused
by Britains involvement in World War I. The relations between the workers and the mill owners
soured as the striking workers were arbitrarily dismissed and the mill owners resolved to start
recruiting weavers from Bombay.
The frustrated workers of the mill turned to Anusuyya Sarabhai, a social worker who was also
the sister of the president of the Ahmedabad Mill Owners Association (founded 1891 to develop
the textile industry in Ahmedabad), for help in fighting for economic justice. Anusuyya soon
urged Mohandas Gandhi, who was respected by the mill owners and workers, to intervene and
help resolve the impasse between the workers and the employers. Gandhi proposed an arbitration
board comprised of three representatives from each side to engage in dialogues to resolve the
issue. Though both sides had agreed to this arbitration and chosen their representatives, the mill
owners refused to partake in the first meeting when the laborers struck work. The strike had been
prompted by the laborers anticipation of a lock-out in all the mills, but nonetheless, Gandhi
apologized to the mill owners for the ill timing of the strike.
Despite Gandhis readiness to correct the mistakes of his side and urge for the mill owners to
return to the arbitration process, the first attempt to use arbitration failed because of the distrust

between the sides of the conflict. On February 22, 1918, the mill owners staged a lock-out of the
mills and announced that they would only invite back the workers who accepted the 20 percent
increase in wages. Some of the workers accepted this offer, but Gandhi urged the workers to stay
firm in demanding economic justice. After analyzing the conditions of the textile industry,
comparing the wages in Bombay, analyzing the economic effects of Britains war, and observing
the living conditions of the workers, Gandhi calculated a 35 percent increase in wages to be a
just demand that the industry could also economically support. Before proposing the new
demand to the laborers, Gandhi asked the mill owners about their opinions to no avail.
Though the workers were persuaded to accept the new, moderated demand of 35 percent increase
in wages, the employers did not make any concessions. Gandhi and the workers pledged to God
to behave peacefully and to not return to work until their demand was met. Daily public meetings
and instructive leaflets reminded and educated the workers about the principles and significance
of their struggle. In response, the mill owners issued counter-propaganda leaflets in order to try
to diminish the workers morale in the strike. Gandhi shared stories of the Indians struggles
against discrimination in South Africa to inspire the laborers in India. Songs and verses were
composed daily by the workers (many of whom were illiterate) and attracted the attention of the
local population. Gandhi along with other leaders like Anusuyya offered continued assistance to
the workers in advising and training the laborers. Various welfare activities such as lessons on
sanitation and medical assistance provided during the campaign influenced the creation of the
Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association later in 1920. The workers also were employed in
building a weaving school at the Gandhi ashram so that they could be self-sufficient during the
strike. Some of the workers found the work such as carrying bricks to be demeaning and were
beginning to lose patience and confidence.
Sensing the weakening morale of the laborers based on the growing number of workers returning
to the mills, Gandhi staged the first of his seventeen fasts unto death on March 15, 1918. On the
third day of the fast, Ambalal Sarabhai, the president of the Ahmedabad Mill Owners
Association, offered to meet the workers demands as long as Gandhi agreed to keep away from
the laborers for all time in future. Gandhi rejected this offer wanting to uphold the integrity of
the struggle for economic justice. Instead, he offered a new settlement which proposed to settle
the dispute by an impartial arbitrator, Professor Anandshanker Dhruva, and to make
compromises on the details of the settlement. This proposal was accepted by the mill-owners on
March 18, 1918, with mutual satisfaction and Gandhi broke his fast. The mill owners even
offered sweets to their workers as a gesture of appreciation and leaders from different sections of
labor delivered speeches of gratitude.
The workers returned to work the following day, receiving 35 percent increase in wage on the
first day, 20 percent the second day, and 27.5 percent (median percentage) for the remaining time
until the arbitrator decided upon the fair amount of increase in wages. The settlement also stated
that if the arbitrator decided upon 20 percent, the amount that had been paid prior to this decision

exceeding that amount of increase in wages would be refunded to the mill owners. The arbitrator
finally decided upon 35 percent seeing the mill factories increase (double to triple) in their
profits. This campaign for economic justice in the textile mills of Ahmedabad lasted 25 days
adhering to Gandhis nonviolent satyagraha principles. The establishment of the Ahmedabad
Textile Labour Association had long term effects in improving working conditions and leading
labor union organization in India.

What was the Non-Cooperation Movement?

Non-cooperation movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920 to drive the British out of
the country.
Non-cooperation movement was nothing but a declaration of peaceful; and non-violent war
against the atrocities of the British government which had gone back on its words.
The Non-cooperation Movement meant active refusal to abide by the laws and regulations
passed by the government.

An appeal was made to all the Indians to surrender their titles and to boycott the law
courts, the educational institutions and the election of the legislatures.

It was thought in the beginning that this would be enough to emphasis upon the
government the need for greater reforms and more amenities in the administration of the
country.

However, it was planned that, in case, it did not succeed in bringing down the
Government; the payment of taxes would be refused.

The Congress also declared that it would not be satisfied with anything less than Swarajya. Thus,
for the first time the Congress had taken a revolutionary step. An organization which was
wedded to constitutional means had now adopted a revolutionary policy and was even ready to
work for a self rule disconnecting all relations from the government of England in case it was not
granted by them willingly.
Causes of the Movement
1. Disillusion at the end of the war: There were some Indians who did not want to cooperate
with the government during the war but Gandhiji thought it improper to take advantage of the
weak position of the rulers. With the outbreak of the World War I, India came to be involved in
the War as a part of the British Empire.

The British Government utilized Indias wealth, money and manpower for its own interest.
About 1.25 million Indian soldiers fought on behalf of the British in different war fronts and
many of them sacrificed their lives. They also donated about six crores and 21 lac pounds as war
subscription.
So, Indians expected that in return of this valuable service, the British Government would grant
autonomy to them at the end of the War. But they were greatly disillusioned. This dis-satisfaction
was one of the causes of the Non-cooperation Movement by Gandhi.
2. Home Rule movement: Indians were disappointed to see the British government adopting
repressive measures. In response to it Tilak and Besant started Home Rule movement. The
Lucknow Pact had brought the Congress and the Muslim League closer together. The return of
the Extremists to the Congress in 1916 gave the Congress a militant character.
The Home Rule movement prepared the ground for Non-Cooperation Movement.
3. Economic distress caused by the World War I: The War brought about great economic
distress to the Indians. At the end of the war, the economic condition took a turn of the worse.
Prices shot up. Price of cloths, sugar etc., began to soar. Foreign goods began to be imported.
Both the peasants and the workers suffered due to the impact of war. The price of agricultural
products did not increase. The workers being unemployed had to live in half starvation.
According to Louis Fischer, not only political leaders, but also the soldiers and even the peasants
claimed compensations for shedding Indian blood.
4. Montague-Chelmsford Act: The Mont-Ford Act of 1919 could not satisfy the Congress. The
actual scheme of reforms fell far short of nationalists demands.
Impact of the Rowlatt Act: The passing of the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy
gave a new turn to Indian politics. Gandhiji became firm in the policy of non-cooperation. The
Rowlatt Act tried to put restriction upon the liberty of speech and Press, and this was taken to be
a signal for still greater repressive measures from the British government. The whole of the
nation rose in indignation against the government, and like a wild fire there was a wave of an
agitation all over the country.
5. The Khilafat movement: The Khilafat leaders were told that they should not expect anything
more. So, the Khilafat Committee accepted the suggestion of non-cooperation and asked Gandhi
to lead the movement.
Thus it was apparent that the Congress had to work out something soon, for it was clear that the
people were becoming impatient for action. So, the all India congress Committee met to decide

on its course of action. The Nagpur session of the congress confirmed the resolution of starting
non-cooperation movement. Gandhiji assured the nation that the Swaraj would be achieved
within a year.
Result and Importance
Since swaraj was not achieved within a year as Gandhiji had assured, the movement was
apparently a failure.
However, the significance and importance of Non-Cooperation movement cannot be denied.
The non-cooperation movement led by Gandhiji was such a mass movement which had never
been seen before and after the Great Rebellion of 1857. India for the first time saw a leader who
had ability to fight face to face. According to Marjorie Sykes, Gandhiji had the gift of fight.
Importance and immediate good results: Indian mill-owners earned a good profit due to the
programme of boycott. The import of sugar from England decreased considerably. The import of
British cotton-goods decreased from Rs. 6.7 crores to Rs. 2.8 crores within a period of six
months. Likewise, the import of iron decreased to 50%.
Political importance: Popularity of the Congress and the movement increased among the
masses. The non-cooperation movement certainly demonstrated that the Indian National
Congress commanded the support and sympathy of vast sections of the Indian people. The spread
of the movement was also nation-wide. It may be true that some areas were more active than
others, but there were few that showed no sign of activity at all.
Participation of Muslims: Participation of the Muslims in the movement and the maintenance
of communal harmony was also a great achievement. Muslim participation gave the movement a
mass character.
Success in several cases: According to R.C. Majumdar, the non-cooperation movement was an
acid test for the people. The movement was a success in several cases:
1.

People became conscious of their political right.

2.

People lost their trust in British administration.

3.

They became confident of self-reliance.

4.

The government failed to create fear in their mind.

Conclusion:
The non-cooperation movement evoked an unprecedented enthusiasm throughout the country.
According to Dr. Tarachand, the non-cooperation movement was the first movement without
weapon in the history of the world. It gave a new complexion to the peoples urge for freedom. It
marked the beginning of a new phase in the history of Indias freedom movement.

Khilafat Movement :
The Khilafat movement (191922) was a pan-Islamic, political protest campaign launched by
Muslims in British Indiato influence the British government. The movement became the reason
for separation from mainland India of an Islamic Pakistan, in the process unleashing tremendous
separation-trauma, mainly upon ethnic Punjabis. The subsequent murder of Gandhi in India was
also the indirect fallout of the Khilafat Movement[citation needed]. The movement was a topic
in Conference of London (February 1920); however, Arabs saw it as threat of continuation of
Turkish dominance of Arab lands.[1]
The position of Caliph after the Armistice of Mudros of October 1918 with the
military occupation of Istanbul and Treaty of Versailles (1919) fell into a disambiguation along
with the Ottoman Empire's existence. The movement gained force after the Treaty of
Svres (August 1920) which imposed the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and gave Greece a
powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks.
The movement collapsed by late 1922 when Turkey gained a more favourable diplomatic
position and moved toward secularism. By 1924 Turkey simply abolished the roles of Sultan and
Caliph.

History[edit]
Main article: Ottoman Caliphate
The Caliphate is an Islamic system of governance in which the state rules under Islamic law.
Ottoman emperor Abdul Hamid II (18761909) launched his Pan-Islamic program in a bid to
protect the Ottoman empire from Western attack and dismemberment, and to crush the
Westernizing democratic opposition at home. He sent an emissary, Jamaluddin Afghani, to India
in the late 19th century. The cause of the Ottoman monarch evoked religious passion and
sympathy amongst Indian Muslims. Being a Caliph, the Ottoman emperor was nominally the

supreme religious and political leader of all Muslims across the world. However, this authority
was never actually used.
A large number of Muslim religious leaders began working to spread awareness and develop
Muslim participation on behalf of the Caliphate. Muslim religious leaderMaulana Mehmud
Hasan attempted to organise a national war of independence against the British with support
from the Ottoman Empire.
Abdul Hamid II was forced to restore the constitutional monarchy marking the start of
the Second Constitutional Era by the Young Turk Revolution. He was succeeded by his
brother Mehmed VI (18441918) but following the revolution, the real power in the Ottoman
Empire lay with the nationalists.
Partitioning[edit]
Further information: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
See also: Occupation of Istanbul and Turkish War of Independence
The Ottoman empire, having sided with the Central Powers during World War I, suffered a major
military defeat. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) reduced its territorial extent and diminished its
political influence but the victorious European powers promised to protect the Ottoman
emperor's status as the Caliph. However, under the Treaty of Svres (1920), territories such
as Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Egypt were severed from the empire.
Within Turkey, a pro-Western, secular nationalist movement arose, Turkish national movement.
During the Turkish War of Independence (19191924) led by one of the Turkish
revolutionaries, Mustafa Kemal Atatrk, abolished the Treaty of Svres with the Treaty of
Lausanne (1923). Pursuant to Atatrk's Reforms, the Republic of Turkey abolished the position
of Caliphate in 1924 and transferred its powers within Turkey to the Grand National Assembly of
Turkey. This struggle was joined by many other nationalist for supporting Muslim.