Basic Concept

In order to measure and record potentials and

currents in the body, it is necessary to provide
some interface between the body and
electronic measuring apparatus.
This interface function is carried out by
biopotential electrode.
The biopotential electrode is a simple type of
transducer to change an ionic currents into an
electronic current

CHAPTER 5
Biopotential Electrodes

Medical Instrumentation
Application and Design Third Edition

John G. Webster, Editor

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Electrophyiological Signals

The Electrode-Electrolyte Interface

A net current consists of
Electrons moving in a direction opposite to that of the
current in the electrode;
Cations moving in the same directions as the current;
Anions moving in a direction opposite to that of the
current in the electrolyte

Chemical reactions at the interface

C C n + + ne
Am A + me
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Charge and potential distribution at an

electrode-electrolyte interface

Figure 5.1 Electrode-electrolyte interface The current crosses it from left to

right. The electrode consists of metallic atoms C. The electrolyte is an aqueous
solution containing cations of the electrode metal C+ and anions A-.

Helmholtz
model

Gouy
model

Ster
model

pure Gouy
model

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Polarization: Half-cell potential

Polarization
Overpotential the difference between the observed
half-cell potential and the equilibrium zero-current
half-cell potential.
Ohmic overpotential a direct result of the resistance
of the electrolyte.
Concentration overpotential the changes in the
distribution of ions in the electrolyte in the vicinity of
the electrode-electrolyte interface.
Activation overpotential the difference in activation
energy appears as a difference in voltage between the
electrode and the electrolyte.

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Figure 5.2 A silver/silver chloride electrode, shown in cross section.

Figure 5.3 Sintered Ag/AgCl electrode.
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Figure 5.4 Equivalent circuit for a biopotential electrode in contact with

an electrolyte Ehc is the half-cell potential, Rd and Cd make up the impedance
associated with the electrode-electrolyte interface and polarization effects, and
Rs is the series resistance associated with interface effects and due to resistance
in the electrolyte.

Figure 5.5 Impedance as a function of frequency for Ag electrodes coated

with an electrolytically deposited AgCl layer. The electrode area is 0.25 cm2.
Numbers attached to curves indicate the number of mAs for each deposit.

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Figure 5.6 Experimentally determined magnitude of impedance as a function

of frequency for electrodes.

Figure 5.7 Magnified section of skin, showing the various layers

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Ehe

Electrode

Cd

Rd

Gel

Sweat glands
and ducts

Rs
Ese

EP

Epidermis
Ce

Dermis and
subcutaneous layer

Re

CP

RP

Ru

Figure 5.8 A body-surface electrode is placed against skin, showing the total
electrical equivalent circuit obtained in this situation. Each circuit element on
the right is at approximately the same level at which the physical process that
it represents would be in the left-hand diagram.

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Figure 5.9 Body-surface biopotential electrodes (a) Metal-plate electrode

used for application to limbs. (b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical
tape. (c) Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with electrocardiograph
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Metal disk
Insulating
package

Double-sided
Adhesive-tape
ring

Electrolyte gel
in recess

(a)

(b)
Snap coated with Ag-AgCl
Plastic cup

External snap
Gel-coated sponge
Plastic disk

Dead cellular material

Foam pad Tack
Capillary loops Germinating layer
(c)

Figure 5.10 A metallic suction electrode is often used as a precordial

electrode on clinical electrocardiographs.
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Figure 5.11 Examples of floating metal body-surface electrodes (a) Recessed

electrode with top-hat structure. (b) Cross-sectional view of the electrode in
(a). (c) Cross-sectional view of a disposable recessed electrode of the same
general structure shown in Figure 5.9(c). The recess in this electrode is
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formed from an open foam disk, saturated with electrolyteInstrumentation
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Figure 5.13 Needle and

wire electrodes for
percutaneous measurement
of biopotentials (a) Insulated
needle electrode. (b) Coaxial
needle electrode. (c) Bipolar
coaxial electrode. (d) Finewire electrode connected to
hypodermic needle, before
being inserted. (e) Crosssectional view of skin and
muscle, showing coiled finewire electrode in place.

Figure 5.12 Flexible

body-surface electrodes
(a) Carbon-filled
silicone rubber electrode.
(b) Flexible thin-film
neonatal electrode (c)
Cross-sectional view of
the thin-film electrode in
(b).

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Figure 5.14 Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor,

by means of intracutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode. (b) Crosssectional view of suction electrode in place, showing penetration of probe
through epidermis. (c) Helical electrode, which is attached to fetal skin by
corkscrew type action.
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Figure 5.15 Implantable electrodes for detecting biopotentials (a) Wireloop electrode. (b) Silver-sphere cortical-surface potential electrode. (c)
Multielement depth electrode.

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Insulated leads

Contacts

Ag/AgCl electrodes

Contacts

Ag/AgCl electrodes

Base
Insulated leads

(b)

Base

(a)
Tines

Exposed tip

Figure 5.16 Examples of microfabricated

electrode arrays. (a) One-dimensional plunge
electrode array, (b) Two-dimensional array,
and (c) Three-dimensional array

Figure 5.17 The structure of a metal microelectrode for intracellular

recordings.
Base
(c)

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Figure 5.19 A glass micropipet electrode filled with an electrolytic solution

(a) Section of fine-bore glass capillary. (b) Capillary narrowed through heating
and stretching. (c) Final structure of glass-pipet microelectrode.

Figure 5.18 Structures of two supported metal microelectrodes (a) Metalfilled glass micropipet. (b) Glass micropipet or probe, coated with metal film.
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Bonding pads
Insulated
lead vias

SiO2 insulated
Au probes

N = Nucleus
C = Cytoplasm
A

Exposed
electrodes

Insulation
Silicon probe

Si substrate

Cell
membrane

+
+
+
C
+
+ N
+

+ +
+
(a)

Exposed tips

(a)

(b)

Miniature
insulating
chamber

Channels

Hole

Silicon chip

Lead via

Metal rod

Rs

Cd

Tissue fluid
Membrane
potential
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ + + + +

Cw

Cd2

Reference
electrode
Rma

Rmb

Cmb

Cma
Cdi

Ema
Ri

Emb
Re

Emp

(b)

Silicon probe
(c)

Contact
metal film

Electrode

Figure 5.21 Equivalent circuit of

metal microelectrode (a) Electrode
with tip placed within a cell, showing
origin of distributed capacitance. (b)
Equivalent circuit for the situation in (a).
(c) Simplified equivalent circuit.

(d)

Figure 5.20 Different types of microelectrodes fabricated using

microelectronic technology (a) Beam-lead multiple electrode, (b)
Multielectrode silicon probe, (c) Multiple-chamber electrode, and (d)
Peripheral-nerve electrode based on the design of Edell.

To amplifier

A
Cma
0

Cd + Cw
E
Ema - Emb

(c)

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B
A

Electrolyte
in
micropipet

Glass

Rma
Emp
Membrane
and
action
potential

Rma

Cma
t
Ema

Stem

Internal electrode

Environmental
fluid
Taper
Cell
Tip
membrane
+
+
+ N
+
+
+
+
(a)

Rt
Reference
electrode

Cd
+ + +
+

+
+
Cytoplasm
+
+
N = Nucleus

+
+ + + +
Cell membrane

Ej

(b)

Rmb
Emb

Et

Figure 5.22 Equivalent circuit of glass

micropipet microelectrode (a) Electrode
with its tip placed within a cell, showing the
origin of distributed capacitance, (b)
Equivalent circuit for the situation in (a), and
(c) Simplified equivalent circuit.

Cmb

Cd

Ri

Emp

Re

Rt
Membrane
and
action
potential
(c)

0
Emp

Figure 5.23 Current

and voltage waveforms
seen with electrodes
used for electric
stimulation (a) Constantcurrent stimulation. (b)
Constant-voltage
stimulation.

Polarization
potential
Ohmic
potential

Polarization
potential

t
(a)

t
i

Cd = Ct

Polarization

Em

Em = Ej + Et + Ema- Emb

B
Polarization

t
(b)

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