Craft and Design

Ergonomics

August 1998

HIGHER STILL

Craft and Design

Ergonomics

Support Materials

*+,-./

TEACHER/LECTURER NOTES
ERGONOMICS
Introduction
Because all designs are a response to human needs it is perhaps no coincidence that
the design of the human/machine interface plays a very important role in the success
of any new product. These notes provide an introduction into the various aspects of
the subject and are backed up by some practical tasks which can be used to support
learning.
Approaches to Teaching and Learning
Higher
The subject of ergonomics appears mainly in Outcomes 1 and 4 of Unit 2 - Designing
for People. However it must also be considered during the Product Evaluation tasks in
Unit 1. Clearly it would be impractical to teach all of the subject of ergonomics at the
beginning of the course; however it can be broken up into sections such as
anthropometrics, ergonomic factors etc. These are best taught individually at first and
then covered in a more integrated fashion towards the end of the course during one of
the design assignments.
The subject can be introduced in general terms during the Product Evaluation
exercises in Unit 1. Students should be encouraged to discuss the ergonomic factors
such as ease of use, comfortable grip etc, which lead to successful design. They could
then include points which specifically relate to ergonomic aspects of a design in their
list of evaluation criteria. By comparing products against such criteria the students
should begin to understand the importance ergonomics has on successful design.
Anthropometrics remains one of the most confusing topics in the subject despite the
fact that there is a great deal of text available on it. One of the most effective ways of
demonstrating normal distribution in a population is to line the class up (smallest to
tallest) to compare heights. Hopefully there will be one large person and one small
person among the group and they can be used as examples of the 5th and 95th
percentiles. Once the percentile rules have been established the learning should be
consolidated through a variety of tasks which encourage the students to use tables of
anthropometric data.
Anthropometric data from tables or books should only be used as a guide and it
should be stressed that far more accurate sizes can be obtained by making full size
models or mockups to test on potential users. Clay, plasticene or polystyrene can be
used to make hand held product models whereas corrugated card is an excellent
medium for making furniture mockups.
The other two areas of study at Higher Grade are physiology and psychology. The text
provided gives a number of examples of how these factors affect product design. This
knowledge should be reinforced through observation of common products and by

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applying such factors to practical design situations. Students at Higher level should be
able to apply these principles to designs they produce and also justify their designs in
this context.
Intermediate 2
Ergonomics appears mainly in Outcomes 2 and 4 of Unit 2 but the topic should be
introduced during the Comparative Study of products in Unit 1. As with the Higher
course it is best to break the subject up into sections such as anthropometrics, the
human environment etc, and teach them individually at first.
During the Comparative Study in Unit 1 students are required to select features for
comparison in commercial products. This provides a good opportunity to discuss
those features which are on the human/machine interface such as handgrips, buttons,
displays etc. They could then be prompted to identify 3 or 4 such features worthy of
comparison on the products in order to highlight the importance of the topic.
The main difference with the way in which ergonomics is taught at Intermediate 2 and
Higher is the depth of treatment given. Students at Int 2 would be expected to display
an awareness of the importance of ergonomics in design and make design decisions
based on ergonomic principles. Any tasks should be directed towards specific issues
such as anthropometrics or those described for Outcome 2 of Unit 1.
For example a candidate at Int 2 may be asked to design a control panel layout and
would be expected to consider the size and spacing of switches and controls, the size
of displays for ease of reading etc. Or, given a table of anthropometric data they could
be asked to select the ideal size for a hand control.
Students at Higher level would be expected to analyse design situations in terms of
ergonomics and give reasoned explanations for decisions based on these factors. The
short tasks and design decisions given to them should encompass the whole range of
ergonomic factors described in the course notes. For example they could be asked to
analyse the range of ergonomic factors which would affect a car interior. They would
be expected to discuss seat sizes and their adjustment for comfort and reach, the
psychological factors affecting dashboard layout and the size and shape of the various
controls. A similar exercise could be to identify five important dimensions in the car
interior which would affect humans, work them out using anthropometric tables and
justify their findings.

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Futher reading
Anthropometrics (BSI PP7310)
Dr S Pheasant
ISBN 0 580 18234 7
Ergonomics and Anthropometrics (BSI PP7371)
Dr S Pheasant
Human Factors
Steve Garner
ISBN 0 19 832 7838
Advanced Design and Technology
Norman, Cubitt, Urry and Whittaker
ISBN 0 582 24406 4
BP pack on Ergonomics

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STUDENT NOTES
ERGONOMICS
Introduction
Any engineer designing a product or system will require exact information about
materials, structures, tolerances, power and the capacities of various components, and
how to combine them when trying to meet a specification. However in the past
designers relied on common sense when considering the needs of the people who
would use and operate the products and systems they designed. Ergonomics is a
relatively new science and can be described as 'The science of looking at how people
relate to the products or systems that they use or come in to contact with.'
As well as trying to improve the design of new products and systems, ergonomics is
also used to improve the efficiency of existing ones. It is very important to ensure that
people who spend a long time in the same position do not develop painful and
crippling problems such as repetitive strain injury (RSI). Computer operators, for
example sit for very long periods repeating very simple movements. One way of
solving the problem may be to design a better chair. Most chairs are like the ones you
sit on at school, they cannot be adjusted. We have to adjust ourselves to suit the chair
which results in fidgeting, discomfort and loss of attention. Ergonomic designers
believe that adjustable chairs would be better. If the operators were more comfortable,
efficiency would be improved and there would be less chance of injury.
Ergonomics can be split up in to three main areas:
1) Anthropometrics
The study of human measurements such as height, arm length, reach, etc.
2) Physiology
The study of bodily strength, fatigue, reaction times etc
3) Psychology
The study of behaviour - especially the way we react to heat, light, texture, colour,
noise, etc.
We shall now look at each of these areas in more detail.

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ANTHROPOMETRICS
The challenge for designers and engineers is to design things which can be used by
the majority of the population. Because we are all different this often means providing
a limited form of adjustment. The drivers seat in a car has a number of adjustments
which allow it to be customised by each driver. It is only Formula One drivers who
have cockpits tailor-made to their own measurements!
Knowing the measurements of the person or persons for whom you are designing is
the key to successful design. Anthropometrics is the study of facts and figures
relating to the human body such as height, arm length, weight, etc. Henry
Dreyfus, an American industrial designer, pioneered the gathering of this information;
he called it human engineering. He was concerned about extreme dimensions as well
as the average ones, as people come in all shapes and sizes. In addition to producing
charts of the average anatomical sizes of all parts of the human body, he also gathered
information on every conceivable aspect, such as: the amount of pressure the average
foot can comfortably exert on a pedal; how hard a hand can effectively squeeze; the
reach of an arm. All this information produces a very detailed picture of the average
man and woman.
However, anthropometric data differs between races, and changes with time. For
example, some Asian races were traditionally smaller than western races. British
manufacturers exporting beds to Japan had to make smaller beds than those sold in
Europe. However with improved diet and an increased protein intake, these races are
quickly catching up. Most races are gradually getting bigger because of both better
diet and better health care. Look at the doorways in old houses - nowadays many
people have to bend down to get through them.
If a graph is plotted of the height of any population, it will look like the one shown
below. This is known as the normal distribution curve. The line through the middle of
the graph is known as the 50th percentile or mean (average) value. If height were
being measured, the 50th percentile would be the height that occurred most often.
People whose height falls on the 50th percentile line are often said to have average
height. People whose height falls on the 5th percentile can be said to be small people,
while people whose height falls on the 95th percentile can be said to be tall people.

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Designers should ensure that their products will be able to be used by 5th to 95th
percentile users. To design for people who do not fall in to the 5th to 95th range
would be very impractical. The 1st to 5th are people who are very very small whilst
the 95th to 100th are very very tall.
When selecting optimum sizes it is a common mistake to always design for the
average person. For example, if a door were made on the basis of average height then
all those people over 50% would bump their heads on the top. Therefore we select
data based on the height of the 95th percentile male. Do you know why we choose
male?
Use the following criteria to decide which percentile range to select data from.

For Clearance the height should be no less than the 95th percentile user i.e. the
largest.
For Reach the height should be no more than that of the 5th percentile user i.e. the
smallest.
For Postural situations we often have to consider the average or 50th percentile
value because this accommodates the most users.

Once the correct percentile range has been chosen the actual measurements can be
found in a number of ways. The simplest method is to look up anthropometric tables.
These contain vast amounts of information on human dimensions in the 5th, 50th and
95th percentiles for men and women. They also contain anthropometric data on
various age groups of children.
Another method is to take measurements from a sample population of users and use
these people when testing prototypes.
Before selecting anthropometric data you must consider how the product will be used
so that you can determine where sizes will be affected by the human body. e.g. if you
were carrying something such as a briefcase then the distance from your hand to the
floor would be important. However if you were pulling something behind you then
your stride would have to be taken in to account so that the device does not catch your
heels.
A sketch such as the one shown below would be a helpful starting point. This
shows an ergonome and indicates crucial measurements.

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Before looking at the anthropometric tables, study your sketches and ask yourself the
following questions:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Are you looking for a clearance, reach or postural measurement ?

Which percentile range will you be looking for? (5th, 50th or 95th)
Will you be looking for male or female measurements?

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PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is the science of how living things work. This subject is of interest to
designers so that they can design products or systems within the limitations of the
human body.
A car braking system must be designed in such a way that any driver can easily exert
a force on the pedal and bring the car to rest. Thus information needs to be gathered
on the strength of peoples legs and then lever and hydraulic systems designed to suit
such forces. The designer must also consider which part of the body is most suited to
performing a specific task. Legs are stronger than arms and are more suited to simple
repetitive tasks involving large forces such as applying the brakes. Hands and fingers
are more nimble and are better suited to finer controls such as a steering wheel or
adjusting the volume on a radio.
The shape and size of hand - grips vary tremendously and depend on the tasks that
they are used for. The picture below shows two grips, one is for a gas cooker ring
whilst the other is for adjusting the height of an office chair. The cooker control has a
smooth texture and no grip as it is easy to turn and is used for fine adjustment
However the chair adjuster has to be gripped firmly to enable the user to tighten it,
therefore it has been serrated to provide plenty of grip.

The most effective way of developing designs for handgrips and controls is to make
simple models. Materials such as plasticine or clay are ideal as they can be tested on
potential users and then instantly modified if they are not right.

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PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the study of the mind and the way it works. Using your five senses you
transmit information from the world around you to your brain. The brain interprets
this information and provokes a reaction. For example, a sudden loud noise will
prompt you to cover your ears with your hands.
All aspects of the environment affect the way you behave i.e. if it is sunny you may
feel happy and if it is cloudy you may feel sad. In the same way a bright room will
heighten your senses whereas a dull room will make you subdued. There are a variety
of aspects of product design which will affect your behaviour and having an
understanding of how the mind works is important when designing the human/product
interface.
Designers can improve the human/product interface by making a product easy to use.
The user must be able to easily sense important information be it through touch, sight
or sound and then react accordingly. For example the on/off button must be easy to
find and symbols for each of the different functions of a product should be easy to
understand.
The shape of a product can also suggest its function and dictate the way in which used
- this is called product semantics. The picture below shows an inkjet printer. The
position of the input and output trays, combined with the rounded form, suggest the
path of the paper through the printer.

The display of information especially in a plane cockpit or power station control room
presents a challenge for a designer. Displays showing rates of change such a
speedometers can be either digital or analogue. A digital display is better for accurate
measurements when the rate of change is slow whereas an analogue display is better
for showing faster rates of change and giving an overall picture of what is happening.
In practice a combination of both is used.

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Look at a typical car dashboard. Identify which displays are analogue and which are
digital and try to explain why they were chosen.
On complex control panels important information such as warnings have to be relayed
quickly to the operator and this is when more than one sense may have to be called
on. For instance a flashing light may not be enough to attract the pilots attention in
the cockpit so a warning sound may also be necessary.
One recent development in microprocessor technology is the membrane switch panel.
These are often found on products used out of doors such as mobile phones and cash
dispensers. One problem with such panels is that the switches don't move so you are
often unsure if you have pressed the button or not. The solution is to use a bleep
which sounds as you press the button thus confirming that it has been pressed. If one
sensation is reinforced by another then you feel as if you have more control over the
product or system.

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COLOUR
As mentioned in the aesthetics booklet, colour can affect our behaviour and feelings
towards a product. A red room will make people feel aggressive whereas a green
room will make them feel passive. The colour of products can affect our reactions to
them. For example in one industrial situation factory workers complained that the
boxes they had to carry were too heavy. When the colour of the boxes was changed
from blue to yellow the complaints stopped.
Therefore when selecting colours for products or systems we must consider how
people will react to the colours used. For example, if you want to attract attention to
part of a product such as a switch, use a contrasting colour scheme.

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TASK ANALYSIS
When considering the ergonomic factors which will affect the design of a product it is
helpful to carry out a task analysis exercise. This is similar to a user trip in that you
imagine that you are a typical user of the product thus allowing you to identify all of
the important ergonomic factors.
During this process a number of key questions need to be answered.
1. What age/sex will the user be and how will this influence the design? Use of
Anthropometric data etc.
2. How will the product be used and how will this affect the design?
3. What are the critical functions of the product?
4. Will the user wear gloves/outdoor clothes? If so, how will the product be designed
to allow for this?
5. Will the appearance of the design be important to the user? Can the aesthetic of a
design have a psychological influence?
6. Under what conditions will the product be used eg dark, wet, cold etc? How will
this affect the design of it?
This information can be displayed by producing an annotated sketch which highlights
all of the key areas to consider.

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ERGONOMICS
Short Tasks
Higher
1. A phone and an electric toothbrush are shown below.
(a) For each product, list the different parts of the human / product interface.
(b) Explain the ways in which the design of each part will affect the performance
of the product.

2. Write an analysis of the human needs which would have to be taken into account
when designing the layout of a waiting area in a doctors surgery. Consideration
should be given to such aspects as seating, signage, access etc.

3. Select three completely different hand held products such as a brief case handle, a
door handle and a squash racquet.
For each product complete the following tasks.
(a) Sketch and measure it.
(b) Sketch the way in which it is held.
(c) Each handgrip has been designed to be held in a certain way and has a specific
purpose. Comment on the effectiveness of each design.
(d) Suggest (using sketches if necessary) any improvements which could be made.

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4. The layout of an arcade video game console for use by 15 to 18 year olds is shown
with the popliteal height given.

(a) Identify four other important areas on the human / machine interface where the
size would be an important aspect of the design.
(b) Using scale ergonomes and tables of anthropometric data, produce a
dimensioned scale drawing which clearly shows the sizes of the areas
identified in (a).
(c) Write a justification of your answers.

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